Steam Turbine

a steam prime mover with rotary motion of the driving element, or rotor, and continuous oper
ation. It converts the thermalenergy of steam into mechanical work. The steam flow proceeds
through directing devices and impinges on curved bladesmounted along the periphery of the r
otor. By exerting a force on the blades, the steam flow causes the rotor to rotate. Unlikethe re
ciprocating steam engine, the steam turbine makes use of the kinetic rather than the potential
energy of steam.
The first attempts at building a steam turbine were made long ago. A description exists of a pr
imitive steam turbineconstructed by Hero of Alexandria in the first century B.C. Not until the
late 19th century, however, when thermodynamics,mechanical engineering, and metallurgy h
ad attained a sufficiently high level, did there appear steam turbines suitable forindustry. They
were built independently by C. G. P. de Laval of Sweden and C. A. Parsons of Great Britain b
etween 1884and 1889. Laval made use of the expansion of steam in conical fixed nozzles in a
single step from the initial to the finalpressure and directed the resulting jet, which had a supe
rsonic exit velocity, onto a single row of moving blades mounted ona disk. Steam turbines ba
sed on this principle came to be called impulse turbines. Parsons constructed a multistagereac
tion turbine, in which the expansion of the steam occurred in a large number of sequential sta
ges both in the passagesof the stationary blades, or nozzles, and between the moving rotor bla
des.
The steam turbine proved to be a very convenient engine for driving rotative mechanisms, su
ch as electric generators,pumps, blowers, and ship propellers. It was operable at higher speed
s and was more compact, lighter, better balanced, andmore economical than the reciprocating
steam engine. The development of steam turbines was extremely rapidefficiencywas impro
ved, output capacity was increased, and specialized turbines were designed for various uses.
Single-stage turbines of the Laval type cannot achieve high power outputs, and they have ver
y high rotative speedsup to30,000 rpm in the first prototypes. As a result, they have contin
ued to be important only as drives for auxiliary mechanisms.Impulse steam turbines develope
d in the direction of multistage designs, in which the expansion of steam was performed ina r
ow of sequentially arranged stages. Such staging permitted a considerable increase in the pow
er output of steamturbines, while preserving the moderate rotative speed required for the dire
ct coupling of the turbine shaft to the mechanismdriven by the turbine.
Parsons reaction turbine was used for some time, particularly in naval vessels, but it graduall
y was supplanted by morecompact combination impulse-reaction turbines, in which the highpressure reaction part was replaced by a one- or two-stage impulse disk. As a result, losses o
wing to steam leakage through the gaps in the blade apparatus were decreased,and the turbine
became simpler and more efficient.
Classification. Steam turbines are usually divided into three basic groups, depending on the c
haracter of the thermalprocess: once-through condensing turbines, combined heat- and power
-supply turbines, and special-purpose turbines.
ONCE-THROUGH CONDENSING TURBINES.

Once-through condensing turbines are used for con

verting the greatest possibleportion of the heat of steam into mechanical work. The turbines
exhaust steam is discharged to a condenser, where avacuum is maintained. Such turbines can
be used for industrial, central-station, or transportation purposes.

When connected to generators of alternating electric current in turbogenerators, once-through

condensing turbines constitutethe basic equipment of condensation electric power plants. The
greater the output capacity of a turbogenerator, the moreeconomical it is and the lower is the
cost of 1 kilowatt (kW) of installed capacity. For this reason, the power output of steamgener
ators has increased yearly. By 1974 the aggregate capacity had reached 1,200 megawatts (M
W) with live-steampressures of up to 35 meganewtons (MN)/m2 (1 newton/m2 = 105 kilogra
m-force/cm2) and temperatures of up to 650C.The accepted frequency of electric current in t
he USSR is 50 hertz; accordingly, the rotative speed of a steam turbinedirectly connected to a
two-pole generator must be equal to 3,000 rpm. Turbines are classified into three types, depen
dingon their intended use in power plants: base-load turbines designed for carrying a constant
base load; peak-load turbines,which operate for short periods of time and carry peak loads; an
d house turbines, which supply the plants own electricalenergy needs. Base-load turbines mu
st provide a high degree of efficiency under nearly full loads (about 80 percent). Peak-load tu
rbines must be capable of fast start-up and rapid attainment of normal operating characteristic
s. Special reliability ofoperation is required of house turbines. All steam turbines for power st
ations are designed to operate for 100,000 hoursbefore a general overhaul is carried out.
Transportation steam turbines are used as main and auxiliary engines on ships and other vesse
ls. Numerous attempts havebeen made to use steam turbines in locomotives, but such locomo
tives have not received wide acceptance. Reductiongearing is used to couple high-speed stea
m turbines to ship propellers, which require moderate (from 100 to 500 rpm)rotative speeds.
Unlike industrial and central-station turbines (with the exception of turboblowers), ship turbi
nes operate witha variable rotative speed, which is determined by the speed of the vessel.
COMBINED HEAT- AND POWER-SUPPLY TURBINES.

