Rolling Resistance

Causes:-

Deformation of Tyres.
Deformation of roads.
Friction between tyre and road surface due to trade slippage.
Road roughness
Friction in wheel bearings.
Air circulation inside tyre.
Fan effect of rotating tyre by the air on outside.

Tyre requirements
To support the weight of the vehicle and distribute it over the road
surface.
To offer minimum rolling resistance to the motion of the vehicle and thus
reduce fuel consumption.
To contribute to the suspension cushioning of impact forces created by
road surface irregularities.
To permit the generation of traction, braking forces and steering moment
on dry or wet road surfaces.
To confirm safe operation up to the maximum speed of the vehicle.
To provide quiet straight-ahead running and freedom from squeal on
cornering and braking.
To realize an acceptable tread life under varied conditions.
Light weight.
Long and even tread life.

Tyre adhesion
The grip of the tyre on the road is referred to as tyre
adhesion, and depends not only on the tyre but also to a
greater extent on the road surface condition. It is partly
due to the force of molecular attraction existing between
the tyre rubber and the road surfaces , and partly due to a
mechanical interlocking action occurring as the rubber
conforms to the surface roughness of the road . For tyre
adhesion ,contact between tyre and road surface must be
maintained under all running conditions.

Wheel Requirements
Structure Wheels should be sufficiently strong and rigid, so that
they retain their shape under all operating conditions including
abnormal impacts. The dimensional tolerance of the wheel should
be sufficiently accurate to provide accurate wheel alignment and
balancing.
Weight Wheels should be made as light as possible, to reduce
unsprung mass.
Tyre attachment The wheel must be designed so that the tyre can
be fitted easily and be firmly secured.
Wheel mounting The wheel mounting must perform the job of
locating, securing, supporting the wheel and should allow the wheel
to be easily fitted or removed from its axle hub.
Cost Wheels should be low in cost, which can be easily fabricated,
cast forged and which then require the minimum amount of
machining. The material should not readily deteriorate with age and
weathering. If susceptible to corrosion, it must be provided with
protection treatments.

Tyre construction
Carcass The carcass is made from layers of nylon, rayon or
polyester plies.
Beads The edges of the tyre contacting the rim are known
as beads and moulded inside each bead is a strengthening
endless steel wire cord.
Side Walls The outside of the tyre carcass, known as the
side walls, is covered with rubber compound. Side walls need to
be very flexible and capable of protecting the carcass from
external damage such as cuts which can occur when the tyre is
made to climb up a kerb.
Bracing belt Between the carcass and tyre tread is a crown
reinforcement belt made from rayon cord or steel . This
circumferential endless cord belt provides the rigidity to the tread
rubber.
Tread The outside circumferential crown portion of the
tyre is known as the tread.It is made from a hard wearing rubber
compound whose function is to grip the counter of the road.

Radial
flexibility

Lateral
flexibility

Circumferential
flexibility

Longitudinal
flexibility

Twisting
flexibility

Effect Of Lateral Flexibility

Cornering power = cornering force (Py)/slip angle ()

Self Aligning Torque

A characteristic of the pneumatic tyre is
that it prefers to roll freely in a straight
path, and if compelled to do otherwise
it generates its own self-aligning
torque. This effect arises because in the
presence of a slip angle the trailing
portion of the tyre contact patch
experiences greater lateral deformation
than the leading portion, so that the
shift in centre of pressure causes the
cornering force to act at a small
distance behind the rotational axis of
the wheel.

For a typical tyre the vertical load is

distributed in an approximately
uniform manner. Lateral force
increases from front to rear of the
contact patch for smaller lateral force
and sleep angles.

At larger lateral force, the lateral force

is progressively limited by sliding
which occurs at the rear of contact
patch and spreads forward as the
force increases.

Self-aligning torque
pneumatic trail

due

to

The offset between cornering force

centre of pressure and the
geometric centre of the wheel is
known as the pneumatic trail. As
the cornering force centre of
pressure is to the rear of the
geometric centre of the wheel, the
pneumatic trail causes a moment
about the geometric wheel centre
which causes to restore the plane
of the wheel with its direction of
motion. This moment is known as
self-aligning torque.

The self aligning torque increases with increase in contact patch length, as it
increases pneumatic trail, and increases with tyre stiffness for a given sleep
angle, as it increases cornering force.
The self aligning torque is increased markedly by greater than normal vertical
loading and to a lesser extent by the application of a tractive force.
The self aligning torque is little affected with small slip angles when braking or
accelerating, but with larger slip angles braking decreases the aligning torque
and acceleration increases it.
Over inflation of tyre reduces contact patch length and so reduces self-aligning
torque. Driving and braking force also reduce the self-aligning torque.
Self-aligning torque provides the driver with a certain measure of feel in
handling the vehicle. The driver is able to sense a loss of tyre adhesion by the
steering going light as a result of the diminishing self-aligning torque. A
reasonable but not excessive amount of tyre self-aligning torque is usually
sought, so that the steering retains an acceptable degree of feel without
becoming heavy in operation.

