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Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 109 (2013) 260279

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Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering


journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/petrol

Consistent geological-simulation modeling in carbonate reservoirs,


a case study from the Khuff Formation, Persian Gulf
Ashkan Asadi-Eskandar a,b,n, Hossein Rahimpour-Bonab a, Shahab Hejri c, Khalil Afsari b,
Alireza Mardani a
a

School of Geology, College of Science, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran


National Iranian Oil Company (NIOC), Tehran, Iran
c
Kish Petroleum Engineering Company (KPE), Tehran, Iran
b

art ic l e i nf o

a b s t r a c t

Article history:
Received 27 June 2012
Accepted 26 July 2013
Available online 17 August 2013

The Khuff Formation constitutes reservoir body in many gas producer elds of the Persian Gulf and
Arabian plate. This carbonate reservoir represents a complex character which strongly affects reservoir
modeling and prediction of its reservoir performance. This paper examines construction of a reservoir
model for this formation by the use of an integrated approach and shows how geological and simulation
grids can perform consistently. This approach shows that in case of proper data integration, loss of value
in z-dimension after grid scale-up would be ignorable and will not affect actual reservoir performance.
The presented approach uses sequence stratigraphic framework (SSF) as the basis of reservoir
zonation and permeability prediction. This is resulted to consistent poro/perm models that help accurate
prediction of reservoir performance in simulation model. SSF also helped propagation of reservoir bodies
in geological model. A seismic derived effective porosity (SPHIE) cube is used in conjunction with core
and log data to distribute porosity. Hydraulic ow units (HFUs) which are assessed by the use of core and
log data are used as the basis of grid scale-up. Our ndings showed that if data integration is properly
done, strong correlation of HFUs and SSF will be obtained which results to consistent geological and
simulation models. Permeability should be populated into the 3D grid by the use of functions derived
from SSF zonation and water saturation modeling should be upon capillary pressure curves assigned to
each reservoir rock type (RRT) so that the nal geological model and coarse simulation grid would be
consistent.
The presented approach in this study explains how various visions and different scale data could be
properly used in a reservoir model. It also provides ideas about ideal consistent reservoir modeling for
the Khuff Formation and similar heterogeneous carbonate reservoirs.
& 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords:
Khuff
static model
gridding
ow unit
Persian Gulf

1. Introduction
Reservoir modeling is a cyclic procedure which should not end up
until proper data integration (Ainsworth and Sankosik, 1998;
Akatsuka, 2000; Dubrule, 1998; Henriquez et al., 1990; Labourdette
et al., 2008; Marion et al., 2000; Mattax and Dalton, 1990; Sibley
et al., 1997; Soleimani et al., 2008; Valle et al., 1997; Van de Graaff
and Ealey, 1989; Webber and Van Geuns, 1990). Various data are used
for construction of a reservoir model each of them having particular
scale and resolution hence nding a way about how different data
should be incorporated into a single model and how various levels of
data resolution should be considered, has always been an important
challenge for geo-modelers. The way a geological model is built and
n
Corresponding author at: School of Geology, College of Science, University of
Tehran, Tehran, Iran. Tel.: 98 912 792 5420; fax: 98 21 66491623.
E-mail addresses: a.asadi@khayam.ut.ac.ir, aasadi@pogc.ir,
ashkan.asadi@gmail.com (A. Asadi-Eskandar).

0920-4105/$ - see front matter & 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.petrol.2013.07.010

scaled-up highly affects the ultimate performance of simulation grid


particularly by increasing the amount of heterogeneity in the
reservoir. Main reason for mismatch between geological grid and
simulation model is that geological models are often built in very ne
scales which usually tend to keep every detail of the reservoir. Such
models maintain variations in depositional facies and petrophysical
properties (e.g., Lucia and Fogg, 1990; Lucia and Ruppel, 1996;
Ratchkovski et al., 1999; Walker, 1990) in contrast, simulation grids
which are always coarse grids (and large scaled) mainly represent the
ow behavior of the reservoir that is characterized by ow units (e.g.,
Ebanks et al., 1984; Guo et al., 2005; Porras and Campos, 2001; Ti
et al., 1995). Accordingly in coarse grids, the entire property of 3D
grid would be different than expected values by the geologists.
This study examines different visions on construction of reservoir models and presents a particular integrated approach for
construction of geological model in carbonate reservoirs. The
study has been conducted on the Khuff Formation which is
characterized by having very ne scale heterogeneity and tries to

A. Asadi-Eskandar et al. / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 109 (2013) 260279

nd a way toward practical data integration. Proper scale of


geological gridding is also examined in this study considering
the ultimate reservoir behavior and uid performance of the
studied eld. To investigate this, the geo-cellular model is built
using a sequence-derived reservoir zonation (SSF zonation). Geological details are kept in the original grid so that the amount of
lost data after grid scale-up would be clear. Hydraulic ow units
(HFUs) are assessed by the use of core and log data which are
compared to SSF based zonation. The purpose of this paper is to
compare different visions on modeling and tries to nd how the
ultimate result could be satisfying.