Combined heat- and power-supply turbines

are used for the simultaneousgeneration of electrical and thermal energy. They include such t
ypes as back-pressure turbines, automatic extractionturbines, and back-pressure extraction tur
bines.
In back-pressure turbines, all the exhaust steam is used for industrial purposes, such as boilin
g, drying, or heating. Theelectric power generated by a turbounit with such a turbine depends
on the need of the plant or heating system for heatingsteam and varies with that need. A backpressure turbounit, therefore, usually operates in parallel with a condensing steamturbine or p
ower-supply network that covers any power shortages. In automatic extraction turbines, part
of the steam isextracted from one or two intermediate stages, and the remaining steam procee
ds to the condenser. The pressure of theextracted steam is maintained within predetermined li
mits by a control system. The extraction points are chosen inaccordance with the required par
ameters of the steam. In back-pressure extraction turbines, part of the steam is extractedfrom
one or two intermediate stages, and all of the exhaust steam is piped from the outlet into the h
eating system.
The steam pressure in turbines for heating purposes is usually 0.12 MN/m2. The steam pressu
re for industrial needsforexample, in sugar refineries, wood-processing plants, and foodprocessing plantsranges from 0.5 to 1.5 MN/m2.
SPECIAL-PURPOSE TURBINES.

Special-purpose turbines usually operate on the waste heat of

metallurgical, machine-building,and chemical plants. They include exhaust-steam turbines, d
ouble-pressure turbines, and superposition turbines. Exhaust-steam turbines use exhaust stea
m from reciprocating machines, steam hammers, and presses, which is at a pressureslightly a
bove atmospheric. Double-pressure turbines use both live steam and the exhaust steam of stea
m mechanisms;the steam is fed into one of the intermediate stages. Superposition turbines are
steam turbines with high initial pressuresand high back-pressures; all of the exhaust steam fro

m such turbines is piped to other steam turbines with lower initialsteam pressure. Superpositi
on turbines are required in the modernization of power plants, when steam boilers are installe
dfor operation at high pressures incompatible with the existing steam turbines in a plant.
Unlike condensing and combined heat- and power-supply turbines, special-purpose turbines a
re not batch produced. In mostcases, they are custom built.
All industrial and central-station turbines are equipped with devices for unregulated bleeding
of steam from two to fivepressure stages for the regenerative heating of the feedwater. Four st
ages of initial steam parameters have beenestablished in the USSR: (1) a pressure of 3.5 MN/
m2 and a temperature of 435C for steam turbines with a power output ofup to 12 MW, (2) 9
MN/m2 and 535C for turbines up to 50 MW, (3) 13 MN/m2 and 565C for turbines up to 100
MW, and (4)24 MN/m2 and 565C for turbines with a power output of 200 and 300 MW. The
exhaust-steam pressure ranges from 3.5 to 5kilonewtons/m2. The heat duty varies from 7.6 kil
ojoules (kj) per watt-hour (W-hr) for the most powerful steam turbines to 13kJ/W-hr for small
condensing turbines.
Thermal process. The kinetic energy acquired by steam when it expands is equivalent to the
decrease in its enthalpyduring the expansion process. The work of the steam in kilogramsforce-meters (1 kgf-m = 10 joules) is equal to
W = 427(i0 i1)
The spouting velocity in meters per second is

Here, i0 is the initial enthalpy and i1 the final enthalpy of the steam. The power in kW obtaina
ble from a turbine when D kg/hrof steam is consumed is equal to

The steam consumption consequently is

If i0 i1 is understood as an adiabatic enthalpy change, then the above is valid only for an ide
al steam turbine, whichoperates without losses. The actual power output on the shaft of a real
turbine is equal to

where e is the relative effective efficiency, which is the ratio of the actual power output obtai
ned on the turbine shaft to thepower output of the ideal turbine:

Here de is the steam consumption in kg/(kW-hr). For existing steam turbines, the steam rate is
determined experimentally,and i0 i1 is found from an enthalpy-entropy, or Mollier, chart.
In an impulse turbine, live steam with the pressure p0 and velocity c0 proceeds to the nozzle,
where it expands to thepressure p1. In the process, the velocity of the steam flow increases to

c1, which is the velocity at which the steamimpinges on the rotor blades. As a result of its cha
nge in direction in the curved passages between the blades, the steamflow exerts pressure on t
he blades and causes the disk and shaft to rotate. On leaving the blades, the steam flow has th
evelocity c2, which is less than c1 because a considerable part of the kinetic energy has been tr
ansformed into themechanical energy of the rotation of the shaft. The pressure p1 at the entran
ce to a passage is equal to the pressure p2 atthe exit, since the passages between the blades ha
ve the same cross-sectional area over their entire lengths and expansionof steam does not occ
ur in them. In actual impulse turbines, however, the cross-sectional areas of the passages betw
eenthe blades increase slightly in the direction of the steam flow in order to preserve the equa
lity of pressures at the inlets andoutlets of the passages. This increase is necessary because th
e steam enthalpy increases as the steam passes betweenthe blades owing to friction and impac
ts against the blade edges. Within the curved passages, the pressures are different indifferent
places: it is precisely the difference between the pressures on the concave and the convex side
of each blade thatcauses the rotor to rotate. Thus, in an impulse turbine the steam pressure dro
p occurs in the nozzle or nozzles; the steampressure at the inlet to the blades and at the outlet
is the same.
The kinetic energy will be fully utilized if the absolute steam velocity c2 at the outlet from the
blades is equal to zero. Thiscondition is met if c1 = 2 u, where u is the peripheral velocity. Th
e peripheral velocity, measured in m/sec, is equal to
u = dn/60
where d is the mean diameter of the blade row in m and n is the rotative velocity in rpm. Con
sequently, the optimumperipheral velocity of the blades must be u = c1/2.
It is evident that in a real turbine C2 cannot be equal to zero, since the steam must flow from t
he blades into the condenser.The exit velocity, however, should be minimal because the kineti
c energy of the exiting steam flow constitutes a loss ofuseful work. Deviation from the optim
um value of the ratio u/c1 leads to a sharp drop in the efficiency of the turbine. Thus,the const
ruction of single-stage turbines with high values of the initial steam parameters is not yet poss
ible, since, as of theearly 1970s, there do not exist materials capable of withstanding the stres
ses resulting from the centrifugal forces atperipheral velocities that exceed 400 m/sec. Singlestage impulse turbines are, therefore, used only for driving high-speedauxiliary mechanisms
whose efficiency is not of paramount importance. High efficiency of steam turbines that oper
ate atmoderate peripheral velocities and with a large temperature drop is achieved by pressure
staging.
If the pressure drop is divided into several stages with equal temperature drops, then the exit
velocity, measured in m/sec,in the stages is equal to

where z is the number of stages. Consequently, the velocity in each stage will be
of th
e velocity in a single-stageturbine. The optimum peripheral velocity u, that is, the rotative spe
ed of the rotor, will be correspondingly lower.

Figure 1. Longitudinal schematic section of animpulse turbine with three pressure stages:(1) r
ing-shaped live steam chamber, (2)nozzles of first stage, (3) rotor blades of firststage, (4) noz
zles of second stage, (5) rotorblades of second stage, (6) nozzles of thirdstage, (7) rotor blade
s of third stage
A steam turbine casing with several pressure stages is divided into separate chambers by diap
hragms; each chambercontains one of the disks with rotor blades (Figure 1). The steam can p
enetrate from one chamber into the next only throughnozzles located along the periphery of t
he diaphragms. The steam pressure is lowered after each stage, and the steam exitvelocities C
1 remain about the samea result achieved by the selection of appropriate nozzle dimensions
. The number ofpressure stages in high-power turbines with high initial steam parameters can
be as high as 30 or 40. Since the steamvolume increases as the steam expands, the crosssectional areas of the nozzles and the heights of the blades increasefrom the first stage to the l
ast. The last stages of high-power turbines are usually arranged for double flow. In very larget
urbines the last stages may be arranged for triple or even quadruple flow because of the unacc
eptably large blade size thatwould be required in the last stages were the entire volume of the
steam to pass through a single stage.
In a pressure stage, the kinetic energy can be utilized in several rather than onerows of bl
ades by means of velocity-compounded staging. For this purpose, two, rarely three, rows of r
otor blades are mounted on the rim of the disk, and a rowof stationary directing blades is mou
nted between them. Steam at the pressure p0 is supplied to the nozzles (Figure 2) and,with the
velocity c2, impinges on the first row of rotor blades, where its dynamic pressure is partly con
verted into work andits direction of flow changes. After emerging with the velocity C2 from t
he first row of rotor blades, the steam passes throughthe stationary blades and, having again c
hanged direction, enters the second row of blades with the velocity c1, which issomewhat low
er than C2 owing to losses in the stationary blades. The steam leaves the second row of blades
with theinsignificant velocity C1.
Theoretically, for a two-row velocity-compounded stage, the peripheral velocity u will be half
that for a single-row stage usingthe same enthalpy drop. For Z velocity stages, the optimum r

