N 1

n
Contents
1
Motion (physics)
1.1
Laws of motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.1
Classical mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.2
Quantum mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
List of imperceptible human motions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.1
Universe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.2
Galaxy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.3
Sun and solar system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.4
Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.5
Continents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.6
Internal body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.7
Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.8
Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.9
Subatomic particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3
Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4
Types of motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2
Velocity
2.1
Constant velocity vs acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2
Distinction between speed and velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3
Equation of motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.1
Average velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.2
Instantaneous velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.3
Relationship to acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.4
Quantities that are dependent on velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Relative velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.1
Scalar velocities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5
Polar coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.6
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.7
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
2.4
ii
CONTENTS
2.9
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
Newtons laws of motion
11
3.1
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
3.2
Newtons rst law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
3.3
Newtons second law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
3.3.1
Impulse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
3.3.2
Variable-mass systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
3.4
Newtons third law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
3.5
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
3.5.1
Newtons 1st Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
3.5.2
Newtons 2nd Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
3.5.3
Newtons 3rd Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
3.6
Importance and range of validity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
3.7
Relationship to the conservation laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16
3.8
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16
3.9
References and notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16
3.10 Further reading and works cited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18
3.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18
Momentum
19
4.1
Newtonian mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
4.1.1
Single particle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
4.1.2
Many particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
4.1.3
Relation to force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
4.1.4
Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
4.1.5
Dependence on reference frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21
4.1.6
Application to collisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21
4.1.7
Multiple dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22
4.1.8
Objects of variable mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
Relativistic mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
4.2.1
Lorentz invariance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
4.2.2
Four-vector formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
Generalized coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
4.3.1
Lagrangian mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
4.3.2
Hamiltonian mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
4.3.3
Symmetry and conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
Electromagnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
4.4.1
Vacuum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
4.4.2
Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
4.4.3
Particle in eld . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
Quantum mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
CONTENTS
iii
4.6
Deformable bodies and uids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
4.6.1
Conservation in a continuum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
4.6.2
Acoustic waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28
4.7
History of the concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28
4.8
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
4.9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
4.9.1
Citations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
4.10 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
4.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
Eulers laws of motion
32
5.1
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
5.1.1
Eulers rst law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
5.1.2
Eulers second law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
5.2
Explanation and derivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
5.3
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
33
5.4
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
33
5.5
Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34
5.5.1
Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34
5.5.2
Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
37
5.5.3
Content license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
38
Chapter 1
Motion (physics)
In physics, motion is a change in position of an object
over time. Motion is typically described in terms of
displacement, distance, velocity, acceleration, time and
speed. Motion of a body is observed by attaching a frame
of reference to an observer and measuring the change in
position of the body relative to that frame.
If the position of a body is not changing with respect to a
given frame of reference, the body is said to be at rest, motionless, immobile, stationary, or to have constant (timeinvariant) position. An objects motion cannot change unless it is acted upon by a force, as described. Momentum
is a quantity which is used for measuring motion of an
object. An objects momentum is directly related to the
objects mass and velocity, and the total momentum of
all objects in an isolated system (one not aected by ex- Motion involves a change in position, such as in this perspective
of rapidly leaving Yongsan Station.
ternal forces) does not change with time, as described by
the law of conservation of momentum.
1.1.1 Classical mechanics
As there is no absolute frame of reference, absolute motion cannot be determined.[1] Thus, everything in the universe can be considered to be moving.[2]:2021
Classical mechanics is used for describing the motion

of macroscopic objects, from projectiles to parts of
machinery, as well as astronomical objects, such as
spacecraft, planets, stars, and galaxies. It produces very
accurate results within these domains, and is one of the
oldest and largest in science, engineering, and technology.
More generally, motion is a concept that applies to objects, bodies, and matter particles, to radiation, radiation
elds and radiation particles, and to space, its curvature
and space-time. One can also speak of motion of shapes
and boundaries. So, the term motion in general signies a
continuous change in the conguration of a physical system. For example, one can talk about motion of a wave
or about motion of a quantum particle, where the conguration consists of probabilities of occupying specic
positions.
Classical mechanics is fundamentally based on Newtons

laws of motion. These laws describe the relationship between the forces acting on a body and the motion of that
body. They were rst compiled by Sir Isaac Newton in his
work Philosophi Naturalis Principia Mathematica, rst
published on July 5, 1687. His three laws are:
1.1 Laws of motion
1. A body either is at rest or moves with constant velocity, until and unless an outer force is applied to
it.
Main article: Mechanics
2. An object will travel in one direction only until an

outer force changes its direction.
In physics, motion is described through two sets of apparently contradictory laws of mechanics. Motions of all
large scale and familiar objects in the universe (such as
projectiles, planets, cells, and humans) are described by
classical mechanics. Whereas the motion of very small
atomic and sub-atomic objects is described by quantum
mechanics.
3. Whenever one body exerts a force F onto a second

body,(in some cases, which is standing still) the second body exerts the force F on the rst body. F and
F are equal in magnitude and opposite in sense. So,
the body which exerts F will go backwards.[3]
1
CHAPTER 1. MOTION (PHYSICS)
Newtons three laws of motion, along with his Newtons 1.2.1 Universe
law of motion, which were the rst to accurately provide
Spacetime (the fabric of the universe) is actually
a mathematical model for understanding orbiting bodies
expanding. Essentially, everything in the universe
in outer space. This explanation unied the motion of
is stretching like a rubber band. This motion is the
celestial bodies and motion of objects on earth.
most obscure as it is not physical motion as such,
Classical mechanics was later further enhanced by Albert
but rather a change in the very nature of the uniEinstein's special relativity and general relativity. Motion
verse. The primary source of verication of this exof objects with a high velocity, approaching the speed of
pansion was provided by Edwin Hubble who demonlight; general relativity is employed to handle gravitational
strated that all galaxies and distant astronomical obmotion at a deeper level.
jects were moving away from us ("Hubbles law") as
predicted by a universal expansion.[5]
1.1.2
Quantum mechanics
Main article: Quantum mechanics
1.2.2 Galaxy
The Milky Way Galaxy, is moving through space.
Many astronomers believe the Milky Way is moving
at approximately 600 km/s relative to the observed
locations of other nearby galaxies. Another reference frame is provided by the Cosmic microwave
background. This frame of reference indicates that
The Milky Way is moving at around 582 km/s.[6]
Quantum mechanics is a set of principles describing

