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ENGINEERING

HANDBOOK

U.S. DEPARTMENT O F AGRICULTURE

S O I L CONSERVATION SERVICE

SECTION 5
Hydraulics

General

Introduction: The development of this section is based on the assumption


that users will have available, as a working tool, a copy of the "Handbook
of Hydraulics", Third Edition, by Horace W. King, McGraw-Hill Book Company.
Those engineers whose work includes an appreciable amount of hydraulic computations will find time-saving, tabulated material in "Hydraulic Tables"
by the War Department, Corps of Engineers, U. S. Government Printing Office.
For brevity these two books are subsequently referred to as "King's Handbook" and "Hydraulic Tables ."
A partial list of other widely used publications dealing with the
practical phases of hydraulics and hydraulic structures is given below.
The need for and the usefulness of these or other handbooks not listed will
depend on the amount and type of work encountered in different work unit
areas. Inclusion in this list is not a recommendation for the books listed
nor a recommendation against any book not listed.
Handbook of Water Control - published by the R. Hardesty Mfg . Co.
Handbook of Culvert and Drainage Practice - published by Armco
Culvert Mfg. Assn.
Handbook of Welded Steel Pipe - published by Armco Drainage and
Metal Products, Inc., successors to R. Hardesty Mfg. Co.
Concrete Pipe Lines - published by American Concrete Pipe Assn.
Low Dams - by a Subcommittee of the National Resources Committee,
U. S . Governmen-tPrinting Office.
Hydraulic and Excavation Tables - Bureau of Reclamation, Department
of Interior, U. S . Government Printing Office.
1. Symbols and Units

1.1 Symbols. The symbols used and their definitions are:


cross-sectional area.
bottom width of channel.
coefficient of discharge for weirs and orifices;
constant in Hazen-Williams formula.
diameter of circular section.
depth of flow normal to channel bottom;
diameter of pipe in feet.
average depth of flow in a channel reach.
critical depth of flow perpendicular to channg bottom.
diameter of pipe in inches.
mean depth of flow at a section.
depth of normal flow; that is, depth of uniform flow.
force .

= a c c e l e r a t i o n of g r a v i t y .

= t o t a l head.

= s p e c i f i c energy head.
= f r i c t i o n head.
=

p r e s s u r e head.

= v e l o c i t y head.

= volume of inflow t o a r e s e r v o i r .

= r a t e of inflow t o a r e s e r v o i r .

K and K' = f a c t o r s used i n c e r t a i n arrangements of Manning's formula and


which vary with t h e r a t i o s of s p e c i f i e d l i n e a r dimensions of c r o s s
sections.

I n most cases t h i s symbol i s used with a


s u b s c r i p t t o make it s p e c i f i c and where s o used it i s c l e a r l y defined.

= head l o s s c o e f f i c i e n t .

= l e n g t h of channel o r closed conduit; l e n g t h of r e c t a n g u l a r weir c r e s t .

= l e n g t h of a p o r t i o n of a channel o r c l o s e d conduit.

= mass

= c o e f f i c i e n t of roughness i n Manning's formula; an exponent.

= volume of outflow from a r e s e r v o i r .

= r a t e of outflow from a r e s e r v o i r .

= t o t a l pressure f o r c e ; a symbol used i n a c e r t a i n arrangement of

Manning's formula, t h e value of which i s

n2
2.2082

x4l3

= h o r i z o n t a l component of p r e s s u r e f o r c e .

H
P = r e s u l t a n t pressure f o r c e .

= v e r t i c a l component of p r e s s u r e f o r c e .

= i n t e n s i t y of pressure per u n i t of area; wetted perimeter.

= t o t a l discharge; t h a t i s , volume of flow per u n i t of time.

Qc = c r i t i c a l discharge.

= normal discharge.

= discharge per u n i t of width.

n
c

= c r i t i c a l discharge per u n i t of width.

9,=

normal discharge per u n i t of width.

= Reynold's number

= hydraulic radius.

rm= mean hydraulic r a d i u s i n channel reach.

= volume of temporary r e s e r v o i r s t o r a g e .

= slope; t h a t i s , t h e tangent of t h e angle a l i n e makes

with t h e h o r i z o n t a l ; t h e slope of t h e energy g r a d i e n t


i n Manning's formula.
s

= c r i t i c a l slope.

= f r i c t i o n slope.
sf
s = slope of channel bottom.
0

= width of flow a t t h e water surface;

a conversion-time i n t e r v a l .

= time.

= volume.

= mean v e l o c i t y of flow.

= v e l o c i t y of approach.
=

c r i t i c a l velocity.

= normal velocity; t h a t is, v e l o c i t y of uniform flow.

= weight.

= u n i t weight.

a h o r i z o n t a l d i s t a n c e or abscissa; an exponent;
a variable; a time-conversion f a c t o r .

= a v e r t i c a l d i s t a n c e o r ordinate; a v a r i a b l e .

x, y = coordinates of t h e center of g r a v i t y of an a r e a .
z = t h e e l e v a t i o n of a s p e c i f i e d p o i n t above datum; t h e
s l o p e of t h e s i d e s of t r a p e z o i d a l s e c t i o n s expressed
as a r a t i o of h o r i z o n t a l t o v e r t i c a l .

U (Greek alpha) = a k i n e t i c energy c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r .

p
8
v

(Greek b e t a )

r reek
r reek

= an angle defined s p e c i f i c a l l y where used.

t h e t a ) = an angle defined s p e c i f i c a l l y where used.


nu)

= kinematic v i s c o s i t y .

1 . 2 Units of t h e foot-pound-second system a r e used unless o t h e r s a r e


s p e c i f i e d . Factors t o be used i n making conversions between various u n i t s
and dimensions a r e a v a i l a b l e i n Tables 1 t o 11, "King's Handbook."

I n many cases t h e conversion of u n i t s and dimensions i s looked upon


a s a simple, unimportant process. The f a c t i s t h a t conversions a r e a frequent source of e r r o r i n engineering computations. Valid equations must
be e q r e s s e d i n corresponding u n i t s ; t h a t is, i n a t r u e equation t h e r e must
be e q u a l i t y between both u n i t s and numbers. Engineers can m a t e r i a l l y r e duce t h e chance of conversion e r r o r s by forming t h e h a b i t of t h i n k i n g i n
terms of e q u a l i t y of u n i t s as w e l l a s e q u a l i t y of numbers.

HYD ?AULICS: ELEMENTS OF CHANNEL SECTIONS

t
o
-

Ic,

\&
k

YCE

U. S. DEPARTMENT O F AGRICULTURE

SOIL CONSERVATION SERVICE


R. H.Bennett, Chief

ENGINEERING STANDARDS UNIT

S T A N D A R D DWC.

NO.

ES-33
SHEET
DATE

6- 6

OF

- 50

3.5 H y d r a d i c Gradient and Energy Gradient. The hydraulic grade


l i n e , or t h e hydraulic gradient, i n open flow i s t h e water surface, and i n
pipe flow it connects t h e e l e v a t i o n s t o which t h e water would r i s e i n g i ezometer tubes along t h e pipe. The energy gradient i s a t a d i s t a n c e equal
t o t h e v e l o c i t y head above t h e hydraulic g r a d i e n t . I n both open and pipe
flow t h e f a l l of t h e energy gradient f o r a given l e n g t h of channel or pipe
r e p r e s e n t s t h e l o s s of energy by f r i c t i o n . When considered together, t h e
hydraulic gradient and t h e energy g r a d i e n t r e f l e c t not only t h e l o s s of
energy by f r i c t i o n , b u t a l s o t h e conversions between p o t e n t i a l and k i n e t i c
energy.
I n t h e majority of cases t h e end o b j e c t i v e of hydraulic computations
r e l a t i n g t o flow i n open channels i s t o determine t h e curve of t h e water
s u r f a c e . These problems involve t h r e e general r e l a t i o n s h i p s between t h e
hydraulic g r a d i e n t and t h e energy g r a d i e n t . For uniform flow t h e hydraul i c g r a d i e n t and t h e energy gradient a r e p a r a l l e l and t h e hydraulic g r a d i e n t becomes an adequate b a s i s f o r t h e determination of f r i c t i o n l o s s , s i n c e
no conversion between k i n e t i c and p o t e n t i a l energy i s involved. I n a c c e l e r a t e d flow t h e hydraulic g r a d i e n t i s s t e e p e r than t h e energy gradient, and
i n r e t a r d e d flow t h e energy gradient i s steeper than t h e hydraulic g r a d i e n t . An adequate a n a l y s i s of flow under t h e s e conditions cannot be made
without consideration of both t h e energy gradient and t h e hydraulic g r a d i ent.

4.

O ~ e nChannel Flow

4.1 Steady, Unsteady, Uniform, and Nonuniform Flow. Steady f l o w


e x i s t s when t h e discharge passing a given cross s e c t i o n i s constant w i t h
r e s p e c t t o time. The maintenance of steady flow i n any reach r e q u i r e s
t h a t t h e r a t e s of inflow and outflow be constant and equal. When t h e d i s charge v a r i e s with time, t h e flow i s unsteady.
Service work w i l l involve problems i n unsteady flow i n t h e a n a l y s i s
of discharge from conduits and spillways and i n n a t u r a l and improved chann e l s where discharge v a r i e s during periods of runoff.
Flow
area
when
from

Steady flow includes two conditions of flow; uniform and nonuniform.


i s steady and uniform when t h e mean v e l o c i t y and, t h e c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l
a r e equal a t a l l s e c t i o n s I n a reach. Flow i s steady and nonuniform
e i t h e r t h e mean v e l o c i t y o r t h e c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a or both vary
section t o section.

4.2 Elements of Cross Sections. The elements of c r o s s s e c t i o n s r e quired f o r hydraulic computations a r e :


a , t h e c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a of flow;
p, t h e wetted perimeter; t h a t is, t h e length of t h e perimeter
of t h e c r o s s s e c t i o n i n contact with t h e stream;
r = a/p, t h e hydraulic radius, which i s t h e c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l
m e a of t h e stream divided by t h e wetted perimeter.
General formulas f o r determining area, wetted perimeter, hydraulic
r a d i u s , and t o p width i n t r a p e z o i d a l , rectangular, t r i a n g u l a r , c i r c u l a r ,
and parabolic s e c t i o n s a r e given by drawing ES-33.

4 . 3 Manning's Formula. The most widely used open channel formulas


express mean velocity of flow as a function of t h e roughness of t h e channei, t h e hydraulic radius, and the slope of t h e energy-gradient. They
a r e empirical equations i n which t h e values of constants and exponents
have been derived from experimental data. Manning's formula is one of t h e
most widely accepted and commonly used of t h e open channel formulas:

v
r
s
n

= mean velocity of flow i n f t . per sec.


= hydraulic radius i n f t .
= slope of t h e energy gradient.
= c o e f f i c i e n t of roughness.

Manning's formula gives values of velocity consistent with experimental


data and c l o s e l y comparable t o those computed by the Kutter-Chezy formula.
For very f l a t slopes t h e Kutter-Chezy formula i s considered t o be preferable by some a u t h o r i t i e s . The Manning formula has t h e advantage of simplic i t y . The alignment chart, drawing ES-34, may be used t o solve f o r v, r,
s , and n when any three a r e known.

4.4 Coefficient of Roughness, n. The Manning formula i s expressed so


a s t o use t h e same n as i s used i n t h e Kutter formula. Table 93, p. 287,
"King's Handbook", compares values of n which w i l l make t h e Kutter-Chezy
and Manning formulas equivalent. This t a b l e and many other comparisons between t h e two f o r m u l ~ sshow t h a t Kutter's n need not be modified f o r use i n
Manning's formula when t h e slope i s equal t o or greater than 0.0001 and the
hydraulic radius i s between 1.0 and 20 or 30 f e e t .
The computed discharge f o r any given channel or pipe w i l l be no more
r e l i a b l e than t h e value of n used i n making t h e computation. The engineer,
when he i s s e l e c t i n g t h e value of n, i s i n f a c t estimating t h e r e s i s t a n c e
t o flow of a given channel or pipe. This estimate a f f e c t s t h e design d i s charge capacity and t h e , c o s t and, therefore, requires c a r e f u l consideration.
I n t h e case of pipes and l i n e d channels t h i s estimate i s e a s i e r t o make,
but it should be made with care. A given s i t u a t i o n w i l l a f f o r d s p e c i f i c
information on such f a c t o r s as s i z e and shape of cross section, alignment of
t h e pipe or channel, type and condition of t h e material forming t h e wetted
perimeter. Knowledge of these f a c t o r s , associated with t h e published res u l t s of experimental i n v e s t i g a t i o n ~and experience, make possible select i o n s of n values within reasonably well-defined l i m i t s of probable e r r o r .
Natural channels and excavated channels, subject t o various types and
degrees of change, present a more d i f f i c u l t problem. The s e l e c t i o n of appropriate values f o r design of drainage, i r r i g a t i o n , and other excavated
channel i s covered by handbook data r e l a t i n g t o those sub j a c t s

The value of n i s influenced by several factors; those exerting t h e


g r e a t e s t influence are:

( 1 ) The physical roughness of t h e bottom and s i d e s of t h e channel.


The types of n a t u r a l materlal forming t h e bottom and s i d e s and t h e degree
of surface i r r e g u l a r i t y a r e t h e guides t o evaluation. S o i l s made up of
f i n e p a r t i c l e s on smooth, uniform surfaces r e s u l t i n r e l a t i v e l y l o w values
on n. Coarse materials sucn a s gravel or boulders and pronounced surface
i r r e g u l a r i t y cause t h e higher values of n.
( 2 ) Vegetation. The value of n should be an expression of t h e r e tardance t o flow, as it w i l l be affected by height, density, and type of
vegetation. Consideration should be given t o density and d i s t r i b u t i o n of
t h e vegetation along t h e reach and t h e wetted perimeter; t h e degree t o
which t h e vegetation occupies or blocks t h e cross-sectional area of flow
a t d i f f e r e n t depths; t h e degree t o which t h e vegetation m y be bent or
"shingled" by flows of d i f f w e n t depths.

( 3 ) Variations i n s i z e and shape of cross section.

Gradual and uniform increase or decrease i n cross section s i z e w i l l not s i g n i f i c a n t l y a f f e c t n, but abrupt changes i n s i z e or t h e a l t e r n a t i n g of small and l a r g e
sections c a l l f o r t h e use of a somewhat l a r g e r n. Uniformity of crosss e c t i o n a l shape w i l l cause r e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e r e s i s t a n c e t o flow; whereas
variation, p a r t i c u l a r l y i f it causes meandering of t h e major p a r t of t h e
flow from side t o s i d e of t h e channel, w i l l increase n.

( 4 ) Channel alignment. Curvature on r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e r a d i i and w t c h out frequent changes i n d i r e c t i o n of curvature w i l l o f f e r comparatively


low r e s i s t a n c e t o flow. Severe meandering with t h e curves having r e l a t i v e l y small r a d i i- w i l l s i g n i f i c a n t l y increase n.

( 5 ) S i l t i n g or scouring. Whether e i t h e r or both of these processes


are a c t i v e and whether they a r e l i k e l y t o continue or develop i n t h e fut u r e i s important. Active s i l t i n g or scouring, since they r e s u l t i n chann e l v a r i a t i o n of one form or another, w i l l tend t o increase n.
(6) Obstructions. Log jams and deposits of any type of debris w i l l
increase t h e value of n; the degree of e f f e c t i s dependent on t h e nmber,
type, and s i z e of obstructions.
The value of n, i n a n a t u r a l or constructed channel i n earth, v a r i e s
with t h e season and from year t o year; it i s not a fixed value. Each
year n increases i n t h e spring and summer, as vegetation grows and f o l i age develops, and diminishes i n t h e f a l l a s t h e dormant season develops.
The annual growth of vegetation, uneven a c c m 1 a t i o n of sediment i n t h e
channel, lodgment of debris, erosion and sloughing of banks, and other
f a c t o r s a l l tend t o increase t h e value of n from year t o year u n t i l t h e
hydraulic e f f i c i e n c y of t h e channel i s improved by clearing or clean-out.
A l l of these f a c t o r s should be studied and evaluated with respect t o
kind of channel, degree of maintenance, seasonal requirements, and other
considerations a s a b a s i s f o r making a determination of n. A s a general
guide t o judgment, it can be accepted t h a t conditions tending t o induce
turbulence w i l l increase retardance; and those tending t o reduce turbulence w i l l reduce retardance. Table 5.4-1 l i s t s values of n taken from
various sources which w i l l be u s e f u l a s a guide t o t h e value t o be used i n
a given case.