External Disturbing Forces

Camber
The main purpose is to prevent top
of the wheels from tilting inward too
much because of excessive load on
suspension or play in the king pins
and wheel bearings.

Camber on a wheel produce a

lateral force known as camber
thrust.

Both front wheels tend to steer in opposite directions as the

vehicle moves forward and load the track rod and ball joints.

If the camber on the two wheels are unequal, may be due to body
roll with independent suspension or because of misalignment, the
camber thrusts are unequal and the vehicle is pulled to one side.
Positive camber on front wheels make the vehicle understeer and
stable.
With wider tyres, wheel camber has to be kept to a minimum to
avoid excessive edge wear on the tyre.
Camber tends to counteract any small sideways forces imposed on
the tyres by ridges in the road by inducing a small lateral preload in
the steering linkage and promote stable, straight ahead running.

King Pin Inclination

Swivel pin or kingpin inclination is the lateral inward tilt (inclination) from the top
between the upper and lower swivel ball joints or the kingpin axis to the vertical ,
when viewed from the front of the vehicle.

Offset can be adjusted by adjusting camber, king pin inclination and

king pin position.

The self aliment movement increases with offset and body weight but independent
of vehicle speed

Offset may be necessary to obtain packing space for brakes, suspension and
steering components. At the same time, it adds feel of the road and reduces
static steering efforts by allowing the tire to roll around an arc when it is turned.
This feature is also relevant to modern diagonal split dual circuit safety braking
systems, since if either circuit misbehaves one front brake will develop much
more drag force than the other.

With nil castor, the wheels become unstable as they tend to switch
from side to side when the vehicle travel along a straight path.
Incorrect castor can produce variety of difficulties such as hard
steering, pulling on one side when brakes are applied while
turning, shimmy or tendency to wander due to lack of directional
stability.

Toe-in and Toe-out

Toe-in is the amount by which the front-wheel rims are set closer together at
the front than at the rear when the vehicle is stationary.
Toe-out is the amount by which the front-wheel rims are set farther apart at
the front than at the rear.
Toe-in or toe-out compensates for movement within steering ball-joints,
suspension rubber bush-joints and any deflection of the track-rod arms or
suspension arms when the vehicle is in motion. This allows both wheels to run
parallel under normal driving conditions.

In rear wheel drive vehicles the propelling thrust pushes the

suspension cross member and body forward during drive, which is
resisted by the road reaction on the tyres. The resultant outward
twisting of both wheels will distort the suspension rubber bushing
so that the front wheels will diverge. To counteract this tendency,
the wheels are initially given a toe-in so that under driving
conditions the wheels will run parallel.

In front wheel drive vehicles the driving traction is imparted to

the front wheels so that the stub-axle assembly is pulling
forward the suspension cross member and body. The wheels
twist inwards and so distort the suspension wishbone rubber
pivot joints in a horizontal plane so that the front wheels will
converge. To correct this converging tendency when in
motion, wheel track is adjusted with a toe-out when the
vehicle is at rest.

Vehicle suspension systems consist of ,

1) Guiding elements control arms, links, struts, leaf springs.
2) Force elements coil spring, air spring, leaf spring, torsion bar
anti-roll bar, anti-sway bar
damper
bushings, hydro-mounts.
3) Tyres

In dependent suspensions systems

Single arm perpendicular type

Single arm parallel type

Double arm parallel type

Advantages of Independent Suspension System:

Softer springs can be used to counteract body roll as spring track can be
increased. Hence more passenger comfort.
More strain energy can be stored for a given spring weight. Therefore lighter
springs can be used.
Suspension system can be designed for springs to take load in one direction only.
Unsprung mass is reduced.
With antiroll-bar, even more softer springs can be used.
Reduced wheel wobble.
Engine and chassis structure can be lowered and engine can be brought forward.
Roll-centre height can be suitably adjusted.
Disadvantages of Independent Suspension System:
Reduced cornering power due to wheel cambering.
Slight change in wheel track with wheel bouncing. Therefore more tyre wear.
More rigid chassis due to absence of chassis frame.
More complicated suspension and steering linkage.
Steering geometry alignment is more critical and needs more attention.

Wheel Balancing

Static Balancing:
If a statically imbalanced wheel,
free to rotate freely, is released
from whatever initial stationary
position would slowly turn until
the unbalanced portion (excess
mass) is finally settled at bottom
dead centre.
It cause the rotating wheel to
jump up and down.

A static balance is achieved when there is an equal distribution of mass

about the axis of rotation of the wheel and tyre.

