The Elements of the Teaching and Learning Process

Teaching and learning involves the process of transferring knowledge from the one who is giving to the one who is
receiving. Teaching process cannot be performed if there is one element that is missing among the three of the
teaching elements.
Teaching and learning involves the process of transferring knowledge from the one who is giving to the one
who is receiving. Teaching process cannot be performed if there is one element that is missing among the three of the
teaching and learning elements.
There is what we called as elements of teaching and learning processes. These elements are necessary to be
able to make teaching and learning possible. Without one of these elements, there could be no real teaching or
learning process that will exist. It is so important that the presence of these elements is present in the process of
teaching, considering that all of them play an important role in the system.
The elements of teaching and learning process are the teacher, the leaner as well as the good learning
environment. It is being considered that learning occur when there is established relationship among these three
elements. The teaching as well as the learning activity depends upon how these elements works together.
The teacher is considered as the element that has the main role in the teaching-learning process. He/she is
considered as the so-called prime mover of the educational processes, thus he she directs the flow of the whole
process. The teacher is the one that facilitates the whole process of leaning. He or she directs its flow and serve as
main control of the teaching learning process.
The learners are considered as the key participant in the teaching and learning process. They are considered
as the primary subject or the main reason why the process is implemented. The knowledge that acquired by the
learners will decide if the teaching and learning objectives are achieved. Learners vary from one another in the aspects
of learning. There are those learners that learn fast while there are those learners that learn in average or slower.
The favorable environment, participates in the teaching-learning process by providing a place where there is
a smooth flow of communication, avoiding some common barriers between the teacher and the learner. The presence
of a good environment is so much important in the teaching and learning process. The good environment provides a
smooth flow of communication between the learners and the teachers, thus it facilitates a well-executed teaching and
learning process. A good environment is necessary for learning. The reason why we should make sure that we should
have this kind of environment, as we teach or we learn.
The Elements of Teaching and Learning
The principal elements that make teaching and learning possible and attainable are the teachers, the learners, and a
conducive learning environment. The teacher serves as the prime mover of the educational wheel. The learners are
the key participants in the learning process. The favourable environment provides essential features and ingredients
that could make headway in guiding the processes and methodologies needed for a smooth linkage among the three.
The Learner
The Nature of the Learner
The learner is an embodied spirit, a union of a sentient body and a rational soul. His body experiences sensations, and
feels pleasure and pain. His soul is the principle of spiritual acts, the source of intellectual abstraction, self-reflection,
and free rational volition.
The Fundamental Equipment of the Learner
COGNITIVE FACULTIES
Five (5) senses
Instinct
Imagination
Memory
Intellect
APPETITIVE FACULTIES
Feelings
Emotions
Rational Will

All learners are equipped with cognitive as well as appetitive faculties however, they differ in the degree to which they
are utilized and expressed on the account of the learners abilities, aptitudes, interests, values and attitudes and home
background.
1. Ability.
The students native ability dictates the prospects of success in any purposeful activity. It determines their capacity
to understand and assimilate information for their own use and application.
2. Aptitude.
It refers to the students innate talent or gift. It indicates a natural capacity to learn certain skills.
3. Interests.
Learners vary in activities that are undertaken due to a strong appeal or attraction. Lessons that give the learners
the chance to express themselves will be more meaningful and easily absorbed.
4. Family & Cultural background.
Students who come from different socioeconomic background manifest a wide range of behaviour due to
differences in upbringing practices.
5. Attitudes.
Attitude refers to an individual perspective and disposition.
Some positive attitudes are curiosity, responsibility, creativity & persistence.
Gardners Multiple Intelligence Theory
1. Verbal-linguistic Intelligence
2. Logical-mathematical Intelligence
3. Spatial Intelligence
4. Bodily-kinesthetic Intelligence
5. Musical Intelligence
6. Interpersonal Intelligence
7. Intrapersonal Intelligence
8. Naturalist Intelligence
Learning Styles
1. Sensing-thinking (Mastery Learner)
2. Intuitive thinking (Understanding Learner)
3. Intuitive-Feeling (Self-Expressive Learner)
4. Sensing-Feeling(Interpersonal Learner)
THE TEACHER
The Professional Teacher
The professional teacher is the licensed professional who possesses dignity with high moral values as well as technical
and professional competence...he adheres to, observes, and practices a set of ethical and moral principles, standards,
and values. (Code of Ethics of Professional Teachers, 1997). The professional teacher is the one who went through
four to five year period of rigorous academic preparation in teaching and one who is given a license to teach by the
Board of Professional Teachers of the Professional Regulation Commission after fulfilling requirements prescribed by
law such as the Licensure Examination for Teachers (LET).
Professional Attributes
A professional teacher possesses the following attributes:
Control of the knowledge base of teaching and learning and use this knowledge to guide the science and art of
his/her teaching practice.
Repertoire of best teaching practice and can use these to instruct children in classrooms and to work with adults
in the school setting.
Disposition and skills to approach all aspects of his/her work in a reflective, collegial, and problem-solving manner.
View of learning to teach as a lifelong process and dispositions and skills for working towards improving his/her
own teaching as well as improving schools.