5.4-1.

VALUES OF ROUGHNESS COEFFICIENT, n


Values of n
Type of Conduit and Description
Design
Min. I
TABU

I Pipe
Cast-iron, coated
Cast-iron, uncoated
Wrought i r o n , galvanized
Wrought i r o n , black
S t e e l , r i v e t e d and s p i r a l
Corrugated
Wood s t a v e
Neat cement s u r f a c e
Concrete
V i t r i f i e d sewer pipe
Clay, common drainage t i l e
.ned Channels

Earth; s t r a i g h t and uniform


Dredged
Winding and sluggish
Stony bed, weeds on bank
rubble s i d e s

0.010
0.011

0.012

0.013
0.013 0.015
0.012

0.014
0.015

0.014
0.015

0.021
0.010
0,010
0.010
0.010
0.011

0.013 0.012 -

0.017
0.025
0.0225
0.025 ,

1,6

0.017
0.0255
0.014

0.017

0.0l5] 0.017

1
1

0.014, 0.017

0.0225
0.0275
0.025
0.035
0.028 0.030
0.033

0.013
0.017

0.015

0.012

1
1
1
1
1
2
1
1

0.017 0.017

0.015 - 0.017
0.025
0.013
0.012

0.013

References

Max.

0.025
0 033

0.030
0. a 0
0.035

(Continued on next page)

1
1
1
1
1

TABU 5.4-1.

( ~ o ninued)
t

VALUES OF ROUGHNESS COEFFICTENT, n


Values of n
Design
Min.

Type of Conduit and Description


Unlined Channels-Continued
Rock cute; smooth and uniform
Jagged and i r r e g u l a r
Natural Streams
(1)Clean, s t r a i g h t banks, full stage, no r i f t s or
deep pools
( 2 ) Same a s (1)but more weeds and stones
( 3 ) Winding, some pools and shoals, clean
( 4 ) Same as ( 3 ) , lower stages, more i n e f f e c t i v e slopes
and sections
( 5 ) Same as ( 3 ) , some weeds and stones
16) Same a s ( k ) , stony sections
(7) Sluggish reaches, r a t h e r weedy, very deep pools
(8) Very weedy reaches

Max.
0.035
0.045

1,k

033

0 033
0.040
0.045

0.040
0 035
0.045
0.050
0.075

0 055
0.050
0.060
0.080
0.150

0.025

0.033

0.035
0.025
0.030
0

1
1

References

1,4

1,4
1,4
1,4
1,4

1,4
1,4

1. "King's Handbook", pp. 182 and 268.


2. "Hydraulics of Corrugated Metal Pipes" by H. M. Morris, S t . Anthony F a l l s Hydraulic
Laboratory, University of Minnesota.
3 . "Flow of Water i n Channels Protected by Vegetative Linings" by W. 0 . Xee and V. J. Palmerj
and USDA Technical B u l l e t i n No. 967, February 1949.
4. "Low Dams" by National Resources Committee, U. S . Government P r i n t i n g Office,
Washington, D . C., pp. 227-233.
5 . '"The FLOWof Water i n Flumes" by Fred C. Scobeyj USDA Technical B u l l e t i n No. 393, Dec. 1933.
6. "Hydraulic Studies of Twenty-four Inch Culverts", studies by S t . Anthony F a l l s Hydraulic
Laboratory, University of Minnesota; The American Concrete Pipe Association; and the
Portland Cement Association.
7. "The Flow of Water i n I r r i g a t i o n Channels" by Fred C . Scobey, USDA B u l l e t i n 194, 1914.
8. "Flow of Water i n Drainage Channels" by C. E . Ramser, USDA Technical B u l l e t i n No. 129, 1929.
9. "Some B e t t e r Kutter's Formula Coefficientst1by R. E . Hodon, Engineering News, February 24,
May 4, 1916.

4.5 C r i t i c a l Flow. C r i t i c a l flow i s t h e term used t o describe open


channel flow when c e r t a i n r e l a t i o n s h i p s e x i s t between s p e c i f i c energy and
discharge and 'between s p e c i f i c energy and depth of flow. Specific energy
i s t h e t o t a l energy head a t a cross section measured from t h e bottom of
the channel. The conditions described as c r i t i c a l flow m e those which
e x i s t when t h e discharge i s maximum f o r a given s p e c i f i c energy head, or
s t a t e d conversely, those which e x i s t when t h e s p e c i f i c energy head i s minimum f o r a given discharge.
Consider t h e s p e c i f i c energy and discharge a t a section i n any chan-

n ~ 1 ,using t h e notation
Q

= t o t a l discharge.

q
a
d
d

= cross-sectional area of flow.


= depth of flow t o t h e bottom of t h e section.

= Q/T =

T*
v
g

discharge per u n i t width of channel.

a / ~= mean depth of flow.

= t o p width of the stream.


= mean velocity of flow.

= acceleration of gravity.
= s p e c i f i c energy head, i . e . , t h e energy head
e
r e f e r r e d t o t h e bottom of channel.

The s p e c i f i c energy head ( s e e Fig. 5.3-1) i s :

From equation (5.3-2) v = &/a; therefore,

By solving t h i s equation f o r t h e He a t which Q i s a maximum or t h e depth a t


which He i s a minimum, t h e following general equation f o r c r i t i c a l flow i n
any channel may be obtained. (see "King's Handbook", pp. 372-373) :

From equation (5.4-3) Q2/a2 = ag/T; and since Q2/a2 =


s p e c i f i c energy when flow i s c r i t i c a l is:

3 and

a = dmT, the

Study of t h e s p e c i f i c energy diagram on drawing ES-35 will give a more


thorough understanding of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s between 3ischarge, energy, and
depth when flow I s c r i t i c a l . Whlle studying t h i s diagram, consider t h e
fallowing c r i t i c a l flow terms and t h e i r d e f i n i t i o n s :

C r i t i c a l discharge
The r u s x i r m discharge f o r a given s p e c i f i c energy, o r a discharge which occurs with minimum s p e c i f i c energy.
C r i t i c a l depth - The depth of flow a t which t h e discharge i s maximum
f o r a given s p e c i f i c energy, or t h e depth a t which a given discharge
occurs with minimum s p e c i f i c energy.
C r i t f c a l velocity

The mean velocity when t h e dischasge i s c r i t i c a l .

C r i t i c a l slope - That slope which w i l l s u s t a i n a given discharge at


uniform, c r i t i c a l depth i n a given channel.
S u b c r i t i c a l flow - Those conditions of flow f o r which t h e depth i s
g r e a t e r than c r i t i c a l and the velocity i s l e s s than c r i t i c a l .
S u p e r c r i t i c a l flow - Those conditions of flow f o r which t h e depth
is Less t h m c r i t i c a l an& t h e v e l o c i t y i s g r e a t e r than c r i t i c a l .
The curves show t h e v a r i a t i o n of s p e c i f i c energy with depth of flow
f o r several discharges i n a chamel of u n i t width. These curves a r e
p l o t t e d from t h e equation, He = d + (q2 + 2gd2), by taking constant values
Similar curves f o r any discharge a t
of q, assuming d, and computing He.
a section of any form may be obtained from t h e general equation (5.4-2).
Certain points, as i l l u s t r a t e d by these curves, should be noted:

(a) There i s a d i f f e r e n t c r i t i c a l depth f o r every discharge. I n


t h i s graph a l l c r i t i c a l deptks f a l l o;l Lhe l i n e defined by the equation
He = 3dc/2; i n t h e general case, C r i t i c a l depths w i l l f a l l on a curve
defined by equation (5.4-4).
( b ) I n a s p e c i f i c energy diagram t h e pressure head and v e l o c i t y head
a r e shown graphically. The pressure head, depth i n open channel flow, i s
represented by t h e horizontal s c a l e as t h e distance from t h e v e r t i c a l
a x i s t o t h e l i n e along which He = d. The velocity head a t any depth i s
represented by t h e horizontal distance from t h e l i n e along which Re = d,
t o t h e curve of constant q.

( c ) For any discharge t h e r e i s a minimum s p e c i f i c energy, and t h e


depth of flow corresponding t o t h i s minimum specific energy i s t h e c r i t i c a l depth. For any s p e c i f i c energy g r e a t e r than t h i s minimum t h e r e are
two depths, sometimes c a l l e d a l t e r n a t e stages, of equal energy a t which
t h e discharge may occur. One of t h e s e depths i s i n t h e s u b c r i t i c a l range
and t h e other is i n t h e s u p e r c r i t i c a l range.
( d ) A t depths of flow near t h e c r i t i c a l f o r any discharge, a minor
change i n s p e c i f i c energy w i l l cause a much g r e a t e r change i n depth.

( e ) Through the major portion of t h e s u b c r i t i c a l range t h e v e l o c i t y


head f o r any discharge i s r e l a t i v e l y small when compared t o s p e c i f i c energy, and changes i n depth a r e approximately equal t o changes i n s p e c i f i c
energy.

( f ) Through t h e s u p e r c r i t i c a l range t h e v e l o c i t y head f o r any discharge increases rapidly as depth decreasesj and changes i n depth a r e
associated with much g r e a t e r changes i n s p e c i f i c energy.

I n addition t o i t s importance i n t h e discharge-energy r e l a t i o n ship, c r i t i c a l v e l o c i t y has significance a s t h e velocity with which


g r a v i t y waves t r a v e l i n r e l a t i v e l y shallow water. I f , i n the general
equation (5.4-3) Q = av and t h e appropriate values f o r a channel of u n i t
The
width a r e substituted, t h e c r i t i c a l v e l o c i t y i s found t o be
v e l o c i t y of propagation of gravity waves i n shallow water i s a l s o
d being t h e depth of water. Therefore, a wave may be propagated upstream
i n s u b c r i t i c a l flow but not i n s u p e r c r i t i c a l fLm.

a.,

4.5.1 General Formulas f o r C r i t i c a l Flow.


f o r c r i t i c a l flow i n any section are:

General formulas

Symbols used I n these formulas are:


s p e c i f i c head.
c r i t i c a l discharge.

Q ~ / T= c r i t i c a l discharge per u n i t width of channel.


cross-sectional area.
width of water surface,
c r i t i c a l depth.
a/T = mean depth of c r i t i c a l f l o w .

c r i t i c a l velocity.
acceleration of gravity.
See drawing ES-33 f o r t h e symbols f o r channel dimensions.

paragraph

4.5.2 C r i t i c a l Flow Formulas f o r R e c t a r n a r Channels.


4.5.1 f o r t h e symbols used i n t h e following formulas:

See

Graphical solutions f o r Q, o r dc i n equation (5.4-18) may be made by t h e


use of t h e alignment chart on drawing ES-24.
paragraph

4.5.3 C r i t i c a l Flow Formulas f o r Trapezoidal Channels.


4.5.1 f o r t h e symbols used i n t h e following formulas:

See

--

--

--

HYDRAULICS: RELATIONSHI P BETWEEN DEPTH OF FLOW AND


SPECIFIC ENERGY FOR RECTANGULAR SECTION

Quo f ions:

Specific Enerqy
REFENICE

Hg i n fee?

U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

SOIL CONSERVATION SERVICE


E.a 8.nn.tt. Chid

ENGINEERING STANDARDS UNIT

S T A N D A R D DW0. NO,

ES - 3 5
snmr

DATE

6 - 28-50

OF

HYDRAULICS : MANNlNGS FORMULA

M35
10.0

Range of Chart
o . m s to ao4
r * a20
to 10.0
a m to 0.1
v
0.50
to 12.0

a03

s =

aatJ
a02

7.0

6.0

5.0

For the solution of problems in uniform flow

4.0

3.0

00095

am

:EFERENCE

vm Mean velocity ft./sec.


r = Hydraulic Rodius ft.
s- Slope of the energy qradbnt, which in
uniform flow equols the channel slope
and also the slope o f the water surface-ff./ft.
n- Coefficient of roughness

2.0

1.0

0.0

U. 8. DEPARTMENT O F AGRICULTURE

S O I L CONSERVATION SERVICE
H. H. Bennett. Chief

ENGINEERING STANDARDS U N I T

STANDARD DWG. NO.

ES, 34
SHEET
DATE

REVISED 3-31-51

1
7'

OF

11 ' 50

Range oC Chart

r =
n =

05
0OW

10

to

a010

to
to
to

15.0

0.M
50

For the solution of problems in uniform flow


by Manning's Formula:
2
I
~ ~ " 4 8 S~
6~5

v= Mean velocity f t . / s ~ .
r - Hydraulic Radrus ft.
s-Slope of the energy qradient, which in
uniform flow equals the channel slope
and also the slope o f the wuter surfbce-ff./fi.
n= Coefficienf of roughness

HYDRAULICS : MANNINGS FORMULA

Range of Chclrf
= a010 to
0.5
a20 to 7.0
r
a m to 0.070
n
v
0.7
fo 16.0

--

For the solution of problems in uniform flow


bu Manninq4 Formuln:

- -

v- Mean velocity fl./sec.


r= Hydraulic Rodius ff.
s- Slope of the energy qradient, which in
uniform flow equals the channel slope
and atso the slope o f the water surface-ft./ft.
n=Coefficient of rouqhness

IEFERENCE

STANDARD DWG. NO.

U. S. 1)EPARTMKNT O F AGltICUI.'I'UHK

SOIL C O N S E R V A T I O N S E R V I C l t
H. H . Bennett. Chief

ENGINEERING ST.ZN1).4RUS I'NIT

KC,

LJ - J - f

SHEET
DATE

REVISED 3-31-51

3 OF 4
7 ' 1 1 ' 50

iYDRAULICS : MANNINGS FORMULA

,f problems in uniform flow


by Manning> Formula:
2

1.486_rFs 7

- -

v= Meon velocity fi./sec.


r= Uydroulic Radtus ff.
s- Slope o f the energy qrodient, which in
uniform flow equals the channel slope
and olso the slope o f the w a t e r surface-ft/fl.
n- Coef ficient of roughness

STANDARD DWG. NO.

[EFERENCE

U. S. DEPARTMENT O F A G R I C U L T U R E

SOIL CONSERVATION SKRVICE

PC,

( L V

H. H. Bennett. Chief
EXGINEERING YTANL)ARIJS UNIT

SHEET
DATE

R E V I S E D 3-31-51

x
n
J-r
4
7'

OF

11 * 5 0

HYDRAULICS: PRESSURE DIAGRAMS AND METHODS OF


COMPUTI NG HYDROSTATIC LOADS
I

Structure fSch8rnatic)

Strucfure ~ ~ c h e m o f i c )

Pressure Diagrom
Fucu o f Strucfure

Pressure Diuyram
Portion A -6 o f Fqce of Structure

Pressure Dhqrom
Porfion A-J of Foce of Structure

Pressure Diogrum
Fuce of Sfrucfure

Figure 2
U. S. DEPARTMENT O F AGRICULTIJRE

S O I L C O N S E R V A T I O N SERVICE:
H. H. Bennett. Chief

ENGINEERING STANDARIIS T'NIT

Revised 4-11-51

STANDARD DWG. NO.

ES ,31
SHEET
DATE

2
6-8-50

OF

I HYDRAULICS:
I

PRESSURE DIAGRAMS AND METHODS OF


COMPUTI NG HYDROSTATIC LOADS

qeneroi o d /s vu/,d fo/;


//),any &ope ofport,on
A -8und,
wofer on
ejther s d e of A - 8
However, when wofer ,s
00 /he r y h f of A 8,the
pressure forces &, P,,
mdPR act /n chrecf~ons
opposffe to fho5e sheen

(a

Sfrucfure / ~ c b e m o f / c )

Pressure D / o q r o m

V'tzcu/ Pressure Force


Port/on A -5

of Horizon*o/ aressore
Portion A

-5

Pesu/i'ant Pressure Force


Portion A -8

Fiqure 3

5froc;U,?