Ideal dynamic and static

balance

Static imbalance

Static balance
restored

Dynamic Balancing: If the unbalanced portion is offset to either side of wheel

centre plane, then the out-of-balance force generated cause the rotating wheel not
only to jump up and down but also to shake from side to side.
A condition of dynamic balance is achieved when there is an equal distribution of
mass about the centre plane of wheel and tyre.

Dynamic and static imbalance

Dynamic imbalance
made worse but
static balance restored

Dynamic and static

balance restored

To a body, spinning about an

axis (x-axis, spin axis), if a
moment is applied along an
axis perpendicular to the spin
axis, (y-axis, moment axis),
then the body tends to rotate
about an axis which is
perpendicular to both the
axes, (z-axis, precession axis).
This tendency of rotation is
due to a moment called
gyroscopic moment. It is due
to inertia of the spinning body.

Oscillations of Steerable Wheels

Angular oscillations of the steerable wheels about kingpin axis (wobble) are not
permitted because parts of the running gear and steering gear in this case take
considerable alternating dynamic loads, and high amplitude oscillations result in
a loss of control.

A bumpy or pot-holed road lead to a series of kicks on the steering mechanism

and with a moderate amount of play in the steering linkage the car will snake
from side to side and result in a loss of control. These intrinsic oscillations depend
only on the system parameters like spring stiffness, mass and mass moment of
inertia of separate parts.

Continually repeated (self-excited) oscillations are especially

dangerous.

When transverse angular oscillations (about longitudinal axis of

vehicle) of the front axle (patter) occur the steerable wheels incline
and change their position relative to the vertical plane. A change in
position of the rotation axis of the wheels causes a gyroscopic
moment which turns the steerable wheels about kingpins in a
horizontal plane. The effect is more for soft spring cars in general.

When independent suspension is used this cause of wheel wobble is

eliminated as the vertical motion of the steerable wheels does not
cause them to incline excessively. It is then practicable to use
somewhat softer springs than with the axle suspension, so that
the riding qualities and road holding are improved.

When a vehicle moves, the intrinsic oscillations may also be attended by forced
oscillations caused by a periodically acting disturbing force. Such a force may be
due to imbalanced wheels.

The force Pcx tends to turn the wheel relative to the kingpin and the force Pcz shift
it in the vertical direction. Since the directions of the forces Pcx and Pcz are
changed when the wheel rolls, the wheel begins to wobble (Fig.a). When both
the wheels are unbalanced and the unbalanced portions are arranged in one
plane but on different sides of the wheel axis of rotation, the turning moments
acting on the wheels add up and the angular oscillations appreciably grow in
magnitude (Fig.b).

If a vehicle moves on a road with irregularities at approximately equal path

intervals, the frequencies of the forced and intrinsic oscillations at a definite
speed will be identical i.e. a resonance will set in at which the oscillations will
continually grow and the driver has to drop the speed to keep the vehicle under
control.

Wobble of the steerable wheels may also be caused by dual linking of these
wheels to the vehicle body with the aid of the steering linkage and suspension.

After a wheel is deflected from its straight path by a pot hole or a

bump in the road, a certain time elapses before the self aligning
torque, produced by castor, brings the wheel straight again.
Resonance between this frequency and that of the recovery action
of the alignment torque can occur at a certain vehicle speed. The
only cure being a prompt reduction in speed.

Brake Tramp:
When the braking effect on the two front wheels is equal, the
wind-up of the springs on the two sides is also equal and the
alignment of the front axle is unchanged. If, however, one wheel
loses its grip on the road surface by striking a slippery patch or a
bump, the spring on this side nwinds and the axle takes on a
steer angle. This produces a gyroscopic torque which lifts the
opposite wheel off the ground and presses the first wheel down
firmly. The second wheel now loses its braking effect and the first
recovers it. The unbalanced spring wind-up is now reversed and
the gyroscopic torque also reverses. The cycle repeats again and
again in the manner of shimmy and can only be stopped by the
driver taking his foot off the brake pedal.

The unsprung mass of rigid rear axle (live axle) is almost twice that
of front axle (dead axle). Rigid rear axle car corners and brakes just
like I.R.S. car, so long as the road surface is very good. As soon as
bad ripples appear in the road, the independently sprung wheel
comes into its own. Up to a point, if the ripples are small and
within the road holding capacity of unsprung mass to sprung mass
ratio of the beam axle, there will still be only a little difference in
the cornering, but with bad ripples the rigid car axle will corner at
the limit in a succession of sideways hops, while the I.R.S. car
performs a smooth well controlled drift through the corner.