physical reality at the atomic level of matter (molecules
and atoms) and the subatomic particles (electrons,
protons, and even smaller particles). These descriptions
include the simultaneous wave-like and particle-like behavior of both matter and radiation energy, this is described in the waveparticle duality.
1.2.3 Sun and solar system
In classical mechanics, accurate measurements and
The Milky Way is rotating around its dense galactic
predictions of the state of objects can be calculated, such
center, thus the sun is moving in a circle within the
as location and velocity. In the quantum mechanics, due
galaxy's gravity. Away from the central bulge or
to the Heisenberg uncertainty principle), the complete
outer rim, the typical stellar velocity is between 210
state of a subatomic particle, such as its location and veand 240 km/s.[7] All planets and their moons move
locity, cannot be simultaneously determined.
with the sun. Thus the solar system is moving.
In addition to describing the motion of atomic level phenomena, quantum mechanics is useful in understanding some large scale phenomenon such as superuidity, 1.2.4 Earth
superconductivity, and biological systems, including the
function of smell receptors and the structures of proteins.
The Earth is rotating or spinning around its axis, this
is evidenced by day and night, at the equator the
earth has an eastward velocity of 0.4651 km/s (1040
mi/h).[8]
1.2 List of imperceptible human

motions
The Earth is orbiting around the Sun in an orbital

revolution. A complete orbit around the sun takes
one year or about 365 days; it averages a speed of
about 30 km/s (67,000 mi/h).[9]
Humans, like all known things in the universe, are in constant motion,[2]:89 however, aside from obvious movements of the various external body parts and locomotion, 1.2.5 Continents
humans are in motion in a variety of ways which are more
dicult to perceive. Many of these imperceptible mo The Theory of Plate tectonics tells us that the
continents are drifting on convection currents within
tions are only perceivable with the help of special tools
the mantle causing them to move across the surand careful observation. The larger scales of impercepface of the planet at the slow speed of approxitible motions are dicult for humans to perceive for two
mately 1 inch (2.54 cm) per year.[10][11] However,
reasons: 1) Newtons laws of motion (particularly Inertia)
which prevent humans from feeling motions of a mass to
the velocities of plates range widely. The fastestwhich they are connected, and 2) the lack of an obvious
moving plates are the oceanic plates, with the Cocos
frame of reference which would allow individuals to easPlate advancing at a rate of 75 mm/yr[12] (3.0 in/yr)
[4]
ily see that they are moving. The smaller scales of these
and the Pacic Plate moving 5269 mm/yr (2.1
motions are too small for humans to sense.
2.7 in/yr). At the other extreme, the slowest-moving
1.3. LIGHT
plate is the Eurasian Plate, progressing at a typical
rate of about 21 mm/yr (0.8 in/yr).
1.2.6
Internal body
3
temperatures, which represent greater kinetic energy in the particles, feel warm to humans whom
sense the thermal energy transferring from the object being touched to their nerves. Similarly, when
lower temperature objects are touched, the senses
perceive the transfer of heat away from the body as
feeling cold.[19]
The human heart is constantly contracting to move

blood throughout the body. Through larger veins
and arteries in the body blood has been found to
travel at approximately 0.33 m/s. Though consid- 1.2.9 Subatomic particles
erable variation exists, and peak ows in the venae
cavae have been found between 0.1 m/s and 0.45
Within each atom, electrons exist in an area around
m/s.[13]
the nucleus. This area is called the electron cloud.
According to Bohrs model of the atom, electrons
The smooth muscles of hollow internal organs are
have a high velocity, and the larger the nucleus they
moving. The most familiar would be peristalsis
are orbiting the faster they would need to move. If
which is where digested food is forced throughelectrons 'move' about the electron cloud in strict
out the digestive tract. Though dierent foods
paths the same way planets orbit the sun, then electravel through the body at rates, an average speed
trons would be required to do so at speeds which far
through the human small intestine is 2.16 m/h
exceed the speed of light. However, there is no rea[14]
(0.036 m/s).
son that one must conne ones self to this strict conceptualization, that electrons move in paths the same
Typically some sound is audible at any given moway macroscopic objects do. Rather one can conment, when the vibration of these sound waves
ceptualize electrons to be 'particles that capriciously
reaches the ear drum it moves in response and alexist within the bounds of the electron cloud.[20]
lows the sense of hearing.
The human lymphatic system is constantly moving excess uids, lipids, and immune system related
products around the body. The lymph uid has been
found to move through a lymph capillary of the skin
at approximately 0.0000097 m/s.[15]
1.2.7
Cells
Inside the atomic nucleus the protons and neutrons

are also probably moving around due the electrical
repulsion of the protons and the presence of angular
momentum of both particles.[21]
1.3 Light
The cells of the human body have many structures which Main article: Speed of light
move throughout them.
Light propagates at 299,792,458 m/s, often approximated
Cytoplasmic streaming is a way which cells move as 300,000 kilometres per second or 186,000 miles per
molecular substances throughout the cytoplasm.[16] second. The speed of light (or c) is also the speed of all
massless particles and associated elds in a vacuum, and
Various motor proteins work as molecular motors it is the upper limit on the speed at which energy, matter,
within a cell and move along the surface of vari- and information can travel. The speed of light is the limit
ous cellular substrates such as microtubuless. Motor speed for physical systems.
proteins are typically powered by the hydrolysis of
In addition, the speed of light is an invariant quantity: it
adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and convert chemihas the same value, irrespective of the position or speed
cal energy into mechanical work.[17] Vesicles proof the observer. This property makes the speed of light c
pelled by motor proteins have been found to have a
the natural measurement unit for speed.
velocity of approximately 0.00000152 m/s.[18]
1.2.8
Particles
According to the laws of thermodynamics all

particles of matter are in constant random motion
as long as the temperature is above absolute zero.
Thus the molecules and atoms which make up the
human body are vibrating, colliding, and moving.
This motion can be detected as temperature; higher
1.4 Types of motion

Simple harmonic motion (e.g., that of a
pendulum).
Anharmonic motion
Periodic motion
CHAPTER 1. MOTION (PHYSICS)

Linear motion motion which follows a straight
linear path, and whose displacement is exactly the
same as its trajectory.
Reciprocal motion (e.g. vibration)
Random motion (e.g. vibration)
Brownian motion (i.e. the random movement of
particles)
Circular motion (e.g. the orbits of planets)
Rotary motion a motion about a xed point. (e.g.
Ferris wheel).
Curvilinear motion It is dened as the motion
along a curved path that may be planar or in three
dimensions.
Rotational motion
Rolling motion - (as of the wheel of a bicycle)
Oscillation
vibratory motion
Combination (or simultaneous) motions - Combination of two or more above listed motions
Projectile motion - uniform horizontal motion + vertical accelerated motion
Half projectile motion
circular motion(this is a motion that move in a round
of body)(e.g the moon and the earth)
1.5 See also