/a,+emaf;c,)

of Honzonfo/ & s u r e
Portion A - 6

Verfico/ Pressure Force


Portion A - 8

N o r m / Pressure Force
P o r f i o n A -8

Fiqure 4
Symbo/s ond Definif ions
t.g
c.p.

p.

REFERENCE

cenfer of gruvify of urea, US ,ndicafed


center of pressure; /. e , p o m i of u c f i o n o f o
pressure force, or o componenf of o pressure
force, on the face, or o prof'ecf/on o f t h e
face, of o s t r u c t u r e .
heiybt of wofer above a pofot, 0s indicafed
/ n " s t ~ ~ c f (5chemufic)>r
u~e
0s indicated
by subscr/,sf.
intens/#y of pressure u t o po/nf inuicofed
by subscripf o r of botfom of sfrucfure o r
porfio? o f sfrucfure if no subscr/pf I S used.

Px

P,

borizonto/ compcnenf of pfessure force per foof w d h .


vert;co/ component of pressure force psr foof width.

PN - n o r m / pressure force per fouf wi&


P, - resu/funt pressure force per foof w / d f h
w - we/ghf of w o h r per cub/.= f o o f

F,y -

coordinofes of c.9. of pressure d b y r o m .

y,,

- distunce f r o m given poinf p e r p e n d i c u / o r t o


l i n e o f o c f i o n of PN.

ye

- d/stonce f r o m given p o / n f p e r p e / d i c r / / o r f o

i i n e o f a c f i o n of

P'.

1J.8.D E P A R T M E N T O F A G R I C U L T U R K

S O I I . C O N S E R V A T I O N Sfi:HVIC,E:
H. H. Bennett, Chief

ESGINEERTS(i STASI)Al{I)S USIT

STANDARD DWG. NO.

ES
SHEET
DATE

Revised 4-11-51

31

2 OF 2
6-8-50

HYDRAULICS: CRITICAL DEPTHS AND DISCHARGES IN TRAPEZOIDAL AND RECTANGULAR SECTIONS

Qc = Tofa/ c r i f k o l disc horge

d,

C r i f i c o l depth

- ff.

c .f s

= Bot fom width o f secfion - ft


z = Side s/cpe r o f i o

REFERENCE

This nomoqrom wus

Stondords &/nif.

deve/o,oed by P u d

O. Doubf o f fhe Enqineerinq

32.16 ff/sec.

'

U. Fi. DKPARTMENT O F AORICUI/I'URE

SOIL CONSERVATION S l R V l C E
H. H. Bcnncn. c h i d
ESGlNEEUlSU BTANDAPIIS UNIT

STANDARD DWG Ha.

ES- 2 4
SHEET

OF

am i

The

W a f e r surfoce

- c , fs

Qc = Tofol c r i f i c d dfschorge

C r i f i c d depth - f f

d,

= Bcftom w i d f h of sechbn

KRENCE

7 % ~nomog/om wus

Sfum7=7'

L/#/f,

deve/oped by PUU/ L?Doubt o f f i e Enpineering

u. R.

-ff

e
'
Ver tice/

r = Side s/ope rotio


32J6 ff/sec.

I I I P A A T M R N T O F AoRlCuI.TuRE

SOIL CONSHRVATION SERVICE


H. H.

~chi.1
~

EXOTNEERISP STANUARIIB [TXIT

STANDARO D W ~ no.
.

E S - 24
SHEET

R E V I S E D 3-30-51

Of

HYDRAULICS: CRITICAL DEPTHS AND DISCHARGES IN TRAPEZOIDAL AND RECTANGULAR SECTIONS

Qc =
d, =
b =
r =
g

Total c r i t ~ c a ldischarge

- c. F s

C r i t i c a l depfh f t
Bat t o m w i d f h o f secfion - f f
side = l o p e r o t i o
32.16 ft./sec

'

RE

FERENCE

This namogfum w0.s deve/uped by P o d L2 Doubf o f fhe Enpineering

Sfondords Un/Y.

s ; t H. H~ B ~ ~CMFI
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~; ~~ NO+. ~ ~
ES - 2 4
SUHOLRO DWG

ENGINEEHINO STANDARDS UNIT

SHEET
DATE

REVISED

3-33-51

OF

-t-

s
50

I HYDRAULICS:

CRITICAL DEPTHS AND D l SCHARGES IN TRAPEZOl DAL AND RECTANGULAR SECTIONS


Vdues o f

r;

?
9

'3

9
?

a
$

o
5

*
b

Critico/ discharge
bottom width
0

h:

--c.f fk s.
2

ui

'i

hj

REC~NGULAR sEcr.om
For recfangular sections, fhe
ratio Z/a = 0 and vo/ues of d, can
be read direcf/y along the
coincidenf Oc/b and Z/6 = 0 sca/es.
For examp/e: /f Qch
= 10.3 for
recfangdar section, then dc /. 49

CHECK OF G R A P K A L SOLUTION

The forrnda f o r c r i f i c a l discharge in a channe/


o f any sec f i o n is

Wafer surface

QC2=s$
Qc

= Critics/

= Cross -sech'ona/ area

= Widfh o f cross secfion o f crifica/ depfh d, -ft

ddischarge c.fs.

o f cbanne/ -7f crifico/

depfh dc - f f:

Qc = dc
Clem:
EXAMPLE:
Qc =/5.3c.fs; b = 3 f f ; Z = 5
%=5./ -1.
=/.667
' b
b
Read dc = 0.655 ft

= bdc f zdc

=3

x (0.655) f

5/0.655)'

= /. 965 S t / 4 5 / 2 = 4.//0/2 sg. f f .

= bf2zdC= 3 + / 2 ~ 5 ~ 0 . 6 5 5 )
=

3 f 6.55 = 9.55ft.

QC2
= g

y3=32/6')-(

=233.8/7

i1

pE
z7
bfZzdc

Q, = Total c r i f i c a / disc barge

- c.f s .

dc = C r i f i c a / d e p f h -ff.
b = Bof t o m w i d f h o f s e c t i o n - fi:
z = Side s/ope r o f i o
g = 32.16 f f / s e c z

Horizonfa/
Verf,.ca,

Q, = /5.29/ c. f s .

U. S. D E P A R T M E N T O F AGRICU1,TURE

SOIL CONSERVATION SERVICE


H. H. Bennett, Chief

STANDARD DWG. NO.

ES- 24

REVISED 3-30-51

HYDRAULICS: CRITICAL DEPTHS AND DISCHARGES IN TRAPEZOIDAL AND RECTANGULAR SECTIONS

'Cross -secfiona/ area of chonne/ af crifica/

depth a', - f i!

=Widtho f cross secfion af critics/ depth d, -ff

CHECK:

EXAMPLE:
bz/Of f ; z = 4,

Q, = 302 c f s

2r30.2; f70.4

Read d,

= 2.26 ft.

Qc

bd, f z d , = / O X 2 . 2 6 f 4 ( 2 . W 2

22.6 f 20.43 =43.03 sq. fi!

b f Z r d , = / O f @ ~ 4 ~ ~ . 2 6 )

/Ot/8.08=28.08ft.

gf3=32./6~3=9/,252.5

Qc = Tofal c r i f i c d disc horge

=302.08

- c.f s .

dc = C r i f i c a / d e p f h -ft.

o f section - f f

b
z

= Side s/ope r a t i o

= Bof f o m w i d t h

32.16 f t./sec.

'

Ho ri'onf a/
Ver f ica/

~EFERENcE

777;s nomogrorn wus

deve/wed by Pw/

Doubt o f the Engineering

11.

Sfondords Un/;C.
I

s.

D E P A R T M E N T O F AGRICULTURE

SOIL CONSERVATION S E R V I C E
H. H. Bennett. Chief

STANDARD DWG. NO.

ES- 24
DATE

REVISED 3-30-51

5-O-SO

CHECK OF GRRPH/CAL SOL UT/ON


The formu/u f o r c r i t i c u / discharge in a c h u m e l
of any section is

&' = g $
QC

= Crifico1

dischrge c.f s.

'Cross -secfiona/ oreo of the/ of crificd


depfb d, - f k

= Width o f cross section o t crificd depth d


, - ft

EXAMPLE:
Q'3217.5 cfs; 2-3.5,b = 2 5 ff.
8'128.7; 2 = . / 4

Read d,

6.04 ft.

Qc = Toto/ c r i f I " o / disc harge - c. f s

d,
b

= Crifica/
=

depfh - f f .

Bof t o m w i d f h

o f section - f f

z = Side slope r o f i o
g = 32.16 ff./sec.

'

Horizonfa/
vert,co/

w
FERENCE

This n o m o q m wor deve/oped by Pou/ D Doubt o f ih, fngnp/neer/hy

Sfandords

11. S . DEPARTMENT O F AGHICtlLTIIHE

SOIL CONSERVATION SERVICE


H. H. Bennett. Chief
ENGINEERING STANDARDS U N I T

STANDARD DWG. NO.

ES- 2 4
3

SHEET

DATE

5-2-50

REVISED 3-39-51

OF

The use of these formulas w i l l be materially simplified by t a b l e s r e f e r r e d


t o i n "King1s Handbook", pp. 382-384. Drawing ES-24 i s an alignment chart
t o be used i n solving f o r Qc o r dc i n equation (5.4-23).

4.5.4 C r i t i c a l Slope. C r i t i c a l slope i s t h a t slope which w i l l


s u s t a i n a given discharge i n a given channel a t uniform, c r i t i c a l depth.
The r e l a t i o n s h i p s t h a t must e x i s t between discharge, energy, and depth i n
c r i t i c a l flow a r e expressed by equations (5.4-3) and (5.4-4). The slope,
roughness coefficient, and shape of channel cross section determine whether
flow w i l l occur i n accordance with these s p e c i f i c relationships. A channel
of given cross section, slope, and roughness c o e f f i c i e n t w i l l c a r r y olLly
one discharge a t uniform, c r i t i c a l depth; t h e uniform depths a t which other
discharges w i l l occur a r e e i t h e r g r e a t e r o r l e s s than t h e c r i t i c a l depths
f o r t h e respective discharges. The same f a c t s t a t e d i n another manner is:
A channel having a given cross section, roughness coefficient, and d i s charge w i l l c a r r y t h a t discharge a t uniform, c r i t i c a l depth i f t h e channel
slope i s equal t o t h e c r i t i c a l slope; i f t h e channel slope i s g r e a t e r than
t h e c r i t i c a l slope, t h e depth of flow w i l l be l e s s than c r i t i c a l ; i f t h e
channel slope i s l e s s than c r i t i c a l , t h e depth of flow w i l l be g r e a t e r than
critical.
From t h e c r i t i c a l flow formulas and Manning's formula,

= -1*486
n

A ss 2 , then

From which t h e c r i t i c a l slope, sc, i s :

I n a given channel t h e following c r i t e r i a apply:


I f t h e channel slope =

14.56

n2dm/r4/3, depth of f l o v = dc.


n2dm/r4/3, depth of flow > dc

If t h e channel slope > 14 -56 n2dm/r4/3, depth of flow < ac

I f t h e channel slope

< 14.56

Formula (5.4-24) and t h e above c r i t e r i a a r e u s e f u l f o r t h e folloging purposes: locating control sections, guiding t h e s e l e c t i o n of channel section
and grade i n preliminary design so t h a t t h e unstable conditions of untform
flow a t c r i t i c a l depth may be avoided, determining t h e type of water surface curve t h a t w i l l occur i n a given reach of channel.

4.5.5 SigniTicance of C r i t i c a l Flow i n Design. C r i t i c a l , subc r i t i c a l and s u p e r c r i t i c a l flow a f f e c t design i n t h e following manner:
(a) C r i t i c a l flow. Uniform flow a t o r near c r i t i c a l depth i s uns t a b l e . This r e s u l t s from the f a c t t h a t t h e unique r e l a t i o n s h i p between
energy head and depth of flow which must e x i s t i n c r i t i c a l flow i s r e a d i l y
disturbed by minor changes i n energy. Examine t h e curve f o r q = 40 c f s
on drawing ES-35. The c r i t i c a l depth i s 3.68 f e e t and t h e corresponding
I f t h e energy head i s increased t o 5.60, t h e depth
energy head i s 5.52.
may be 3.2 or 4.2. Those who have seen uniform flow a t or near c r i t i c a l
depth have observed t h e unstable, wavy surface t h a t i s caused by appreciable changes i n depth r e s u l t i n g from minor changes i n energy. I n channel
design these conditions must be recognized. Variations i n channel roughness, cross section, slope, or minor deposits of sediment or debris may
cause fluctuations i n depth of flow t h a t are s i g n i f i c a n t t o channel operat i o n . I n many cases it i s desirable t o base design computations on t w o or
more values of n i n order t o e s t a b l i s h t h e probable range of operating cond i t i o n s . Because of t h e unstable flow, channels carrying uniform flow a t
or near c r i t i c a l depth should not be used unless t h e s i t u a t i o n allows no
alternative

...

The c r i t i c a l flow p r i n c i p l e i s t h e b a s i s f o r the design of control


sections a t which a d e f i n i t e stage-discharge r e l a t i o n i s desired or
required.
( b ) S u b c r i t i c a l flow. Two general c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of s u b c r i t i c a l
flow a r e important. F i r s t , a t a l l stages in the s u b c r i t i c a l range, except
those i n t h e immediate v i c i n i t y of t h e c r i t i c a l , t h e velocity head i s s m a l l
i n comparison with t h e depth of flow. Study of t h e curves of constant d i s charge, drawing ES-35, w i l l make t h i s point c l e a r . Second, t h e v e l o c i t i e s
a r e l e s s than wave velocity f o r t h e depths involved and a backwater curve
w i l l r e s u l t from retasdation of velocity. Thus, i n t h e s u b c r i t i c a l range
we a r e concerned with cases i n which t h e depth of flow i s of g r e a t e r i m portance than k i n e t i c energy a s represented by velocity head. I n practice,
t h i s means t h a t changes i n channel cross section, slope, roughness, and
alignment may be made without t h e danger of developing seriously disturbed
flow conditions so long a s t h e design assures t h a t flow i n t h e s u p e r c r i t i c a l range w i l l not be created f o r some discharges i n t h e operational range.

However, i n many cases t h e l a t i t u d e i n design which may b e p o s s i b l e a s a


r e s u l t of d e a l i n g with s u b c r i t i c a l flow w i l l b e o f f s e t by l i m i t e d head
r e q u i r i n g t h a t f r i c t i o n l o s s e s b e h e l d t o a minimum.
( c ) S u p e r c r i t i c a l flow. The design of s t r u c t u r e s t o c a r r y superc r i t i c a l flow r e q u i r e s consideration of same of t h e most complex problems
i n h y d r a u l i c s . I n s u p e r c r i t i c a l flow t h e v e l o c i t y head may range from a
value approximately equal t o depth of flow t o many times t h e depth of flow.
Note from t h e curves on drawing ES-35 t h a t t h e v e l o c i t y head increases
very r a p i d l y w i t h decreases i n depth throughout t h e s u p e r c r i t i c a l range.
S u p e r c r i t i c a l v e l o c i t i e s exceed t h e v e l o c i t i e s a t which g r a v i t y waves may
be propagated upstream. Any o b s t r u c t i o n of flow w i l l result i n a standing
wave, and t h e r e w i l l be no e f f e c t upon flow upstream from t h e o b s t r u c t i o n .
The f a c t t h a t k i n e t i c energy predominates i n s u p e r c r i t i c a l flow and cannot
be d i s s i p a t e d through t h e development of a water s u r f a c e curve extending
upstream i s of primary importance i n design.
Channels involving changes of d i r e c t i o n , c o n t r a c t i o n o r expansion of
c r o s s section, o r t h e joining of two flows a t a confluence a t which e i t h e r
or both of t h e flows may b e s u p e r c r i t i c a l r e q u i r e c a r e f u l consideration.
Changes i n d i r e c t i o n or channel c o n t r a c t i o n s develop disturbances a t t h e
w a l l s of t h e channel which t a k e t h e form of standing waves r e f l e c t e d diago n a l l y from w a l l t o w a l l downstream from t h e disturbance p o i n t s . The
height of these standing waves may be s e v e r a l times t h e depth of flow i n mediately upstream from t h e o r i g i n of t h e disturbance. Confluences a t
which e i t h e r flow or both flows may b e s u p e r c r i t i c a l a l s o develop d i s t u r b ances r e s u l t i n g i n standing waves. I n expanding channels t h e discharge
may be incapable of following t h e channel w a l l s because of t h e high veloci t i e s involved. This r e s u l t s i n nonuniform depth and t h e development of
a hydraulic jump which i s u n s t a b l e a s t o both l o c a t i o n and h e i g h t .
A number of t h e f a c t o r s t h a t must be determined a s a b a s i s f o r design
of t h e s e h i g h v e l o c i t y s t r u c t u r e s cannot be evaluated through t h e o r e t i c a l
analyses only. General experimental r e s u l t s as w e l l as experimentation
with i n d i v i d u a l s t r u c t u r e s a r e required. Basic requirements f o r p r o j e c t s
and s t r u c t u r e s should f i r s t be determined and t e n t a t i v e designs t o meet
t h e s e requirements s e l e c t e d . The t e n t a t i v e designs should t h e n be perf e c t e d through model t e s t s .