Personal Attributes
Personality is the sum of ones personal characteristics. It is ones identity.
Teachers are judged more strictly than any other professionals. The personality they project determines they make
upon students and colleagues.
Personalities may be described as authoritative, weak, dynamic, or magnetic. Teachers personality must be
natural and genuine, devoid of pretences and artificiality. They must be consistent, true and authentic.
1. Passion
Passion in teaching is a compelling force that emerges from ones inborn love for children. Passionate teachers exude
spontaneity in ministering to the needs of the students especially those experiencing learning difficulties.
2. Humor
Humor stands for anything funny, which elicits a smile, laughter or amusing reaction. It is an essential quality of
teachers that serves a number of purposes.
3. Values and Attitudes
Teachers are model of values. Values connote standards, code of ethics and strong beliefs.
a. Open-mindedness is basic in promoting respect and trust between teachers and students
b. Fairness and impartiality eliminates discrimination. Teachers must be unbiased and objective in judging their
students work and performance.
c. Professionalism is highly treasured in the teaching profession. Teachers are adjudged professional if they are
knowledgeable, skilled and value-laden.
4. Patience
In teaching, patience refers to a teachers uncomplaining nature, self-control and persistence. Patient teachers can
forego momentous frustrations and disappointments. They calmly endure their students limitations and difficulties.
The teachers capacity to adjust his methodologies could allay the tension and save time and effort for appropriate
remediation.
5. Enthusiasm
Enthusiasm is synonymous to eagerness and excitement. Enthusiastic teachers are full of energy and dynamism. With
enthusiastic teachers, students look forward to any activity they can participate in with them.
Commitment is a solemn promise to perform the duties and responsibilities mandated by the laws and code of ethics
of the profession. It is an unwavering pledge to perform all teaching and learning activities with consistency and
selflessness to the best interest of the students under their care.
21st CENTURY TEACHER
We have heard a lot about the 21st Century Learner. We know that they are:
collaborative
adaptive
information, media and technology savvy
communicators
immediate and instant
require instant gratification
creators and adaptor
But what about the 21st Century Teacher, what are the characteristics we would expect to see in a 21st Century
Educator. We know they are student centric, holistic, they are teaching about how to learn as much as teaching about
the subject area. We know too, that they must be 21st Century learners as well. But teachers are more than this:

The Adaptor
The 21st Century teacher is an adaptor. Harnessed as we are to an assessment focused education model the 21st
Century Educator must be able to adapt the curriculum and the requirements to teach to the curriculum in
imaginative ways.
They must also be able to adapt software and hardware designed for a business model into tools utilisable by a
variety of age groups and abilities.
They must also be able to adapt to a dynamic teaching experience. When it all goes wrong in the middle of a class,
when the technologies fail, the show must go on.
As an educator, we must understand and apply different learning styles. we must be able to adapt our teaching
style to be inclusive of different modes of learning.
The Visionary
Imagination, a key component of adaptability, is a crucial component of the educator of today and tommorow.
They must see the potential in the emerging tools and web technologies, grasp these and manipulate them to
serve their needs. If we look at the technologies we currently see emerging, how many are developed for
education?
The visionary teacher can look at others ideas and envisage how they would use these in their class.
The visionary also looks across the disciplines and through the curricula. They can make links that reinforce and
value learning in other areas, and leverage other fields to reinforce their own teaching and the learning of their
students.
The Collaborator
Ning, Blogger, Wikispaces, Bebo, MSN, MySpace, Second life - as an educator we must be able to leverage these
collaborative tools to enhance and captivate our learners. We too, must be collaborators; sharing, contributing,
adapting and inventing.
The Risk taker
How can you as an educator know all these things? How can you teach them how to use them There are so many,
so much to learn. You must take risks and some times surrender yourself to the students knowledge. Have a vision
of what you want and what the technology can achieve, identify the goals and facilitate the learning. Use the
strengths of the digital natives to understand and navigate new products, have the students teach each other. The
learning pyramid shows that the highest retention of knowledge comes from teaching others. Trust your students.
The Learner
We expect our students to be life long learners. How many schools have the phrase life long learners in there
mission statements and objectives. We too must continue to absorb experiences and knowledge. We must
endeavour to stay current. I wonder how many people are still using their lesson and unit plans from 5 years ago.
In my subject area, Information technology and certainly in many of the sciences, especially the life sciences;
knowledge, understanding and technology are fluid and dynamic, they are evolving and changing. To be a teacher
here you must change and learn as the horizons and landscape changes.
The 21st Century teacher or educator must learn and adapt.
The Communicator
Anywhere, anytime learning is a catchphrase we hear often. Usually its paired with life learner. To have
anywhere anytime learning, the teacher to must be anywhere and anytime. It does not have to be the same
teacher, but the 21st Century teacher is a communicator. They are fluent in tools and technologies that enable
communication and collaboration. They go beyond learning just how to do it, they also know how to facilitate it,
stimulate and control it, moderate and manage it.
The Model
We must model the behaviours that we expect from our students. Today and tommorow more so, there is an
expectation that teachers will teach values.
We, are often the most consistent part of our student life. Teachers will see the students more often, for longer
and more reliably than their parents. This is not a criticism of the parents rather a reflection.
The 21st Century educator also models reflective practice, whether its the quiet, personal inspection of their
teaching and learning, or through reflective practice via blogs, twitter and other medium, these educators look
both inwards and outwards.