2 D vehicle simpler model for basic studies on ride comfort and ride safety
(Lumped mass model)

4 degrees of freedom XC 1 , XC 2 , XA 1 , XA 2
Total sprung mass , M = M1 + M* + M2
Total mass moment of inertia about axis through c. g. C , I = a12 M1 + a22 M2
For c. g. at C , a1M1 = a2 M2
Therefore, M1 = I / a1(a1 + a2) , M2 = I / a2(a1 + a2)
and M* = M[1 I / (Ma1a2)]
If I = Ma1a2 , M* = 0 and the vehicle can be represented by two uncoupled two mass systems describing XA1 , XA2 , XC1
and XC2 .
For a wide range of passenger cars , M* M1 and M* M2. Here , the two mass model or the quarter car model
represent a quite good approximation to the lumped mass model.

Quarter Car Model

(xu x)ks + (dxu/dt dx/dt)cs = M(d2x/dt2)

(xu x)ks (dxu/dt dx/dt)cx + (xr xu)kt + (dxr /dt dxu/dt)ct = m(d2xu/dt2)

If suspension damping, tyre damping and unsprung mass are

neglected, the effective stiffness of the suspension and tyre
springs, called ride rate (RR) is
RR = kskt / (ks + kt)
The bounce natural frequency, n = (RR/M)1/2 rad/s
When suspension damping is present,
Damped natural frequency, d = n (1 s2 )1/2
Where, s = damping ratio
= cs/(4ksM)1/2

Quarter car model can be further simplified to two single mass models,
Chassis model:
Neglecting tyre deflection and unsprung mass
..

M XC + CS XC + KS XC = CS XR + KS XC

Wheel model:
For high frequency wheel motions the chassis can be considered
fixed.
. .

m XW + CS XW + (KS + KT)XW = KT XR
Dynamic wheel load is
FTD = KT (XR XW)

Effect of damping:

Wheel load = FO (static) + FD (dynamic)

FO = (M + m)g 4000 N
FD wheel vertical movement in the absence of damping.

Suspension damper force , FD = CS(XW XC)

,

With more road irregularities , XW is high.

If CS is also high , FD is high i.e. more shock
Is transmitted to body by increasing
damping coefficient .
The damping values for optimal comfort
and optimal ride safety are different.
For comfort damping should be low and
For minimum wheel load fluctuations
damping should be more.

The study of combined effect of the pitch and bounce motions is essential
because it is their combination that determines the vertical and longitudinal
vibrations at any point in the vehicle.

Only bounce motion input occurs at a wavelength equal to the wheelbase of the
vehicle. The same is true for wavelength much, much longer than the
wheelbase, and also for short wavelengths which have an integer multiple equal
to the wheelbase. In a similar fashion, only pitch motion input will be seen on a
wavelength that is twice the wheelbase, or on any shorter wavelength that has
an odd integer multiple equal to twice the wheelbase.

The position of C relative to G depends on

the ratio of front and rear spring stiffness
i.e. front and rear static deflection . If the
static deflections due to body weight are
equal, C and G coincide.

During vibrations, the body oscillates about the doubly conjugate points. Hence
they are also called motion centers. One motion center is always within the
wheel base and the other outside the wheel base. One within the wheel base is
called pitch center because the body oscillations about it are more of pitch
nature and one outside the wheel base is called bounce center as the body
oscillations about it are more of bounce nature.
The positions of doubly conjugate points depend on relative positions of C and G
i. e. the ratio of front and rear natural frequencies.

A lower front frequency puts the

bounce centre behind the rear axle
and the pitch centre forward near the
front axle. This case is recognised as
best for achieving good ride.

Interaction of front and rear suspensions to single applied disturbance

The movement of either suspension (sprung mass) after its initial impulse is given by,
x = e nt A cos(t)
A = 4 cm, n = 0.8

Amplitudes for damped movement of front and rear sprung mass from single
disturbance.
Curve 1: front frequency 1 Hz, Curve 2: rear frequency 0.909 Hz, Curve 3: rear
frequency 1.11 Hz. Car speed 50 km/hr

Resulting pitch movements. Car speed 50 km/hr. Curve 1: lower rear frequency,
Curve 2: higher rear frequency.

Resulting pitch movements. Car speed 100 km/hr. Curve 1: lower rear frequency,
Curve 2: higher rear frequency.

1) With the lower frequency rear suspension there is a strongly

persisting pitch movement.

2) With the higher frequency rear suspension the initial pitch

movement is very quickly reduced.
3) With the higher frequency rear suspension the initial pitch
movement is never so severe as with the lower frequency.
4) The initial movement is less severe at the higher than at the
lower speed, because the time interval is less. This time
interval is at both speeds less than half a cycle of the front
suspension.

Rolling

Roll center : Roll center of a suspension is defined as the point in the transverse
vertical plane through the wheel centers at which the lateral force may be applied
to the sprung mass without producing suspension roll. It is the point with respect
to which the transverse section of the vehicle passing through the front or rear
axle moves.
Roll axis: Roll axis is the straight line passing through the front and rear suspension
roll centers.
It is the instantaneous axis about which the sprung mass rotates with respect to
the unsprung mass when a pure couple is applied to the sprung mass.