Water s u r f a c e p r o f i l e s applying t o cases of s u p e r c r i t i c a l flow i n


s t r a i g h t channels of uniform width can normally be determined with s u f f i c i e n t accuracy f o r design by standard methods o f a n a l y s i s . Most s t m c t u r e s
m u s t have o u t l e t v e l o c i t i e s i n t h e s u b c r i t i c a l range t o prevent erosion
damage. The c r e a t i o n of t h e hydraulic jump by t h e use of s t i l l i n g b a s i n s
i s an e f f i c i e n t means of d i s s i p a t i n g t h e excessive energy i n s u p e r c r i t i c a l
flow. Design c r i t e r i a , based on thorough model i n v e s t i g a t i o n , a r e a v a i l a b l e
f o r some t y p e s of s t i l l i n g b a s i n s . An example i s t h e SAF s t i l l i n g b a s i n .
Under unusual conditions o r when exacting requirements must be met, s t i l l i n g
b a s i n designs should a l s o b e p e r f e c t e d by model t e s t s .

4.6 The Hydraulic Jump. When water flowing a t g r e a t e r than c r i t i c a l


v e l o c i t y e n t e r s water with l e s s t h a n c r i t i c a l v e l o c i t y and s u f f i c i e n t depth,
a h y b a u l i c jump develops. I n t h e jump t h e depth i n c r e a s e s from an o r i g i n a l

depth t o a depth which i s l e s s than t h e higher of t h e two a l t e r n a t e depths


of equal energy. The depth before t h e jump i s always l e s s than c r i t i c a l ,
and t h e depth a f t e r t h e jump i s g r e a t e r than c r i t i c a l .
Between cross sections located just upstream and downstream from t h e
jump t h e r e occurs a l o s s of energy, a decrease i n veloclty, and an increase
in hydrostatic pressure. "King's Handbookn, pp 373-378 and 406-412, gives
a discussion of t h e energy and momentum conditions involved i n the hydraul i c jump and shows t h e derivation of general formulas.

I n paragraph 4.5 t h e s p e c i f i c energy i n flow i s discussed and i l l u s t r a t e d by t h e curves on drawing ES-35. The force of a flowing stream i s
t h e momentum force due t o velocity plus t h e hydrostatic pressure force.
The force

Fm

the force of t h e stream.


t h e discharge.
t h e cross-sectional area.
the depth t o t h e center of gravity
Y
of t h e cross section.
f3 = t h e acceleration of gravity.

Q
a
-

=
=
=
=

For a rectangular channel of u n i t width, equation (5.4-25) becomes:

Drawing ES-36 shows t h e s p e c i f i c energy curve, t h e momentum force curve,


and a sketch of a hydraulic jump f o r a discharge of 30 c . f . s . i n a rectangular channel of u n i t width. The momentum force curve f o r any discharge
i n any type of channel would be similar t o t h e one shown. Note t h a t t h e r e
i s a depth a t which t h e force of t h e flowing stream i s minimum and t h i s
depth i s t h e c r i t i c a l depth. When t h e force i s g r e a t e r than t h e minimum,
t h e r e a r e two possible depths, c a l l e d conjugate or sequent depths, of flow.
One of these depths i s l e s s than c r i t i c a l , t h a t is, i n t h e s u p e r c r i t i c a l
range where t h e pressure force, because of shallow depth, i s r e l a t i v e l y
low and t h e momentum force, because of high velocity, i s r e l a t i v e l y g r e a t .
The other depth, t h e sequent depth, i s i n t h e s u b c r i t i c a l range where t h e
pressure force becomes more s i g n i f i c a n t than t h e momentum force. The less e r of t h e two depths is t h e depth before a jump and t h e greater i s t h e
depth a f t e r a jump. The energy head l o s t i n t h e jump i s t h e difference
between t h e energy heads f o r these two depths. As t h e t w o depths of equal
force approach the c r i t i c a l depth, t h e energy l o s s i n t h e jump decreases.

4.6.1

Depth After t h e Jump.

Formulas from which depth before

and a f t e r t h e jump i n any type channel may be computed a r e :

HYDRAULICS: LOSS IN ENERGY HEAD DUE TO HYDRAULIC JUMP


IN RECTANGULAR CHANNEL

Yu

force

discharye per
f o o t w/b/fh.
weiqht o f wafer

Pressure
dioyrum

z = subscripts denoting

A
/ / / / / / / / / / / / / / I / / /

pJ
02

section before ond o f M


jump t-espec#ive/y.

H y d d i c Jump

momenf urn force

e p d energy

REFERENCE

U. S. DEPARTMENT O F AGRICULTURE

SOIL CONSERVATION SERVICE


E. H. Hennett, Chief

STANDAR
DWG.
D NO.

E S - 36
SHEET

OF

Depths b e f o r e and a f t e r t h e jump i n r e c t a n g u l a r s e c t i o n s a r e given by:

discharge.
mean v e l o c i t y .
c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a of flow.
depth of flow.
depth t o t h e c e n t e r of g r a v i t y
of t h e c r o s s s e c t i o n of flow.
a c c e l e r a t i o n of g r a v i t y .
S u b s c r i p t s 1 and 2 denote c r o s s s e c t i o n s and
depths b e f o r e and a f t e r t h e jump r e s p e c t i v e l y .
"King's Handbook", t a b l e 133, gives a l i m i t e d number of values of depth
a f t e r t h e jump i n r e c t a n g u l a r channels, and "Hydraulic Tables", t a b l e 3,
f o r trapezoidal
gives a more complete s e r i e s of t h e s e v a l u e s . Values f o r
and c i r c u l a r channels f o r use i n equations (3.4-26)and (5.4-27)can be
computed more r e a d i l y by t h e use of "King's Handbook", t a b l e s 99 and 104.

4.6.2 Location of t h e Jump. When s t r u c t u r e s involve t h e hydraul i c jump, design w i l l normally be made by c r i t e r i a t h a t w i l l p l a c e t h e jump
i n a c e r t a i n p o s i t i o n and no s p e c i f i c e s t i m a t e of jump l o c a t i o n i s necess a r y . However, t h e r e w i l l b e cases i n which a determination of where the
jump w i l l occur w i l l b e valuable or r e q u i r e d . The r e l i a b i l i t y of t h e determination depends on t h e accuracy with which f r i c t i o n l o s s can be e s t i - ,
mated. The l o c a t i o n of t h e jump i s estimated by t h e following s t e p s ( s e e
Fig. 5.4-1) :
a. From a c o n t r o l s e c t i o n downstream from t h e jump compute and p l o t
t h e water s u r f a c e p r o f i l e , LM, t o a point upstream from t h e probable
p o s i t i o n of t h e jump. And from a c o n t r o l s e c t i o n upstream from t h e jump
compute and p l o t t h e water s u r f a c e p r o f i l e , NO, t o a p o i n t downstream from
t h e jump. Methods of computing t h e s e p r o f i l e s are given i n paragraphs
4.7.4 and 4.7.5.

b. Through depths sequent t o t h e depths of p r o f i l e , NO, a t 4 t o 6


p o i n t s along a reach c e r t a i n t o include t h e jump, draw t h e curve PQ. See
paragraph 4.6.1 f o r methods of determining sequent depths.

c . The approximate l o c a t i o n of t h e jump i s D, t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n of


t h e sequent depth curve, PQ, and t h e t a i l w a t e r curve, LM.
d . I n most c a s e s t h e approximate l o c a t i o n of t h e jump, a s determined
by c a r r y i n g out s t e p s a, b, and c, w i l l s a t i s f y p r a c t i c a l requirements.
Same a u t h o r i t i e s suggest t h a t a c l o s e r approximation of t h e jump l o c a t i o n
may be obtained as follows: Construct AB v e r t i c a l and equal i n l e n g t h t o
t h e depth & with t h e jump a t A, and BC h o r i z o n t a l and equal i n l e n g t h t o
t h e l e n g t h of jump which may be taken as 4 t o 5 d2. This c o n s t r u c t i o n
must be i n accordance with t h e h o r i z o n t a l and v e r t i c a l s c a l e s t o which t h e
water surface p r o f i l e s and t h e sequent depth curve a r e p l o t t e d . mote t h a t
t h e p o s i t i o n of p o i n t C must meet t h r e e simultaneous requirements: F i r s t ,
it i s on t h e t a i l w a t e r p r o f i l e ; second, t h e depth d2 a t C i s t h a t which i s
sequent t o dl a t A; t h i r d , it i s t h e l e n g t h of t h e jump downstream from A.

FIG.

5.4-1

4.7 Water Surface P r o f i l e s . The main o b j e c t i v e i n t h e majority of


open
channel problems
i s t o determine t h e p r o f i l e of t h e water s u r f a c e .
Methods of computing water s u r f a c e p r o f i l e s a r e described f o r t h e g e n e r a l
c a s e s of uniform flow, a c c e l e r a t e d flow, and r e t a r d e d flaw.
-

4.7.1 Uniform Flow. I n uniform flow t h e f o r c e of g r a v i t y i s


balanced by t h e f r i c t i o n f o r c e . The slopes of t h e h y d r a u l i c gradient, t h e
energy gradient, and t h e bottom of t h e channel a r e equal; a l s o mean veloci t y , depth of flow, and a r e a of flow a r e constant from s e c t i o n t o s e c t i o n .
Depth of uniform flow i s c a l l e d t h e normal depth. Flow may be uniform
only when t h e channel i s uniform i n c r o s s s e c t i o n . The r e l a t i o n s h i p s between t h e energy g r a d i e n t , hydraulic g r a d i e n t , and bottom of channel a r e
shown by f i g . 5.4-2.

The energy equation f o r sections 1 and 2 is:

Since t h e v e l o c i t i e s and depths a t sections 1 and 2,


and f r i c t i o n slope are equal, t h e f r i c t i o n head, hf,
t i o n of velocity, cross section elements, slope, and
c i e n t , i s the basis f o r the solution of uniform flow
may be made through the use of Manning's formula:

mean velocity i n f t . per sec.


discharge i n cu. fe. per see.
cross-sectional area of flow i n sq. f t .
hydraulic radius i n ft,
slope of t h e energy gradient or F r i c t i o n
head i n f t . per f t .
roughness c o e f f i c i e n t .

FIG. 5.4-2

and channel slope


expressed as a Funcroughness coeffiproblems.

Solutions

"King's Handbook", pp. 279-283, gives a number of u s e f u l working forms of


Manning's formula. The most f r e q u e n t l y used of t h e s e forms a r e :

K and K ' = f a c t o r s varying with t h e r a t i o s of c e r t a i n l i n e a r


dimensions of cross s e c t i o n s .
b = bottom width of rectangular o r t r a p e z o i d a l s e c t i o n s .
d = depth of flow i n any s e c t i o n .
hf = t o t a l f r i c t i o n head l o s t i n a reach.
T = width of water surface i n parabolic s e c t i o n s .
= h o r i z o n t a l l e n g t h of' reach.

"King's Handbook" contains t a b l e s of values of K, K ' and 1 + (2.2082 r 4 / ~ ) .


The u t i l i t y of formulas (5.4-31) and (5.4-32) depends upon t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y of t a b l e s giving values of K and K t , and t h e u s e r should r e f e r t o
King's Handbook f o r f u r t h e r discussion regarding a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e s e f o r mulas t o channel s e c t i o n s of d i f f e r e n t forms. Formulas (5.4-l) , (5.4-30),
(5.4-33), and (5.4-34) a r e u s e f u l i n many problems and they a r e adapted t o
use with s l i d e r u l e or longhand computations. It should be noted t h a t
King t r e a t s t h e t r i a n g u l a r s e c t i o n as a s p e c i a l form of t h e t r a p e z o i d a l
section; t h e r e f o r e , K and other f a c t o r s r e l a t e d t o t r i a n g u l a r s e c t i o n s a r e
found i n t h e t a b l e s f o r t r a p e z o i d a l s e c t i o n s where t h e r a t i o of d/b =
i n f i n i t y . The alignment c h a r t , drawing ES-34, may b e used f o r g r a p h i c a l
s o l u t i o n s f o r any one unknown i n formula (5.4-1).
4.7.2 Accelerated and Retarded Flow. T h i s subsection considers
steady, nonuniform flow and a t t e n t i o n i s given t o methods of determining
water surface p r o f i l e s under various conditions. Those who a r e i n t e r e s t e d
i n a more thorough treatment of nonunifom flow a r e r e f e r r e d t o "Steady
Flow i n Open Channels" by Sherman M. Woodward and Chesley J. Posey, John
Wiley and Sons, I n c ; and "Hydraulics of Open Channels" by Boris A.
Bakhmeteff, McGraw-Hill Book Company.

Tn a c c e l e r a t e d o r r e t a r d e d flow, a s i n uniform flow, t h e f a l l of t h e


energy gradient r e p r e s e n t s t h e l o s s of head by f r i c t i o n . The f a l l i n t h e
water surface r e f l e c t s both f r i c t i o n l o s s and t h e conversions between pot e n t i a l and k i n e t i c energy. I n analyzing nonuniform flow problems it is,
t h e r e f o r e , necessary t o cons-ider both t h e hydraulic g r a d i e n t and t h e energy g r a d i e n t .

Refer t o f i g . 5.4-2.

The equation of energy f o r sections 1 and

2 is:

solving f o r

v
d
so
sf

1 gives :

= mean velocity.
= depth of flow.
= slope of channel.

= hf//

= f r i c t i o n slope, i.e., t h e slope


of t h e energy gradient,
J?
= length of reach.
Subscripts 1 and 2 denote upstream and downstream
sections respectively.

Water surface p r o f i l e s may be computed by t h e use of formula (5.4-35) or


The methods of use of both formulas a r e among t h e several s t e p
(5.4-36).
methods f o r backwater computations. I n those cases where t h e water surface elevation, i.e., t h e depth, a t a s p e c i f i c section i s t o be computed,
t h e s o l u t i o n is by t r i a l and e r r o r and formula (5.4-35) should be used.
This method of solution can be applied i n any type of channel regardless
of whether it i s uniform or nonuniform. Where t h e distances between a
s e r i e s of depths along a ,uniform channel a r e t o be computed, t h e solution
i s d i r e c t with formula (5.4-36), but it should be noted t h a t t h i s approach
may be used only i n uniform channels.
The general procedure f o r computing depths a t given locations is:
(1)Determine t h e location of a control s e c t i o n and t h e depth of flow a t
t h a t section. ( 2 ) Take a r e l a t i v e l y short reach of selected length ana
assume t h e depth a t t h e upper or lower end depending on whether t h e computations are t o proceed upstream or downstream. ( 3 ) Evaluate sf and t h e
velocity heads and s u b s t i t u t e t h e values i n formula (5.4-35). I f t h e
equation balances, t h e assumed depth is t h e correct depth; i f it does not
balance, a new t r i a l must be made by assuming a new depth i n ( 2 ) and r e peating ( 3 ) . ( 4 ) Continue these t r i a l and e r r o r determinations by reaches
u n t i l t h e depths a t t h e given locations have been computed.
Procedure f o r computing successive distances along t h e channel t o
selected depths i s : ( 1 ) Determine t h e location of a control s e c t i o n and
the depth of flow a t t h a t s e c t i o n , ( 2 ) Select a depth a t t h e upper o r
lower end of a. reach of length,
depending on whether t h e computations
are t o be c a r r i e d upstream o r downstream. ( 3 ) Evaluate sf and t h e vel o c i t y heads, s u b s t i t u t e these values i n formula (5.4-36), and compute
( 4 ) Continue these computations by repeating ( I ) , (2), and ( 3 ) .