2. Methodology
This study is carried out by the use of a multidisciplinary
approach for construction of a 3D geological grid with a wide
range of input data from seismic to production analysis.
A sequence stratigraphic analysis is carried out as the main
geological approach considering the fact that depositional facies
are only appropriately propagated into a 3D grid when they are
interpreted in a proper chrono-startigraphic framework. To do
this, a set of core and log data was used from the studied
carbonate reservoir. This data includes ve set of full cores
containing the reservoir succession. The non-cored wells are
correlated with cored intervals in terms of sequence stratigraphy
and facies characteristics.
Pre-interpreted seismic horizons and geological well markers
are used for construction of structural model. Formation tops are
quality controlled and depth adjusted by the use of well logs.
A seismic derived effective porosity (SPHIE) cube is used as a trend
for porosity propagation. This cube is calibrated with the well logs
and core data (porosity measurements) as well. For this purpose
single attribute (linear regression), multi attribute (multi-step
regression) and neural network (Probabilistic Neural NetworksPNN) methods are analyzed and nally the method with the
lowest validation error and highest correlation to well data is
selected to build the porosity cube. Effective porosity (PHIE) is
used as the target log for prediction according to available PHIE in

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wells. The SPHIE cube is the nal output of porosity prediction


using seismic attributes. For single attribute analysis some different attribute extracted and correlation coefcient of each attribute

Table 1
Core facies classication of the Khuff Formation in the study area.
Code

Description

CF1
CF2
CF3
CF4
CF5
CF6
CF7
CF8
CF9
CF10
CF11
CF12
CF13
CF14
CF15

Anhydrite (from massive to layer)


Mudstone often fenestrate/evaporate casts
Stromatolite boundstone
Wackestone to packstone (skeletal/peloid often with oncoids)
Oncoid, peloid packstone to grainstone
Fine-grained ooid, peloid grainstone
Medium-grained skeletal, ooid grainstone
Coarse-grained skeletal, intraclast grainstone
Beach barrier packstone to grainstone
Intra-formational conglomerate/collapse breccia
Bioturbated mudstone to wackestone
Dark argillaceous mudstone to claystone
Fossiliferous mudstone to skeletal wackestone
Shale to claystone
Thrombolite boundstone

Fig. 2. Schematic conceptual depositional model of the Khuff Formation in the


studied area (adopted and modied after Insalaco et al. (2006)).

Fig. 1. Generalized stratigraphic column of the PermianTriassic succession in the studied area (modied after Rahimpour-Bonab et al. (2009)).

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Fig. 3. Characteristic of the depositional facies in the studied formation, the scattered porositypermeability makes the permeability prediction very hard. Reservoir
characteristic of depositional facies in the studied formation.

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3. Geological setting and study area


The studied eld is a carbonate reservoir located in the central
part of the Persian Gulf. The Persian Gulf and its adjacent area is
globally renowned as hosting world's largest gas bearing elds,
almost all of them producing from PermianTriassic Khuff succession. This Formation (equivalent to Kangan and Dalan Formations
in Iranian nomenclature) consists of carbonate evaporatic intervals
reaching to more than 600 m thickness in Iranian and Arabian
offshore, Persian Gulf area (Alsharhan, 2006). In Iran, Kangan and
Dalan Formations aged early Triassic and upper Permian respectively constitute some very large gas bearing reservoirs including
South Pars, North Pars, Golshan and Ferdowsi in the offshore and
Aghar, Kangan, Nar, Dalan, Bandubast, Asaluyeh, Shanul and Varavi

in onshore coastal Fars. These hydrocarbon bearing sequences in


both outcrop and subsurface are less-documented in Iran than
their equivalents in Abu Dhabi, Oman and Saudi Arabia (e.g.,
Alsharhan, 1993; Alsharhan and Nairn, 1997; Fontana et al., 2010;
Koehrer et al., 2011) however, in recent years the number of
publications about the latter formations has been increased
because of their economic importance (e.g., Aali et al., 2006;
Frebourg et al., 2010; Insalaco et al., 2006; Rahimpour-Bonab
et al., 2009). Kangan and Dalan Formations are divided into ve
individual reservoir units including K1 to K5 in Iran as well as
Arabian plate. K1 and K2 units coincide with the Triassic Kangan
Formation. Dalan is divided into the upper and lower carbonate
members separated by median anhydrite regionally called Nar

1
Well A

Well B

0.8

Fluid Capacity

with PHIE (target log) calculated. To improve the predictive power,


several groups of seismic attributes are used simultaneously. In
multi attribute method, complementary features from different
attributes are combined to discriminate subtle features on the
target logs, which none of the individuals could predict by
themselves. Multi attribute method showed the best result and
was selected for SPHIE calculation in this study.
Permeability prediction and modeling is done upon particular
functions derived from the SSF zonation.
Hydraulic ow units (HFUs) are obtained by the integration of
conventional core analysis (CCAL) and log data. The HFUs are
correlated with the sequence stratigraphic framework (SSF) of the
eld and used as the base of geological grid up-scaling.
Water saturation modeling is done by the use of capillary
pressure curves assigned to each reservoir rock type (RRT) and the
height above free water level concept. The performance of
dynamic model is examined by the use of new drilled (blind
wells) that was not involved while construction of static model.

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0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

Storage Capacity
Fig. 5. Plot of cumulative PHI  H (storage capacity) versus K  H (ow capacity)
identies existence of 26 dynamic ow units (zones) in the Khuff Formation.
Flow units may slightly change from well to well due to minor lithostratigraphic
variations.

Fig. 4. Sequence stratigraphic reservoir zonation (SSF based zonation) in some of the studied wells. Log tracks from left to right in each well section: GR (0100 API), RHOB
(1.952.95 g/cm3)/NPHI (  0.150.45), PHIE (00.3). SB sequence boundary, blue triangle sea transgression phase, and red triangle sea regression phase. (For
interpretation of the references to color in this gure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

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Fig. 6. Comparison of SSF based zonation (Left) with HFUs (Right) in the studied formation. Log tracks from left to right in each well section: GR (0100 API), RHOB (1.95
2.95 g/cm3)/NPHI (  0.150.45), and PHIE (00.3).