 These teachers also model a number of other characteristics. These are not necessarily associated with ICT or the
curriculum, but are of equal importance. They model:
tolerance
acceptance
a wider view than just their curricula areas
global awareness
reflection
The Leader
Whether they are a champion of the process of ICT integration or the quiet technology coach, the ICT Trainer and
a teacher leading by example; A maverick or early adopter (See LOTI), the 21st Century Educator is a leader.
Leadership, like clear goals and objectives crucial to the success or failure of any project.
It is a good idea to view the PBS series Digital Nation for some thought provoking views on 21st education.
The Learning Environment
Introduction
The learning environment is the place where teaching and learning can take place in the most effective and productive
manner. It consists of the classroom and all the instructional features and the non-threatening classroom climate
needed in planning and implementing all teaching and learning activities.
Arrangement of Furniture
The furniture, like the table for demonstration located in front of the room and the chairs facing it are neatly arranged
with sufficient spaces in-between for ease in moving around. Display shelves for safekeeping of projects, collections
and outstanding work are located at the sides. Attached to the wall is the bulletin board for hanging posters,
announcements and illustrations about the unit being undertaken. During discussions, the board in front is used for
clarifying step-by-step procedures and making clearer diagrams, illustrations and figures.
Teaching devices like globes, maps and charts are kept in nearby cabinets, together with simple tools and
materials. A temporary table is placed at the right side where supplies, materials and handled instruments are
arranged, ready for the days lesson.
Physical Condition of the Classroom
As soon as the students enter they are attracted by a clean and orderly set-up. Natural light and flowing fresh air add
to their comfort and ease. Free from noise coming from the surroundings, students concentration and interest are
easily sustained. The doors and windows could be opened and closed with less difficulty and noise. The light fixtures
are located where needed.
Interactions
A diverse situation may exist in the classroom at any given time. Students differ in abilities and interests while teachers
likely employ different strategies. Teachers must be sensitive to positive or negative interactions and must
immediately undertake an instant revision or adjustment in the methodology when necessary. The primary goal is to
be able to motivate them to work harmoniously, thereafter, inculcate the values of cooperation and congeniality.
A Facilitative Learning Environment
Pine and Horn (1990) described the learning environment that facilitates learning. It is an environment:
Which encourages people to be active;
Which promotes and facilitates the individuals discovery of the personal meaning of idea;
Which emphasizes the uniquely personal and subjective nature of learning in which difference is good and
desirable;
Which consistently recognizes peoples right to make mistakes;
Which tolerates ambiguity;
In which evaluation is a cooperative process with emphasis on self-evaluation;
Which encourages openness of self rather than concealment of self;
In which people are encouraged to trust in themselves as well as in external resources;
In which people feel they are respected;
In which people feel they are accepted;
Which permits confrontation.

PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING
WHAT IS TEACHING?
Concept of Teaching
Teaching is an intimate contact between a more mature personality and less mature one which is designed to further
the education of the latter.
MEANING OF TEACHING
Definition of teaching given by various psychologists:
According to Rabindra Nath Tagore, A Teacher can never truly teach unless he is still learning himself. A lamp
can never light another lamp unless it continues to burn its own flame.
H.C. Morrison (1934): teaching is an intimate contact between a more mature personality and less mature one
which is designed to further the education of the latter.
N. L, Gage(1962): Teaching is a form of interpersonal influence aimed at changing the behavior potential of
another person
B.D. Smith (1961): Teaching is a system of actions intended to induce learning.
John Dewey: One might as well say he has sold when no one has bought, as to say he has taught when no one
has learned.
FUNCTIONS OF TEACHING
In teaching process, the active or functional part is played by the independent and dependent variable. Mainly
following three types of functions are performed by these variables:
I.

Diagnostic Functions
The goal is to bring desirable changes in the behavior of students. The initial task needs a proper diagnosis for the
prescription of appropriate treatment (the actual attempts) for bringing desirable behavioral changes in the
students. Accordingly, a teacher has to perform the following diagnostic functions:
1. He has to diagnose the entering behavior of the student. The initial potential of the student in terms of
cognitive, cognitive and affective abilities should be properly diagnosed with the help of some diagnostic
tests.
2. He has to diagnose and formulate specific educational objectives, the type and amount of behavioral changes
he wants to introduce in the student in the light of the entering behavior and environmental conditions.
3. He has to analyze the content, instructional material and environmental facilities available for carrying out his
task.
4. He has to diagnose his own potential and capabilities and bring desirable improvement in his own behavior
for the success of his own mission.