1,

1.

I n computing water surface p r o f i l e s f o r t h e design of improved channels, p a s t i c u l a r l y l i n e d channels, b y e i t h e r of these procedures t h e

change i n velocity i n a reach should be held t o a m a x i m u m of 15 t o 20 percent, t h a t is, n e i t h e r vl nor vz should be allowed t o vary from t h e other
by more than 15 or 20 percent. This can be done i n t h e t r i a l and e r r o r
computation of depth by keeping t h e selected reaches s u f f i c i e n t l y s h o r t .
When distances between depths a r e being computed by formula (5.4-36) t h e
value of dl or d2, whichever i s being selected, can be taken so t h a t
n e i t h e r vl nor v2 i s greater or l e s s than t h e other by more than 15 t o
20 percent.
It i s recommended t h a t i n a l l cases t h e computations f a r surface prof i l e s be carried upstream when t h e depth of flow i s g r e a t e r than c r i t i c a l
and downstream when the depth of flow i s l e s s than c r i t i c a l . The f i r s t
s t e p i n t h e analysis of flow i n a channel should be t o l o c a t e a l l control
sections f o r the discharges t o he investigated. This s t e p s e t s out t h e
portions of t h e channel i n which depths of flow w i l l be g r e a t e r or less
than c r i t i c a l and spots the s t a t i o n s or sections from which computations
should be c a r r i e d upstream and downstream.
Note t h a t velocity head plus depth, (v2 + 2g) + d, a t sections 1 and
2 i s t h e s p e c i f i c energy a t those sections. Inspection of t h e s p e c i f i c
energy diagrams on drawing ES-35 will show t h a t when depth of flow i s l e s s
than c r i t i c a l , s p e c i f i c energy increases as depth decreasesj and when
depth of flow i s g r e a t e r than c r i t i c a l , s p e c i f i c energy increases as depth
increases. Formula (5.4-36) may be written:

When s t e p computations i n a uniform channel of considerable length a r e t o


be made, it w i l l often be worthwhile t o p l o t t h e s p e c i f i c energy diagram
f o r t h e discharge o r discharges t o be considered. This diagram may be
used a s a guide t o t h e selections of depths f o r successive steps when
e i t h e r formula (5.4-35) or (9.4-36) i s being used.
Evaluation of sf may be made by one of t h e following formulas:

= roughness c o e f f i c i e n t .

vm =
r, =

V1.

rl

%I=

V2= mean velocity i n a reach.

r7

= mean hydraulic radius i n a reach.


=

mean area of flow i n a reach.

= average depth i n a reach.

da

= bottom width of rectangular o r trapezoidal channel.

discharge.

K and K 1 = f a c t o r s varying with t h e r a t i o s of c e r t a i n


l i n e a r dimensions of cross sections.

I n computations f o r uniform channels, formulas (5.4-39) and ('j


.4-40)
a r e time savers. This i s p a r t i c u l a l y t r u e of formula (5.4-40) since
f o r a given & t h e value of (Qn+ b873)2 1s constant and sf i s obtained
by multiplying (1/~')=
f o r the various values of d a b by t h i s constant.
King's Handbook contains t a b l e s of values of K, K t , and ( l / K 1 )' f o r
various types of channels. I n nonuniform and n a t u r a l channels sf may
be computed by formula (5.4-37) o r (5.4-38).
When a high degree of
accuracy i s not required, sf may be obtained from t h e alignment chart,
drawing ES-34, by entering t h e chart with t h e appropriate values of
vm, rm, and a ,
A general guide t o t h e analysis of flow conditions i~ t h e cases
most commonly d e a l t with i n channel design i s given by drawing ES-38.

4.7.3 Examples - Uniform Flow. In the majority of cases we


will know, or will have selected, the type of cross section and the roughness coefficrlent and will want to determine either discharge, velocity,
channel dimensions, or slope. Methods of solving a number of practical
problems are illustrated by examples. The following table summarizes the
factors known and to be determined in the various examples; Q and v are
discharge and velocity; b, T, d, and z are channel dimensions (see draw-

ES-33)*
Type of

Example

X
X

Trapezoidal

1
2

X
X

Rectangular
Trapezoidal

X
X
X
X

Triangular
Parabolic

X
X
X
X
X

Parabolic
Trapezoidal

10

Rectangular

11

Triangular

12

Parabolic

13

q
No.
X

X
X

X
X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X

X
X
X
X

X
X

X - Known
0 - To be determined

X
X
X
X

0
0

X
X
X
X
X
X
0

X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X

Triangular

Trapezoidal
Trapezoidal

3
4
5
6
7

8
9

IHYDRAULICS:
SURFACE

PROFILES IN UNIFORM CHANNELS

Surface Convex

Surface p r o f i l e i s s t r a i g h t , and uniform flow e x i s t s downstream from the break i n grade. Surface p r o f i l e imed i a t e i y upstream from the break i n grade i s concave upward
and i s asymptotic t o uniform flow surface.
Flow i s retarded and sub-cri t i c a l

Surface p r o f i l e i s s t r a i g h t , and uniform flow e x i s t s downstream from the break i n grade. Surface p r o f i l e imned i a t e l y upstream from the break i n grade i s convex upward
an,j i s asymptotic t o uniform flow surface.
Flow i s accelerated and changes from s u b - c r i t i c a l t o
c r i t i c a l flow. This case can occur f o r on1 y one discharge
f o r a given channel cross-section, slope and roughness
coefficient.
D e t ~ v n i n ethe convex u p ~ a r dsurface p r o f i l e by computing
upstream from the break i n grade s t a r t i n g w i t h the n o m l
depth corresponding t o s2 which i s a l s o d.,

REFERENCE

IF

low i s accelerated and s u b - c r i t i c a l

Determine the concave upward surface p r o f i l e by cwnputlng


upstream from the break i n grade s t a r t i n g w i t h the normal
depth corresponding t o s2.

NOTE:

Su r f a c e p r o f i l e i s s t r a i g h t , and uniform flow e x i s t s downs tream from the break i n grade. Surface p r o f i l e imned i a t e l y upstream from the break i n grade i s convex upward
a nd i s asymptotic t a uniform flow surface.

e t e n i n e the convex upward surface P I - o f i l e by computing


u pstream from the break i n grade s t a r t i n g w i t h the normal
depth corresponding t o s2.

:iurface p r o f i l e imnsdiately downstream from the break i n


gr a d e i s concave upward and asymptotic t o the uniform flow
s.urface. Surface p r o f i l e i m e d i a t e l y upstream from the
t~ r e a k i n grade i s convex upward and asymptotic to the
Umi form flow surface.
F'1ow

i s accelerated and progresses f ron sub-cri t i cal

t hrough c r i t i c a l t o super-cri t i c a l .
letermine the concave upward surtace p r o t l le
jownstream from the break i n arade, s t a r t i n g
: r i t i c a l depth. Determine the convex uoward
F i l e by camputinq lrpstream from the break i n
inq w i t h t h e c r i t i c a l depth.

by computina
w i t h the
surface proarade, s t a r t -

SURFACE PROFILES ILLUSTRATED ARE BASED ON THE ASSUMPTION THAT THE REACHES OF s AND sz ARE SUFFIC;ENTLY LONG
TO PRODUCE UNI FORM FLOI. THUS THE HORIZONTAL SCALE MUST BE VISUALIZED AS BEING GREATLY CONDENSED.

STANDAM) DWC. NO.


U. 8. DEPARTMENT O F AGRICULTURE

SOIL CONSERVATION SERVICE

ES -38
snEa

ENOINEERINO STANDARD8 UNIT

OF

p r ~ ~6-18-50

Surface p r o f i l e irrmediately downstream from t h e break i n


grade i s concave upward and asymptotic t o t h e u n i f o r m
f l o w surface.
Surface p r o f i l e i s s t r a i g h t , and u n i f o r m
f l o w e x i s t s throughout t h e reach upstream from t h e break
i n grade.

Surface p r o f i l e immediately downstream from t h e break i n


grade i s convex upward and asymptotic t o t h e u n i f o n r f l o w
surface.
Surface p r o f i l e i s s t r a i g h t , and u n i f o r m f l o w
e x i s t s throughout t h e reach upstream from t h e break i n
grade.
Flow i s r e t a r d e d and super-cri t i c a l

Flow i s a c c e l e r a t e d and super-cri t i c a l

Determirte t h e convex upward s u r f a c e p r o f i l e by computing


downstream from t h e break i n grade, s t a r t i n g w i t h t h e
normal depth o f s , .

Determine t h e concave upward s u r f a c e p r o f i l e by computing


downstream from t h e break i n grade, s t a r t i n g w i t h t h e
normal depth o f s l .

Surfocr con

Surface p r o f i l e
downstream from
downstream from
Surface p r o f i l e
stream from the

i s s t r a i g h t , and u n i f o r m f l o w e x i s t s
t h e jump.
Surface p r o f i l e inmediately
t h e break i n grade i s concave upward.
i s s t r a i g h t , and u n i f o r m f l o w e x i s t s upbreak i n grade.

Flow i s r e t a r d e d and changes a b r u p t l y from s u p e r - c r i t i c a l


to s u b c r i tical.

Surface p r o f i l e i s s t r a i g h t , and u n i f o r m f l o w e x i s t s
downstream from t h e break i n grade. Surface p r o f i l e
i m n e d i a t e l y upstream from t h e break i n grade i s convex
upward. Surface p r o f i l e i s s t r a i g h t , and u n i f o r m f l o w
e x i s t s immediately upstream from t h e jump.

Flow i s r e t a r d e d and changes abrupt1 y from super-cri t i c a l


to sub-critical.

The c r i t e r i o n t o determine whether t h e jump occurs downstream o r upstream from t h e break i n grade i s :

See 4.6.1

f o r nomenclature

Determine t h e concave upward s u r f a c e p r o f i l e by computing


downstream from t h e break i n grade, s t a r t i n g w i t h t h e
normal depth corresponding t o $ 1 .

Determine t h e convex upward s u r f a c e p r o f i l e by computing


upstream from t h e break i n grade, s t a r t i n g w i t h t h e
normal depth corresponding t o s2.

The l o c a t i o n o f t h e jump i s a t t h e s e c t i o n j w i t h i n t h e
reach c o n t a i n i n g t h e concave upward s u r f a c e p r o f i l e
s a t i s f y i n g the r e l a t i o n

The l o c a t i o n o f t h e jump i s a t t h e s e c t i o n j w i t h i n t h e
reach c o n t a i n i n g t h e convex upward s u r f a c e p r o f i l e
satisfying the relation

NOTE:

SURFACE PRVFILES ILLUSTRATED ARE BASCO ON THE ASSUMPTION TiAT THE REACHES OF s l AND s, ARE SUFFICIENTLY
TO PRODUCE IJNFORM FL9W. THUS THE HORIZONTAL SCALE MUST BE VISUALIZED AS BEING GREATLY CONDENSED.

LONG

STANDARD DWG. NO.

REFERENCE

U. S. DEPARTMENT O F AGRICULTURE
SOIL CONSERVATION SERVICE

ENOINEERINO STANDARDS UNIT

ES -38
SHEET
PATE

2 OF 5
6-18-50

HYDRAULICS : SURFACE PROF1LES IN UN l FORM CHANNELS

Surface p r o f i l e imnediately downstream from the break i n


Surface p r o f i l e i s s t r a i g h t , and uniform flow e x i s t s
grade i s concave upward and asymptotic t o the uniform f l o ~ downstream from the break i n grade. Surface p r o f i l e
surface. Surface p r o f i l e immediately upstream from the
imnediately upstream from the break i n grade i s convex
break i n grade i s convex upward.
upward.
Flow i s accelerated and sub-cri t i c a l .

Flow i s accol erated and progresses from s u b c r i t i cal


through c r i t i c a l t o s u p e r - c r i t i c a l .

General sol ti on f o r t h e discharge a t a given pool e l e v a t i d n : Each discharge over the c r e s t has i t s own pool elev a t i o n which may be determined. 1st - Determine whether flow conditions a r e shown by J o r K. 2nd
Find two t r i a l
discharges; one which has a pool elevation s l i g h t l ; higher and the o t h e r s l i g h t l y lower than the actual pool e l +
vation, H. 3rd - l n t e r p o l a t e f o r the correct discharge between the two t r i a l discharges.
1. Establ ish, c l o s e l y . whether the downstream slope s c o r >s,
by:
A. Solve f o r a t e s t disc ha ye'^^, assuming no l o s s o f head frm the channel entrance t o the c r e s t when the flow
over the c r e s t i s c r i t i c a l .

( Q i~s chosen t o balance the equation d c + x


:a l&

values of dc and a,

:
H;

are the c r i t i c a l q u a n t i t i e s

correspond.ing t o !It a t the crest.


I f s z s,
proceed on the l e f t under J; i f s < s,. proceed on the r i g h t under K.
0. For Qt, compute s.,
2. A. Take QI = Q t f o r f i r s t t r i a l discharge.
2. A. Solve f o r the- f i r s t t r i a l discharge Q 1 by assuming
no l o s s o f head from the channel entrance t o the
a. Compute, f o r the discharge Q1, the convex upc r e s t when the flow over the c r e s t i s normal depth
ward surface p r o f i l e t o the channel entrance
f o r Ql downstream from the break i n arade.
(QI i s
s t a r t i n g w i t h t h e c r i t i c a l depth d, a t the
crest; value o f d, i s c r i t i c a l . corresponding
:
Q
=
H;
chosen t o balance the equation do+
to Ql.
2gai
b. Obtain t h e pool l e v e l by adding the v e l o c i t y
values o f d, and a, a r e the norrral q u a n t i t i e s
head and depth a t t h e channel entrance. The
corresponding t o QI on the slope, s.)
pool elevation, HI f o r the t r i a l discharge, Q I ,
a. Compute, f o r the discharge Ql, the convex upw i l l be found t o be higher than the a c t u a l pool
ward surface p r o f i l e t o the channel entrance
olevat ion, H.
s t a r t i n g w i t h dn a t the crest, d, being the
0. Select t h e second t r i a l dischar e Q2 < Q l such
normal depth corresponding t o Q 1 on t h e slope,
t h a t i t s pool e l e v a t i o n H2 i s $Tightly l e s s than
5.
H.
(Determine H p by the same method as s t a t e d f o r
b. Obtain t h e pool l e v e l by addirlg the v e l o c i t y
HI i n 2:A.a.
and b.)
head and depth a t the channel entrance. The
3. l n t e r p o l a t e f o r Q, the c o r r e c t discharge l y i n g bepool elevation, HI f o r the t r i a l discharge,
tween the t r i a l discharges QI and Q , given H, HI,
QI. w i l l be found t o be higher than tne actual
H2, and observe whether s > s, f o r
i f s < s,
~ o o lelevation. H.
solve by method under K.
0. Select the second t r i a l discharge Q2 < QI such
4. I f s > s , determine the convex upward surface prct h a t i t s pool e l e v a t i o n Hp I S s l i g h t l y l e s s than
f i l e t o t h e channel entrance by computing upstream
(Determine H2 by the same method as stated
H.
from the break i n grade s t a r t i n g w i t h the c r i t i c a l
f o r HI i n 2.A.a. and b.1
depth, d,
corresponding t o Q.
3. l n t e r p o l a t e f o r Q, the c o r r e c t discharge, l y i n g be5. Determine the concave upward surface p r o f i l e by
tween the t r i a l discharges QI and Q , given H, HI,
computing downstream f rom the break i n grade s t a r t i 7 s > sC,
H2, and observe whether s -z s, far
ing w i t h d, corresponding t o Q.
solve by method under J.
4. Determine tne convex upward surface p r o f i l e thmuqh
the i n l e t by comput ino upstream from the break i n
qrade, s t a r t i n q w i t h the normal depth, d
correspondinq t o Q i n the channel downstream 3;a~ t h e
break i n qrade.