Fig. 7. Well to well correlation of the hydraulic ow units in the studied formation. Log tracks from left to right in each well section: GR (0100 API), RHOB (1.952.95
g/cm3)/NPHI (  0.150.45) and PHIE (00.3). Upper Kangan (UK) and Nar are non-reservoir zones and hence not classied in HFUs.

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265

(Ghazban, 2007; Konyuhov and Maleki, 2006; Szabo and


Kheradpir, 1978). Upper Dalan coincides with K3 and K4 reservoir
units while lower Dalan is known as K5 in Arabian nomenclature.
Having centimeter-scale heterogeneity is the most important
characteristic of the Khuff Formation which has resulted to the
reservoir compartmentalization in the studied eld as well as
Arabian equivalents (Insalaco et al., 2006; Rahimpour-Bonab,
2007). Anhydrite layers which are often observed as thin beds
(less than 2 m) are supposed to be the source of the mentioned
compartmentalization in the Khuff Formation (Insalaco et al.,
2006). These anhydrite beds are usually intercalated with dolomitized mudstone lled with nodular and patchy anhydrite
indicating the effect of sea level in the creation of the
centimeter-scale heterogeneity. The global relationship of the
porositypermeability is originated from a syn-depositional or
early diagenesis in the studied reservoir. Fig. 1 illustrates the
stratigraphical column of the studied formation.

4. Discussion and results


4.1. Sequence stratigraphy framework and depositional facies
Fig. 8. Comparison of PHIE and SPHIE in the studied formation, the correlation
coefcient between PHIE and SPHIE is approximately 0.5.

The basic geological approach in this study is mainly based on


the sequence stratigraphy framework of the reservoir; moreover

Fig. 9. Comparison of PHIE (black line) and SPHIE (blue line) in the studied area. SPHIE follows the general trend of PHIE but it is usually overestimated or under estimated
and hence a correction has been done on SPHIE to make the PHIE and SPHIE consistent. (For interpretation of the references to color in this gure legend, the reader is
referred to the web version of this article.)

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the reservoir characteristic of each depositional facies is examined


in detail. The Khuff reservoir is very well introduced in terms of
depositional setting and reservoir characteristics in the literature.
It is renowned as a heterogeneous reservoir including a centimeterscale of heterogeneity (Insalaco et al., 2006; Rahimpour-Bonab,
2007; Rahimpour-Bonab et al., 2009). The formation is supposed to
be deposited in a homoclinal carbonate ramp during Permo
Triassic time while the paleo-climate has been dry and warm
(Alsharhan, 2006; Konert et al., 2001; Konyuhov and Maleki,
2006; Ziegler, 2001). This is recognized by the volume of dolomitized lime and accompanying anhydrite which has intensively
affected the characteristics of the Khuff reservoir.
Findings of this study indicate existence of 15 main core-facies
in the Khuff Formation (Table 1). They are deposited in various
part of a carbonate ramp including hyper-saline sabkha to proximal open marine (Fig. 2). These facies represent a wide range of
porosity and permeability which has been illustrated in Fig. 3. The
basis of the sequence stratigraphic interpretation in this study is
adopted from Alsharhan (2006) which consider Khuff Formation
as a second order transgressiveregressive regional sequence
divided into ve 3rd order cycles. These cycles encompasses K1
to K5 units in Arabian plate however in the studied area only four
of the mentioned depositional cycles are producer zones of the
eld. In the studied reservoir, the sequences are interpreted using
core and log data. In this regard, each sequence is subdivided into

lowstand system tract (LST), transgressive system tract (TST) and


highstand system tract (HST). The LST deposits and/or very early
transgressional system tract (E-Early TST) are formed at the
beginning of sea transgression in the studied basin. They are
characterized by intercalations of laminated mud and anhydrite,
sometimes in chicken-wire form. These deposits are not found in
all studied sequences but are mainly observed in K1, K2 and K3
cycles. The LST deposits comprise the tightest successions in the
studied formation however in the case of K2 cycle in which the sea
was in a higher level, some grainy deposits are observed within
this system tract. These deposits show very good reservoir quality
resulted from leaching and dolomitization. TST represents the
main phase of sea transgression in the studied basin at the time
when Khuff formation was deposited and hence marks the highest
level of water in the studied basin. TST deposits are usually
characterized by massive distribution of ooidal-bioclastic shoals
terminating to bioturbated wackestone and mudstone facies of the
mid ramp or open marine. In the studied reservoir, TST is
distinguished from LST and HST deposits by massive gas bearing
limestone deposits with very good porosity and permeability.
Maximum ooding surface (MFS) which marks the highest level
of water in each sequence is mainly identied by large bioclastic
seaward shoal deposits and hence an increasing trend in effective
porosity (PHIE) is observed in TST particularly in K4 and K2 cycles.
HST marks the end of transgression in the studied basin and hence

Fig. 10. Examples of the correlation coefcient maps (cc-maps) used to calibrate SPHIE with PHIE while propagation of porosity into the 3D grid.