atio u/c = 1/2z. In practice, however, large numbers of velocitystages are not used owing to la
rge losses in the blades. The most widespread type of turbine is the impulse turbine with asin
gle two-row disk in the first pressure stage and with single-row disks in the remaining stages.
The importance of the two-row disk is that by using a considerable portion of the available en
thalpy drop in the first pressure stage it permits a loweringof the temperature and pressure in t
he steam turbine casing and, at the same time, a reduction in the number of pressurestages req
uired. In other words, it makes possible a shortening and decrease in the cost of the turbine.
The distinctive characteristic of the reaction steam turbine is that the steam expansion occurs
in it within the passages ofboth the stationary and moving rows of bladesthat is, within bot
h the nozzles and the rotor blades. The degree of reaction is the ratio of the part of the availa
ble adiabatic enthalpy drop h2 that is transferred to the rotor blades to the total adiabaticdrop
of the stage h0 = h1 + h2, where h1 is the temperature drop in the stationary blades: = h2/(h1 +
h2).

Figure 2. Schematic section of an impulseturbine with a two-row velocity-compoundedstage:

(1) shaft, (2) disk, (3) first row of rotorblades, (4) nozzle, (5) casing, (6) second rowof rotor b
lades, (7) stationary blades
If 1/2, the turbine is called a reaction turbine. In a pure impulse turbine, should be equal
to zero. In practice, however,impulse turbines always operate with some degree of reaction, w
hich is greater in the later stages. There results a certainincrease of efficiency, particularly un
der operating conditions that are different from the design operating conditions.
The rows of moving blades in reaction turbines are mounted in grooves of drum-type rotors.
The rows of stationary bladesare located in the spaces between the rows of rotor blades and ar
e mounted on the turbine casing; they form the nozzlepassages. The profiles of the moving an
d stationary blades are usually the same. Live steam enters a ring-shaped chamber(Figure 3),
from which it proceeds into the first row of stationary blades. In the interblade passages of th
e row, the steamexpands, its pressure decreases somewhat, and its velocity increases from c0 t
o c1. The steam then impinges on the firstrow of rotor blades. The steam also expands betwee
n the rotor blades, and its relative velocity increases. The absolutevelocity c2 at the exit from t

he rotor blades, however, will be lower than c1, since mechanical work was obtained at theex
pense of kinetic energy. The process is repeated in the subsequent stages. To reduce steam lea
kage through the spacesbetween the turbines blades, rotor, and casing, the available pressure
drop is divided into a large number up to 100ofstages. As a result, the pressure differenc
e between adjacent stages is small.