Roll center of a Hotchkiss rear suspension

Roll center of swing arm independent suspension

Stability against rolling:

Rear Wheel Drive

Front Wheel Drive

Cornering forces when braking

Single axle drive passenger cars:

Front wheel drive vehicle (FWD)

.

v/g = /{1 + [h/(a1 + a2)]}[a2/(a1 + a2)]

Rear wheel drive vehicle(RWD) .

v/g = /{1 [h/(a1 + a2)]}[a1/(a1 + a2)]

For rear wheel driven passenger cars,

For = 1 and h = 0.55 ,

0.4 a2/(a1 + a2) 0.5

.

0.64 v/g 0.77

For front wheel driven passenger cars, 0.55 a2/(a1 + a2) 0.6
.

and
0.45 v/g 0.49
Hence rear wheel driven vehicles can accelerate much faster than front wheel driven vehicles.

Dynamic Axle Loads

Wf L + DA ha + (W/g) ax h + Rhx hh + Rhz dh + W h sin W h cos = 0

Therefore, Wf = [W c cos Rhx hh - Rhz dh (W/g) ax h DA ha W h sin ]/L
and Wr = [W b cos + Rhx hh + Rhz (dh + L) + (W/g) ax h + Da ha + W h sin]/L
Static Loads on Level Ground:
Wfs = W(c/L)
Wrs = W(b/L)
Low-Speed Acceleration:
Wf = Wfs W(ax/g)(h/L)
Wr = Wrs + W(ax/g)(h/L)
Loads on Grades:
Wf = Wfs W(h/L)sin
Wr = Wrs + W(h/L)sin

1)

Lower the roll axis and higher the centre of gravity, the larger is
the rolling moment and hence larger angle of roll is assumed by
the sprung mass of the vehicle by a given centrifugal force or
lateral force.
Angle of roll, = M/k
M, rolling moment = Fy x h
K, rolling stiffness = M/

2)

, rolling acceleration = M/I

I, mass moment of inertia of sprung mass about roll axis = IG + Ms h2
Ms = sprung mass
IG = mass moment of inertia of sprung mass about centre of gravity.
is small for very small value of h and for very large value of h. It is
maximum for some
intermediate value of h.

3)

If IC is at ground level, for independent suspension system, change in camber

angle and lateral scrubbing with vertical movement of wheels is minimum.
Rolling tyre with camber develops a slip angle rather than scrubbing sideways
over the road surface. Hence, unequal vertical movement of wheels produce
steering effect.

4)

With lower roll axis, there is more lateral shift of c.g. while rolling. Hence more
load transfer on outer wheels and also possibility of overturning.
A compromise is always sought and the roll centre heights of the front and rear
suspension systems generally lie somewhere between the ground level and the
height of the wheel hubs.

Stability of Steerable Wheels

Steerable wheels are said to be stable if the
follow the desired path in their own plane
with minimum efforts required to steer the
wheels.
t = Castor angle
t = Kingpin inclination
= Wheel steering angle
Lkn = Horizontal minimum distance
between kingpin mid. point and
wheel plane.
The total road reaction acting on the
steerable wheel has following components.
X = Tangential ( horizontal component
parallel to the wheel plane)
Y = Transverse (horizontal component
perpendicular to the wheel plane)
Z = Vertical

Forces acting on steerable wheel

Without considering the effect of tyre lateral deformation, for inside wheel,
the steering moments produced by road reaction components X and Y (in horizontal
plane) are
Mx = X (lkn mkn ) = X [lkn - rt cos( + t)]
My = YP - Yrt sin( + t)
Resolve Z into component Z which is parallel to the kingpin and creates, therefore, no
moment relative to its axis, and the component Zt lying in the plane of the road and
parallel to the line AO.
Therefore, steering moment produced by force Zt, Mz = Zt n = Zt lkn sin( + t)
Since the angles t and t are small, sint t/t and cost t/t
Mx = Steering moment produced by X = X [ lkn - r ( t cos - t sin )]
My = Steering moment produced by Y = Y r ( t sin + t cos )
Mz = Steering moment produced by Z = Z lkn ( t sin + t cos )
Therefore, total steering moment due to road reaction,
M = Mx + My + Mz
Therefore, for an inner wheel, Min = Mx in + My in + Mz in
and for an outer wheel, Mout = Mx out + My out + Mz out
When one wheel is turned inside ( positive), the other wheel turns outside (
negative).
Therefore, the sign of the terms containing sin should be changed to determine the
moments acting on the outer wheel.

Forces and moments acting on steerable wheels

The moments of the tangential components of the road reaction Xin and Xout are
directed oppositely and are partly mutually balanced as are the moments of the
components Zin and Zout .
Therefore, there effects are neglected. Effect of Mx is considerable only when
there is high rolling resistance or during braking.
The moments of transverse road reaction components Yin and Yout are in the same
direction and hence produce noticeable effect on the wheel stabilization.