Simple machines
Kinematic chain
Power
Machine
Motion (geometry)
Displacement
Translatory motion
1.6 References
[1] Wahlin, Lars (1997). 9.1 Relative and absolute motion.
The Deadbeat Universe (PDF). Boulder, CO: Coultron
Research. pp. 121129. ISBN 0-933407-03-3. Retrieved 25 January 2013.
[2] Tyson, Neil de Grasse; Charles Tsun-Chu Liu; Robert
Irion (2000). The universe : at home in the cosmos.
Washington, DC: National Academy Press. ISBN 0-30906488-0.
[3] Newtons Axioms or Laws of Motion can be found in
the "Principia" on page 19 of volume 1 of the 1729 translation.
[4] Safkan, Yasar. Question: If the term 'absolute motion'
has no meaning, then why do we say that the earth moves
around the sun and not vice versa?". Ask the Experts.
PhysLink.com. Retrieved 25 January 2014.
[5] Hubble, Edwin, "A Relation between Distance and Radial
Velocity among Extra-Galactic Nebulae" (1929) Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United
States of America, Volume 15, Issue 3, pp. 168173 (Full
article, PDF)
[6] Kogut, A.; Lineweaver, C.; Smoot, G. F.; Bennett, C. L.;
Banday, A.; Boggess, N. W.; Cheng, E. S.; de Amici,
G.; Fixsen, D. J.; Hinshaw, G.; Jackson, P. D.; Janssen,
M.; Keegstra, P.; Loewenstein, K.; Lubin, P.; Mather, J.
C.; Tenorio, L.; Weiss, R.; Wilkinson, D. T.; Wright, E.
L. (1993). Dipole Anisotropy in the COBE Dierential Microwave Radiometers First-Year Sky Maps. Astrophysical Journal. 419: 1. arXiv:astro-ph/9312056 .
Bibcode:1993ApJ...419....1K. doi:10.1086/173453.
[7] Imamura, Jim (August 10, 2006). Mass of the Milky
Way Galaxy. University of Oregon. Archived from the
original on 2007-03-01. Retrieved 2007-05-10.
[8] Ask an Astrophysicist. NASA Goodard Space Flight Center.
[9] Williams, David R. (September 1, 2004). Earth Fact
Sheet. NASA. Retrieved 2007-03-17.
[10] Sta. GPS Time Series. NASA JPL. Retrieved 200704-02.
[11] Huang, Zhen Shao. Speed of the Continental Plates.
The Physics Factbook. Retrieved 2007-11-09.
[12] Meschede, M.; Udo Barckhausen, U. (November 20,
2000). Plate Tectonic Evolution of the Cocos-Nazca
Spreading Center. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program. Texas A&M University. Retrieved 2007-04-02.
[13] Wexler, L.; D H Bergel; I T Gabe; G S Makin; C J Mills
(1 September 1968). Velocity of Blood Flow in Normal Human Venae Cavae. Circulation Research. 23 (3):
349359. doi:10.1161/01.RES.23.3.349.
[14] Bowen, R (27 May 2006). Gastrointestinal Transit: How
Long Does It Take?". Pathophysiology of the digestive system. Colorado State University. Retrieved 25 January
2014.
1.6. REFERENCES
[15] M. Fischer, U. K. Franzeck, I. Herrig, U. Costanzo, S.

Wen, M. Schiesser, U. Homann and A. Bollinger (1 January 1996). Flow velocity of single lymphatic capillaries
in human skin. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 270 (1):
H358H363. PMID 8769772. Retrieved 2007-11-14.
[16] cytoplasmic streaming - biology. Encyclopedia Britannica.
[17] Microtubule Motors. rpi.edu.
[18] Hill, David; Holzwarth, George; Bonin, Keith (2002).
Velocity and Drag Forces on motor-protein-driven Vesicles in Cells. American Physical Society, the 69th Annual Meeting of the Southeastern. abstract. #EA.002.
Bibcode:2002APS..SES.EA002H.
[19] Temperature and BEC. Physics 2000: Colorado State
University Physics Department
[20] Classroom Resources - Argonne National Laboratory.
anl.gov.
[21] Chapter 2, Nuclear Science- A guide to the nuclear science wall chart. Berkley National Laboratory.
Chapter 2
Velocity
This article is about velocity in physics. For other uses, constant velocity means motion in a straight line at a consee Velocity (disambiguation).
stant speed.
For example, a car moving at a constant 20 kilometres
per hour in a circular path has a constant speed, but does
not have a constant velocity because its direction changes.
Hence, the car is considered to be undergoing an acceleration.
The velocity of an object is the rate of change of its

position with respect to a frame of reference, and is
a function of time. Velocity is equivalent to a specication of its speed and direction of motion (e.g. 60
km/h to the north). Velocity is an important concept
in kinematics, the branch of classical mechanics that describes the motion of bodies.
2.2 Distinction between speed and

velocity
Velocity is a physical vector quantity; both magnitude

and direction are needed to dene it. The scalar absolute
value (magnitude) of velocity is called speed, being a
coherent derived unit whose quantity is measured in the
SI (metric) system as metres per second (m/s) or as the SI
base unit of (ms1 ). For example, 5 metres per second
is a scalar, whereas 5 metres per second east is a vector.
Speed describes only how fast an object is moving,

whereas velocity gives both how fast and in what direction the object is moving.[1] If a car is said to travel at 60
km/h, its speed has been specied. However, if the car is
said to move at 60 km/h to the north, its velocity has now
If there is a change in speed, direction or both, then the been specied.
object has a changing velocity and is said to be undergoing
The big dierence can be noticed when we consider
an acceleration.
movement around a circle. When something moves in
a circle and returns to its starting point, its average veis zero but its average speed is found by dividing
2.1 Constant velocity vs accelera- locity
the circumference of the circle by the time taken to move
around the circle. This is because the average velocity is
tion
calculated by only considering the displacement between
the starting and the end points while the average speed
considers only the total distance traveled.
dv
a=
dt
dr
r + dr
v + dv
dv
2.3 Equation of motion
v
m
v = dr
dt
Main article: Equation of motion
2.3.1 Average velocity

Velocity is dened as the rate of change of position with
respect to time, which may also be referred to as the instantaneous velocity to emphasize the distinction from the
To have a constant velocity, an object must have a con- average velocity. In some applications the average vestant speed in a constant direction. Constant direction locity of an object might be needed, that is to say, the
constrains the object to motion in a straight path thus, a constant velocity that would provide the same resultant
Kinematic quantities of a classical particle: mass m, position r,
velocity v, acceleration a.
2.3. EQUATION OF MOTION
displacement as a variable velocity in the same time interval, v(t), over some time period t. Average velocity
can be calculated as:
v
=
x
.
t
The average velocity is always less than or equal to the

average speed of an object. This can be seen by realizing
that while distance is always strictly increasing, displacement can increase or decrease in magnitude as well as
change direction.
In terms of a displacement-time (x vs. t) graph, the instantaneous velocity (or, simply, velocity) can be thought
of as the slope of the tangent line to the curve at any point,
and the average velocity as the slope of the secant line between two points with t coordinates equal to the boundaries of the time period for the average velocity.
Example of a velocity vs. time graph, and the relationship be-
The average velocity is the same as the velocity averaged tween velocity v on the y-axis, acceleration a (the three green
over time that is to say, its time-weighted average, which tangent lines represent the values for acceleration at dierent
may be calculated as the time integral of the velocity:
points along the curve) and displacement s (the yellow area under the curve.)
v
=
1
t1 t0
t1
v(t) dt,
t0
x=
v dt.
where we may identify
t1
x =
v(t) dt
t0
and
Since the derivative of the position with respect to time

gives the change in position (in metres) divided by the
change in time (in seconds), velocity is measured in
metres per second (m/s). Although the concept of an instantaneous velocity might at rst seem counter-intuitive,
it may be thought of as the velocity that the object would
continue to travel at if it stopped accelerating at that moment.
t = t1 t0 .
2.3.3 Relationship to acceleration