6;

6;

NOTE:
1

SURFACE PROFILES l LLUSTRATED ARE BASED ON THE ASSUMPTION THAT ME REACH OF s IS SUFFICIENTLY LONG TO PROCUCE
UNIFORM FLOW, THUS THE HORIZONTAL SCALE MUST BE VISUALIZED AS BEING GREATLY CONDENSED. ME INLET MAY BE A
NON-UN IFOW CHANNEL.

U. 9. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

SOIL CONSERVATION SERVICE

STANDARD DW6. NO.

ES -38
SHEET

ENOINEERINO STANDARDS UNIT

DATE

3 OF 5
6-18-50

CONTROL SECT1ONS
D e f i n i t i o n o f c o n t r o l section: A flow s e c t i o n a t which, f o r a discharge o r a range o f discharge, there i s a
f i x e d r e l a t i o n between stage u r depth o f flow and discharge. These c o n d i t i o n s a r e most comnonly met a t those sect i o n s where c r i t i c a l depth occurs. Control section, as used here, does not mean control o f discharge. Examples
(1) a weir; (2) .I cross-section o f a channel a t which the depth o f f l o w i s c r i t i c a l , thus establ i s h i n g t h a t .
are:
Qc = 5.67 bd?I2

and

f o r rectangular and t raperoidal channels respectively.

Q, =

dC3"

g ( b t zd,)'
Zzd,
b

See the subsect i o n 4.5 on C r i t i c a l Flow.

Control sections a r e the s t a r t i n g points, both as t o s t a t i o n l o c a t i o n and e l e v a t i o n o f water surface, from


which water surface p r o f i l e s are computed. Consider the f o l l o w i n g sketch o f a break i n grade i n a uniform channel.

---7-7--Y

Con

When t h e r e i s steady f l o w i n a uniform channel w i t h constant roughness c o e f f i c i e n t , acceleration o r r e t a r d a t i o n


can be caused o n l y by a change i n slope. The slopes upstream and downstream from the break i n grade determine
whether c r i t i c a l depth w i l l occur and, therefore, whether the break i n grade i s a control section. Refer t o
paragraph 4.5.4 on C r i t i c a l Slope and t o formula (5.4-24).

s, = c r i t i c a l slope; dm= mean depth when f l o w i s c r i t i c a l ;


n = roughness c o e f f i c i e n t .

r =

hydraul i c radius corresponding t o c r i t i c a l depth;

Method o f Determining Control Sections


Assume a break I n qrade i n a uniform channel as sketched above, t o determine whether the break
i s a c o n t r o l section when the discharae i s Q.
1st. Compute d, corresponding t o Q.
I f the channel i s rectangular o r trapezoidal, make t h i s computation w i t h the
a1 ignment chart, Drawing No. ES-24. When the channel i s another form see subsection 4.5 f o r the formula t o
be used i n computing d.,
2nd. Compute dm correspondinq t o d by: dm = cross-sect ional area + width o f flow syrface. Refer t o Drawinq
No. ES-77, Elements of ~hanneFCect ions; also see Kinq's Handbook", Table 98, Hydraul i c Tables", Tables 4-14
inclusive.
3rd. Compute r corresponding t o d.,
14 i n c l u v i v e .

"King's Handbook", Tables 97, 101,and 105; "Hydraul i c Tables", Tables 4 t o

4th. Compute the c r i t i c a l slope, s.,


l a ) by formula (5.4-24) given sbove
( b ) o r by computing ,v,
( Q 4 area corresponding t o d,
o r by appropriate formula i n subsection 4.5) e n t e r i n g
r. and n, and reading s,.
the a1 ignment c h a r t , Drawing No. ES-34, w i t h v,
I f s 1 ~ s c - = s 2 dc
, occurs a t the break i n gradeand i t i s a c o n t r o l section.
s, z- s,
d, cannot occur and the break i n grade i s not a c o n t r o l section.
fore,

But i f s l - = s c > s 2 ,

or i f

I t i s important t o remember t h a t d, and s vary w i t h discharge; thereI n a given channel s l and sp a r e fixed.
i t may be found t h a t a break i n arade i s a control section f o r some discharoes but not a l l discharges i n the

REFERENCE

STANDARD DWG. NO.


U. 9. DEPARTMENT O F AGRICULTURE

SOIL CONSERVATION SERVICE

ES -38
SHEET

ENGINEERING STANDARDS UNIT

PATE

OF

6-18-50

HYDRAULICS: SURFACE PROFILES 1 N UN l FORM CHANNELS

Exampl e
Given:

I
I

Concrete 1 ined, rectangular channel, depth 7.5 f t . ;

To determine:

width, 20 f t . ;

2000, 1000,

would be required.

0.00498

= 14.56 n2

n = 0.018

I n o t h e r than rectangular channel,

Conclusions

sc

s,

s2 = 0.0055:

I f the break i n grade between s , and s2 i s a c o n t r o l s e c t i o n when the discharge is:


500. and 200 c. f. s.

Compute the f o l l o w i n g tabulated values under i n s t r u c t i o n s given above.


dm and d,/r4/3

s , = 0.0025;

s l < s,<

s2, break i s control section.

0.00468

s 1 < sc < s2, break i s control section.

0.00467

s , =z s c < s 2 ,

break i s c o n t r o l section.

0.00499

s1<sc<s2,

break i s c o n t r o l section.

2 = 14.56 (0.018)

,.4/ 3

STEPS I N ANALYSIS

An a n a l y s i s o f f l o w i n a channel having a number o f breaks i n grade should be made i n the f o l l o w i n g steps:

Is t .

Determine the control sections and the depths o f flow a t those s e c t i o n s f o r each discharge t o be investigated.
This s e t s out the reaches i n which the depth o f flow w i l l be g r e a t e r o r l e s s than c r i t i c a l and defines the
s t a r t i n g p o i n t s f o r surface p r o f i l e computations.

Revised

r
REFERENCE

4 - 19 - 51

U. S . DEPARTMENT

OF AGRICULTURE

SOIL GONSERVATION SERVICE


ENGINEERING STANDARDS UNIT

STANDARD DWG. NO.

ES -38
SHEET
ME

5
OF
5
6-18-50

EXAMPLE 1

Given:

Trapezoidal s e c t i o n
n = 0.02,

To determine:

0.006

Q i n c.f.s.

S o l u t i o n by formula

and v i n f t . / s e c .

(5.4-31)

331, K

= ( b y i n t e r p o l a t i o n ) 5.96

2.

From King's Handbook, t a b l e 112, p.

3.

From King's Handbook, t a b l e 111, p. 324, d8l3 = 2 .58/3 =

4.

From King's Handbook, t a b l e 108, p. 311, or by s l i d e rule,


sl/* = 0.006'/~ = 0.0775

Solution b y formula

( 5"4-30) wlthout tables or other work a i d e s :

Solution by alignment c h a r t , drawing

a
-

ES-34 :

1.

2.

E n t e r c h a r t with r = 1,695, s = 0.006, n = 0.02, and


read v = 8.19 f t . / s e c .

11.51

= 32.5 s 19.18 = 1.695

Given:

Triangular section
0.025,

n =

To determine:

s =

0.006

Q i n c.f.s.

and v i n f t . / s e c .

Solution by formula (5.4-31) using King's Handbook tables:


1.

a/b

= -"O
-

2.

K =

3.67, t a b l e 112,

3.

d8/'

4.

sl/'

6. v

0.0

infinity

18.70,

0.006'/~

9
=
a

p.

335

table 111, p.

324

0 .O775, t a b l e 108, p.

711

213 ;36.0 = 5.91 ft./sec.

Solution by formula (5.4-1) using King's Handbook tables:


1. d/b =

infinity

2. r = c d = 0 . 4 8 5 x 3 . 0 = 1 . 4 5 5

3.

$/3

4. s1j2

=
=

1.284, from

0 . 0 0 6 ~ / =~ 0.0773

c, from table 97, p. 296


table

109,

p.

312

EXAMPLE 3

Given:

Rectangular section

To determine:

d in ft. and v in ft./sec.

K'
Solution using formula (3-4-32) i n t h e form Q = n
K i n g ' s Handbook t a b l e s :
1.

baI3

= 2 0 ~ =/ 2950,
~
table 111, p.

s1/2 wfth

327; 0.00&~/~= 0.02,

t a b l e 108, p. 311.

3.

I n table 113, p. 336, column f o r v e r t i c a l sides, f i n d K' = 0.254,


and find, by interpolation, d/b = 0.448. Then 13/20 = 0.448 and
d = 20 x 0.448 = 8.96 ft.

Solution using formula (5.4-30) and s l i d e rule only:

2.

By assuming values of d, compute ar2I3 until one value lower


and one higher than 505 i s found, as follows:

Trial

8.0
8.7
9.0

160.0
174.0
180.0

3
\

20

2d

36.0
37.4
38.o

4.45
4.65
4.74

T r i a l s 2 and 3 bracket t h e value sought.

r2/

2.71

2.79
2.82

434
486
508

Example 3

3.

Continued

P l o t d versus

f o r trials 2 and 3 as follows:

Enter t h i s p l o t with a?I3

z
=

505 and read d

8.95 f t .

Note: "Hydraulic Tables" makes r a p i d computations posstble


i n s t e p 2.

Given: T r a p e z o i d a l section

To determine:

d in ft.

and v i n ft./sec.

Solution by formula ( 5-4-32) i n the form Q = n


Handbook tables:
1. b8/" = 158/3 = 1370, table 111, p. 326
= 0.00091/2

2.

4.

b8/'

s1I2 w i t h King

o .OJ

In table 113, p. 336, column f o r side slopes 2:1, find K ' = 0.150
f o r d/b = 0.23 and K t = 0.139 f o r d/b = 0.22; by interpolation,

0.226 when K ' = 0.146.


15 x 0.226 = 3.39 ft.
&/a = 300 +[(3.39 x 15)+(2 x 3.39')]=

d/b =

5. a
6.

v =

4.06 f t . / s e c .

Solution using s l i d e rule and formula (5.4-30):

2.

By assuming values of d, compute m2/'


and lower than 134 - 5

a = 15d

15 + 4.47d;

2d2;

p =

Trial

1
2

3.0
3.5
3-3

15+4.47d
63.0
28 .42
77.0
30.65
71.3
29.76

3
j.

Plot

f o r a value higher

r = (15d
r

2d2)

(15 + 4.47~3)

$1'

2 .21

1.698

2.51
2 -39

1.847
1.788

versus a?/3 f o r t r i a l s 2 and 3; where

d = 3.40 f t .

ar'I3

107.0
142.0
127.5
=

134.5,

EXAMPLE 5

Given:

Triangular s e c t i o n

To determine:

in

f t . and v in f t ./sec.

Solution using formula (5.4-31).


1. d/b = i n f i n i t y
2. From K i n g ' s Handbook, table 112,
400 x o.O25
j. a813 =
=
3.67
x 0.0707
K s1I2

"

p.
=

335, col. z
38-53;

d =

4, K

38.5'j3/8

3.67

3.93 f t .

Solution using formula (5.4-50):

2.

Compute

a = zdZ =

3.

plot
read

following table assuming d:


4d2; p = 2d= 2dfi

the

d =

f o r d = 3 and d
7-92 ft.

hi enter w i t h

8.24dj r

a$I3

B4d2J = 0.485d

95.3 and

EXAMPLE

Given:

Parabolic s e c t i o n

Q = 400 c . f . s .
n = 0.025
s = 0.005

d and v when width of water surface T i s 10 ft.,


20 f t . , and 30 f t .

To determine:

Solution by formula (5.4-32) and King's Handbook t a b l e s :

K'

When T = 20,

K1 =

400 x O*O25 = 0.048


2950 x 0.0707

K'

400
O D o 2 5 = 0.0163
8690 x 0.0707

When T
2.

400 x 0.025
= 0.305
0.0707

When T = 10,

30,

464 x

From t a b l e 118, p. 358, by i n t e r p o l a t i o n


When K 1

When K' =

0.305,

d/T = 0.746

0.048, d/T

= 0.198

d = 10 x

and

d =

WhenK' = 0.0163,d/~ = 0.1002 and

S o l u t i o n by formula

2.

0.746
20 x 0.198

and

7.46 ft.
3.96 f t .

d = 30 x 0.1002 = 3.01 f t .

(5.4-30):

Compute the following table for T = 30

3.

Plot

versus a ~ - * / ~enter
,
with

95.3 and read d

3.02 ft .

Given:

A concrete lined floodway

Trapezoidal section

n = 0,016
a = 0.005

To

determine:

(a) Maximum Q when the freeboard is 1.0 ft., i.e.,

d = 10.5 ft.

(b) The depth, d, for any Q lees than mutinarm.

I. Ccnapute a table as follawrr :

Col. 1: Assume values af d.

0 1 2.: From 'Hydraulic T&lean, table 10, p . 164.


Col. 3:

Frm "Hydraulic Tables", table 19, p. 294,


"Kingl s H.andbookn, table 109, p. 312.

Col. 4:

Frcarl "Hydraulic Tablesn, table 10, p. 164.

Col. 3:

Producta of the values in cola. 3 and 4 by s l i d e rule


or calculating machine if preferred.

or

therefore, the values in c o l . 6 = the values i n


COI..
5 x 6.57.
2.

Maximum Q = 11,000 c . f . 8 .

3. ?lot d versus Q, from which d for any given Q may be r e d .

Solution using formula (5.4-1) and "Hydraulic Tables", taking n as


0.0175 instead of 0.016:
1. Compute a t a b l e as follows:

Columns

8.5
6.4
4.4
2.4
1.4

6.66
5.62
4.48
3.30
1.99
1.24

10.5

Col. 1: Assume values of a.


Col. 2: Tabulate values of r from t a b l e 10, p. 164.
Col. 3: Tabulate values of a from t a b l e 10, p. 1-64.
Col. 4: Tabulate values of v f o r r, s, and n f r o m t a b l e 28,
p. 378. Interpolation i s required.
Col. 5 : Product of t h e values i n c o b . 3 and 4 ( Q = a v ) .
2.

Maximum

Q =

10,050

c.f.s.

From t h e t a b l e developed i n s t e p 1, p l o t a graph of d versus Q,


from which d fox any given Q may be read.
Note: Cols. 1, 2, and 3 could be tabulated as above, and v i n col. 4
computed by t h e alignment chart, drawing ES-9.
3.

EXAMPLE 8
Given:

Trapezoidal s e c t i o n

T o determine:

b i n f t . and v i n f t

Solution using formula

2.

(5.4-31)

./set.

with "King's Handbook" t a b l e s :

I n t a b l e 1l2, p. 331, column f o r z = 2-1,


d/b = 0.25, and K = 6.87 f o r d/b = 0.26.
d/b = 0.252 f o r K = 7.04

3.0 + 0.252

= 11.90

f i n d K = 7.08 f o r
Interpolating

~ t .

S o l u t i o n using formula (5.4-30):

2.

Compute t h e following t a b l e :
Columns

3
r

+'I3

a9I3

Col. 1: Assume values of b


Cols. 2 and 3: Values of a and r from "Hydraulic Tables",
t a b l e 10, p. 1-63. These values may b e computed
i f t a b l e s a r e not a v a i l a b l e .
Col.

4:

Col.

5 : Product of c o l s . 2 and 4.

From "Hydraulic Tables", t a b l e


Handbook", t a b l e 109.

3 . P l o t b vereus
b = 11.90 f t .

19,

or from " K i n g ' s

m2/", e n t e r with a ~ - * /=~ 88.8, and r e a d

Note: The s o l u t i o n s for b and v in rectangular sections are similar


to those given above.