A. Asadi-Eskandar et al. / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 109 (2013) 260279

those cycles ending to the next regression stage are characterized


by it. These deposits are identied by limy to limy-dolomite beds
at the base and dolomite to dolomitic-lime at the top. This system
tract is characterized by shallowing upward depositional cycles
comprising from ooilithic-bioclastic shoal deposits at the base
which are capped by shallow intertidal to sabkha sediments.
A general decreasing trend was observed in PHIE values in HST
deposits. This is because of leaching and development of vuggy
porosity at the base of HST followed by syn-depositional anhydrite
pore-lling toward the sequence boundaries. It should be mentioned that the diagenetic overprint in the Khuff formation is a
kind of syn-depositional to very shallow event which is represented by early reux dolomitization accompanying with
anhydrite in variety of forms. The latter is also recognized by nondolomitized limestones at the TST cycles indicating strong inuence of
sea level on the creation and development of dolomitized successions.

267

Dolomitization process is strongly under control of sea level change in


the Khuff Formation and hence even ne scale drop in sea level is
believed to have strong effect on the reservoir quality of the studied
reservoir.
The reservoir zonation in this study is done based on the SSF. In
this way, after classication of each sequence into LST, TST and
HST, the early and late stages of each system tract has been
identied by the use of core and log data. In particular calycles
which depositional packages were not easily recognizable and or
in the absence of core data (e.g. core gap) classication is done
based on petrophysical logs. The ultimate result of detailed SSF
classication conducted us to identication of 21 reservoir zones
in the studied formation which has been illustrated in Fig. 4. K1 is
classied and divided into 3 depositional units (K1-1, K1-2 and
K1-3) which are actually LST, TST and HST respectively. K2 is
divided into K2-1, K2-2 and K2-3 (similar to K1). K3 is classied

Fig. 11. (A and B) Existence of cyclicity in some reservoir zones indicates disconnected carbonate shoals and inter-lagoon deposits in the studied basin. Continuity of the
reservoir property is reduced due to the cyclicity effect.

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et al., 1993; Gunter et al., 1997). This is actually a way of nding


how reservoir dynamically behaves by plotting ow capacity
versus storage capacity. The result of such a plot is illustrated in
Fig. 5, twenty six critical breaks are observed in the Khuff reservoir
indicating 26 ow units (ow zones). These ow units were
investigated in an independent way from geological zonation but
a very good correlation was observed between sequence
stratigraphic-derived zones (SSF) and (HFUs). The boundary of
the main ow units coincide with the depositional packages
determined through sequence stratigraphic study. A comparison
of the ultimate ow units and sequence stratigraphic framework
(SSF) of the eld is presented in Fig. 6. It should be mentioned that
the construction of static model is done based on SSF zonation but
the ultimate dynamic model is built as per the ow units. Fig. 7
illustrates well to well correlation of the Flow units. The reason
that simulation model is built based on ow units (HFUs) is that
some hydraulic ow units were not recognizable on the SSF
classication (Fig. 6). These zones which are important in terms
of production constitute thin layers on cores that are not easily
recognizable. Moreover, simulation model performs based on
dynamic behavior of the reservoir and hence the geological grid
is scaled up within HFUs.

into K3-1 to K3-6. In this unit each system tract has been subdivided into early and late stage (e.g. early LST, late LST, early TST,
late TST, early HST and late HST). K4 is divided into 7 depositional
units or reservoir zones similar to K3 including K4-1, K4-2, K4-2a,
K4-3, K4-4, K4-4a and K4-5 in which K4-2a and K4-4a are
petrophysical subunits representing very thin depositional
packages not easily recognizable on the core and thin section
slides. Upper Kangan (UK) is the top of the studied reservoir which
is not considered as a reservoir zones and hence not included in
the reservoir zonation of the eld. This unit is characterized by the
use of log data due to lack of core material.
4.2. Hydraulic ow units
A hydraulic unit is dened as a volume of the total reservoir
rock within which geological and petrophysical properties that
affect uid ow are internally consistent and predictably different
from properties of other rock volume (Porras et al., 1999). The
hydraulic ow units in this study are investigated on the base of
RQIFZI and Lorenz plot concepts illustrated and explained by
several authors (e.g., Abbaszadeh et al., 1996; Amaefule et al.,
1993; Ebanks and Scheihing, 1984; Gunter et al., 1997; Rincones
et al., 2000). It has long been established that on a loglog plot of
RQI versus normalized porosity, samples lie on a line with unique
slope will demonstrate a particular reservoir character. Lorenz plot
is the plot of cumulative values of K  H versus PHI  H in which
any change in the slope of the resulted line will be interpreted as a
change in hydraulic ow unit along the well prole (Amaefule

4.3. Integrated reservoir modeling of the Khuff Formation


4.3.1. Seismic porosity (SPHIE) calibration
To incorporate seismic porosity into the 3D grid, a depth
converted seismic derived effective porosity (SPHIE) cube was

-12000

-8000

-4000

4000

8000

12000

16000

-16000

-12000

-8000

-4000

4000

8000

12000

16000

16000

16000

-16000

12000

12000

8000

8000

4000

4000

-4000

-4000

-8000

-8000

-12000

-12000
-20000

-20000

-16000

-16000

Fig. 12. The main anisotropy direction coincides with the depositional trend, original shoreline is supposed to be along NWSE with lateral change in depositional along
SWNE.