When a wheel rolls with lateral slip its tyre is also acted upon by the moments,
Mx = X.bt and
My = Y.ct , due to the shift of resultant road reaction contact point in the
contact patch.
Their total moment is, Mt = Mx + My

Stabilizing moment applied to the steering gear arm,

Mst = sum of all the moments acting on the inner and
the outer steerable wheels.
= (Mx in + Mx out) + (My in + My out) + (Mz in + Mz out) + Mt
Mx in + Mx out = 2 X r t sin
My in + My out = 2 Y r t cos
Mz in + Mz out = 2 Z lkn t sin
Therefore, for small value of , Mst is principally
acted upon by Mt and My.
t < t , X << Z and at low speed Y is also very small.
Therefore, for large value of i.e. during motion along
curves of small radius (and therefore small speed)
Mst practically depends on z .

Steering gear arm is also acted upon by the moment Msc due to
friction at various joints in steering linkage. Therefore the driver has
to overcome the total moment (Mst + Msc) when a motor vehicle
begins to turn. When a motor vehicle comes out of a turn the driver
lets off the steering wheel and the front wheels return to the neutral
position under the action of the moment (Mst Msc) hence friction
in the steering gear opposes steering action as well as self aligning
action and spoils stabilization.
During straight run, the stabilizing moments on the two wheels
cancel each other and the wheels are mainly stabilized by the
moment Msc .

A drop of air pressure in the tyre of one of the steerable wheels increase the
rolling resistance causing the vehicle to deflect towards the tyre with reduced
pressure.
Wear of the wheel bearings, kingpin and other steering gear joints cause
arbitrary oscillations of the wheels. When clearances are too large the wobble
and jumps of the steerable wheels may affect road holding. It also requires
more turns of the steering wheels.
If one of the suspension springs sags, kingpin inclination and camber change on
that side. In this case, the stabilizing moments on the two wheels tend to pull
on one side.

Cornering of motorcycles

Motorcycles react to the moment caused by the centrifugal force by rolling

towards the inside of the corner.
Moment of centrifugal force , Ma = m ay h cos
Moment of weight, MG = m g h sin
The wheel camber is equal to the roll angle , which is not always very small.
Therefore, motorcycle tyres have a rounded tread cross-section.

Angular momentum of spinning body, L = I

Therefore, gyroscopic moment, ML = - dL/dt
Angular velocity of motorcycle, z = v/
Angular momentum of the wheels L,
has components Ly = L cos and Lz = L sin.
Therefore, gyroscopic moment acting on
motorcycle wheels while turning (about z-axis)
ML = L cos. v/
In steady state cornering, Ma + ML = MG
Now, ay = v2/ and = v/R , (R is tyre radius)
Therefore, tan = - v2 (mh + I/R)/(mgh)
Negative sign indicates that is in a direction opposite to ML .
The engine also contributes to the angular momentum by
increasing or decreasing it according to the direction of rotation of
the crankshaft.
The moment of inertia here is for both wheels, and for the rotating
engine parts multiplied by the square of their transmission ratios.

For left hand cornering process of a motorcycle, the front wheel is

temporarily steered by an angle to the right, thus displacing the
centre of gravity S to the inside of the corner, and the vehicle begins
to lean to the inside, forced by the moment due to centrifugal force
Ma (m ay), moment of the vehicle weight MG (mgh sin) and by the
gyroscopic moment ML ( ML.). Then the steering angle is removed
and replaced by the steady-state steering angle .

Types of leaf spring

(a) quarter-elliptic spring

(b) two parallel quarter-elliptic springs
(c ) semi-elliptic spring
(d) non-symmetrical semi-elliptic spring
(e) primary spring and auxiliary spring (helper spring) in parallel
(f) cantilever spring
(g) three quarter- elliptic spring
(h) fully-elliptic spring
(i) spring with elastomeric spacers
(k) parabolic (tapered) spring

Angular spring rate = (G d4 )/(32 l)

G shear modulus
The considerable length of torsion bars works against their installation in modern
vehicles

Torsion bar as anti-roll bar:

Torsion bar can also be used to reduce body rolling.
Anti-roll bar action caused by the body rolling:

Due to the body roll, the cranked arm on the outside wheel to the turn is
depressed downwards, whereas the cranked arm on the opposite end near the
inside wheel to the turn tends to rise. The effect of the torsional wind-up in the
bar is that it reduces the angle between the two cranked arms and hence the
body roll.

Anti-roll bar action caused by single wheel lift:

When the two wheels on an

axle are at the same horizontal
ground level, the wheel centres
CL and CR are in a horizontal
level and anti-roll bar
bearings BL and BR are also in
a horizontal level and there is
no body roll.