2.3.2
Instantaneous velocity
If we consider v as velocity and x as the displacement

(change in position) vector, then we can express the (instantaneous) velocity of a particle or object, at any particular time t, as the derivative of the position with respect
to time:
v = lim
dx
x
=
.
t
dt
Although velocity is dened as the rate of change of position, it is often common to start with an expression for an
objects acceleration. As seen by the three green tangent
lines in the gure, an objects instantaneous acceleration
at a point in time is the slope of the line tangent to the
curve of a (v vs. t graph at that point. In other words,
acceleration is dened as the derivative of velocity with
respect to time:
dv
.
dt
From this derivative equation, in the one-dimensional
From there, we can obtain an expression for velocity as
case it can be seen that the area under a velocity vs. time
the area under an acceleration vs. time (a vs. t) graph.
(v vs. t graph) is the displacement, x. In calculus terms,
As above, this is done using the concept of the integral:
the integral of the velocity function v(t) is the displacement function x(t). In the gure, this corresponds to the
yellow area under the curve labeled s (s being an alternav

=
a dt.
tive notation for displacement).
t0
a=
CHAPTER 2. VELOCITY
Constant acceleration
In special relativity, the dimensionless Lorentz Factor appears frequently, and is given by
In the special case of constant acceleration, velocity can

be studied using the suvat equations. By considering a as
being equal to some arbitrary constant vector, it is trivial
1
=
to show that
1
v = u + at
with v as the velocity at time t and u as the velocity at time
t = 0. By combining this equation with the suvat equation
x = ut + at 2 /2, it is possible to relate the displacement and
the average velocity by
x=
v2
c2
where is the Lorentz factor and c is the speed of light.

Escape velocity is the minimum speed a ballistic object
needs to escape from a massive body such as Earth. It represents the kinetic energy that, when added to the objects
gravitational potential energy, (which is always negative)
is equal to zero. The general formula for the escape velocity of an object at a distance r from the center of a
planet with mass M is
(u + v)
t=v
t
2
2GM
It is also possible to derive an expression for the velocity
ve =
= 2gr,
independent of time, known as the Torricelli equation, as
r
follows:
where G is the Gravitational constant and g is the
Gravitational acceleration. The escape velocity from
2
2
2 2 Earths surface is about 11 200 m/s, and is irrespective
v = v v = (u+at)(u+at) = u +2t(au)+a t
of the direction of the object.
1 2
(2a)x = (2a)(ut+ at ) = 2t(au)+a2 t2 = v 2 u2
2
v 2 = u2 + 2(a x)
2.4 Relative velocity
where v = | v | etc.
The above equations are valid for both Newtonian mechanics and special relativity. Where Newtonian mechanics and special relativity dier is in how dierent observers would describe the same situation. In particular,
in Newtonian mechanics, all observers agree on the value
of t and the transformation rules for position create a situation in which all non-accelerating observers would describe the acceleration of an object with the same values.
Neither is true for special relativity. In other words, only
relative velocity can be calculated.
Main article: Relative velocity

Relative velocity is a measurement of velocity between
two objects as determined in a single coordinate system. Relative velocity is fundamental in both classical
and modern physics, since many systems in physics deal
with the relative motion of two or more particles. In Newtonian mechanics, the relative velocity is independent of
the chosen inertial reference frame. This is not the case
anymore with special relativity in which velocities depend
on the choice of reference frame.
Quantities that are dependent on ve- If an object A is moving with velocity vector v and an
object B with velocity vector w, then the velocity of object
locity
A relative to object B is dened as the dierence of the
2.3.4
The kinetic energy of a moving object is dependent on its

velocity and is given by the equation
two velocity vectors:
v A to relative B = v w
Ek =
2
1
2 mv
Similarly the relative velocity of object B moving with

ignoring special relativity, where E is the kinetic energy velocity w, relative to object A moving with velocity v is:
and m is the mass. Kinetic energy is a scalar quantity as it
depends on the square of the velocity, however a related
quantity, momentum, is a vector and dened by
v B to relative A = w v
p = mv
Usually the inertial frame is chosen in which the latter of

the two mentioned objects is in rest.
2.6. SEE ALSO
2.4.1
Scalar velocities
9
such that
In the one-dimensional case,[2] the velocities are scalars

|r v|
and the equation is either:
=
.
|r|2
vrel = v (w)
vrel = v (+w)
Angular momentum in scalar form is the mass times the

distance to the origin times the transverse velocity, or
equivalently, the mass times the distance squared times
the angular speed. The sign convention for angular momentum is the same as that for angular velocity.
2.5 Polar coordinates

In polar coordinates, a two-dimensional velocity is described by a radial velocity, dened as the component of
velocity away from or toward the origin (also known as
velocity made good), and an angular velocity, which is
the rate of rotation about the origin (with positive quantities representing counter-clockwise rotation and negative quantities representing clockwise rotation, in a righthanded coordinate system).
The radial and angular velocities can be derived from the
Cartesian velocity and displacement vectors by decomposing the velocity vector into radial and transverse components. The transverse velocity is the component of velocity along a circle centered at the origin.
L = mrvT = mr2
where
m
r = r.
The expression mr2 is known as moment of inertia. If
forces are in the radial direction only with an inverse
square dependence, as in the case of a gravitational orbit,
angular momentum is constant, and transverse speed is
inversely proportional to the distance, angular speed is inversely proportional to the distance squared, and the rate
at which area is swept out is constant. These relations are
known as Keplers laws of planetary motion.
v = vT + vR
2.6 See also
where
vT
Four-velocity (relativistic version of velocity for