A. Asadi-Eskandar et al. / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 109 (2013) 260279

269

re-sampled into the structural model. The geo-cellular model was


built in a conformable layer format using interpreted seismic
derived horizons and geological markers. The structural grid was
constructed in 500  500 dimensions (X and Y) and variable Z
layers which depend on the quality of each reservoir zone. No fault
was incorporated into the geological grid as there are not any
major faults in the studied reservoir.
The porosity modeling in this study is based on a set of well log
data calibrated with core porosity and also a seismic derived
porosity (SPHIE) cube. The SPHIE cube was originated from an
inverted seismic cube in time domain which was quality controlled by data acquired at well locations. The standard procedure
for integration of SPHIE into a 3D grid is that by calculating the
relation between seismic response and well data, the porosity will
be estimated between well spaces (Doyen, 1988; Raghavan et al.,

2001). The observations in this study indicated a correlation


coefcient of approximately 0.5 between log porosity (PHIE) and
SPHIE which is illustrated in Fig. 8. In the process of modeling, the
SPHIE was investigated in each reservoir unit. Although the global
correlation of PHIE and SPHIE is high, the seismic cube (SPHIE) is
unable to read the exact amount of log porosity (PHIE). This is due
to the fact that the sampling rate of seismic data is approximately
4 ms (equivalent to 2025 m) and accordingly the SPHIE would be
an average of PHIE in each zone. As previously mentioned, the
Khuff Formation represents a ne scale heterogeneity resulting
from high variations in depositional facies and porosity. Naturally,
seismic cube (SPHIE) is not able to predict theses ne heterogeneity accurately. A comparison of PHIE and SPHIE is illustrated
in Fig. 9. This gure demonstrates that the SPHIE follows the
PHIE very well but the amount of porosity is often overestimated
or underestimated. To resolve this, a difference map (residual
map) was prepared for each reservoir zone representing the

Fig. 13. Modeled PHIE in the K1 unit (A). The horizontal variogram (B) indicates a
range of 10 Km continuity in this zone. Vertical variogram (C) shows a range up to
15 m.

Fig. 14. Modeled PHIE in K2 unit (A). The horizontal variogram (B) indicates a range
of 9.5 Km in this zone. Vertical variogram (C) shows a range of up to 10 m, a minor
cycle effect is observed at the middle of this zone.

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amount of mismatch between PHIE and SPHIE. To prepare residual


maps, numerical difference between PHIE and SPHIE was calculated at well location (for each reservoir zone), the calculated
values was converted to 2D maps in well space locations.
Average SPHIE map was then calculated in each reservoir zone
and nally the residual maps were added and/or subtracted to the
average SPHIE maps in order to calibrate seismic data (SPHIE) with
well logs (PHIE). Moreover, correlation coefcient of SPHIE and
PHIE was calculated at well locations in each reservoir zone which
was then interpolated in well spaces and concerted to 2D correlation coefcient maps (cc-maps). These cc-maps were used as
auxiliary trends while porosity modeling to help accurate population of PHIE and prevent any deviation from the original values
between wells.
After SPHIE was corrected, direction of major and minor
anisotropy was determined by preparing variogram maps; the

necessary statistical data such as range, nugget and sill was then
estimated in each reservoir zone. Finally the PHIE was collocated
with SPHIE and propagated using co-kriging method. Kriging is a
linear estimation method which calculates the un-known values
by the use of variogram and kriging weights (Deutsch, 2002). In
this method, any un-known value has a weight which is obtained
by its distance to the known value. It also uses variogram to
understand the variability of data over a distance (Deutsch, 2002).
To nd the un-known value a linear function would be solved by
the use of Gaussian algorithm, within a particular matrix which its
members are weights, known values and the un-known value. In
this study the SPHIE was added to the linear functions of kriging as
auxiliary data. As the SPHIE has been corrected by the use of
residual maps, it helps the accuracy of porosity population.
Correlation coefcient maps (cc-map) were prepared for each

Fig. 15. Modeled PHIE in K3 unit (A). A range of about 8 km is assigned to this zone
based on horizontal variography (B). Vertical range is about 4 m indication strong
heterogeneity in z dimension at this zone.

Fig. 16. Modeled PHIE in K4 unit (A). This zone represents the maximum continuity
in the studied reservoir with a horizontal range (B) reaching to more than 11 km
and vertical range of up to 18 m.

A. Asadi-Eskandar et al. / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 109 (2013) 260279

reservoir zone to compensate the amount of difference between


SPHIE and PHIE. These maps conducted the porosity distribution
and reduced the amount of uncertainty in porosity modeling.
Fig. 10 illustrates cc-maps in some zones.

4.3.3. Porosity, rock type and water saturation modeling


The Sequential Gaussian Simulation (SGS) method was used to
populate porosity in this study. PHIE is used as the main input data
and away from borehole would be simulated by it, SPHIE is used as
trend (as per co-kriging method). cc-Maps would compensate and
correct any difference between the PHIE and SPHIE in non-drilled
locations. In this method, PHIE will be converted to normalized
PHIE by the use of normal score transformation. Variogram
driven information such as range provides variability of data over
distance (Deutsch, 2002). In this Gaussian method various
realizations are generated from a constant input. Each realization
provides different but equal-probable result. The realizations are
dened by a particular semi-random path given by the start
point in the matrix (Deutsch, 2002). To reduce the uncertainty of
petrophysical modeling, only 10 realizations was allowed in this
study, different realizations provided similar results however,
which is because of trends maps and cc-maps used in the
porosity modeling process. Figs. 1316 illustrate maps of the
populated porosity in the main reservoir zones (from K1 to K4).
A main concern in SGS modeling is that extreme low values
(ow barriers) and extreme high values (uid conduits) are
disconnected (Deutsch, 2002). This is prohibited and resolved by
the use of in this study which provides laterally continues porosity
values.
Water saturation has been modeled using capillary pressure
curves assigned to each reservoir rock type (RRT) in this study,
saturation was then calculated in every cell of the 3D grid by the
use of height above free water level concept.
RRTs are classied on the basis of RQIFZI concept. To do this,
the calculated DRTs (Fig. 17) were merged together as per
geological knowledge of the studied reservoir and investigation
of capillary pressure curves. Table 2 shows RRT classication in the
studied formation. As shown in Table 2, each RRT has a particular
range of porosity and permeability and hence the RRT modeling in
the 3D grid is done deterministically instead of stochastic population. In this way, RRTs are directly calculated from modeled PHIE
and modeled permeability by the use of poroperm range in each
RRT. Fig. 18 illustrates examples of the modeled RRT in main
reservoir zones (from K1 to K4). Range of porosity and permeability in each RRT is presented in Table 2. This procedure helped
the accuracy of petrophysical model. In addition the RRT model is
fully consistent with porosity and permeability models.