Given:

Parabolic section

-- -- - - -

d=4.5 ff.

T i n f t . and v i n f t . / s e c .

To determine:

Solution by formula

2.

I n table
T = 4.5

(5.4-31)using

King's Handbook:

117, p. 358, by i n t e r p o l a t i o n , d / ~= 0.2058

+ 0.2058

= 21.8 f t .

This may a l s o be solved by formula


1. Compute al-213 =

&n

(5.4-30)

by:

= 127.7

1.486 s l / ~
2.

Holding d constant and assuming T, compute values of a?j3


above and below 127.7.

3. P l o t t i n g T versus &I3 and e n t e r i n g t h e p l o t with 127.7


to fin6 T .

Cases Where Both d and b or d and T a r e Required


I n conservation work, cases are f r e q u e n t l y encountered i n which Q,
n, s , and shape of c r o s s s e c t i o n of a waterway a r e known b u t where the
allowable v e l o c i t y i s limited by t h e s o i l s a t t h e waterway s i t e . These
cases r e q u i r e t h e determination of channel dimensions and t h e s o l u t i o n
i s t e d i o u s i f approached on a t r i a l and e r r o r b a s i s . The general approach t o t h e s e problems i s given i n t h e following 3 s t e p s :
Step 1. Compute t h e required r by Manning's formula from t h e h o r n
n, v, and s .
Step 2.
Step

Compute t h e required a r e a by a = ~ / v .

3 . Express a and

r i n terms of t h e channel dimensions z, d,


b, or T, and solve f o r t h e dimensions by t h e s e two simultaneous equations. Only two unknowns are involved i n any
case. I n t r a p e z o i d a l channels z i s s e l e c t e d o r Imown,
l e a v i n g b and d as t h e required values. I n rectangular
and t r i a n g u l a r channels t h e two unknowns a r e b and d, and
z and d, r e s p e c t i v e l y . Parabolic channels r e q u i r e t h a t T
and d be determined.

Given:

Trapezoidal s e c t i o n

Q = 500 c . f . s .
v =

4.0 f t . / s e c .
i

n = 0.03
s = 0.005
To determine:

b and

500 +

in f t .

4.0 =

125 f t .2

2.

a =

3.

Completing s t e p 3 ( s e e preceding page) g i v e s a general equation


for depth i n t r a p e z o i d a l channels:

Q/V

x v a r i e s with z and a and i s t o be evaluated by:

( a ) Evaluating x:

( b ) Computing d:

( d = 40.25 would obviously not give a p r a c t i c a l channel s e c t i o n . )


( c ) Compute b :
b = -ad
( d ) Check:

12' -(2 x 1.25)=


zd = 1.25

97.50 f t .

Given:

Rectangular section

To determine: b and d in ft.

3. Compute d and

b.

See step 3, example 10:

In rectangular sections

(d

Check:

60- 30

x = 2 = 2

15,7 is not a practical section.)

EXAMPLE 12
Given:

Triangular s e c t i o n

To determine:

9.

d and z

This ste? i n t h e s o l u t i o n f o r t r i a n g u l a r s e c t i o n s i s t o be
accomplished by:

( a ) Entering the graph on drawing ES-39 with the value of


a/? and reading z .

Carrying out t h e s o l u t i o n :
(a) a / P = 50

Check:

(1.656)2 = 18.25. From

drawing ES-39,

z =

4.30

Given:

Parabolic section

T o determine:

d and T

3. T h i s s t e p in t h e solution of parabolic channels is t o


accmplished by:
(a)

Entering the graph on drawing ES-41 with


and reading the value of x = dh.

( 3 )computing T from T =
(c)

Computing d from d

the

be

value of

a/?

p&

= XT

Carrying out t h e solution:


(a) a/?
(b) T

= 60 s

1.512

=JF=
J&

26.3.
=

From drawing ES-41, x

JET

0.058.

39.4 ft.

Check:
r

3T2+8d2

4.58 x 1550
7110
(3X1550)+(8x5.24)
4691.9

1.5

O.K.

HYDRAULICSGRAPH FOR DETERMIPUNG SIDE SLOPE t OF A


TRIANGULAR CHANNEL WITH Q. v. n. s. GIVEN

o = Cross-sectionureu - s ~f f .
:
r = Hydradic radrus - ff.
z =Side s/opercrtio=Horizonfa!
Verf ico!

See E x ~ m p / e12, Sub section 4.2 3


for nnnhir-,7f/nn
REFERENCE

STANDARD DWG. NO.

U. 9. DEPARTMENT O F AGRICULTURE

SOIL CONSERVATION SERVICE


ENGINEERING STANDARDS UNIT

ES

39

SHEET

DATE

7 -IT'S0

OF

YDRAULI CS: GRAPH FOR DETERMIN lNG Dl MENSIONS OF

REFERENCE

U. S . DEPARTMENT O F AGRICULTIJRE

S O I L CONSERVATION SERVICE

STANDARD DWG. NO.

ES-41
SHEET

ENGINEERING STANDARDS UNIT

DATE

Revised 12 -27-50

OF

7-21-50

4.7.4 Examples

- Nonunifo m Flow in Uniform Channels.

Given: Concrete, trapezoidal channel, Q = 1000 c.f.s., z = 1.0,


b = 10 ft., n = 0.014. Station numbers increase in the direction
of flaw. A break in grade is located at Sta. 33 + 50; the slope
upstream from 33 + 50, designated as sl, is 0.001; the slope downstream from 33 + 50, designated as s ~ ,is 0.004. A profile of the
channel is shown at the end of this example.
To determine: The water surface profile upstream and downstream from
the break in grade at Sta. 33 + 50 by computing distance to selected depths using formula (5.4-36).
Solution:

(See subsection 4.7.2 and drawing ES-38.)

1. Determine whether Sta. 33

+ 50 is

a control section.

(a) Compute critical depth:


~ / b= 1000 + 10 = 100, and z/b = 1 + 10 = 0.1

From drawing

ES-24,

dc =

53 8 ft .

Or using King ' s Handbook, formula

(57)) p . 383,

From table 125, p. 436, by interpolation, when KA = 3.162,


d C b = 0.538 and d, = 10 x 0.558 = 5.93.
(b) Compute critical slope:

sc

0.001 < 0.00232 < 0.004 ; i.e., s, < s,


Sta. 33 + 50 is a control section.

< s,

therefore,

Or enter alignment chart, drawing ES-34,vC, r, n, and


read sc. Use values r and v, corresponding to d,.

2.

Compute t h e normal depths (uniform flow) on t h e s l o p e s upstream and


downstream from 33 + 50. This i s not necessary, b u t knowing t h e s e
depths, f a c i l i t a t e s t h e s e l e c t i o n s of reaches and t r i a l depths i n
t h e computation of t h e s u r f a c e p r o f i l e .
Use formula (5.4-32)
book, t a b l e 113, p.

Q
P

i n t h e form K T =

336.

b8/3 s

and King's Hand/ ~

- 0.03018
( a ) For s = 0.001, K T = 1000 x 0.014 = 0.975
lo+ s1/2
0. 001112
d/b =

1:1 s i d e slopes,

0.698,

d =

6.98

( b ) For s = 0.004, K t = 0.03018 s 0 . 0 0 4 ~ / =~ 0.477


Upstream from 33 + T O t h e depth i n c r e a s e s from 5.58(dc) t o 6.98;
downstream t h e depth decreases t o 4.82.
See Example 4, subs e c t i o n 4.7.3 f o r other methods of determining normal depth.
3.

Compute t h e water surface p r o f i l e downstream and upstream from S t a .


33 + 50 by computing d i s t a n c e s t o s e l e c t e d depths using formula

(5.4-36).
- .
\

1=

+ d')

-(

+ dl)

The t a b l e on t h e following page l i s t s t h e computations which a r e


c a r r i e d downstream and upstream because depths a r e r e s p e c t i v e l y l e s s than
and g r e a t e r than c r i t i c a l .
( a ) Cols. 5 , 6, and 7 record v e l o c i t y , v e l o c i t y head, and s p e c i f i c
energy corresponding t o t h e s e l e c t e d depths i n c o l . 4.
( b ) The d i f f e r e n c e s i n s p e c i f i c energy a t successive s e c t i o n s are
t a b u l a t e d i n parentheses. This i s t h e numerator of formula (5.4-36).
( c ) Computations f o r t h e f r i c t i o n slope, sf, between two successive
s e c t i o n s a r e t a b u l a t e d i n c o l s . 8, 9, and 10. F r i c t i o n slope i s evaluated
by t h e equation,
s f = u ~ n +) b8i3I2
(1 + K ' ) ~
where ( 1 / ~ i's) determined
~
f o r t h e average depth (aa) between successive
s e c t i o n s . Tabulated values f o r ( 1 / ~)2' corresponding t o da/b a r e taken
from "King's Handbook", t a b l e 114, pp. 341-356.
( d ) Col. 11 i s t h e denominator of formula (5.4-36) and i s t h e d i f f e r e n c e between f r i c t i o n slope and slope of channel bottom.

1,

( e ) Col. 12 l i s t s
determined by d i v i d i n g t h e values i n parent h e s e s i n c o l . 7 by t h e values i n c o l . 11.

Remarks: I f reasonably a c c u r a t e r e s u l t s are t o b e obtained i n computing


by equation (5.4-36), it w i l l f r e q u e n t l y be necessary t o e v a l u a t e He =
d + (3;2g) t o t h e n e a r e s t 4 t h o r 5 t h decimal place. Note t h a t t h i s
may b e necessary t o o b t a i n s i g n i f i c a n t f i g u r e s i n both t h e numerator and
denominator.

COMPUTATIONS FOB W-TER SURFACE PROFIU


Example 1 - Subsection 4.7.4
I

I
Sta.

2
3
Elevation
Bottom Water
Channel Surf ace

3
2g

"a3

H=d+e

Downstream from Sta. 33 +


5.58 11.503 2.057
7.637
(0.011)
7.648
33+57 99.97 105.37 5.40 12.025 2.248
(0.041)
7.689
3991 99.84 105.04 5.20 12.632 2.489
(0.075)
7-764
34+90 99.44 104.44 5.00 13.333 2.764
(0.103)
3&58
97.97 m2.73 4.82 13.999 3.047
7.867
Upstr am from Sta. 33 +
100.00
11.503
-(0.014)
100.01
lo.912 1.851
7.651

50

(3

33+50 l00.00 105.58

loo.05

10.417

loo.19

9 738

100.54

9.127

102.28

8-437

Q = 1000 c . f . s .
b = 10 ft.

n = 0.014

10
sf

11
So

12
Sf

l'

0.00247

0.00153

0.530 3.09 0.00281

0.00119

34

0.510 3.56 0.00324

0.00076

99

0.491 4.09 0.00372

0.00028

368

0.549

2.1

Given: A concrete, rectangular channel, Q = 1240 c f s . , b = 20 f t . ,


n = 0.014. A t s t a . 27 + 30 t h e channel slope changes from 0.018 t o
0.0015. The slope of 0.0015 i s of s u f f i c i e n t length t o assure t h a t
uniform flow w i l l occur i n t h e reach downstream from 27 + 30. Bottom
of channel elevation a t 27 + 30 i s 100.00. A p r o f i l e i s shown a t t h e
end of t h i s example.

To determine: The location of t h e hydraulic jump when depth of flow a t


s t a . 27 + 30 i s 3.1 f t .
Solution:

( s e e subsection 4.6.2 and drawing

ES-38.)

1. Compute t h e t a i l w a t e r curve f o r t h e flow i n t h e reach downstream


from 27 + 30. One of the given conditions i s t h a t this reach i s
long enough t o assure t h e occurrence of uniform flow; therefore,
t h e t a i l w a t e r curve i s a s t r a i g h t l i n e p a r a l l e l t o t h e channel
bottom and a t t h e depth, an, f07- 1240 c f s

(a) Compute

b, using formula (5.4-32):

From King's Handbook, t a b l e

d/%
2.

0.309;

113, p. 336,

by interpolating, find

therefore, dn = 20 x 0.309 =

6.18 f t .

Compute and p l o t the water surface p r o f i l e downstream from 27 -I-30


s t a r t i n g with d = 3.10. The Jump must occur before t h e depth has
increased t o dc.

d- may a l s o be computed from drawing ES-24.

Use formula

(5.4-36):

The t a b l e on t h e following page l i s t s t h e computations :

Col. 1 s t a r t s with s t a . 27 + 30 given; other s t a t i o n s are obtained


by accumulating t h e computed distances i n c o l . 12.
~ 0 1 s .2, 3,

5 , and 6

a r e self-explanatory.

Col. 4 s t a r t s with d = 5 - 1 0 given; o t h e r values of d are s e l e c t e d


s o a s t o hold t h e change i n v e l o c i t y , v, about 1 0 t o 15 percent.
s

f i s evaluated by formula

(5.4-40)which

may b e w r i t t e n ,

Col. 7 l i s t s s p e c i f i c energy, with t h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n s p e c i f i c energy a t successive s e c t i o n s shown i n parentheses.


Col. 8 l i s t s t h e average of appropriate pairs of depths i n c o l .
divided by bottom width.

t h e d a b values found i n King's Handbook,


Col. 9 l i s t s ( 1 / ~ f'o)r ~
t a b l e 114, p . 341.
Col. 1 0 l i s t s t h e values i n c o l . 9 m u l t i p l i e d by t h e constant,

Col. 11 i s self-explanatory.
Col. 1 2 i s computed by dividing t h e values i n parentheses i n col.
by t h e values i n col. 11.

3.

Compute and p l o t a curve of sequent depths, i.e., depths a f t e r jump


corresponding t o those shown b y t h e p r o f i l e computed i n s t e p 2.
These depths a f t e r jump may be computed by formula (5.4-28)or they
may be determined by i n t e r p o l a t i o n using "Hydraulic Tables", t a b l e 3,
p. 16, or "King's Handbook", t a b l e 133, p. 444.

Sta.

4.

dl

V1

d;?

Bottom
Channel
Elev.

Sequent
Depth
Elev

The p r o f i l e s of t a i l w a t e r , flow e n t e r i n g jump, and sequent depths


axe p l o t t e d at t h e end of t h i s example. Note t h a t t h e v e r t i c a l s c a l e
i s exaggerated i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e h o r i z o n t a l s c a l e .

( a ) An approximate location of t h e jump i s sta. 29 -I- 40 where <he


p r o f i l e s of t a i l w a t e r and sequent depths i n t e r s e c t . On t h e
p r o f i l e shown on t h e following page, t h i s is noted as t h e f i r s t
approximate jump Location.
( b ) A second approximation of t h e jump location, determined by t h e
procedure i n s t e p d, subsection 4.6.2, i s a l s o shown on t h e
p r o f i l e . A t 29 + 50 t h e depth of flow entering t h e jump, dl,
i s 3.90j and a t 29 + 80 t h e t a i l w a t e r depth, &, i s about 6.15,
which i s t h e depth sequent t o 3.90, making t h e length of t h e
jump 30 t o 33 f't. or approximately 5 times 6.15.
Note t h a t t h e accuracy with which water surface p r o f i l e s may be determined depends on: (1)whether t h e roughness c o e f f i c i e n t , n, accuratel y represents t h e condition of t h e channel; ( 2 ) whether t h e f r i c t i o n
losses, sf, are c a r e f u l l y evaluated. Since t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e jump depends on t h e p r o f i l e of flow entering t h e jump and t h e t a i l w a t e r p r o f i l e ,
it i s apparent t h a t a minor e r r o r i n n may r e s u l t i n an appreciable
e r r o r i n t h e determination of jump l o c a t i o n . I n short, t h e estimated
p o s i t i o n of a jump i n a channel not designed t o s t a b i l i z e t h e jump should
be accepted only a s an approximation.

4.7.5

Examples

Nonunifcrm Channels and Natural Channels.