II. Prescriptive Functions

On the basis of diagnosis, the teacher takes decision about the needed prescription for achieving the stipulated
objectives. Accomplishment of objectives needs an appropriate interaction between the teacher and the student
which, in turn, needs proper management of the intervening variables by the teacher. Accordingly, he has to
perform the following functions:
1. Selecting appropriate contents and organizing them into proper sequence.
2. Selecting proper teaching techniques, strategies and feedback devices in view of the individual difference
among the students.
3. Seeking essential cooperation from the students for a purposeful interaction.
III. Evaluative Functions
Evaluative function concerned with the tasks of evaluating the progress and outcomes of the prescriptive functions
that may be decided in the form of realization of the stipulated objectives. The failure in the realization of the
objectives is essentially a failure in the prescriptive functions either due to improper diagnosis or some serious
mistakes in prescribing or carrying out the treatment (actual teaching) task.
Various evaluation devices in the form of tests, observations, interviews, rating scales, inventories and
unstructured projective techniques are help in exercising evaluative functions.
In contrast to diagnostic or prescriptive functions, the student remains more active in the evaluative functions.
He has to respond and evaluate his own progress in terms of the abilities acquired and behavior changes occurred.
He is taught and helped by the teacher in bringing improvement in his behavior on the basis of his entry behavior

and potentialities. Now, it is this turn to see how far the treatment prescribe for done by the teacher is helpful for
him. If the prescription suits him he can go ahead with it. If it does not, he must give his full cooperation to the
teacher (just like a patient who has to consult his doctor and seek his advice for further diagnosis and subsequent
prescription in order to get maximum advantage for bringing improvement in his behavior.)
Relationship between Teaching and Learning
Teaching is what teachers do.
Learning is what students do.
Does a relationship between good teaching and student learning exist?
To a degree, but how are they related and to what extent is unclear.
If such a connection truly exists, then
Your ability to teach should be judge on the basis of student learning
You should be held accountable for student learning despite poor parenting, negative attitudes, and other
social ills.
There is no necessarily a connection between teaching and learning
Some students can and will learn in spite of bad teaching
Some students will not learn even with the best teaching
WHAT IS PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING?
Meaning of Principle
Latin: princeps, which means the beginning or the end of all things
Early Greeks: fundamental laws
Principle is accepted as fundamental truth, it may considered a comprehensive law, a doctrine, a policy, or a
deep-seated belief which governs the conduct of various types of human endeavor.
Principle also refer to the psychological laws of learning, to important educational theories, to the statement of facts,
to governing laws or rules of conduct, and to generally accepted tenets.
In the Language of Hopkins, a principle is a rule for guiding the ship of education so that it will reach the port
designated by the philosophy of education; it is a compass by which the path of education is directed.
Key idea:
Principles are the chief guides to make teaching and learning effective and productive.
Functions and Scopes of Principles
Basis of intelligent and profitable practice.
Serve not only to stimulate, direct, and guide, but also to interpret school practive.
In order to better adopt the instruction to the childrens individual capabilities.
Types of Teaching Principles
1. Starting Principles
These involve the nature of the child, his psychological and physiological endowments which make education
possible
2. Guiding Principles
These refer to the procedure, meth-ods of instruction, or agglomerations of techniques by which the pupil and
the teacher may work toward the accomplishment of the goals or objectives of education.
3. Ending Principles
These refer to the educational aims, goals, objectives, outcomes, or results of the whole educational scheme
to which teaching and learning are directed.
Importance of Principles of Teaching
Principles are the chief guides to make teaching and learning effective and productive.
Principles are the fundamentals through which we proceed from one situation to another.
Principles are important for the governing of actions and to operation of techniques in any field of education.

True principles explain educational processes. They show how things are done and how educational results are
achieved.
For the individual, a principle, when it is understood and accepted, serves in important ways to guide his reflective
thinking and his choice of activities or actions.
In the field of education, an accepted principle becomes part of ones philosophy which serves to determine and
evaluate his educational aims, activities, practices and outcomes.

Techniques and principles

Both techniques and principles are necessary, but principles are more fundamental.
The teacher should be free to use techniques but the intelligent use of educational principles.
1. Principle of Context
Learning depends largely on the setting particularly including the use of materials in which the process does on with
his scales of application:
a. text book only
b. Text book with supplementary materials.
c. non-academic and current materials (newspapers clippings, articles, magazines)
d. multisensory aids
e. demonstration and demonstration by experts
f. Field experiences, personal social and community understanding.
2. Principle of Focus
Instruction must be organized about a focus or directions, following these scales of application and where focus is
established by:
a. Page assignment in textbook
b. Announces topic together with page or chapter references.
c. Broad concept or problem to be solved or a skill to be acquired to carry on understanding.
3. Principle of socialization
Instruction depends upon the social setting in which it is done, with this scales of application and where social
patterns are characterized by:
a. Submission
b. Contribution
c. Cooperation
4. Principle of Individualization
Instruction must progress in terms of the learners own purposes, aptitudes, abilities and experimental procedures,
following these scales of application where individualization may be done through:
a. Differential performance in uniform task
b. Homogenous grouping
c. Control plan
d. Individual instruction
e. Large units with optional related activities
f. Individual undertakings, stemming from and contributing to the joint undertaking of the group of leaders
5. Principles of Sequence
Instruction depends on effective ordering of a series of learning task who moves from:
a. From meaning less -> emergence of meaning
b. From immediate -> remote
c. From concrete -> symbolic
d. From crude -> discriminating
6. Principles of Evaluation
Learning is heightened by a valid and discriminating appraisal of all its aspects, following these scales of application:
a. Evaluation or direct results only
b. Evaluation related to objectives and processes
c. Evaluation on total learning process and result.

PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING ACCORDING TO VARIOUS AUTHORS

Principles of Good Teaching Based on the Educational Philosophy of John Dewey
Teaching is good when it is based on the psychology of learning.
Teaching is good when it is well-planned such that the activities and experiences of the learner are
continuously related and interrelated into larger, more meaningful, more inclusive, relation patterns.
Teaching is good when the learner is made conscious of the goals or aims to be accomplished.
Learning is good when it provides learning experiences or situations that will insure understanding.
Teaching is good when there is provision to meet individual differences.
Teaching is good when it utilizes the past experiences of the learner.
Teaching is good when the learner is stimulated to think and to reason.
Teaching is good when it is governed by democratic principles.
Teaching is good when the method used is supplemented by another method and instructional devices.
Teaching is good when evaluation is made an integral part of the teaching process.
Teaching is good when drill or review is made an integral part of teaching and learning.
Carnegie Mellons Teaching Principles (Mellon, 2013)
Teaching is a complex, multifaceted activity, often requiring us as instructors to juggle multiple tasks and goals
simultaneously and flexibly. The following small but powerful set of principles can make teaching both more
effective and more efficient, by helping us create the conditions that support student learning and minimize the
need for revising materials, content, and policies. While implementing these principles requires a commitment in
time and effort, it often saves time and energy later on.
Effective teaching involves:
acquiring relevant knowledge about students and using that knowledge to inform our course design and
classroom teaching.
aligning the three major components of instruction
o learning objectives
o assessments
o instructional activities
articulating explicit expectations regarding learning objectives and policies
prioritizing the knowledge and skills we choose to focus on.

recognizing and overcoming our expert blind spots

adopting appropriate teaching roles to support our learning goals.
progressively refining our courses based on reflection and feedback

Twelve Principles of Effective Teaching and Learning

(Source: Tiberius & Tipping, 'Twelve Principles of Effective Teaching and Learning For Which There Is Substantial Empirical Support, University of
Toronto, 1990 )

1. Teachers' knowledge of the subject matter is essential to the implementation of important teaching tasks
Teachers who know their subject matter thoroughly can be more effective and efficient at organizing the
subject matter, connecting the subject with the students' previous knowledge, finding useful analogies and
examples, presenting current thinking on the subject, and establishing appropriate emphases.
2. Active involvement of the learner enhances learning
Learning is an active process which requires that the learner work with and apply new material to past
knowledge and to everyday life. Some of the methods that encourage active learning in the classroom are:
discussion, practice sessions, structured exercises, team projects, and research projects.
In the words of William James:
Teaching without an accompanying experience is like filling a lamp with water. Something has been poured
in, but the result is not illuminating.
3. Interaction between teachers and students is the most important factor in student motivation and
involvement
Interaction between students and faculty, particularly informal interaction, is one of the most important
factors in student motivation for learning. The opportunity to know a few faculty well often enhances
students' intellectual commitment and provides valuable rolemodeling
4. Students benefit from taking responsibility for their learning

5.

6.
7.

8.

9.

10.
11.

12.

Students are more motivated when they take control of their own learning. This is the belief which has
stimulated active interest in self-directed learning.
There are many roads to learning
Students learn in different ways and vary in their abilities to perform certain tasks. Understanding that each
student has unique strengths and weaknesses related to the ways in which they approach learning is an
important component of effective education. Providing a variety of learning activities for a class enables
individual students to choose the activity which is the most effective for them at the moment.
Expect more and you will achieve more
Simply stated, if an educator conveys to students that he or she believes in their ability to succeed learning is
enhanced.
Learning is enhanced in an atmosphere of cooperation
Learning is enhanced when it is perceived as a collaborative and cooperative effort between students. The
opportunity to share ideas without threat of ridicule and the freedom to respond to the ideas of others
increases complexity of thinking and deepens understanding.
Material must be meaningful
If new material is presented in a pattern or framework that the learner can perceive, it is more readily
learned and retained. New material will be more easily learned if the learner is helped to see its relationship
to what s/he already knows. Material which is seen by the learner as relevant to his or her own problems
and experiences will be more readily learned.
Both teaching and learning are enhanced by descriptive feedback
Without feedback neither learner nor teacher can improve because they will not know what they need to
know or to what extent they are fulfilling their goals. The learners' behavior will more quickly reach the
objectives if they are informed (or given feedback) frequently about the correctness of their responses.
Correct responses should be immediately reinforced to increase the "permanence" of learning. A positive
reinforcer is anything that will increase the probability that the desired behavior will be repeated. A smile or
comment to let the learner know he or she has successfully completed the task is especially good because
awareness of successful completion is, in itself, the most effective of all reinforces.
Feedback about progress is helpful because learning is facilitated when the learner is aware that he or she is
progressing towards the goals.
Critical feedback is only useful if the learner has alternatives to pursue
There is no use giving teachers or students feedback about their performances unless they can do something
about it, that is, unless they have some alternative course of action or behaviour.
Time plus energy equals learning
Lectures or seminars that are canceled will not help the learner. Conversely, teachers who arrive at their
lecture or small group setting a little before the scheduled time and stay around for a few minutes afterward
provide opportunities for valuable interaction between students and teachers. Office hours also help
students to arrange time to talk with teachers. Students must learn how to organize their time so that they
can find time to study. And the curriculum must be organized to allow students time to study.
Experience usually improves teaching
Experience is associated with increasing teacher effectiveness for some teachers, probably for those
teachers who obtain feedback about their teaching and who are flexible enough to modify their methods in
response to the feedback

PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING BASED ON PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING

Educational psychologists and pedagogues have identified several principles of learning, also referred to as laws of
learning, which seem generally applicable to the learning process. These principles have been discovered, tested, and
used in practical situations. They provide additional insight into what makes people learn most effectively. Edward
Thorndike developed the first three "Laws of learning:" readiness, exercise, and effect. Since Thorndike set down his
basic three laws in the early part of the twentieth century, five additional principles have been added: primacy,
recency, intensity, freedom and requirement.
Readiness. Implies a degree of concentration and eagerness. Individuals learn best when they are physically,
mentally, and emotionally ready to learn, and do not learn well if they see no reason for learning. Getting students
ready to learn, creating interest by showing the value of the subject matter, and providing continuous mental or
physical challenge, is usually the instructors responsibility. If students have a strong purpose, a clear objective,
and a definite reason for learning something, they make more progress than if they lack motivation. In other

words, when students are ready to learn, they meet the instructor at least halfway, simplifying the instructors
job.
Exercise. The principle of exercise states that those things most often repeated are best remembered. It is the
basis of drill and practice. It has been proven that students learn best and retain information longer when they
have meaningful practice and repetition. The key here is that the practice must be meaningful. It is clear that
practice leads to improvement only when it is followed by positive feedback.
Effect. The principle of effect is based on the emotional reaction of the student. It has a direct relationship to
motivation. The principle of effect is that learning is strengthened when accompanied by a pleasant or satisfying
feeling, and that learning is weakened when associated with an unpleasant feeling. The student will strive to
continue doing what provides a pleasant effect to continue learning. Positive reinforcement is more apt to lead to
success and motivate the learner, so the instructor should recognize and commend improvement. Whatever the
learning situation, it should contain elements that affect the students positively and give them a feeling of
satisfaction. Therefore, instructors should be cautious about using punishment in the classroom.
Primacy. the state of being first, often creates a strong, almost unshakable, impression. Things learned first create
a strong impression in the mind that is difficult to erase. For the instructor, this means that what is taught must
be right the first time. For the student, it means that learning must be right. Unteaching wrong first impressions
is harder than teaching them right the first time. If, for example, a student learns a faulty technique, the instructor
will have a difficult task correcting bad habits and reteaching correct ones.
Recency. The principle of recency states that things most recently learned are best remembered. Conversely, the
further a student is removed time-wise from a new fact or understanding, the more difficult it is to remember. For
example, it is fairly easy to recall a telephone number dialed a few minutes ago, but it is usually impossible to recall
a new number dialed last week. The closer the training or learning time is to the time of actual need to apply the
training, the more apt the learner will be to perform successfully.
Intensity. The more intense the material taught, the more likely it will be retained. A sharp, clear, vivid, dramatic,
or exciting learning experience teaches more than a routine or boring experience. The principle of intensity implies
that a student will learn more from the real thing than from a substitute. For example, a student can get more
understanding and appreciation of a movie by watching it than by reading the script. Likewise, a student is likely
to gain greater understanding of tasks by performing them rather than merely reading about them. The more
immediate and dramatic the learning is to a real situation, the more impressive the learning is upon the student.
Real world applications that integrate procedures and tasks that students are capable of learning will make a vivid
impression on them.
Freedom. the principle of freedom states that things freely learned are best learned. Conversely, the further a
student is coerced, the more difficult is for him to learn, assimilate and implement what is learned. Compulsion
and coercion are antithetical to personal growth. The greater the freedom enjoyed by individuals within a society,
the greater the intellectual and moral advancement enjoyed by society as a whole.
Requirement. The law of requirement states that "we must have something to obtain or do something." It can be
an ability, skill, instrument or anything that may help us to learn or gain something. A starting point or root is
needed; for example, if you want to draw a person, you need to have the materials with which to draw, and you
must know how to draw a point, a line, a figure and so on until you reach your goal, which is to draw a person.

MANAGEMENT OF INSTRUCTION
Introduction
An effective and meaningful learning experience is a product of careful planning.
Planning starts with defining the directions to take, in which case efforts are geared toward a specific set of
objectives.
The material as well as the non-material resources in the teaching-learning process most be well-managed in order
to reap optimum learning.
What is a Goal?
Goals are broad generalized statements about what is to be learned.
Think of them as a target to be reached, or hit
Example: Students will be able to apply proper grammar to composition papers.
What is Objective?
Objectives are more specific statements about the intended outcome of instruction
Objectives lead to related activities and good assessment.
Objectives are tools to ensure your students reach your goals.