1000

100

Rock Quality Index (RQI)

4.3.2. Anisotropy and data analysis


Geo-statistical analysis on PHIE, indicated that range of porosity varies from 2500 m to 8000 m in the studied reservoir. A
cyclicity effect is observed in some geological units particularly at
K4 and K2 depositional sequences indicating disconnected carbonate shoals and inter-lagoon deposits in the studied basin (Fig. 11A
and B). These cycles reduce the major range (continuity of the
reservoir property). In case of ignoring minor cyclicity effects, the
range could increase to 11,000 m at some reservoir zones. A
change in trend of depositional setting was observed on the
variogram maps. It is considered that direction of depositional
setting was along NESW and the lateral variation in carbonate
ramp was along NWSE or EastWest direction. The main anisotropy direction is along NorthSouth with a minor direction of
EastWest (Fig. 12). The main direction of anisotropy coincides
with the main depositional trend showing minor rotation from
Permian basin to Triassic (Fig. 12).

271

10

0.1

0.01

0.001
0.00

0.01

0.10

1.00

Normalized Porosity (PHIZ)

Fig. 17. Plot of normalized porosity (PHIZ) versus RQI for each DRT in the studied
formation. Samples lie on a straight line represents similar reservoir character.

Table 2
Reservoir Rock Types (RRTs) in the studied formation.
RRT

Porosity
(frac.)

Permeability
(md)

RQI
(mm)

PHIZ

FZI
(mm)

SWE

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

0.0137
0.0665
0.17
0.27
0.0115
0.084
0.174
0.25
0.06
0.1
0.18
0.25

0.09
0.5
2.35
2.86
1
10.6
19
34
1
112
276
481

0.08
0.09
0.12
0.1
0.29
0.35
0.33
0.37
0.13
1.05
1.23
1.38

0.01
0.07
0.2
0.37
0.01
0.09
0.21
0.33
0.06
0.11
0.22
0.33

5.79
1.21
0.57
0.28
25.17
3.85
1.56
1.1
2.01
9.46
5.6
4.13

0.57
0.4
0.16
0.06
0.58
0.35
0.15
0.07
0.42
0.31
0.15
0.07

Modeling of water saturation was done in a deterministic way


as well. Each RRT represented particular relation of water saturation and height above free water level curve (Fig. 19) which
conducted the water saturation modeling in the studied reservoir.
Water saturation is calculated in each cell of the 3D grid by
knowing the unique RRT of the cell, amount of saturation water
is obtained from the elevation of the cell above free water level.
Fig. 20 illustrates the water saturation model in the studied eld.
As shown the saturation model is completely compatible with the
RRT model.

4.3.4. Permeability prediction and modeling


Articial methods, rock types and porositypermeability transformation are common methods of permeability prediction found
in the literature (Kerans, 1994; Lucia, 1995; Pittman, 1992; Wendt
et al., 1986). It has long been recognized that excellent permeabilityporosity relationships would be obtained once the conventional core data are grouped according to their rock types (Guo
et al., 2005). In the same way, rock type are used as a powerful tool
for permeability prediction (Amaefule et al., 1993; Babadagl and
Al-Salmi, 2002; Gunter et al., 1997; Pittman, 1992; Porras and
Campos, 2001; Rincones et al., 2000; Soto et al., 2001). Articial

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A. Asadi-Eskandar et al. / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 109 (2013) 260279

Fig. 18. Examples of modeled RRT in the main reservoir units (A K1 and B K2). Examples of modeled RRT in the main reservoir units (C K3 and D K4).
1200

Height above Free Water Level (ft)

1000

800

600

400

200

0
0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

Water Saturation

Fig. 19. Relationship of water saturation and height above free water level (FWL) in
each reservoir rock type (RRT).

methods such as neural work (or fuzzy-logic) use log data in order
to predict permeability in non-cored wells which is very common
in reservoir characterization studies (Katz and Thompson, 1986;

Fig. 20. Example of water saturation model in the studied reservoir (K1 zone), as
obvious the saturation model is completely compatible with RRT model because
the water saturation model is directly derived from the capillary pressure curves in
each RRT.

A. Asadi-Eskandar et al. / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 109 (2013) 260279

Mohaghegh et al., 1995). Transformation method is rarely used in


carbonates because of complexity of the reservoirs (Deutsch,
2002).
In this study, unique porositypermeability relationship was
obtained in each depositional package (sequences and system
tracts) which made the permeability prediction possible by the use
of transformation method. The correlation coefcient between
porosity and permeability in sequence based zones (SSF) is more
than 0.5 (varying from 0.5 to 0.7), which provided unique poro
perm equations in each reservoir zone. Considering the fact that
global correlation coefcient of the porositypermeability is
approximately 0.1 in the studied Formation, the achieved correlation is considered perfect for such a heterogeneous reservoir. The
global relationship of poroperm and examples of the sequencederived permeability functions are illustrated in Figs. 21 and 22,
respectively. Accordingly, the permeability was assigned to porosity in the procedure of permeability modeling which has resulted
to a geological orientated permeability model. Moreover, the
uncertainty of stochastical rock type population is eliminated in
this way. The amount of ultimate correlation coefcient between
porositypermeability after building block wells (well log upscaling) reached to 0.8 in some cases. One main disadvantage of
using regression for permeability modeling is that the low and
high permeability values are smoothed (Deutsch, 2002), to avoid
this, the regression equations obtained in geological zonation are
not directly used for permeability prediction, Instead permeability
modeling was performed by the integration of regression method
(porositypermeability functions) combined with collocated cokriging approach. Highlighting points of the mentioned method
for 3D permeability distribution is that it avoids pixel type
permeability modeling. Moreover, the ultimate correlation coefcient of collocated co-kriging reached to more than 0.8 in some
cases (varying from 0.5 to 0.85). Fig. 23(AD) illustrates 3D
populated permeability in the main reservoir zones.

4.4. Log and grid scale-up


4.4.1. Well log scale-up
The accuracy of block wells completely depends on the number
of layers in each zone and hence nding the proper layering is the
most important issue while building of a 3D grid. In this study the
number of layers is calculated based on a histogram presenting the
minimum, maximum and average thickness of each reservoir
zone. The layering was conducted by the minimum possible layers
Global Characteristic of the Kangan & Dalan Formations
(equivalent to Khuff)
1000

Permeability (md)

100

y = 1.2598x + 0.2927
R = 0.1096

10

0.1

0.01
0

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

PHI (%)
Fig. 21. Global correlation coefcient of the porositypermeability in the studied
reservoir.

273

gradually shifting to maximum, in each stage the histogram of


up-scaled logs was compared with original well data. The proper
layering was chosen by the best tted histogram. Our nding
indicates that the number of layers in non-porous zones could be
up to 3 m however in producer layers it should be about 0.8 m.
Figs. 24 and 25(A and B) illustrate well sections and histograms of
original and up-scaled logs for porosity and permeability.
4.4.2. Grid scale-up
The proper scale of constructing a reservoir model is the scale
at which depositional facies can be properly correlated and
petrophysical properties and uid ow could be accurately modeled (King et al., 2006). High frequency cycles could be used as an
applied factor for scaling-up grids. Lucia (2007) suggested that
data variance increases signicantly within a cycle but only
slightly among cycles. In the studied reservoir, hydraulic ow
units (HFUs) coincide with SSF based zonation of the eld and
hence nal geological model was scaled-up by the use of HFUs.
Some extra HFUs however were detected within the reservoir
representing particular ow behavior which was not recognized in
geological zonation. These HFUs are comprised from very thin
layered dolomitized beds which are part of HST and early TST
system tracts. In some cases these ow zones are composed of
fracturized rocks which are only characterized by well test data.
These zones are common in K1 and K3 reservoir units.
4.5. Simulation model
Dynamic modeling was carried out with the objective of
evaluating eld performance in the studied reservoir. The fulleld dynamic model was constructed from the up-scaled static
model. The up-scaled model comprised of 76  73  26 grids
(160,892 cells) resulted from 76  73  405 (2,246,940 cells)
down-scale model. The dynamic data consisting of capillarypressure and relative permeability for 12 rock types were loaded
in the model and GEM compositional simulator was used as the
software package. The single porosity model was used to simulate
the eld.
The uid model was set for gas condensate reservoir and GEM
simulator was selected for this study. PengRobinson EOS and
then a single model (EOS 7 components) was built. The results of
tuned EOS were compared with those obtained in the laboratory
and showed close agreement. then the uid component properties
was exported at datum temperature of 216 1F for GEM simulator.
The dew-point pressure was calculated to be 4500 psia at 216 1F.
After all required data were entered in the model, model
initialization was performed. The model was initialized using
pressure of 5650 psia set at datum depth of 2900 mss (9514.4 ftss).
The initial gas-in-place was calculated by gravity-capillary equilibrium. The OGIP was calculated to be 60 TSCF. This is in line with
static model.
4.6. Performance of models, a case of proper data integration
The constructed ne-scale PHIE model which was in complete
agreement with well data, showed an average value of the
porosity (similar to the SPHIE) after geological grid was scaledup (Figs. 26 and 27). Losing values after grid scaling-up is common
in integrated reservoir studies however it usually opens too many
discussions between technicians involved in the study. Geologists
often argue about destruction of original property. On the other
side, reservoir engineers claim the eld performance and well
history match to establish the accuracy of simulation model.
In this study, the geological grid was built upon a SSF based
zonation and was then scaled-up in a compatible HFUSSF

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A. Asadi-Eskandar et al. / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 109 (2013) 260279

Zone 6 (K - 2TST)

Zone 4 (K1 LST)

10.00

1000

y = 0.0548e30.809x
R = 0.6656

100

1.00

K (mD)

K (mD)

10

y = 0.0829e21.266x

R = 0.6468
0.10

0.01
0.00

0.05

0.10

0.15

0.20

0
0.00

0.25

0.05

PHIE_Frac

0.15

0.20

0.25

0.30

PHIE_Frac

Zone 15 (K4 Late HST)

1000

1000

Zone 11 (K3 - Late TST)

y =0.0503e29.436x

y = 0.3437e20.161x
R = 0.6417

100

0.10

100

R=0.7219

10

K (mD)

K (mD)

10

0
0.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

PHIE_Frac

0
0.00

0.05

0.10

0.15

0.20

0.25

0.30

PHIE_Frac

Fig. 22. Examples of porositypermeability relationship in SSF based reservoir zones representing excellent correlation coefcient in comparison with global poroperm
relationship of the studied formation.

zonation. Lost values in z-dimension also observed but it is not


considered as a failure in reservoir modeling of the studied eld.
This is justied by well performance in simulation model (Fig. 28).
One reason behind very well performance of dynamic model in

this case is that the overall eld performance is controlled by


massive gas producers of K4 and K2 units which are laterally
conformable and continues. Dynamic model performance is hence
originated from accurate distribution of porosity, permeability and

A. Asadi-Eskandar et al. / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 109 (2013) 260279

275

Fig. 23. Examples of the modeled permeability in the main reservoir units (A K1 and, B K2). Examples of the modeled permeability in the main reservoir units (C K3 and
D K4).

Fig. 24. Comparison of the original PHIE (black), up-scaled PHIE (pink) indicating the accuracy of well log up-scaling in the studied reservoir. Z size is variable depending on
the reservoir quality of each zone with a range of 0.8 m for porous layers and 35 m for tight layers (average of 1.2 m). PHIE up-scaling method is arithmetic averaging. (For
interpretation of the references to color in this gure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

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A. Asadi-Eskandar et al. / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 109 (2013) 260279

water saturation in the X and Y directions of the studied reservoir.


The centimeter reservoir heterogeneity which was observed in
z-dimension at well locations although important, but it is not

controlling the ultimate reservoir behavior. This supports the fact


that coarse grids can perform similar to ne grids even if some
details are lost in the scale-up stage and that the key for

Fig. 25. (A and B) Histogram comparing up-scaled and original PHIE (up) and K (down). Z size is variable depending on the reservoir quality of each zone with a range of
0.8 m for porous layers and 35 m for tight layers (average of 1.2 m). PHIE up-scaling method is arithmetic averaging.

Fig. 26. Comparison of the modeled PHIE in the up-scaled 3D grid (green) with the SPHIE (blue) showing a good correlation. Grid size in up-scaled 3D grid is 500  500.
Z layers are variable in each zone which depends on the thickness of HFUs (average of 15 m). (For interpretation of the references to color in this gure legend, the reader is
referred to the web version of this article.)

A. Asadi-Eskandar et al. / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 109 (2013) 260279

277

Fig. 27. Comparison of the modeled PHIE in the scaled-up 3D grid (green) with the SPHIE (blue) and PHIE (black) indicating a loss of information in z-dimension due to grid
scale-up. Dynamic model performance of the reservoir is very good however which shows that in case of accurate integrated studies, coarse grids can perform similar to ne
grids although some details will be lost in z-dimension as a result of grid scale-up.

Fig. 28. The performance of simulation grid was absolutely acceptable comparing the model with the real production history of the led which showed that loss of values in
z-dimension will not be a big deal even in heterogeneous formations. The key to accurate reservoir modeling is real multi-disciplinary understanding and proper integration
of geological and reservoir engineering data.

278

A. Asadi-Eskandar et al. / Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 109 (2013) 260279

construction of realistic geological/simulation grids is to have an


accurate distribution of petrophysical properties by precise data
integration and real multi-disciplinary understanding. If a model is
built upon the integrated approach presented in this study, loss of
value is not a big deal even though the reservoir is strongly
heterogeneous.

5. Conclusions
The result of a multidisciplinary approach was examined in a
heterogonous carbonate formation hosting some of the world's
largest gas reserves in the Persian Gulf and Arabian plate. Construction of the geo-cellular model was done upon particular
integrated geological methods by which the original rock property
and reservoir heterogeneity was kept but the model is completely
compatible and correlatable with hydraulic ow units of the eld.
This approach uses the sequence stratigraphic framework (SSF) of
the studied formation as the basis of reservoir zonation. Depositional packages are determined in an accurate way that made
permeability prediction possible by the use of some very powerful
porositypermeability equations. These functions were derived
from SSF zonation. An accurate porosity model conducted by well
and seismic data provided a realistic geological model. Moreover,
the permeability population is compatible with effective porosity
(PHIE) distribution as it is derived from porositypermeability
functions. The presented approach in this study showed how a
dynamic model can perform properly although many details
would be lost in z-dimension after scaling-up geological grid. This
indicates that in case of proper data integration constructing a
model with geological concepts and scaling-up it within hydraulic
ow units (HFUs) will provide realistic reservoir models accepted
by all involved disciplines in a eld study.
Acknowledgments
Data and facility used in this study was provided by National
Iranian Oil Company and POGC which the author is really thankful.
Mr. Asghari is thanked for reviewing the manuscript and helpful
suggestions. Head of Geology and R&T department are appreciated
for technical advices and permission to publish this paper. University of Tehran is thanked for providing the source materials. Mr.
Meysam Tavakoli and Mr. Farid are thanked for helpful technical
comments while performing this study. Schlumberger and CMG
are thanked for providing the commercial software of Petrel
and GEM.
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