Suppose left wheel lifts as it climbs over a bump by height h. If

anti-roll bar elasticity is neglected (no wind-up in anti-roll bar), the
ratio of rise in left bearing to bearing track (tB) is equal to the ratio
of rise in left centre to wheel track (tW) i. e. body roll, B = axle roll,
A .

If anti-roll bar elasticity is considered, the cranked arm on right

side rotates less than the cranked arm on left side, due to torsional
wind-up in the anti-roll bar (R < L). therefore, B < A . Hence,
the body roll reduces with anti-roll bar.
Spring rate = G d4 / (8 n D3 )

Coil spring rate = G d4 / (8 n D3)

G shear modulus
d wire diameter
n number of coils
D coil diameter
If the available height is limited, a low number of coils and a
thicker wire must be used.
Long and slim springs with a relatively large number of coils are
lighter but tend to buckle earlier.

On a spring that is arranged perpendicular to a link in the normal position, Fig.

a, most of the bending occurs at a lower end , and in the relaxed or rebound
state there is danger of its tilting off its seating. The smallest possible amount
of bending, and equal moments at both ends, can be achieved by an
arrangement as shown in Fig.b, where the ends of the spring lie on a common
circle 1 and the planes of the supports are tangential to a common cylinder 2
about the inner joint of the suspension link.

Nipping:

When leaf spring is manufactured, each leaf is given a different curvature. The
greatest curvature is given to the smallest leaf and the curvature progressively
reduces as the span increases, so that the main leaf will have the least
curvature.
When the centre bolt aligns and clamps the various leaves together the leaves
are stressed, so that when the spring is fully loaded all the leaves, having
different thicknesses, are stressed to the same stress level.

Taper-cropped leaf ends:

The tapered leaves near their ends
distribute the stresses within the leaves
more evenly along each leaf span and
reduce peaking of stress levels.

Progressive-rate slipping spring:

Initially, when the spring is unloaded, the contact point is on the outside position
of the slipper face, but the straightening of the spring as the load increases, rolls
the main-leaf end around the slipper profile from the outer to the inner position.
This effectively shortens the spring span and progressively increases spring rate.

Suspension rubber springs are

made from alternatively bonded
layers of rubber blocks and steel
reinforcement plates sandwiched
between inclined mounting plates
so that the rubber is subjected to a
combination of both shear and
compressive forces. The steel
reinforcement
plates
restrain
excessive bulging of the rubber and
also conduct away the heat
generated by internal friction in the
rubber.
Loading of the axles produces a
progressive rising spring rate due
to the stress imposed into the
rubber, changing from shear to
compression as the laden weight
rises.

Apart from wheel suspension applications, all rubber-elastic mountings of

vehicle assemblies such as the engine, gearbox, steering box and suspension
links should be regarded as rubber springs.

Rubber, as a spring material,

is also used for
suspension bump and
rebound buffers.
These act as progressive
limiting stops to prevent
metal to metal contact
between the wheel locating
linkages and the car
structure at the extremities
of suspension travel.

Rubber suspension creep:

Primary creep arises from static loading and is responsible for any
reduction in standing height of the vehicle in service. It tends to
occur early in the life of the spring and can usually be catered for
by setting the vehicle initial height on its suspension.
Secondary creep arises from dynamic loading and is responsible
for stiffening the action of the spring at low ambient temperature.

Static Load

Bounce Frequency

Air springs

Sprung Mass

Spring Compression

The bounce frequency of a spring decreases as the sprung weight increases and
increases as this weight is reduced. This factor plays an important part in the
quality of ride which can be obtained on a heavy goods or passenger vehicle where
there could be a fully laden to unladen weight ratio very large.
An inherent disadvantage of leaf, coil and solid rubber springs is that the bounce
frequency of vibration increases considerably as the sprung mass is reduced.
Therefore, if a heavy vehicle is designed to give the best ride frequency when fully
laden, then as the load is reduced. the becomes harsh and uncomfortable. Air
spring, on the other hand, can operate over a narrow bounce frequency range with
considerable changes in vehicle laden weight.

Involute bellow spring

Rolling diaphragm spring

Elongated convoluted bellows

For large changes in static spring height, the three convolute bellows type is necessary . As a
precaution against the failure of the supply of air pressure for the spring, a rubber limit stop
of the progressive type is assembled inside each air spring.
With the rolling diaphragm, the required progressive spring stiffness can be achieved by
tapering the skirt of the base member so that the effective working cross-sectional area of
the rolling lobe Increases as the spring approaches its maximum bump position. Elongated
convoluted bellows are used in trucks and coaches.
Advantages:
The spring rate progressively increases with load.
Vehicle height can be maintained with variation in load.
The improved standard of ride comfort and noise reduction attained with air springs
reduces both driver and passenger fatigue.