Minkowski spacetime)
vR
Group velocity
The magnitude of the radial velocity is the dot product of

the velocity vector and the unit vector in the direction of
the displacement.
vR =
vr
|r|
where
Phase velocity
Proper velocity (in relativity, using traveler time instead of observer time)
Rapidity (a version of velocity additive at relativistic
speeds)
Terminal velocity
Velocity vs. time graph
r
The magnitude of the transverse velocity is that of the
cross product of the unit vector in the direction of the displacement and the velocity vector. It is also the product
of the angular speed and the magnitude of the displacement.
vT =
Hypervelocity
|r v|
= |r|
|r|
2.7 Notes
[1] Wilson, Edwin Bidwell (1901). Vector analysis: a textbook for the use of students of mathematics and physics,
founded upon the lectures of J. Willard Gibbs. p. 125.
This is the likely origin of the speed/velocity terminology
in vector physics.
[2] Basic principle
10
2.8 References
Robert Resnick and Jearl Walker, Fundamentals of
Physics, Wiley; 7 Sub edition (June 16, 2004). ISBN
0-471-23231-9.
2.9 External links

physicsabout.com, Speed and Velocity
Velocity and Acceleration
Introduction to Mechanisms (Carnegie Mellon University)
CHAPTER 2. VELOCITY
Chapter 3
Newtons laws of motion

Laws of Motion redirects here. For other uses, see rst published in 1687.[4] Newton used them to explain
Laws of motion.
and investigate the motion of many physical objects and
systems.[5] For example, in the third volume of the text,
Newton showed that these laws of motion, combined with
his law of universal gravitation, explained Keplers laws
of planetary motion.
3.1 Overview
Newtons First and Second laws, in Latin, from the original 1687
Principia Mathematica.
Isaac Newton (16431727), the physicist who formulated the

laws
Newtons laws of motion are three physical laws that, together, laid the foundation for classical mechanics. They
describe the relationship between a body and the forces
acting upon it, and its motion in response to those forces.
They have been expressed in several dierent ways, over
nearly three centuries,[1] and can be summarised as follows.
Newtons laws are applied to objects which are idealised

as single point masses,[6] in the sense that the size and
shape of the objects body are neglected to focus on its
motion more easily. This can be done when the object is
small compared to the distances involved in its analysis,
or the deformation and rotation of the body are of no imThe three laws of motion were rst compiled by Isaac portance. In this way, even a planet can be idealised as a
Newton in his Philosophi Naturalis Principia Mathe- particle for analysis of its orbital motion around a star.
matica (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy), In their original form, Newtons laws of motion are not
11
12
CHAPTER 3. NEWTONS LAWS OF MOTION
adequate to characterise the motion of rigid bodies and

deformable bodies. Leonhard Euler in 1750 introduced a
generalisation of Newtons laws of motion for rigid bodies called Eulers laws of motion, later applied as well for
deformable bodies assumed as a continuum. If a body is
represented as an assemblage of discrete particles, each
governed by Newtons laws of motion, then Eulers laws
can be derived from Newtons laws. Eulers laws can,
however, be taken as axioms describing the laws of motion for extended bodies, independently of any particle
structure.[7]
of the object is constant. Velocity is a vector quantity

which expresses both the objects speed and the direction
of its motion; therefore, the statement that the objects
velocity is constant is a statement that both its speed and
the direction of its motion are constant.
Newtons laws hold only with respect to a certain set of

frames of reference called Newtonian or inertial reference frames. Some authors interpret the rst law as dening what an inertial reference frame is; from this point of
view, the second law only holds when the observation is
made from an inertial reference frame, and therefore the
rst law cannot be proved as a special case of the second. Other authors do treat the rst law as a corollary of
the second.[8][9] The explicit concept of an inertial frame
of reference was not developed until long after Newtons
death.
Consequently,
In the given interpretation mass, acceleration,

momentum, and (most importantly) force are assumed to be externally dened quantities. This is the
most common, but not the only interpretation of the way
one can consider the laws to be a denition of these
quantities.
The rst law can be stated mathematically when the mass

is a non-zero constant, as,
F=0
dv
= 0.
dt
An object that is at rest will stay at rest unless a force

acts upon it.
An object that is in motion will not change its velocity unless a force acts upon it.
This is known as uniform motion. An object continues
to do whatever it happens to be doing unless a force is
exerted upon it. If it is at rest, it continues in a state of
rest (demonstrated when a tablecloth is skilfully whipped
from under dishes on a tabletop and the dishes remain
in their initial state of rest). If an object is moving, it
continues to move without turning or changing its speed.
This is evident in space probes that continually move in
outer space. Changes in motion must be imposed against
the tendency of an object to retain its state of motion. In
the absence of net forces, a moving object tends to move
along a straight line path indenitely.
Newtonian mechanics has been superseded by special relativity, but it is still useful as an approximation when
the speeds involved are much slower than the speed of
Newton placed the rst law of motion to establish frames
light.[10]
of reference for which the other laws are applicable. The
rst law of motion postulates the existence of at least one
frame of reference called a Newtonian or inertial refer3.2 Newtons rst law
ence frame, relative to which the motion of a particle not
subject to forces is a straight line at a constant speed.[8][12]
Main article: Inertia
Newtons rst law is often referred to as the law of inerThe rst law states that if the net force (the vector sum
tia. Thus, a condition necessary for the uniform motion
of a particle relative to an inertial reference frame is that
the total net force acting on it is zero. In this sense, the
rst law can be restated as:
In every material universe, the motion of a
particle in a preferential reference frame is
determined by the action of forces whose total
vanished for all times when and only when the
velocity of the particle is constant in . That is,
a particle initially at rest or in uniform motion in
the preferential frame continues in that state
unless compelled by forces to change it.[13]
Newtons laws are valid only in an inertial reference
frame. Any reference frame that is in uniform motion
with respect to an inertial frame is also an inertial frame,
i.e. Galilean invariance or the principle of Newtonian relof all forces acting on an object) is zero, then the velocity ativity.[14]
Explanation of Newtons rst law and reference frames. (MIT
Course 8.01)[11]
3.4. NEWTONS THIRD LAW
3.3 Newtons second law
13
3.3.1 Impulse
An impulse J occurs when a force F acts over an interval
of time t, and it is given by[19][20]
J=
F dt.
t
Since force is the time derivative of momentum, it follows

that
J = p = mv.
Explanation of Newtons second law, using gravity as an example. (MIT OCW)[15]
This relation between impulse and momentum is closer

to Newtons wording of the second law.[21]
Impulse is a concept frequently used in the analysis of
collisions and impacts.[22]
The second law states that the rate of change of momentum of a body, is directly proportional to the force applied
and this change in momentum takes place in the direction
3.3.2
of the applied force.
Variable-mass systems
Main article: Variable-mass system

dp
d(mv)
F=
=
.
dt
dt
The second law can also be stated in terms of an objects
acceleration. Since Newtons second law is only valid for
constant-mass systems,[16][17][18] it can be taken outside
the dierentiation operator by the constant factor rule in
dierentiation. Thus,
dv
= ma,
dt
where F is the net force applied, m is the mass of the
body, and a is the bodys acceleration. Thus, the net force
applied to a body produces a proportional acceleration. In
other words, if a body is accelerating, then there is a force
on it.
F=m
Variable-mass systems, like a rocket burning fuel and