Figure 3. Schematic section of a small reaction turbine: (1) ring-shapedlive steam chamber, (2
) discharge piston, (3) connecting steam pipe,(4) rotor drum, (5) and (8) rotor blades, (6) and
(9) stationary blades,(7) casing
Industrial and central-station reaction steam turbines are not built in the USSR, but a few fore
ign firms have continued toproduce steam turbines with a high-pressure action part followed
by reaction stages.
Structure. Steam turbines are classified according to the direction of steam flow as axial and
radial. In axial turbines, thesteam flows along the axis of the turbine. In radial turbines, the di
rection of steam flow is perpendicular to the axis ofrotation, and the moving blades are positi
oned parallel to the axis. Only axial steam turbines are built in the USSR.
According to the number of casings, or cylinders, steam turbines are divided into single-, dou
ble-, triple-, and quadruple-casing turbines. Quadruple-casing turbines are rarely built. Multip
le-casing construction permits the use of large availableenthalpy drops by incorporating a larg
e number of pressure stages, the use of high-quality metals in the high-pressure part,and the s
plitting of the steam flow in the low-pressure part. Such a turbine, however, is more expensiv
e, heavy, andcomplicated.
Steam turbines are classified by shaft arrangement as single-shaft turbines and crosscompound turbines. In single-shaftturbines, the shafts of all casings are located on the same a
xis. Cross-compound turbines have two, rarely three, shaftsarranged in parallel and linked by
the common thermal process; in marine turbines, the shafts are also connected by acommon r
eduction gear.
The stationary part of a steam turbinethe casingis designed for disassembly in the horizo
ntal plane to permit installationof the rotor. The casing contains grooves for the placing of the
diaphragms, which are separable in the same plane as thecasing. The nozzle passages are loca
ted along the periphery of the diaphragms. The passages are formed by curved bladescast into
the bodies of the diaphragms or welded to the diaphragms. In the places where the shaft passe

s through thecasing walls, labyrinth packings are used to prevent steam leakage to the outside
on the high-pressure end and the sucking-in of air on the low-pressure end. Labyrinth packing
s are used in the places where the rotor passes through the diaphragmsto prevent steam from f
lowing from one stage to the next without passing through the nozzles. An overspeed govern
or ismounted on the front end of the shaft.
It automatically stops the turbine if the rotative speed reaches 110112 percent of the rated sp
eed. The back end of therotor is equipped with an electrically powered turning gear for slow (
46 rpm) rotation of the rotor after stoppage of theturbine. Such rotation is necessary for the
uniform cooling of the turbine.

REFERENCES
Losev, S. M. Parovye turbiny i kondensatsionnye ustroistva: Teoriia konstruktsii i ekspluatats
iia, 10th ed. Moscow-Leningrad, 1964.
Shchegliaev, A. V. Parovye turbiny: Teoriia teplovogo protsessa i konstruktsii turbin, 4th ed.
Moscow-Leningrad, 1967.
S. M. LOSEV
The Great Soviet Encyclopedia, 3rd Edition (1970-1979). 2010 The Gale Group, Inc. All
rights reserved.

Steam turbine
A machine for generating mechanical power in rotary motion from the energy of steam at tem
perature and pressure abovethat of an available sink. By far the most widely used and most p
owerful turbines are those driven by steam. Until the 1960sessentially all steam used in turbin
e cycles was raised in boilers burning fossil fuels (coal, oil, and gas) or, in minorquantities, ce
rtain waste products. However, modern turbine technology includes nuclear steam plants as w
ell as productionof steam supplies from other sources. See Nuclear reactor
The illustration shows a small, simple mechanical-drive turbine of a few horsepower. It illustr
ates the essential parts for allsteam turbines regardless of rating or complexity: (1) a c
asing, or shell, usually divided at the horizontal center line,with the halves bolted together for
ease of assembly and disassembly; it contains the stationary blade system; (2) a rotorcarrying
the moving buckets (blades or vanes) either on wheels or drums, with bearing journals on the
ends of the rotor; (3) aset of bearings attached to the casing to support the shaft; (4) a governo
r and valve system for regulating the speed andpower of the turbine by controlling the steam f
low, and an oil system for lubrication of the bearings and, on all but thesmallest machines, for
operating the control valves by a relay system connected with the governor; (5) a coupling to
connect with the driven machine; and (6) pipe connections to the steam supply at the inlet and
to an exhaust system at theoutlet of the casing or shell.
Steam turbines are ideal prime movers for driving machines requiring rotational mechanical i
nput power. They can deliverconstant or variable speed and are capable of close speed control
. Drive applications include centrifugal pumps,compressors, ship propellers, and, most import
ant, electric generators.
Steam turbines are classified (1) by mechanical arrangement, as single-casing, crosscompound (more than one shaft sideby side), or tandem-compound (more than one casing wit
h a single shaft); (2) by steam flow direction (axial for most, butradial for a few); (3) by stea
m cycle, whether condensing, noncon-densing, automatic extraction, reheat, fossil fuel, ornuc

lear; and (4) by number of exhaust flows of a condensing unit, as single, double, triple flow, a
nd so on. Units with asmany as eight exhaust flows are in use. See Turbine
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