Shock Absorber
When the piston moves, fluid can pass from one
end of the cylinder chamber to the other
through the small piston head passages, and
from lower cylinder chamber through passages
formed in the base of the reservoir and back.
Since the fluid is incompressible, there is
considerable resistance to motion when the
fluid is displaced through small orifices. This
damping action generates the opposing
resistance to spring deflection between bump
and rebound. Generally a greater resistance is
necessary for rebound than for bump, so
separate bump and rebound valves are built
into the piston and the cylinder chamber base
to provide a differential fluid-resistance control.

The reservoir has two functions . Firstly it absorbs the excess fluid displaced from the
lower chamber. Second function is to allow air trapped by the rapidly moving fluid to rise
and escape. This reduces aeration and frothing of the fluid so that the viscosity of the
fluid remains consistent.

Tractor Equations .

m1(U Vr) = X1 cos X2 + X + C11 sin

.

m1(V + Ur) = C11 cos + C22 + X1 sin Y

.

I1 r = aC11 cos bC22 + aX1 sin + dY

- - - - - (1)
- - - - - (2)
- - - - - (3)

Trailer Equations.

m2(U Vr) = - X3 Y sin X cos

.

m2(V + Ur) = C33 + Y cos X sin

.

I2r = hC33 e( Y cos + X sin)

The angle between tractor and trailer is defined by
= 0 + (r r)dt
Hence

= r r

- - - - - (4)
- - - - - (5)
- - - - - (6)
- - - - - (7)
- - - - - (8)

U = U cos (V dr) sin

- - - - - (9)

V + er = U sin + (V dr) cos

- - - - - (10)

U = U cos U(r r) sin (V dr) sin (V dr)(r r) cos

- - - - - (11)
.

V = U sin + U(r r) cos + (V dr) cos (V dr)(r r) sin er

- - - - - (12)

1 = [(V + ar)/U]

- - - - - (13)

2 = (V br)/U

- - - - - (14)

3 = (V hr)/U
= [U sin + (V dr) cos (h + e)r]/[U cos
(V dr) sin]
- - - - - (15)

Assumptions for steady-state analysis:

For steady-state analysis, all acceleration terms are zero.
.

Therefore, U , V , r , U , V , r , and are zero.

Also substituting for 1 , 2 and 3 and for O = 0 , the above fifteen equations reduce to
the following four equations.
(m1 + m2)Vr m2dr2 m2e cos r2 X1 cos X2 X3 cos + C33 sin = 0

- - - - - (i)

(m1 + m2)Ur + m2e sin r2 + C11 + C22 + C33 cos + X1 sin + X3 sin = 0

- - - - - (ii)

m2dUr m2ed sin r2 + aC11 bC22 dC33 cos + aX1 sin dX3 sin = 0 - - - - - (iii)
m2e cos Ur m2e sin Vr + m2ed sinr2 (h + e)C33 = 0

- - - - - (iv)

For small steering disturbance , is small and is also small if O = 0.

Therefore, cos = 1 , sin = , cos = 1 and sin = .
With this assumption the above four equations reduce to,
(m1 + m2)Vr m2dr2 m2er2 X1 X2 X3 + C33 = 0

- - - - - (i)

(m1 + m2)Ur + m2er2 + C11 +C22 + C33 + X1 + X3 = 0

- - - - - (ii)

m2dUr m2edr2 + aC11 bC22 dC33 + aX1 dX3 = 0

- - - - - (iii)

m2eUr m2eVr + m2edr2 (h + e)C33 = 0

- - - - - (iv)

If the tractor is running at constant forward velocity (U is constant), the following

steady-state response equations for steering input are obtained.
Steady state sideslip velocity response
V
UC1{[m1al2 + m2h(a + d)]U2 + l1 l2 bC2}
--- = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ SS U2{m1l2(aC1 bC2) + m2h[aC1 bC2) + d(C1 + C2)]} + l12l2C1C2

Steady state yawing velocity response

r
UC1C2 l1 l2
--- = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- SS U2{m1l2(aC1 bC2) + m2h[(aC1 bC2) + d(C1 + C2)]} + l12 l2C1C2
Steady state angle between tractor and trailer response

U2C1C2m2el1
--- = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ SS C1U2{m1l2(aC1 bC2) + m2h[(aC1 bC2) + d(C1 + C2)]} + l12l2C1C2C3

The value of d at which the coefficient of U2 in the denominator of r/ SS

response equation becomes zero is called critical value of d, dCR
When d dCR , the denominator of r/ SS response equation is always positive
and there exists a finite value of the response for every value of U. The response
first increases with U and then decreases. The vehicle is stable.
When d = dCR, the response increases in proportion to U.
When d dCR , the response increases rapidly with U and approaches infinite
value. The vehicle is unstable. The value of U at which the response tends to
infinity is called critical speed, UCR.

Jack-knifing:

Y Viscous damping coefficient

N Torsional spring constant
Nr Viscous damping in yaw
N Control sensitivity