EXAMPLE 1

Given: A rectangular, concrete spillway. M a x i m discharge 2000 cfs;


roughness coeff i c l e n t , 0.014. Width of t h e c h m e l v a r i e s uniformly
from 30 f t . a t entrance t o 20 f t . a t c r e s t . A p r o f i l e i s shown on
t h e computation sheet.
To determine: The water surface p r o f i l e from t h e c r e s t upstream t o t h e
spillway entrance and t h e pool elevation f o r t h e discharge 2000 c f s .
Solution: (See subsection 4.7.2) The slope downstream from t h e c r e s t ,
s t a . 1 + 00, i s given a s g r e a t e r than sc f o r 2000 cfs; therefore,
c r i t i c a l depth occurs a t 1 + 00. The water surface p r o f i l e r i s e s i n
t h e upstream d i r e c t i o n from t h e c r e s t through t h e nonuniform width
i n l e t . The pool elevation f o r 2000 c f s . i s equal t o t h e elevation
of the water surface p r o f i l e a t 0 + 00 plus t h e velocity head a t
0 + 00.
1. Compute dc a t t h e c r e s t , s t a . 1 + 00, where t h e section i s 20 f t .

wide.

~ / b
= 2000

;20 =

1UO

and z / b

= 0

From drawing ES-24, dc = 6.77 f t .


2.

Compute t h e water surface p r o f i l e from 1 -t 00 t o 0


energy equation (5.4-35).

00 using t h e

( a ) Since subscripts 1 and 2 denote upstream and downstream sections


respectively, d2 and v2 are known f o r each successive reach as
t h e computations progress upstream.
( b ) The length,

& , is

selected f o r each reach.

.
that b
( c ) I n each reach assume dl and compute vl = ~ / b d ~Note
changes from s e c t i o n t o section.
( d ) Evaluate v12/zg

( e ) Evaluate sf =

and

v22/2g.

n2

2.2082 r y s

( f ) Determine whether t h e assumed dl balances equation (5.4-35); i f


not, take additional t r i a l depths u n t i l a balance i s obtained.

The t a b l e on t h e following page l l s t s computations made i n accordance with


t h e above i n s t r u c t i o n s .

Cob. 1, 2, 4,
explanatory.
Col. 3
from 1
ues of
d2 f o r
energy

5 , 6, 7, 8, 9, lo, 12, 13, 14, 15, 18, and 19 a r e s e l f -

l i s t s both dl and d2 f o r a given reach. For example, i n t h e reach


+ 00 t o o + 90, d2 = 6.77; and 9.80, 9.66, and 9.67 a r e t r i a l valdlj 9.67 g i v e s a balance f o r t h e energy equation, and it becomes
t h e reach 0 + 90 t o 0 + 80. Values of dl giving a balance i n t h e
equation are marked with s u b s c r i p t 1.

Col. 11 l i s t s values taken from King's Handbook, t a b l e 107, p . 309.


Col.

1.6 l i s t s values of t h e l e f t - h a n d member of t h e energy equation.

Col. 17 l i s t s values of t h e right-hand member of t h e energy equation.


Note t h a t t h e values of c o l . 16 and c o l . 17 a r e e s s e n t i a l l y equal f o r t h e
t r i a l s e t of computa~ionsf o r dl marked with t h e s u b s c r i p t 1, t h u s indic a t i n g t h a t t h e assumed depth i s c o r r e c t .
Note t h a t s o i s negative i n t h i s example s i n c e t h e channel slope i s adverse t o t h e d i r e c t i o n of flow.

COMP~ATIONSFOR WATER SURFACE PROFILE, 1 + 00 t o 0 + 00


Example 1 Subsection 4.7.5

Profile

= 2000 c f s

,v

n = 0.014
so = -0.10

v1 + v2

r,

"

( n v,)*

2.2082

2@;

ri/3

rl t r7
2

Check: Consider t h e energy equation between


s t a t i o n s 0 + 00 and 1 + 00.

+ dl + so/

+ a, + Z s,/

A t s t a . 0 t 00 ( s o i s n e g a t i v e )

A t sta. 1

vz2

00

d2 t

3.3921

10 .PO24

z.sfk
6.77

(0.0179

0.0079 t 0.0084

0.0081)

at s t a . 0

00

Pool e l e v .

0.17

= 1119.40

COMPVTmIONS FOR W m R SURFACE PROFILZ, 1 + 00 t o 0


Example 1 - Subsection 4.7.5

I Sta. I b I

Depth

~ + O O 20

6.77

- - - -

Area l ~ e l o c i t ~
v = -Q
a
14.7710

135.40

00
I

v22 + d 2 - d
a3
- ~ e 2 -

'd'

y+
dl-sg 2g
= He=-

-a t
Q

= 2000 c f s

n = 0.014
so = -0.10

vm = v l + v2
2

r,

= 1'1

r2

Check: Consider t h e energy equation bet


s t a t i o n s 0 + 00 and 1 + 00.

A t sta. 0

00 (so i s negative)

A t s t a . 1 + 00

Eleval
Channel Surface
Profile
s f 1 Bottom
1109.20

sta. 0

00

0.17

2g
Pool e l e v .

= 1119.40

I n dealing with n a t u r a l channels, it i s common p r a c t i c e t o use an


average slope and an average cross section f o r a reach i n t h e open channel
formulas. A f u r t h e r simplification i s normally made by the assumption
that t h e v a r i a t i o n s i n velocity head may be neglected. The decision a s t o
whether t h i s l a t t e r assumption may be applied i n a given case should be
made by t h e engineer from a consideratian of t h e conditions involved. If
the changes i n velocity head cannot be neglected, t h e water surface p r o f i l e
may be computed by the method i l l u s t r a t e d I n Example 1 of t h i s subsection.
When v e l o c i t y head may be neglected, t h e method i l l u s t r a t e d by t h e
following example r e s u l t s i n a d i r e c t solution. This method requires t h a t
stream p r o f i l e , cross sections, and roughness c o e f f i c i e n t s be obtained by
f i e l d surveys and t h a t water surface elevations a t t h e lower end of t h e
s t r e t c h of stream f o r given discharges be known or determinable. The method i s taken from: "Graphical Calculation of Backwater Eliminates Solution
by Trial1' by Francis I?. Escoffier, Engineering News Record, June 27, 1946.
Given: A portion of a n a t u r a l stream i s shown i n plan and p r o f i l e on f o l lowing pages. Cross sections a r e available a t s t a t i o n s 23 + 00,
26 + 00, 29 + 00, 33 + 50, 38 + 00, 42 + 00, and 46 + 00. The cross
s e c t i o n a t s t a t i o n 38 + 00, which i s t y p i c a l , i s shown on a following
page *
To determine: The water surface p r o f i l e f o r Branches E and E-2 f o r t h e
t h r e e s e t s of conditions s t a t e d i n t h e following t a b l e :

cfs
Discharges
Branch E-1 Branch E-2 Branch E

S e t s of
Conditions

Elev.Water
Surface 46 + 00

1800

600

24-00

1181.50

1200

400

1600

1180.75

600

200

800

1180.20

'

Theory:
The energy equation (5.4-35) between sections a t t h e cpper and Lower
ends of a reach

d2

sf/

Assuming t h e change i n v e l o c i t y heads t o be negligible r e s u l t s i n :


2

2g

2g

then

dl

-&

Prom Manning ' s formula:

hf

l o s s of head due t o f r i c t i o n .

Since t h e value of P varies with n and water surface elevation a t each


cross section, assume an average f o r a reach as valid.
P

= 112

(P2 + P ~ ) ,i n which

P2 = t h e value of P a t t h e lower end of a reach.


P1 = t h e value of P a t t h e upper end of a reach.
hf
- 9%
2
**
hf
112 (P, + P,) ~~l
or
p2 + p1
Values of PZ and PI versus water surface elevation a r e p l o t t e d as i n
fig. 5.4-3.

I f t h e known elevation of t h e water surface f o r a discharge, Q, at t h e


lower end of a reach, point M, i s projected t o A, t h e elevation of the
water surface a t t h e upper end of t h e reach, point N, may be determined
by constructing AS on t h e correct slope. By inspection,
MA = P2

, NB

= PI

, and

Since hf t (P2 + P ~ =) ( Q ~ /)
i s ( Q ~ &+) 2.

t h e slope of AB i s
t

MN
hf
MA + NB
P, + P,

2, t h e slope a t which AB i s t o be drawn

Solution:

1. Compute the P values f o r each cross section. Table I l i s t s t h e


computations f o r P a t one foot i n t e r v a l s of elevation i n t h e
cross section a t 38 + 00; other cross sections would be t r e a t e d
i n a similar manner. The cross section i s given on a following
page. Column headings i n the t a b l e are self-explanatory.
( a ) Values of ( 1 . 4 8 6 / r ~ ) a ? / ~ are f i r s t computed i n each p a r t of
t h e cross section and t o t a l e d a t each elevation f o r t h e ent i r e cross section.
I n a cross section not subdivide&,

I n a subdivided cross section,

PT = t h e P value f o r an e n t i r e cross s e c t i o n a t any elevation.

Pa, Pb, PC, e t c . = t h e P values f o r p a r t s of t h e cross section


a t any elevation.
n 2 2, the t o t a l number of p a r t s of a cross section a t any
elevation.
( b ) This method makes it possible t o apply d i f f e r e n t n
selected subdivisions of a channel cross section.

values i n

( c ) I n a subdivided p a r t of a channel only t h e perimeter of the


channel i n contact with water should be used i n computing r .
That portion of t h e perimeter where water i s i n contact with
water should be excluded i n computing r .

2.

Plot t h e values of P f o r each cross section as P2 and P1 a s shown on


t h e work sheet. P values f o r the cross section at 38 + 00 a r e p l o t t e d twice a s P2 values f o r reach 3 on t h e l e f t s i d e of t h e sheet,
and a s F1 values for reach 2 on t h e r i g h t . P values a t 42 + 00,
33 + 50, 29 + 00, and 26 + 00 a r e a l s o plotted a s both P2 and P1
values f o r appropriate reaches. The P values f o r t h e cross sections
a t 46 + 00 and 23 + 00 a r e p l o t t e d only oncej those a t 46 + 00 a s
P* values f o r reach 1, and those a t 23 + 00 as PI values f o r reach 6.

3.

Compute values of/'Q


ditions :

No.

+ 2 f o r t h e reaches and s e t s of discharge conondition

B Condition

C Condition

From

Determine t h e t h r e e water surface p r o f i l e s using: ( a ) t h e given


water surface elevations a t 46 + 00; ( b ) t h e Q21 i 2 values tabulat e d above; ( c ) t h e work sheet on which the P curves a r e p l o t t e d .
Examine t h e set-up of t h e work sheet. The scales of P2, PI, and
water surface elevntion and the p l o t t i n g of t h e P curves w i l l be r e a d i l y
understood. Note t h e slope scale, i - e . , t h e scale of
4 2 values, on
t h e r i g h t and t h e reference point near t h e bottom center. The value of
t h e slope scale u n i t i n r e l a t i o n t o the reference point i s determined a s
follows :

~~l

slope =

v e r t i c a l distance
horizontal distance

--

f
p2 + p1

@/
2

The v e r t i c a l distance = 1 scale u n i t = 1 f o o t .


The horizontal distance from
Each horizontal u n i t has t h e value 1 x lo-'.
t h e reference point t o t h e slope scale = 10 scale u n i t s = 10 x 1 x lo-' =
lo-'; therefore, t h e value of one u n i t on t h e slope scale I s :
slope =

1
-

10-~

1 x

lo8

To solve the water surface p r o f i l e f o r t h e "C" condition proceed a s


indicated be1 ow.
On t h e P2 curve f o r reach 1, s t a t i o n 46 + 00, l o c a t e t h e point f o r
water surface elevation 1180.20, Q = 800 c f s . From t h e t a b l e of Q*/ ;2
values, take 1.28 x lo8 f o r "C" condition, reach 1, and f i n d t h i s value
on t h e slope scale, thus defining a slope l i n e . Draw a l i n e p a r a l l e l t o
t h i s slope l i n e from t h e point of elevation 1180.20 on t h e P2 curve f o r
s t a t i o n 46 + 00 t o i n t e r s e c t t h e PI curve f o r reach 1, s t a t i o n 42 + 00.
This i n t e r s e c t i o n establishes t h e water surface elevation, 1181.23, a t
the upper end of reach 1 and t h e lower end of reach 2 . Project t h i s
water surface elevation t o t h e l e f t t o the P2 curve, reach 2, s t a t i o n
42 + 30, and repeat t h e above procedure f o r reaches 2 through 6 t o comp l e t e t h e water surface p r o f i l e f o r "C" condition. Note t h a t t h e discharge changes t o 200 c f s a t reach 5 , and t h a t t h i s f a c t has been recognized i n t h e computation of Q ~ /i 2 values.
Water surface p r o f i l e s f o r "A1' and "B" conditions a r e determined i n
t h e same manner and t h e t h r e e p r o f i l e s a r e p l o t t e d on the l a s t page of
t h i s example.
Remarks :
This and other methods f o r determining backwater curves require
t h a t t h e water surface elevation a t t h e lower end of a s t r e t c h of stream
be known or t h a t it be determined through some ty-pe of stage-discharge
r e l a t i o n s h i p . I n some cases a gaging s t a t i o n or control point makes it
possible t o meet these requirements, but i n most cases they cannot be met
d i r e c t l y b y determinations a t a s l n g l e section. I n such cases a s e r i e s
of several contiguous reaches should be established downstream from the
s t r e t c h of stream under consideration, and several p r o f i l e s f o r any required value of Q based on assumed water surface elevations a t the downstream end of t h e lowest reach should then be computed upstream. These
p r o f l l e s w i l l converge i n t h e upstream d i r e c t i o n making it possible t o
determine or closely approximate the water surface elevations f o r given
discharges a t t h e lower end of t h e s t r e t c h .
An important advantage of t h i s method i s t h a t when t h e P values
have been computed and t h e work sheet constructed, only a short time i s
required t o make the graphical solution f o r t h e water surface p r o f i l e of
any discharge.

TABU

COMPUTATIONS OF "P" VALUES FOR SECTION AT STA.


Example 2 - Subsection 4.7.5

Part a ( n = 0.075)
Elev .

a
ft2

1178
1179
1181
1182

1183
1184
1185
1186

r2j3

1.486

ft

ft

ar8/3

n
1
- -

fi

3.4 8.6
49.4 55.6
103.8 60.0
6 . 4 62.6

0.396 0.540
0.888 0.924
1.762 1.46
1-91
2.64

E FTx lo6
1

Elev.
1178
1179
1180
1181
1182
1183
1184
185
1186

23.7
1510.
4100.
8450.
14200.
22196.
34675.
51410.
71950.

42300.
764.
244.
118.2

70.5
45 1 5
28.85

19.48
13.9

7
.
-

ft2

ft

ft

1.8 1 3 . 1

36.4
go?.
3060.
6250.

.I37
.874
29.0 33.2
1.665
35.4
59.0
93.4 37.6 2.48
130.2 39.8 3.27
4.20
168. 40.
206.
40.
5.5
6.10
244.
40.
40.
282.
7.05

FT x lo1*

179 x lo7
584,000.
59,500
14,000.
4,970.
2,040.
832.
779
193

r2/3

1
-

ft2

ft

ft

23.7
1310.
4100.
8450.
14200.
21600.
30400.
40300.
71400.

0
0

I1

0.266
0.914
1.405
1.83
2.20

2.60
2.98
3.34
3.68

o
o
o
29.6 58 0.311
90.8 65 1.40
1 . 2 72 2 . 2 1
232.8 78 2.99

= area of

= wetted p e r i m e t e r

1=

fi

00

Part c (n =

P a r t b (n = G .OjO)

0
0

o
o

1180

38 +

0.050)
1s486 ar2/3
-n
?/
1
- -

0.64
1.5
1.70'
2.07

stream

hydraulic radius

xe

ar2/3 at each

elevation

560.
3370.
8050.
14300.

5.4-58

Typical Cross Sec fion


for

Subsec f ion 47.5.

Cross S e c f h n
Sta. 38 + 00

Plan

'

WORK SHLU

5,4059

Wafer S u r f a c e Pro fdes

5.4-60

for

f x u m p l e 2 - .%bsecflbn 4. Z 5.

23

26

38

34

S h f i o n Number

3
c
Y

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