Calibration and validation of reservoir models: the importance of

high resolution, quantitative outcrop analogues

RICHARD R. JONES1,2, KENNETH J.W. MCCAFFREY3, JONATHAN IMBER3, RUTH WIGHTMAN3,
STEVEN A.F. SMITH3, ROBERT E. HOLDSWORTH3, PHILLIP CLEGG3,4,
NICOLA DE PAOLA3, DAVID HEALY3,5, ROBERT W. WILSON3,6.
1. Geospatial Research Ltd., Dept. of Earth Sciences, University of Durham, DH1 3LE, UK
2. e-Science Research Institute, University of Durham, DH1 3LE, UK
3. Reactivation Research Group, Dept. of Earth Sciences, University of Durham, DH1 3LE, UK
4. Current address: GeoPressure Technology Ltd., Mountjoy Research Centre, Stockton Road, Durham, DH1 3UZ, UK
5. Current address: Institute of Geoscience Research, Curtin University of Technology, GPO Box U1987, Perth
WA6845, Australia
6. Current address: BP, Chertsey Road, Sunbury-on-Thames, Middlesex, TW16 7BP, UK

Corresponding author:

richard@geospatial-research.co.uk

Abbreviated title:

High resolution quantitative outcrop analogues

Abstract Rapidly developing methods of digital acquisition, visualisation and analysis allow
highly detailed outcrop models to be constructed, and used as analogues to provide quantitative
information about sedimentological and structural architectures from reservoir to sub-seismic scales
of observation. Terrestrial laser-scanning (lidar) and high precision Real-Time Kinematic GPS are
key survey technologies for data acquisition. 3D visualisation facilities are used when analysing the
outcrop data. Analysis of laser-scan data involves picking of the point-cloud to derive interpolated
stratigraphic and structural surfaces. The resultant data can be used as input for object-based
models, or can be cellularised and upscaled for use in grid-based reservoir modelling. Outcrop data
can also be used to calibrate numerical models of geological processes such as the development and
growth of folds, and the initiation and propagation of fractures.

Reservoir geologists have utilised a wide variety of different kinds of geological modelling over
many years. These have helped to increase our understanding of basin dynamics, hydrocarbon
systems and petroleum-related processes. Collectively, the various different approaches to
modelling have spanned many orders of magnitude, from characterisations of overall lithosphericscale properties, down to modelling of grain-scale processes (Fig. 1a). Types of modelling include
analogue and numerical methods. Analogue models (e.g. sand-box models, flume experiments etc.)
have a long track-record of providing useful insights into structural and sedimentological processes.
Numerical-based approaches to modelling are ubiquitous in hydrocarbon exploration and
production, aided by ever increasing improvements in the price-performance ratio of computers.
Common to all modelling strategies is the need to calibrate the model with realistic values of
geological properties, and to test the validity of the model in relation to real-world petroleum
systems. Input for models often relies most heavily on indirect geophysical data (Fig. 1b),
particularly regional gravity and magnetic survey, 3D seismic and well-log data, together with
direct analysis of well core, when available. Further input can be gained from studying suitable
reservoir analogues (Fig. 1c). Direct geological observations made on well exposed outcrops can
help to reduce some of the uncertainty normally associated with remotely imaged geophysical data.
Another significant advantage is that outcrop analogues at reservoir scale also span scales of
observation that extend down to sub-seismic levels. Thus, outcrop studies help to fill the gap in the

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Fig. 1. Schematic diagram showing the approximate range of scales typically covered by a
variety of types of numerical and analogue modelling; (a) Representative examples of
modelling methods; (b) Examples of indirect geophysical observations typically used to
calibrate models of petroleum systems; (c) Types of direct observations that are essential in
validating the results of modelling. Outcrop analogues are particularly important in covering
the lack of indirect geophysical data for scales of observation below seismic resolution. From
McCaffrey et al. (2005)

scale range (below ca. 2.5x101m) not normally captured using geophysical methods, and provide
greater dimensionality than well-logs and core, which are essentially 1D in nature.
Although reservoir analogues have been used by petroleum geologists for many years, they
have traditionally been based on predominantly qualitative outcrop studies. Within an overall study
area, any quantitative study is typically restricted to only small regions of outcrop. Furthermore,
most studies use 1D analysis methods, such as logging sedimentary sections, or measuring fractures
along a line transect. Such limitations can be overcome using a number of modern digital survey
technologies (Fig. 2), including methods based on high-precision GPS, laser-based distance
measurement, and calibrated digital photography. This paper discusses ways in which survey
methodologies based on digital technologies such as these can be combined to capture detailed
geospatial outcrop data, and how the data can be interpreted to produce quantitative reservoir
analogues that are 3D (or semi-3D) in character, which can help to calibrate and validate geological
models used by reservoir geologists.

Quantitative Reservoir Analogues

Where possible, when developing new procedures to capture and process quantitative outcrop data,
we have based our approach on basic principles adopted from standard hydrocarbon exploration
strategies. In this way, our workflows utilise elements of digital data acquisition, data processing,
3D computer graphics, and geological interpretation. Our workflows group together a range of
complimentary methods, collectively termed GAVA (Geospatial Acquisition, Visualisation &
Analysis).

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Fig. 2. Examples of methods of digital data acquisition; (a) Real-Time Kinematic (RTK) dGPS, stationary basestation. In the field, differential GPS locates the base station with an accuracy of ca. 0.5m; this is improved by
post-processing to ca. 10 mm; (b) Two RTK dGPS rover-units. A positional fix relative to the base-station can be
made instantaneously, typically with a precision of ca. 10mm; (c) MDL LaserAce 300 laser-ranging device, with
hand-held PDA data-logger. The laser-ranger is used to measure the precise location of individual observations
and structural measurements relative to the instrument. RTK GPS is then used to measure the accurate location of
the instrument, and thus the absolute position of all its relative measurements; (d) terrestrial laser-scanning using
MDL Quarryman. The data captured includes x,y,z position and intensity information for each point scanned, and
the resultant laser-scan point-cloud can be imported into most 3D visualisation tools; (e) false-colour laser-scan
point-cloud from MDL scanner, imported into Gocad; (f) Riegl LMS-Z360i laser-scanner, with top-mounted high
resolution digital camera (to give true-colour point cloud data) and RTK dGPS unit to record precise scanner
location; (g) true-colour point cloud data from Riegl LMS-Z360i scanner. Locations: (a) analysis of fault-related
folding, Howick, NE England (see Pearce et al. 2006a); (b) segmented faults, Lamberton, SE Scotland; (c) study
of onshore analogues for Devonian clastics of West Orkney Basin, Kirtomy, N Scotland; (d-e) faulting in
Carboniferous sandstone/shale sequence, NE England; (f-g) study of fractured carbonates, Flamborough, E
England.

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Acquisition

Our primary survey methods (Fig. 2) are based on a combination of terrestrial laser-scanning (e.g.
Ahlgren & Holmlund 2002; Jennette & Bellian 2003; Jones et al., 2004; Lseth et al., 2004a,
2004b; Bellian et al., 2005; Clegg et al., 2005), laser-ranging (Xu et al., 2001, Lseth et al., 2003;
Jones et al., 2004), high-precision GPS (e.g. Xu et al., 2000; Maerten et al., 2001; McCaffrey et al.,
2005a; Pearce et al., 2006a,b), and digital photogrammetry (Pringle et al., 2001, 2004; Hodgetts et
al., 2004). The most suitable technology to capture a given outcrop depends on a number of factors:
o the purpose of the study;
o the nature of the outcrop, including amount of exposure and accessibility;
o the level of detail required;
o the spatial precision needed;
o time and cost constraints.
In most situations optimum results are obtained by combining more than one method. Terrestrial
laser-scanning is our preferred core technology for acquisition of highly detailed, photo-realistic
outcrop models. This is usually supported by high-precision Real Time Kinematic (RTK) GPS to
provide geospatial control, as well as laser-ranging to allow additional geological observations and
measurements to be referenced to the laser-scan data with centimetre precision. The resultant
outcrop models are sufficiently detailed to be used for virtual fieldtrips, and provide enhanced
ability to study parts of the exposure that are not easily (or safely) accessible on the real-world
outcrop. Virtual outcrop models can be further analysed to provide quantitative information about
structural and sedimentological architectures (see below). Where possible, valuable additional 3D
constraint on outcrop models can be gained by acquiring data from the shallow sub-surface, using
methods that include ground penetrating radar (GPR), ultra-shallow seismics, and boreholes sited
behind the outcrop face (e.g. Pringle et al., 2003, 2006; Young et al., 2003; Stepler et al., 2004).
To construct a complete reservoir-scale model at the resolution of a highly detailed virtual
outcrop analogue would place unrealistic demands on available hardware performance. An effective
strategy to overcome this issue is to build multi-scale models, in which local areas of detailed
outcrop are placed within a wider geological and topographical context by including nested levels
of coverage (Jones et al., in press). Multi-scale models can provide reasonably seamless coverage
from outcrop to basin scales, with larger areas showing progressively less detail. Whilst data
capture at the outcrop scale typically uses survey-grade equipment (laser-scanners and RTK dGPS),
coverage for larger areas uses digital geological mapping (McCaffrey et al., 2005a; Clegg et al.,
2006; Wilson 2006) and regional-scale remotely imaged data (e.g. satellite and aerial images,
geophysical datasets).
Visualisation

Visualisation is closely linked to analysis and interpretation of the acquired digital outcrop data, and
is of central importance in maximising the usefulness of the virtual outcrop model as a reservoir
analogue. In our work we routinely use a range of visualisation equipment that varies in terms of
processor power, memory (RAM), and graphics capability, as well as cost. Most modern desktop
PCs have impressive 3D visualisation capability, and are powerful enough for routine visualisation
and analysis. For example, we typically use high-end PCs running Windows or Linux to visualise
and analyse laser-scan datasets comprising coloured point-clouds containing up to 20 million points
(typically covering an outcrop area of 1-3 km2), or to visualise a multi-scale model consisting of
1000 km2 of regional satellite data, as well as 100 km2 of high resolution imagery and digital
geological map data, plus local areas of detailed virtual outcrop data embedded into the model. For
more demanding visualisation tasks involving larger datasets, we use a dedicated Silicon Graphics
workstation.
3D visualisation is enhanced by using auto-stereoscopic displays (Fig. 3a), which provide a
stereoscopic image without the need for stereo-glasses (Holliman, 2005), and which significantly
improve the users ability to work with 3D data. For fully immersive real-time interactive graphics
sessions we use a purpose built HIVE (High Impact Visualisation Environment) equipped with
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Fig. 3. Data analysis in 3D visualisation environments: (a) dual-head graphics display with both auto-stereoscopic
(left) and normal screens (right), on Windows PC using Schlumbergers Petrel software. The auto-stereoscopic
screen is similar in appearance to a standard LCD display, but generates a 3D image without the need for stereo
glasses. (b) Collaborative 3D interpretation session in fully immersive, interactive HIVE, using custom point-cloud
visualisation software on a high-end PC running Linux.

stereoscopic back-projection and 3D wireless tracking system (Fig. 3b). The HIVE can be driven
from Windows, Linux and Silicon Graphics environments. Because desktop PCs have a lower
overhead in terms of maintenance and technical support, we generally use low-end machines for
much of the preliminary processing, basic visualisation tasks, and construction of first versions of a
virtual model, reserving the high-performance, immersive graphics environment for detailed reinterpretation and collaborative sessions involving multiple users (Fig. 3b).
The various different formats of geospatial data used in virtual outcrop models are compatible
with many of the visualisation software tools in common use in exploration and production
environments. For smooth visualisation of laser-scan data, the choice of software can be critical,
since not all visualisation tools are optimised to display very large point-cloud datasets. Trial and
error, and a degree of experience, are often needed to optimise the performance of a particular
combination of hardware and software. One advantage of some of the software tools that are
specifically designed to render point-cloud data, is that it is possible to use different visualisation
modes for display of the outcrop model (Fig. 4). Showing all the data as individual points
(glyphs) is very efficient in terms of computing power (so very large datasets can be manipulated
in real-time), though there is a lack of detail when close to the outcrop. By converting the pointcloud into a meshed surface, and draping a digital image onto the mesh, it is possible to show very
high levels of detail in the model. However, this carries a much higher overhead in terms of
graphics performance, so that it is best suited for showing close-up areas of detail, or for viewing
larger models that have been decimated to reduce the number of panels in the mesh (at the expense
of detail in the surface topography).

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Fig. 4. Different visualisation modes for laser-scan point-cloud data: (a) rendering
data as individual points can be efficient for the graphics hardware, and is
particularly useful when picking precise geological surfaces in the raw data; (b)
meshing the point-cloud and draping a detailed image over the meshed surface
needs to be optimised carefully to avoid placing much higher demands on
hardware, but when done well can give photo-realistic results even close-up to the
model (height of arch: ca. 2 m).

Analysis interpretation of geospatial data to produce 3D models

Virtual outcrop models are no substitute for real field study on the outcrop, and geological
observations in the field are always the most important element in maximising the analysis of
digital data to full effect. However, using a virtual model in addition to field study can certainly
enhance interpretation significantly. Visualising the model allows the geologist to view parts of the
outcrop that are not normally accessible (e.g. areas of outcrop above head height, cliff sections
flanked by water), and the ability to zoom rapidly in and out from the outcrop provides perspective
at different scales of observation. Elevated vantage points can often give a clearer view of
stratigraphy, and it is useful to be able to navigate quickly to the exact viewpoint that shows how
structures of other geological features are aligned in 3D. Often it is useful to try viewing positions
inside an outcrop looking out, as it can sometimes be easier to recognise geological surfaces from a
vantage point inside the rock. The virtual model can also be rendered using false colour to
emphasise different aspects of the outcrop.
Most importantly, the digital data provide the basis for geospatial analysis of the outcrop to
derive quantitative interpretation of structural geometries (e.g. Maerten et al. 2001; Ahlgren et al.,
2002; Jones et al., 2004; Trinks et al., 2005; Pearce et al., 2006a,b; Kokkalas et al., 2007) and
sedimentological architectures (e.g. Pringle et al., 2001, 2004, 2006; Lseth et al., 2003, 2004a,
2004b; Jennette & Bellian, 2003; Hodgetts et al., 2004; Bellian et al., 2005; Labourdette & Jones, in
press). Examples of quantitative information derived from virtual outcrop models and used in
reservoir modelling include:
o overall facies distribution;
o lateral variations in stratigraphy;
o morphology of fluvial and submarine channels;
o turbidite architectures;
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Fig. 5. (a) Fault picking in laser-scanner point-cloud data; (b) interpolated plane
through the picked points. (Study of fractured carbonates, Flamborough, E
England. See also Waggott et al., 2005).

o fold geometries, including non-cylindrical anticlinal closures and whale-back fold

culminations;
o 3D fracture distributions, giving a characterisation of bulk structural heterogeneity;
o fracture orientation, density and connectivity, and their relation to fold closures;
o effects of sub-seismic scale damage zones adjacent to basin-scale faults.
In most cases, the virtual outcrop data are interpreted by picking stratigraphic and structural
surfaces within the point cloud (Fig. 5), in a process comparable with horizon picking in 3D seismic
(Jones et al., 2004; Clegg et al., 2005; Trinks et al., 2005). The picks are combined with other data
measured directly in the field (e.g. surface traces of structures surveyed with RTK dGPS
equipment), and the point sets are interpolated to produce continuous surfaces that can be
extrapolated into (and out of) the sub-surface. Clearly, interpolation is best constrained when good
3D exposures are used, and/or when additional data are available from the shallow sub-surface
close to the outcrop.
Calibration of Geological Modelling using Digital Outcrop Data
Once the virtual outcrop data has been fully picked, the resultant stratigraphic-structural
interpretation can be used to calibrate reservoir models. Interpolated surfaces are imported into
object-based modelling software for further analysis (e.g. Gocad, Petrel, 3DMove, TrapTester etc.),
or the model can be cellularised and upscaled for use in cell-based modelling and fluid-flow
simulation. A seminal study by Lseth and co-workers (Lseth, 2004; Lseth et al., 2004), using
virtual outcrop models as a framework for simulating hydrocarbon production, has emphasised the
critical influence of fine-scale heterogeneity, both on STOIIP (stock tank oil initially in place)
and sweep rates. Using a fine-scale model incorporating channel geometries derived from digital
outcrop data, the study showed that standard upscaling and modelling methods in this case
significantly overestimated reserves by as much as twice the actual magnitude. Studies such as
these highlight the importance of calibrating reservoir models with real-world outcrop data recorded
by direct observation from reservoir scale down to sub-seismic resolution (c.f. Fig. 1c).

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Fig. 6. Symbolic depiction of the use of quantitative outcrop data to calibrate multi-parameter
numerical models. The results of numerical modelling can populate the entire parameterspace (here limited to three variables for clarity), but need to be validated with real-world
data: the outcrop data (represented by individual spheres) are sparse, but represent points of
geological reality within the numerical model.

In addition to the calibration of reservoir models, digital outcrop data can also be used as a
quantitative basis for calibration of other kinds of modelling, including detailed studies that
examine structural geometries in relation to a wide range of other variables such as petrophysical
properties and geological processes. Numerical modelling methods have the advantage that
individual variables can be isolated and their effects studied, so that large amounts of a models
parameter-space can be fully examined. The disadvantage is that since all modelling requires
simplifying assumptions to be made, care is needed to ensure that complex numerical models retain
a reasonable approximation to geological reality. In contrast, digital outcrop data provide an
excellent quantitative measure of real-world geology, but there are still far too few available
outcrop studies to be able to populate multi-parameter models adequately. By combining both
approaches, however, we can use the sparse but validated outcrop data as key reference points with
which to calibrate the results of multi-parameter numerical modelling (Fig. 6).
The following case studies illustrate the way in which detailed digital outcrop data can be used
as a basis for improved reservoir characterisation and increased understanding of structural
processes. The case studies are part of ongoing work to analyse seismic to sub-seismic scale
faulting, and to quantify relationships between fracturing and folding. The study areas lie in the
northernmost onshore outcrops of the Carboniferous Northumberland Basin, and are related to a
phase of Late Carboniferous oblique extension (De Paola et al. 2005a).
Case study: displacement patterns in relay faults

The long-term aims of this study are to analyse 3D geometry and displacement patterns of smallscale segmented fault and fracture systems seen in outcrop, to compare these quantitatively with
larger-scale structures imaged in 3D seismic, and to use the 3D outcrop models to test the effect of
the fracture network on fluid flow. Figs. 7a & 7b show a set of segmented normal faults in a
sandstone/shale sequence from coastal exposures at Lamberton, SE Scotland (Wightman et al.,
2007; Imber et al., 2007).

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Fig. 7. Segmented faulting in sandstone/shale sequence at Lamberton, SE Scotland: (a) outcrop photo; (b) structural
interpretation showing exposed fault planes and fault tips; (c) lidar laser scan data from the outcrop, with fault panels
picked from three sandstone horizons (note: the sandstone pedestal on the right of the photo in (a) was removed by
erosion prior to acquisition of the lidar data); (d) meshed fault panels imported into Badleys TrapTester for further
analysis; (e) example of fault attribute data derived from the outcrop model: plot of throw population showing
exponential distribution (Imber et al., 2007); (f) numerical analysis of relay fault development using elastic dislocation
modelling.

The faults exposed at Lamberton have small displacements, typically of the order of 10-1m, and
therefore in order to ensure that the precision of the digital equipment was adequate for such a
small-scale study, measurements of fault tips and hangingwall and footwall cut-offs were repeated
using three different methods. Fault geometry and displacement were directly measured in the field
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using both RTK dGPS equipment (see Fig. 2b), and also by manual measurements of fault plane dip
and offset using compass-clinometer, steel rule and measuring tape. In addition, the outcrop was
scanned in detail using lidar equipment, and the position of the footwall and hangingwall cut-offs
(and hence fault displacements) were derived from the virtual laser scan point cloud (Fig. 7c). Data
were then exported to TrapTester, GoCad and ArcGIS software for further analysis (Fig. 7d). Many
different spatial and geometrical attributes can be rapidly derived directly from the 3D network
model; the cumulative fault throw plot shown in Fig. 7e is just one of many examples (Imber et al.
2007). The virtual outcrop dataset and derived 3D fracture network model are now being used by
the project sponsors (BG and Shell) to extract additional quantitative fracture characteristics as part
of their ongoing exploration activities. We are also using the Lamberton data to condition numerical
models of relay fault development based on elastic dislocation methods (Fig. 7f; Healy et al., 2004),
and to compare the real-world data with the predictions of distinct element modelling (c.f. Imber et
al., 2004).

Fig. 8. Non-cylindrical fold development at Howick (a,c), and Scremerston (b,d), NE

England: (a) RTK survey of a single folded bedding surface; (b) laser scanning of a tight fold
pair. A, B, & C are reference points to help comparison between upper and lower images; (c)
meshed RTK data (fold surface contoured according to curvature); (d) lidar data with picked
fracture traces across the fold hinge.

Case study: 3D fold geometry and models of fold development

Meso-scale folds in the Northumberland basin are intimately associated with domains of wrenchfaulting during regional transtension (De Paola et al. 2005a, 2005b). Folds are typically highly noncylindrical, with fold amplitude often decreasing rapidly along strike from local culminations and
antiformal closures. In many localities, the strong mechanical anisotropy of the
limestone/sandstone/shale sequence is also likely to have had an important influence on fold
development. Folded bedding surfaces in coastal exposures in NE England were surveyed using
RTK dGPS equipment at Howick (Fig. 8a,c; Pearce et al., 2006a), and RTK and laser scanning at
Scremerston (Fig. 8b,d; Pearce et al., 2006b). The raw field data from the folded surfaces were
meshed using Matlab and Gocad software to form a detailed model of the fold geometry (Fig. 8c).
This was the basis for comparison with models of fault-propagation folding (McCaffrey et al.
2005b), based on the trishear models of Cristallini & Allmendinger (2001). The data have also been
used to compare spatial variations in fracture density with position on the fold and curvature of the
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fold surface, to test the supposition that the highest concentration of fracturing will coincide with
greatest curvature (Pearce et al., 2006b).

Conclusions
There is currently renewed interest in outcrop geology within the hydrocarbon sector, driven by a
need to improve reservoir characterisation during exploration, as well as ongoing efforts to tackle
production related issues. New methods of digital field survey, in particular terrestrial laserscanning supported by high-precision Real Time Kinematic dGPS equipment, allow quantitative
outcrop geology to be captured with unprecedented levels of detail and geospatial accuracy. Digital
data can be analysed using standard 3D visualisation facilities, and interpreted and collated into
virtual outcrop models, which encapsulate the geospatial distribution of sedimentological and
structural architectures. Multi-scale virtual models combine data from several orders of magnitude,
and help to place detailed outcrop data in the wider context of reservoir or regional scale geology.
Data from outcrop models can be exported in standard industry formats for further analysis in
many modelling software packages. These include object-based tools (e.g. TrapTester, 3DMove,
Petrel, Gocad), and cell-based reservoir modelling software (e.g. Eclipse, IRAP RMS etc.). Digital
outcrop data can also be used to validate the predictions made by other kinds of modelling,
including numerical models of geological processes such as the formation of folds and the
development of 3D fracture arrays.
Thus, outcrop data can provide a quantitative 3D framework for the calibration and validation
of deterministic and stochastic geological models used in hydrocarbon exploration and production.
Virtual outcrop models fill an important gap in the range of scales of observable geological data
(Fig. 1). Quantitative outcrop data have demonstrated the critical importance of small-scale
anisotropy imaged at a finer resolution than typical grid sizes used in reservoir modelling, and
future improvements in the ability of modelling software to match geological reality will
significantly enhance reservoir characterisation.
Acknowledgements
Editorial assistance from Paul Griffiths and constructive reviews from Jamie Pringle and an anonymous referee have
helped to improve this paper. Parts of this work were developed with assistance of the following sponsors: Ocean
Margins Link project (NER/T/S/2000/01018), funded by Statoil UK Ltd, BP and NERC; FR3DA consortium members
Shell, BG and DTI; as well as NERC Follow-on Funding (NE/C506964/1). RRG gratefully thank Schlumberger and
Badleys for non-commercial software licences and ongoing assistance. Mark Pearce gave valuable assistance with data
collection and interpretation. Nick Holliman and Immo Trinks at the e-Science Research Institute at Durham, and Dave
Stevenson, Gary Wilkinson and members of RRG have given essential assistance.

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