ejecting spent gases, are not closed and cannot be directly
treated by making mass a function of time in the second
law;[17] that is, the following formula is wrong:[18]
Fnet =
]
d[
dv
dm
m(t)v(t) = m(t) +v(t)
.
dt
dt
dt
(wrong)
The falsehood of this formula can be seen by noting that

it does not respect Galilean invariance: a variable-mass
object with F = 0 in one frame will be seen to have F 0
in another frame.[16] The correct equation of motion for
a body whose mass m varies with time by either ejecting
or accreting mass is obtained by applying the second law
Consistent with the rst law, the time derivative of the to the entire, constant-mass system consisting of the body
momentum is non-zero when the momentum changes di- and its ejected/accreted mass; the result is[16]
rection, even if there is no change in its magnitude; such
is the case with uniform circular motion. The relationship also implies the conservation of momentum: when
dm
dv
F+u
=m
the net force on the body is zero, the momentum of the
dt
dt
body is constant. Any net force is equal to the rate of
where u is the velocity of the escaping or incoming mass
change of the momentum.
relative to the body. From this equation one can derive
Any mass that is gained or lost by the system will cause a the equation of motion for a varying mass system, for
change in momentum that is not the result of an external example, the Tsiolkovsky rocket equation. Under some
force. A dierent equation is necessary for variable-mass conventions, the quantity u dm/dt on the left-hand side,
systems (see below).
which represents the advection of momentum, is dened
Newtons second law requires modication if the eects as a force (the force exerted on the body by the changof special relativity are to be taken into account, because ing mass, such as rocket exhaust) and is included in the
at high speeds the approximation that momentum is the quantity F. Then, by substituting the denition of accelproduct of rest mass and velocity is not accurate.
eration, the equation becomes F = ma.
14

situations the magnitude and directions of the forces are
determined jointly by both bodies and it isn't necessary
to identify one force as the action and the other as the
reaction. The action and the reaction are simultaneous, and it does not matter which is called the action and
which is called reaction; both forces are part of a single
interaction, and neither force exists without the other.[24]
The two forces in Newtons third law are of the same type
(e.g., if the road exerts a forward frictional force on an accelerating cars tires, then it is also a frictional force that
Newtons third law predicts for the tires pushing backward on the road).
From a conceptual standpoint, Newtons third law is seen

when a person walks: they push against the oor, and the
oor pushes against the person. Similarly, the tires of a
An illustration of Newtons third law in which two skaters push
car push against the road while the road pushes back on
against each other. The rst skater on the left exerts a normal
the tiresthe tires and road simultaneously push against
force N12 on the second skater directed towards the right, and
the second skater exerts a normal force N21 on the rst skater each other. In swimming, a person interacts with the water, pushing the water backward, while the water simultadirected towards the left.
The magnitudes of both forces are equal, but they have opposite neously pushes the person forwardboth the person and
the water push against each other. The reaction forces
directions, as dictated by Newtons third law.
account for the motion in these examples. These forces
depend on friction; a person or car on ice, for example,
may be unable to exert the action force to produce the
needed reaction force.[27]
3.5 History
3.5.1 Newtons 1st Law
From the original Latin of Newtons Principia:
Translated to English, this reads:
A description of Newtons third law and contact forces[23]
3.4 Newtons third law

The third law states that all forces between two objects
exist in equal magnitude and opposite direction: if one
object A exerts a force FA on a second object B, then
B simultaneously exerts a force FB on A, and the two
forces are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction:
FA = FB.[24] The third law means that all forces are
interactions between dierent bodies,[25][26] or dierent
regions within one body, and thus that there is no such
thing as a force that is not accompanied by an equal and
opposite force. In some situations, the magnitude and direction of the forces are determined entirely by one of
the two bodies, say Body A; the force exerted by Body
A on Body B is called the action, and the force exerted
by Body B on Body A is called the reaction. This law
is sometimes referred to as the action-reaction law, with
FA called the action and FB the reaction. In other
The ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle had the view that

all objects have a natural place in the universe: that heavy
objects (such as rocks) wanted to be at rest on the Earth
and that light objects like smoke wanted to be at rest in
the sky and the stars wanted to remain in the heavens.
He thought that a body was in its natural state when it
was at rest, and for the body to move in a straight line at
a constant speed an external agent was needed continually to propel it, otherwise it would stop moving. Galileo
Galilei, however, realised that a force is necessary to
change the velocity of a body, i.e., acceleration, but no
force is needed to maintain its velocity. In other words,
Galileo stated that, in the absence of a force, a moving
object will continue moving. (The tendency of objects
to resist changes in motion was what Johannes Kepler
had called inertia.) This insight was rened by Newton,
who made it into his rst law, also known as the law
of inertiano force means no acceleration, and hence
the body will maintain its velocity. As Newtons rst law
is a restatement of the law of inertia which Galileo had
already described, Newton appropriately gave credit to
Galileo.
3.6. IMPORTANCE AND RANGE OF VALIDITY
15
The law of inertia apparently occurred to several dier- 3.5.3 Newtons 3rd Law
ent natural philosophers and scientists independently, including Thomas Hobbes in his Leviathan.[29] The 17th Translated to English, this reads:
century philosopher and mathematician Ren Descartes Newtons Scholium (explanatory comment) to this law:
also formulated the law, although he did not perform any
experiments to conrm it.[30][31]
Whatever draws or presses another is as
much drawn or pressed by that other. If you
press a stone with your nger, the nger is also
3.5.2 Newtons 2nd Law
pressed by the stone. If a horse draws a stone
tied to a rope, the horse (if I may so say) will
be equally drawn back towards the stone: for
Newtons original Latin reads:
the distended rope, by the same endeavour to
This was translated quite closely in Mottes 1729 translarelax or unbend itself, will draw the horse as
tion as:
much towards the stone, as it does the stone toAccording to modern ideas of how Newton was using his
wards the horse, and will obstruct the progress
terminology,[32] this is understood, in modern terms, as
of the one as much as it advances that of the
an equivalent of:
other. If a body impinges upon another, and by
its force changes the motion of the other, that
body also (because of the equality of the mutual pressure) will undergo an equal change, in
The change of momentum of a body is proits own motion, toward the contrary part. The
portional to the impulse impressed on the body,
changes made by these actions are equal, not
and happens along the straight line on which
in the velocities but in the motions of the bodthat impulse is impressed.
ies; that is to say, if the bodies are not hindered
by any other impediments. For, as the motions
are equally changed, the changes of the velocities made toward contrary parts are reciproThis may be expressed by the formula F = p', where p'
cally proportional to the bodies. This law takes
is the time derivative of the momentum p. This equaplace also in attractions, as will be proved in
tion can be seen clearly in the Wren Library of Trinity
the next scholium.[34]
College, Cambridge, in a glass case in which Newtons
manuscript is open to the relevant page.
In the above, as usual, motion is Newtons name for moMottes 1729 translation of Newtons Latin continued mentum, hence his careful distinction between motion
with Newtons commentary on the second law of motion, and velocity.
reading:
Newton used the third law to derive the law of
conservation of momentum;[35] from a deeper perspective, however, conservation of momentum is the more
fundamental idea (derived via Noethers theorem from
If a force generates a motion, a double force
Galilean invariance), and holds in cases where Newtons
will generate double the motion, a triple force
third law appears to fail, for instance when force elds as
triple the motion, whether that force be imwell as particles carry momentum, and in quantum mepressed altogether and at once, or gradually and
chanics.
successively. And this motion (being always directed the same way with the generating force),
if the body moved before, is added to or sub3.6 Importance and range of validtracted from the former motion, according as
they directly conspire with or are directly conity
trary to each other; or obliquely joined, when
they are oblique, so as to produce a new motion
Newtons laws were veried by experiment and observacompounded from the determination of both.
tion for over 200 years, and they are excellent approximations at the scales and speeds of everyday life. Newtons
laws of motion, together with his law of universal graviThe sense or senses in which Newton used his terminol- tation and the mathematical techniques of calculus, proogy, and how he understood the second law and intended vided for the rst time a unied quantitative explanation
it to be understood, have been extensively discussed by for a wide range of physical phenomena.
historians of science, along with the relations between These three laws hold to a good approximation for macroscopic objects under everyday conditions. However,
Newtons formulation and modern formulations.[33]
16
Newtons laws (combined with universal gravitation and
classical electrodynamics) are inappropriate for use in
certain circumstances, most notably at very small scales,
very high speeds (in special relativity, the Lorentz factor must be included in the expression for momentum
along with the rest mass and velocity) or very strong
gravitational elds. Therefore, the laws cannot be used
to explain phenomena such as conduction of electricity in a semiconductor, optical properties of substances,
errors in non-relativistically corrected GPS systems and
superconductivity. Explanation of these phenomena requires more sophisticated physical theories, including
general relativity and quantum eld theory.

this context that he stated the famous phrase "I feign no
hypotheses". In modern physics, action at a distance has
been completely eliminated, except for subtle eects involving quantum entanglement. However, in modern engineering, in all practical applications involving the motion of vehicles and satellites, the concept of action at a
distance is used extensively.
The discovery of the second law of thermodynamics by

Carnot in the 19th century showed that every physical
quantity is not conserved over time, thus disproving the
validity of inducing the opposite metaphysical view from
Newtons laws. Hence, a steady-state worldview based
solely on Newtons laws and the conservation laws does
In quantum mechanics, concepts such as force, momen- not take entropy into account.
tum, and position are dened by linear operators that operate on the quantum state; at speeds that are much lower
than the speed of light, Newtons laws are just as exact 3.8 See also
for these operators as they are for classical objects. At
speeds comparable to the speed of light, the second law
Eulers laws
holds in the original form F = dp/dt, where F and p are
four-vectors.
Hamiltonian mechanics
Lagrangian mechanics
3.7 Relationship to the conservation laws
List of scientic laws named after people

Mercury, orbit of
Modied Newtonian dynamics
In modern physics, the laws of conservation of

momentum, energy, and angular momentum are of more
general validity than Newtons laws, since they apply to
both light and matter, and to both classical and nonclassical physics.
This can be stated simply, Momentum, energy and angular momentum cannot be created or destroyed.
Because force is the time derivative of momentum, the
concept of force is redundant and subordinate to the conservation of momentum, and is not used in fundamental
theories (e.g., quantum mechanics, quantum electrodynamics, general relativity, etc.). The standard model explains in detail how the three fundamental forces known
as gauge forces originate out of exchange by virtual particles. Other forces, such as gravity and fermionic degeneracy pressure, also arise from the momentum conservation. Indeed, the conservation of 4-momentum in inertial motion via curved space-time results in what we call
gravitational force in general relativity theory. The application of the space derivative (which is a momentum
operator in quantum mechanics) to the overlapping wave
functions of a pair of fermions (particles with half-integer
spin) results in shifts of maxima of compound wavefunction away from each other, which is observable as the repulsion of the fermions.
Newton stated the third law within a world-view that assumed instantaneous action at a distance between material particles. However, he was prepared for philosophical criticism of this action at a distance, and it was in
Newtons law of universal gravitation

Principle of least action
Reaction (physics)
Principle of relativity
3.9 References and notes

[1] For explanations of Newtons laws of motion by Newton in
the early 18th century, by the physicist William Thomson
(Lord Kelvin) in the mid-19th century, and by a modern
text of the early 21st century, see: Newtons Axioms or Laws of Motion starting on
page 19 of volume 1 of the 1729 translation of the
"Principia";
Section 242, Newtons laws of motion in Thomson,
W (Lord Kelvin), and Tait, P G, (1867), Treatise on
natural philosophy, volume 1; and
Benjamin Crowell (2000), Newtonian Physics.
[2] Browne, Michael E. (July 1999). Schaums outline of theory and problems of physics for engineering and science
(Series: Schaums Outline Series). McGraw-Hill Companies. p. 58. ISBN 978-0-07-008498-8.
[3] Holzner, Steven (December 2005). Physics for Dummies.
Wiley, John & Sons, Incorporated. p. 64. ISBN 978-07645-5433-9.
3.9. REFERENCES AND NOTES
[4] See the Principia on line at Andrew Motte Translation

[5] Andrew Motte translation of Newtons Principia (1687)
Axioms or Laws of Motion
[6] [...]while Newton had used the word 'body' vaguely and
in at least three dierent meanings, Euler realized that the
statements of Newton are generally correct only when applied to masses concentrated at isolated points;Truesdell,
Cliord A.; Becchi, Antonio; Benvenuto, Edoardo
(2003). Essays on the history of mechanics: in memory of
Cliord Ambrose Truesdell and Edoardo Benvenuto. New
York: Birkhuser. p. 207. ISBN 3-7643-1476-1.
[7] Lubliner, Jacob (2008). Plasticity Theory (Revised Edition) (PDF). Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-46290-0.
[8] Galili, I.; Tseitlin, M. (2003).
Newtons First
Law:
Text, Translations, Interpretations and
Physics Education.
Science & Education.
12
Bibcode:2003Sc&Ed..12...45G.
(1):
4573.
doi:10.1023/A:1022632600805.
[9] Benjamin Crowell. 4. Force and Motion. Newtonian
Physics. ISBN 0-9704670-1-X.
[10] In making a modern adjustment of the second law for
(some of) the eects of relativity, m would be treated as
the relativistic mass, producing the relativistic expression
for momentum, and the third law might be modied if
possible to allow for the nite signal propagation speed
between distant interacting particles.
[11] Walter Lewin (20 September 1999). Newtons First, Second, and Third Laws. MIT Course 8.01: Classical Mechanics, Lecture 6. (ogg) (videotape). Cambridge, MA
USA: MIT OCW. Event occurs at 0:006:53. Retrieved
23 December 2010.
17
[17] Halliday; Resnick. Physics. 1. p. 199. ISBN 0-47103710-9. It is important to note that we cannot derive a
general expression for Newtons second law for variable
mass systems by treating the mass in F = dP/dt = d(Mv)
as a variable. [...] We can use F = dP/dt to analyze variable mass systems only if we apply it to an entire system of
constant mass having parts among which there is an interchange of mass. [Emphasis as in the original]
[18] Kleppner, Daniel; Robert Kolenkow (1973). An Introduction to Mechanics. McGraw-Hill. pp. 133134. ISBN
0-07-035048-5. Recall that F = dP/dt was established for
a system composed of a certain set of particles[. ... I]t
is essential to deal with the same set of particles throughout the time interval[. ...] Consequently, the mass of the
system can not change during the time of interest.
[19] Hannah, J, Hillier, M J, Applied Mechanics, p221, Pitman
Paperbacks, 1971
[20] Raymond A. Serway; Jerry S. Faughn (2006). College
Physics. Pacic Grove CA: Thompson-Brooks/Cole. p.
161. ISBN 0-534-99724-4.
[21] I Bernard Cohen (Peter M. Harman & Alan E. Shapiro,
Eds) (2002). The investigation of dicult things: essays
on Newton and the history of the exact sciences in honour
of D.T. Whiteside. Cambridge UK: Cambridge University
Press. p. 353. ISBN 0-521-89266-X.
[22] WJ Stronge (2004). Impact mechanics. Cambridge UK:
Cambridge University Press. p. 12 . ISBN 0-52160289-0.
[23] Lewin, Newtons First, Second, and Third Laws, Lecture
6. (14:1116:00)
[24] Resnick; Halliday; Krane (1992). Physics, Volume 1 (4th
ed.). p. 83.
[13] Beatty, Millard F. (2006). Principles of engineering mechanics Volume 2 of Principles of Engineering Mechanics: Dynamics-The Analysis of Motion,. Springer. p. 24.
ISBN 0-387-23704-6.
[25] C Hellingman (1992).

Newtons third law revisited.
Phys.
Educ.
27 (2):
112115.
Bibcode:1992PhyEd..27..112H.
doi:10.1088/00319120/27/2/011. Quoting Newton in the Principia: It is
not one action by which the Sun attracts Jupiter, and
another by which Jupiter attracts the Sun; but it is one
action by which the Sun and Jupiter mutually endeavour
to come nearer together.
[14] Thornton, Marion (2004). Classical dynamics of particles

and systems (5th ed.). Brooks/Cole. p. 53. ISBN 0-53440896-6.
[26] Resnick & Halliday (1977). Physics (Third ed.). John

Wiley & Sons. pp. 7879. Any single force is only one
aspect of a mutual interaction between two bodies.
[15] Lewin, Newtons First, Second, and Third Laws, Lecture

6. (6:5311:06)
[27] Hewitt (2006), p. 75
[12] NMJ Woodhouse (2003). Special relativity. London/Berlin: Springer. p. 6. ISBN 1-85233-426-6.
[16] Plastino, Angel R.; Muzzio, Juan C. (1992). On

the use and abuse of Newtons second law for variable mass problems. Celestial Mechanics and Dynamical Astronomy. Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers. 53 (3): 227232. Bibcode:1992CeMDA..53..227P.
doi:10.1007/BF00052611. ISSN 0923-2958. We may
conclude emphasizing that Newtons second law is valid
for constant mass only. When the mass varies due to accretion or ablation, [an alternate equation explicitly accounting for the changing mass] should be used.
[28] Isaac Newton, The Principia, A new translation by I.B.

Cohen and A. Whitman, University of California press,
Berkeley 1999.
[29] Thomas Hobbes wrote in Leviathan:
That when a thing lies still, unless somewhat else stir it, it will lie still forever, is a
truth that no man doubts. But [the proposition] that when a thing is in motion it will
eternally be in motion unless somewhat else
stay it, though the reason be the same (namely
18
that nothing can change itself), is not so easily assented to. For men measure not only
other men but all other things by themselves.
And because they nd themselves subject after motion to pain and lassitude, [they] think
every thing else grows weary of motion and
seeks repose of its own accord, little considering whether it be not some other motion
wherein that desire of rest they nd in themselves, consists.
[30] Cohen, I. B. (1995). Science and the Founding Fathers:
Science in the Political Thought of Jeerson, Franklin,
Adams and Madison. New York: W.W. Norton. p. 117.
ISBN 978-0393315103.
[31] Cohen, I. B. (1980). The Newtonian Revolution: With Illustrations of the Transformation of Scientic Ideas. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. p. 183-4.
ISBN 978-0521273800.
[32] According to Maxwell in Matter and Motion, Newton
meant by motion "the quantity of matter moved as well
as the rate at which it travels and by impressed force he
meant the time during which the force acts as well as the
intensity of the force". See Harman and Shapiro, cited below.
[33] See for example (1) I Bernard Cohen, Newtons Second
Law and the Concept of Force in the Principia, in The
Annus Mirabilis of Sir Isaac Newton 16661966 (Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 1967), pages 143
185; (2) Stuart Pierson, "'Corpore cadente. . .': Historians
Discuss Newtons Second Law, Perspectives on Science,
1 (1993), pages 627658; and (3) Bruce Pourciau, Newtons Interpretation of Newtons Second Law, Archive for
History of Exact Sciences, vol.60 (2006), pages 157207;
also an online discussion by G E Smith, in 5. Newtons
Laws of Motion, s.5 of Newtons Philosophiae Naturalis
Principia Mathematica in (online) Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2007.
[34] This translation of the third law and the commentary following it can be found in the "Principia" on page 20 of
volume 1 of the 1729 translation.
[35] Newton, Principia, Corollary III to the laws of motion
3.10 Further reading and works

cited
Crowell, Benjamin (2011), Light and Matter (2011,
Light and Matter), especially at Section 4.2, Newtons First Law, Section 4.3, Newtons Second Law,
and Section 5.1, Newtons Third Law.
Feynman, R. P.; Leighton, R. B.; Sands, M. (2005).
The Feynman Lectures on Physics. Vol. 1 (2nd ed.).
Pearson/Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-8053-9049-9.
Fowles, G. R.; Cassiday, G. L. (1999). Analytical
Mechanics (6th ed.). Saunders College Publishing.
ISBN 0-03-022317-2.
Likins, Peter W. (1973). Elements of Engineering

Mechanics. McGraw-Hill Book Company. ISBN 007-037852-5.
Marion, Jerry; Thornton, Stephen (1995). Classical
Dynamics of Particles and Systems. Harcourt College Publishers. ISBN 0-03-097302-3.
NMJ Woodhouse (2003). