Chapter (5): Curves

The establishment of figures on the ground is an important task of the field surveyor, not only in
engineering construction but also in cadastral surveying. It is a relatively easy task to peg out the
boundary of a rectangular concrete slab, but considerably more difficult to establish the location
of points along an elevated curved freeway.
This section will look at the techniques of establishing horizontal circular curves; however more
detail will be given in later subject uni
units
ts concerned with road design and construction.
Basic Properties of Horizontal Circular Curves
Properties of a Circle
The circle has a few geometric features upon which many of the curve layout formulae
are based.
1. Circumference of circle = 2 r
2. Area of circle = r2
3. Area of sector = () r2 rad
4. Area of a segment = (1/2) r2( rad - Sin )

The angles subtended by a chord AB The angle subtended at the centre by

on the circumference are always a chord AB is always twice the angle
equal
subtended on the circumference.

Curve designation
Curves are designated either by their radius (R) or their
degree of curvature (D).
). The degree of curvature is
defined as the angle subtended at the centre of a circle
by an arc of 100 m.

Route Curves for Horizontal and Vertical Alignment

The insertion of curves into road design is important for the safety of the driving public.
It provides a smooth transition when the roadway changes direction and also ensures
that proper and safe sight distances are maint
maintained
ained for the speed which the road will
accommodate. The change of direction can occur in both the horizontal and vertical
direction.
FIRSTLY HORIZONTAL
ONTAL CURVES:
CURVES
A horizontal curve is one where the change in direction occurs in the plan direction. This
means that the curve will direct the road to the right or to the left.
1. TYPES OF HORIZONTAL
ONTAL CURVES
The types of horizontal curves usually encountered in engineering surveying application
may be broadly categorized as:
(i) Circular curves: curves of constant radius joining two intersecting straights.

Figure (5.1): a circular curve of constant radius R, centered at O, joins two straights A'A and BB'
which intersect at C. A and B are tangent points to the circular arc. OA and OB are radials,
which meet the straights at right
ght angles,
ang
and the angle at O is equal to the inntersection angle at C.

(ii) Compound circular curves: two or more consecutive circular curves of different radii.

Figure (5.2): A com

mpound circular curve ADB joins two straights A'A and BB' which
intersect at C. A & B are tangent points to circular arcs of radii
rad R1 and R2
respectively. D is a common tangent point.
(iii) Reverse circular curves: two or more consecutive circular curves, of the same or
different radiii whose centers
cent
lie on different sides of a common tangent point.

Figure (5.3), a reverse circular curve ADB joins two straights A'A and BB'.
BB A&B is tangent
on tangent point.
points to circular arcs of radii R1 and R2 respectively. D is a common
C1 &C2 are intersection points and the line C1C2 is perpend
ndicular
to the line between the centers O1and O2

(iv) Transition curves: curves with gradually changing radius, often referred to as spirals.

Figure (5.4): a transition curve AD joins the straight A'A and the circular curve of radius R
whose centre is O. The transition curve has an infinite radius at A, decreasing
gradually to a radius of R at D
(v) Combined curves: consissting of consecutive transition and circular
rcular curves.
Combined curves are used in road and railway surveying.

Figure (5.5): a combined curve ADEFGB joins the straights A'A and BB' which intersect at C.

2. GEOMETRY OF CIRCULAR CURVES

ar curve APMB of radius R, centre O, joining two straights A'A and

Figure (5.6): shows a circular
B'B which intersect at C. The angle of intersection is . A &B are tangent
angent points
po
and the radials
OA and OB intersect the straigh
ghts at right angles. M is the mid-point of the circular arc AB and
the mid-point of the line DE. DE and the chord AB are parallel and X is the
t mid-point of the
chord AB. The chord AB is per
erpendicular to the straight line OXMC.
In the quadrilateral OACB, the angles A and B both equal 90 and C = 1880o, therefore O = .
OACB is known as a cyclicc quadrilateral,
quadr
(a quadrilateral inscribed within
wit
a circle whose
opposite angles add to 180).
Duo to symmetry AOC = BOC = /2 and ACO = OAB = 90 /2. Hence, in the right-angle
B = CBA = / 2 Therefore, the angle between the tangent AC and the
triangles AXC and BXC, CAB
chord AB is half the angle subtended at the centre of the circle by the chord AB. This is a general
property of chords and tangen
angents to circles.

The following formulae may

ay be deduced from Figure (5.6):

5-1
5-2
5-3
5-4

5-5
3.

GEOMETRY OF COMPOUND CIRCULAR CURVES

Figure (5.7): a compound circu

rcular curve ADB joins two straights A'A and BB' which intersect at
C. A &B are tangent points to circular arcs of radii R1 and R2 respectively, whose
centers are O1 and O2. D is a common tangent point & the line
li C1C2
is tangenntial to both circular curves and perpendicular
lar
to the line DO1O2

T1 = AC, T2 = BC are tangent lengths. A1 = ARC AD & A2 = ARC DB are arc lengths of the
circular curves. There are nine elements of a compound circular curve, , 1 , 2 , R1 , R2 , T1
, T2 , A1 , A2 and the following formulae linking these elements may be deduced from Figure
5.7.
= 1 + 2

5.6

A1 = R1 1

5.7

A2 = R2 2

5.8

In the polygon O2O1 ACBO2 the algebraic sum of the projections of the sides onto any one side
must be zero. In Figure (5.7), considering the projections of the sides onto the radius O2 B. We
may write Ca = BO2 O2 c O1b or
Ca = R2 R2 cos 2 + R1 cos 2 R1 cos
= R2 (1 cos 2) + R1 ( cos 2 cos)
= R2 (1 cos 2) + R1 (1 cos (1 cos 2))

5.9

This simplifies to:

T1 sin = R1 (1 cos) + ( R2 R1) (1 cos 2)

5.10

Similarly, projecting onto the radius O1 A gives:

T2 sin = R2 (1 cos) ( R2 R1) (1 cos1)
Expressions for the tangent distances T1
distances t1 and t2

5.11

and T2 can be obtained by considering the tangent

t1 = R1 tan 1/2

5.12

t2 = R2 tan 2/2

5.13

And using the sine rule in triangle C1CC2

CC1 = T1 t1 = t1 + t2 {sin 2/ sin }

5.14

Giving
T1 = t1 + (t1 + t2) {sin 2/ sin })

5.15

T2= t2 + (t1 + t2) {sin 2/ sin })

5.16

and similarly

In some compound curve computations,

co
the equations above are not convenient for solving
unknowns. In such circumstances
ances an "equivalent" circle of radius R, which
ich is tangential to all
three lines AA', BB' and C1C2 may be introduced and equations developed.

Similarly

Figure (5.8): the circular curve (dotted) PMQ of radius R, centered at O, is tangential
ta
to the two
straights AA'
and BB' and the line C1C2. The tangent points are P, M and Q. Using thhe formula for tangent
length
Now, since PA = DM and QB
Q = DM then PA = QB hence
5.17
Re-arranging the equation gives the radius of the equivalent circular curve:

5.18

Also:
AC = CP DM

5.19

BC = CQ + DM

5.20

Where: CP = CQ = R tan (/2)

5.21

Example:
= 75o , 1 = 30o , 2 = 45o , AC = 180.000 m and BC = 215.000
215.00 m, Compute R1 &
R2
Solution:
Using equations (5.19) & (5.20)

180 = CP DM & 215 = CP + DM

From which we obtain 2 (CP) = 395 thus CP = 197.500 m and DM = 17.500 m.

Since CP is now known and = 75o, then from (5.21) R = 257.387 m.
Since DM is now known, then from (5.17) R1 = 192.076 m and R2 = 299.636 m
4.

GEOMETRY OF REVERSE CIRCULAR CURVES

Figure (5.9): A reverse circular curve ADB joins two straights A'A & BB'.
BB A & B are tangent
mmon tangent point.
points to circular arcs of radii R1 and R2 respectively. D is a comm
C1 & C2 are inttersection points and the line C1 C2 is perpeendicular to
the line between
etween the centers O1 DO2. C is an intersection point
created by extending AA' to intersect BB'.

Similarly to compound circular curves, there are nine elements of a reverse circular curve,
, 1 , 2 , R1 , R2 , T1 , T2 , A1 and A2 and the following formulae linking these
elements may be deduced from Figure (5.8).
From triangle CC1C2
+ 1 + (180- 2 )= 180o from which we obtain = 2 1.
For other reverse curves it may be that = 1 be but in all cases, is the positive
difference between 1 & 2 or the magnitude of the difference. However, as before:
A1 = R1 1

5.7

A2 = R2 2

5.8

As with the compound circular curve, the algebraic sum of projections of certain lines can be
used to derive a formula linking the elements of the reverse curve.
Considering Figure (5.8), we may write: Aa = Ab + ba= Ab + (O2B cO2) or

which simplifies to

Using a similar technique

5.
GEOMETRY OF TRANSITION CURVES
A transition curve is a curve whose curvature (kappa) varies uniformly with respect to its
length and allows a gradual change from one radius to another, or from a straight line to a
circular curve, since a straight line is merely a curve of infinite radius. The concept of curvature
and its reciprocal, radius of curvature , is discussed below.

Setting Out Curves

The centre line is normally described by means of a series of straight lines
meeting at points of intersection. Eventually, these straights will be joined by
curves that will be set out during the detailed setting out.
out

This is the process of establishing the centre

centre-line
line of the curve on the ground by means
of pegs at 10-m to 30-m
m intervals. In order to do this the tangent and intersection points
must first be fixed in the ground, in their correct positions.
Consider the following Figure.
Figure The straights 0I1, I1I2, I2I3, etc., will have been designed
on the plan in the first instance. Using railway curves, appropriate curves will now be
designed to connect the straights.

The tangent points of these curves will then be fixed, making sure that the tangent
lengths are equal, i.e. T1I1 = T2I1 and T3I2 = T4I2. The coordinates of the origin, point 0,
and all the intersection points only will now be carefully scaled from the plan.
plan Using
these coordinates, the bearings of the straights are computed and, using the tangent
lengths on these bearings, the coordinates of the tangent points are also computed. The
difference of the bearings of the straights provides the deflection angle
angl () of the curves
which, combined with the tangent length, enables computation of the curve radius,
through chainage and all setting
setting-out
out data. Now the tangent and intersection points are
set out from existing control survey stations and the curves ranged between
be
them using
the methods detailed below.
The distance between the intersection points can easily be measured and used as a
first estimate of the length of the road to be constructed.
Setting Out
There are several methods available for establishing the location of points along the
centerline of the engineering curve. Some of these are rarely used these days; the
system is generally dominated by the use of coordinates as the method of computation,
so
o the use of radiations from control points is common. In any case, all pegs and marks
placed must be checked, and the preferred method for that is to use a different method
to check from that used to peg.

Setting out - Offsets from the Tangent

When the tangent points have been located, the curve may be set out by means of
offsets from the tangents. Consider the circular arc illustrated below with centre O and
one of the tangent points, T. It is necessary to calculate the length of the offset BA(c)
BA( at
distance TB(g) along the tangent. Let radius of arc is R.

Applying Pythagoras Theorem to

triangle OAC, we have:
OA2 = OC2 + AC2 = (TO - TC)2 +
AC2
Or
OA2 = (TO - BA)2 + TB2
Substituting for x, y, and R in this equation:
R2 = (R - x)2 + y2
Or
(R - x)2 = (R2 - y2) x =

(R2 - y2)

Hence, values of x may be calculated for regular intervals of y. This method is useful
when the angle through which the road deflects is small such that offsets are short. The
curve may be adequately defined by setting out offsets from both tangents.
Setting out - Offsets from the Chord
It is sometimes more convenient to set out the curve from the 'inside'. Many of the
points on the tangent may not be accessible whereas points on the chord joining the
two tangents points may be easily accessible. In this case it is convenient to establish
the mid-point
point of the long chord and refer the distances along the chord to this point
rather than the tangent point.

Let A represent the mid-point

mid
of the
chord T1 T2 and from the symmetry
of the figure OT1will be a right
angle. The offset at A to the curve
must first be calculated.
Using pythagoras in OAT1

(OT1)2 = (OA)2 + (AT1)2

Let the length of the chord T1T2 be L

AT1 = L/2 = R sin (/2)

If the offset at A is taken as x0 and equation (1)

R2 = (R - x0)2 + (L/2)2
x0 = R - {R2- (L/2)2}1/2

Now consider the offset (xE) from the point E which is a distance yE from A.
Applying Phythagoras to DOBD, we have

(1)

(OD)2 = (OB)2 + (BD)2

= (OA + AB)2 + (EA)2 = (OC - CA + DE)2 + (EA)2
R2

= (R - x0 + xE)2 + (yE)2

xE = (R2 - yE2 ) - (R - x0)

Clearly only offsets for one half of the chord are necessary, the curve is symmetrical.
Setting out - Deflection Angles
The use of deflection angles (the angle deflected by a chord) is considerable more
rigorous than either of the two previous methods. The method also follows the
centerline of the curve, unlike the previous two which require access to the chord and
centerline.
The method is based on the following geometry:

It will be remembered that the angle subtended at the circumference by a chord is one
half of the angle subtended at the centre (in this case and ).
). The first angle through
which the chord being used for pegging is deflected is therefore half the angle
subtended by that chord at the centre. The next angle through which the next chord is
deflected is the equal to twice this value that is the same as the angle subtended at the
centre. A typical application
ion of the method is as follows:
i. Set the instrument up at the tangent point, sight along the tangent and turn off
the first deflection angle (=/2).
ii. fix one end of tape at A, measure off 'c' meters, and swing tape until it aligns with
the line of sight. Put in peg B.
iii. Turn theodolite a further .
. Fix one end of tape at B, measure off 'c' meters, and
swing tape until that point on the tape crosses the line of sight. Put in peg C.
iv. Repeat step (iii) until you peg the curve. If the line of sight becomes obstr
obstructed,
then simply set up on any peg on the curve, sight back along the chord to the
previous peg and continue to establish the deflection angles.

Setting out - Deflection Distances

The method of establishing a curve using deflection distances is very similar
si
to that of
deflection angles.

Deflection distances are the offset from the tangent in the first instance and the
produced chord in the subsequent instances. The first offset is calculated from the
chord length and radius and is shown above. The second
second offset, also known as the
'Standard Offset' is twice this, and remains so for the remainder of the curve. These two
distances can be cut as notches on a sighting board, which then eliminates the need to
measure them in the field. This is a simple method
method of establishing the curve, and needs
a low level of technology to perform.
Setting out - Quartering
One very simple method of setting out a circular curve quickly is to use the method of
quartering. Since the method is based on assumption which can, under certain
circumstances, produce significant errors, it should not be used where a high degree of
accuracy is required.
Looking at the diagram below, let the length of the long chord be "L" and Radius of
curve "R".

Diagram (1):
AT1 =L/2 = Rsin(/2) or
L

= 2Rsin(/2)

Now look at the diagram below.

(AT1)2 = AC x BA = AC x (2R-AC)
AC)
Now if we let the offset at A (AC= x0)
then (L/2)2 = x0 (2R - x0)
= 2Rx0 - x02

Now since x0 is very small compared with R, the term involving x02 may be neglected
yielding:
L 2 1
L2
x0 = ( ) x
which simplifies down to x0 =
2
2R
8R
We now can calculate the offset at the mid point of the chord (D) following the same
procedure as before.
As we have assumed CT1 = L/2
CD = L/4
Hence:

2Rx0= L2/4

x0 = L2/ (32R)

It will be noticed that this offset is one quarter of that to be set out from C. This
procedure may be repeated as often as is necessary in order to define the curve
adequately. For each successive chord, the central offset will be a quarter of that from
the previous chord.
Since the assumption on which the method is based is that the length of chord and arc
are approximately equal the technique can only be applied where very small deflection
angles between the tangents are concerned. Alternatively it offers a convenient method
meth
of setting out circular arcs quickly where precision is not so important, for example the
kerb line on a residential estate.

Setting out with Theodolite and EDM (deflection

deflection or tangential angle
method)
The following method of setting out curves is the most popular and it is called Rankines
deflection or tangential angle method, the latter term being more definitive.
In the next figure, the curve is established by a series of chords T1X, XY,
XY etc. Thus, peg
1 at X is fixed by sighting to I with the theodolite reading zero, turning off the angle 1

and measuring out the chord length T1X along this line. Setting the instrument to read
the second deflection angle gives the direction T1Y,, and peg 2 is fixed by measuring the
chord length XY from X until it intersects at Y.. The procedure is now continued, the
angles being set out from T1I,, and the chords measured from the previous station.
It is thus necessary to be able to calculate the setting-out
setting
angles as follows:
Assume 0A bisects the chord T1X at right angles; then

By radians, arc length T1X = R.2

R. 1

5-9

5-10
Using equation (5-9)
9) the angle is obtained in degree and decimals of a degree; an
example will now be worked to illustrate these principles.
The centre-line
line of two straights is projected forward to meet at I, the deflection
angle being 30. If the straights are to be connected by a circular curve of radius
200 m, tabulate all the setting-out
setting
data, assuming 20-m
m chords on a through
chainage basis, the chainage of I being 2259.59 m.
Tangent length = R tan /2 = 200 tan 15 = 53.59 m
Chainage of T1
1 = 2259.59 53.59 = 2206 m

1st sub-chord 14 m
Length of circular arc = R = 200(30

/180) m = 104.72 m

From which the number of chords may now be deduced

i.e. 1st sub-chord = 14 m
2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th chords = 20 m each
& Final sub-chord = 10.72 m
Total = 104.72 m (Check)
Chainage of T2 = 2206 m + 104.72 m = 2310.72 m
Deflection angles:

Table:

The error of 1" is, in this case, due to the rounding-off of the angles to the nearest second and is
negligible.
Setting-out Using EDM
When setting-out by EDM, the total distance from T1 to the peg is set out, i.e. distances T1 A, T1
B, and T1C etc. in the following Figure.
However, the chord and sub-chord distances are still required in the usual way, plus the settingout angles for those chords. Thus all the data and setting-out computation as shown in the above
Table must first be carried out prior to computing the distances to the pegs direct from T1. These
distances are computed using
Figure (5.6) and related geometric definition equations.

out by measuring the distances direct from T1 and turning off the
In this way the curve is set-out
necessary direction in the manner already described.

Setting-out
out Using Coordinates (Total Station)
Today, because of the availability of total station instruments with data collectors,
circular curves are often staked using the coordi
coordinate
nate method. For this procedure,
coordinates of the points on the curve to be staked must first be determined in some
reference coordinate system. Although they are most often based upon an established
map projection such as the State Plane Coordinate System
System or the Universal Transverse
Mercator projection (see Chapter 7), often an arbitrary project coordinate system will
suffice. This section describes the process of determining coordinates for stations on
circular curves.
In the figure, assume that the azimuth
az
of the back-tangent
tangent going from A to V is known,
the coordinates of the PI (point V) are known, and that the defining parts of the curve
have been computed Using the tangent distance and azimuth of the back tangent, the
departure and latitude are comp
computed,
uted, where is the back azimuth of line AV. The
coordinates of A (the PC) are then:
XA = XV + T sin AZVA
YA = YV + T cos AZVA

With the coordinates of the PC known,

coordinates of points on the curve can be
computed using the same deflection
angles and subchords used to stake out
the curve by the total chord method.
Deflection angles are added to the azimuth
of AV to get azimuths of the chords to all
stations to be set. Using the total chord
length and chord azimuth for each station,
departures and latitudes are calculated,
and added to the coordinates of A (the PC)
to get the station coordinates. With
coordinates known for all curve points,
they can be staked with the total station
occupying any convenient point whose
coordinates are also known in the same
system. The PC, PT, PI, or curve mid-point
are points that are often used.

Worked Examples:
Example 1:
The tangent length of a simple curve was 202.12 m and the deflection angle for a
30-m chord 218'. Calculate the radius, the total deflection angle, the length of
curve and the final deflection angle.
Sol.:

Example 2
The straight lines ABI and CDI are tangents to a proposed circular curve of radius
1600 m. The lengths AB and CD are each 1200 m. The intersection point is
inaccessible so that it is not possible directly to measure the deflection angle; but
the angles at B and D are measured as:
ABD = 123 48', BDC = 12612' and the length BD is 1485 m
Calculate the distances from A and C of the tangent points on their respective
straights and calculate the deflection angles for setting out 30-m chords from one
of the tangent points.
Sol.:

By using Sine Rule in triangle BID:

Example 3:
A circular curve of 800 m radius has been set out connecting two straights with a deflection
angle of 42. It is decided, for construction reasons, that the mid-point of the curve must be
moved 4 m towards the centre, i.e. away from the intersection point. The alignment of the
straights is to remain unaltered. Calculate:
(1) The radius of the new curve.
(2) The distances from the intersection point to the new tangent points.
(3) The deflection angles required for setting out 30-m chords of the new curve.
(4) The length of the final sub-chord.
Sol.:

Example 4:
The centre-line of a new railway is to be set out along a valley. The first straight AI has
bearing 75, whilst the connecting straight IB has bearing 120. Due to site conditions it has
been decided to join the straights with a compound curve. The first curve of 500 m radius
commences at T1, situated 300 m from I on straight AI, and deflects through an angle of
25 before joining the second curve.
Calculate the radius of the second curve and the distance of the tangent point T2 from I on
the straight IB.
Sol.:
= 120 75 = 45o

By sine rule

Example 5:
Two straights intersecting at a point B have the following bearings, BA 270, BC 110.
They are to be joined by a circular curve which must pass through a point D which is 150
m from B and the bearing of BD is 260.
Find the required radius, tangent lengths, length of curve and setting-out angle for a 30-m
chord.
Sol.:
From the bearings, the apex angle = (270 110) = 160

and angle DBA = 10 (from bearings)

In triangle BDO by sine rule:

(180 7235'25") = 10724' 35"

An examination of the figure shows that must be less
than 10,

By sine rule:

Example 6:
The coordinates in meters of two points B and C with respect to A are: B(470 E,
500 N) & C(770 E, 550 N). Calculate the radius of a circular curve passing through
the three points, and the coordinates of the intersection point I, assuming that A
and C are tangent points.
Sol.:

As a check, the remaining angle, calculated from the

bearings of BA and BC = 14242', summing to 180.
In right-angled triangle DOB:

This result could now be checked through triangle

OEC.

Coordinates of I equal:
595 sin 1710' = + 176 E
595 cos 1710' = + 569 N