Goals and Objectives

Listing your course goals and objectives is the clearest way to communicate expectations to students.
The syllabus is a good place for them!
Well-written goals and objectives inform all on what is to be learned, and how assessment will occur.
Goals vs. Objectives
Goals

Aspirational
General
Long-term
Fuzzy
Indeterminate

Objectives
Accomplishments oriented
Specific
Short-term
Focused
Measurable

Guiding Principles in Determining and Formulating Goals/Objectives

1. Begin with the end in mind
o means that we must begin our lesson with a clearly defined lesson objective with specific objective, our lessons
become more focused.
o we do not waste nor kill time for we are sure of what to teach, how to teach and what materials to use.
2. Share lesson objectives with the students
o make known to our students our instructional objective and encourage them to make the lesson objective
their own
o evaluate themselves at the end of the lesson as a result they will become more self motivated.
3. Lesson objective must be in the two or three domains; knowledge (cognitive); skill (psychomotor) and values
(affective).
o our lesson is wholistic and complete because it dwells on knowledge, skill, and values.
4. Work on significant and relevant lesson objectives
o our lesson objective must be connected to our students life experiences.
5. Lesson objectives must be aligned with the aims of education as embodied in the Philippines Constitution and
other laws a and on the vision-mission statements of the educational institution of which you are a part.
o our lesson objective must flow from the aims of education enshrined in the Phil. Constitution and the visionmission statements of schools.
6. Aim at the development of critical and creative thinking
o we need not to go into a laborious research to be convinced that the development of critical and creative
thinking is wanting in classrooms. Most questions asked whether oral or written are convergent, low-level
questions.
7. For accountability of learning, lesson objectives must be SMART.
o when our lesson objective is SMART it is quite easy to find out the end of our lesson if we attained our objective
or not.
o SMART- Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Result-oriented Relevant, Time-bound and Terminal
OBJECTIVE DERIVATION
aims of education are derived from examining the needs of learners in the society from analyzing culture and from
studying the various needs of society
it includes the complete transformation of the individual to become an asset to the society
education is also concerned with the identification of moral and spiritual values believed as important to be taught
in schools
SOURCE OF LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Constitutional Aims
Institutional Aims
Curriculum Goals
Course/Subject Goals
Unit Objectives
Lesson Objectives

BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES
Four Elements Of Behavioral Objectives
1. Good behavioral objectives are student-oriented.
A behavioral objective, which is student-oriented, places the emphasis upon what the student is expected to do,
not upon what the teacher will do.
2. Good behavioral objectives describe learning outcomes.
The important thing to keep in mind here is that we are interested in what the students will learn to do. In other
words, it is the learning outcome that is important, not the learning activities that should lead to that outcome.
3. Good behavioral objectives are clear and understandable
The first prerequisite for a clear and understandable objective is explicitness. It should contain a clearly stated
verb that describes a definite action or behavior and, in most cases, should refer to an object of that action
4. Good behavioral objectives are observable.
The evaluation of learning outcomes hinges on the ability to observe those outcomes. The key to an observable
objective is an observable verb.
Characteristics of Good Objectives
The objectives of a project should be "SMART." They should be:
Specific: clear about what, where, when, and how the situation will be changed;
Measurable: able to quantify the targets and benefits;
Achievable: able to attain the objectives (knowing the resources and capacities at the disposal of the community)
Realistic: able to obtain the level of change reflected in the objective; and
Time bound: stating the time period in which they will each be accomplished.
Advantages of Behavioral Objectives:
1. Guide for the teacher relative to the design of instruction.
2. Guide for the teacher for evaluation/test design
3. Guide for the learner relative to learning focus
4. Guide for the learner relative to self-assessment.
TAXONOMY OF BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES
In 1956, Benjamin Bloom along with a group of like-minded educators developed a framework for classifying
educational goals and objectives into a hierarchical structure representing different forms and levels of learning. This
framework was published as Blooms Taxonomy of Educational Objectives and consisted of the following three
domains:
The Cognitive Domain knowledge-based domain, consisting of six levels, encompassing intellectual or thinking
skills

The Affective Domain attitudinal-based domain, consisting of five levels, encompassing attitudes and values

The Psychomotor Domain skills-based domain, consisting of six levels, encompassing physical skills or the
performance of actions

THE ORIGINAL TAXONOMY OF THE COGNITIVE DOMAIN

Blooms original 1956 Taxonomy of Educational Objectives identified the following levels of cognitive learning
(arranged from lower-order to higher-order levels of learning):
Knowledge The remembering of previously learned material; this involves the recall of a wide range of material,
from specific facts to complete theories.

Comprehension The ability to grasp the meaning of previously-learned material; this may be demonstrated by
translating material from one form to another, interpreting material (explaining or summarizing), or by predicting
consequences or effects.

Application The ability to use learned material in new and concrete situations; this may include the application
of rules, methods, concepts, principles, laws, and theories.

Analysis The ability to break down material into its component parts so that its organizational structure may be
understood; this may include the identification of the parts, analysis of the relationships between parts, and
recognition of the organizational principles involved.

Synthesis The ability to put parts together to form a new whole; this may involve the production of a unique
communication (thesis or speech), a plan of operations (research proposal), or a set of abstract relations (scheme
for classifying information).

Evaluation The ability to judge the value of material for a given purpose; the judgments are to be based on
definite internal and/or external criteria.
THE REVISED BLOOMS TAXONOMY
In 2001, a former student of Blooms, Lorin Anderson, and a group of cognitive psychologists, curriculum theorists and
instructional researchers, and testing and assessment specialists published a revision of Blooms Taxonomy entitled A
Taxonomy for Teaching, Learning, and Assessment. The revision updates the taxonomy for the 21st century, and
includes significant changes in terminology and structure. In the revised framework, action words or verbs, instead
of nouns, are used to label the six cognitive levels, three of the cognitive levels are renamed, and the top two higherorder cognitive levels are interchanged. The result is a more dynamic model for classifying the intellectual processes
used by learners in acquiring and using knowledge.
The revised taxonomy identifies the following new levels of cognitive learning (arranged from lower-order to
higher-order levels of learning):
Remembering Retrieving, recognizing, and recalling relevant knowledge from long-term memory
Understanding Constructing meaning from oral, written, and graphic messages through interpreting,
exemplifying, classifying, summarizing, inferring, comparing, and explaining
Applying Using information in new ways; carrying out or using a procedure or process through executing or
implementing
Analyzing Breaking material into constituent parts; determining how the parts relate to one another and to an
overall structure or purpose through differentiating, organizing, and attributing
Evaluating Making judgments based on criteria and standards through checking and critiquing; defending
concepts and ideas
Creating Putting elements together to form a coherent or functional whole; reorganizing elements into a new
pattern or structure through generating, planning, or producing
THE AFFECTIVE OR FEELING DOMAIN
Like cognitive objectives, affective objectives can also be divided into a hierarchy (according to Krathwohl). This area
is concerned with feelings or emotions. Again, the taxonomy is arranged from simpler feelings to those that are more
complex. This domain was first described in 1964 and as noted before is attributed to David Krathwohl as the primary
author.
Receiving - this refers to the learners sensitivity to the existence of stimuli awareness, willingness to receive, or
selected attention
Responding - This refers to the learners active attention to stimuli and his/her motivation to learn acquiescence,
willing responses, or feelings of satisfaction
Valuing - This refers to the learners beliefs and attitudes of worth acceptance, preference, or commitment. An
acceptance, preference, or commitment to a value.

 Organization - This refers to the learners internalization of values and beliefs involving: (1) the conceptualization
of values; and (2) the organization of a value system. As values or beliefs become internalized, the learner
organizes them according to priority
Characterization the Internalization of values - This refers to the learners highest of internalization and relates
to behavior that reflects (1) a generalized set of values; and (2) a characterization or a philosophy about life. At
this level the learner is capable of practicing and acting on their values or beliefs.
THE PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN
The psychomotor domain includes physical movement, coordination, and use of the motor-skill areas. Development
of these skills requires practice and is measured in terms of speed, precision, distance, procedures, or techniques in
execution. Thus, psychomotor skills rage from manual tasks, such as digging a ditch or washing a car, to more complex
tasks, such as operating a complex piece of machinery or dancing.
Simpson's Psychomotor Domain
The seven major categories are listed from the simplest behavior to the most complex:
Perception (awareness): The ability to use sensory cues to guide motor activity. This ranges from sensory
stimulation, through cue selection, to translation.
Set: Readiness to act. It includes mental, physical, and emotional sets. These three sets are dispositions that
predetermine a person's response to different situations (sometimes called mindsets).
Guided Response: The early stages in learning a complex skill that includes imitation and trial and error. Adequacy
of performance is achieved by practicing.
Mechanism (basic proficiency): This is the intermediate stage in learning a complex skill. Learned responses have
become habitual and the movements can be performed with some confidence and proficiency.
Complex Overt Response (Expert): The skillful performance of motor acts that involve complex movement
patterns. Proficiency is indicated by a quick, accurate, and highly coordinated performance, requiring a minimum
of energy. This category includes performing without hesitation, and automatic performance. For example, players
are often utter sounds of satisfaction or expletives as soon as they hit a tennis ball or throw a football, because
they can tell by the feel of the act what the result will produce.
Adaptation: Skills are well developed and the individual can modify movement patterns to fit special
requirements.
Origination: Creating new movement patterns to fit a particular situation or specific problem. Learning outcomes
emphasize creativity based upon highly developed skills.
Terms in this area based on Anita Harrows taxonomy
Reflex movements - Objectives at this level include reflexes that involve one segmental or reflexes of the spine
and movements that may involve more than one segmented portion of the spine as intersegmental reflexes (e.g.,
involuntary muscle contraction). These movements are involuntary being either present at birth or emerging
through maturation.
Fundamental movements - Objectives in this area refer to skills or movements or behaviors related to walking,
running, jumping, pushing, pulling and manipulating. They are often components for more complex actions.
Perceptual abilities - Objectives in this area should address skills related to kinesthetic (bodily movements), visual,
auditory, tactile (touch), or coordination abilities as they are related to the ability to take in information from the
environment and react.

 Physical abilities - Objectives in this area should be related to endurance, flexibility, agility, strength, reactionresponse time or dexterity
Skilled movements - Objectives in this area refer to skills and movements that must be learned for games, sports,
dances, performances, or for the arts.
Nondiscursive communication - Objectives in this area refer to expressive movements through posture, gestures,
facial expressions, and/or creative movements like those in mime or ballet. These movements refer to
interpretative movements that communicate meaning without the aid of verbal commands or help.
Daves (1975) Taxonomy
Imitation Observing and patterning behavior after someone else. Performance may be of low quality.
Manipulation Being able to perform certain actions by memory or following instructions.
Precision Refining, becoming more exact. Performing a skill within a high degree of precision
Articulation Coordinating and adapting a series of actions to achieve harmony and internal consistency.
Naturalization Mastering a high level performance until it become second-nature or natural, without needing
to think much about it.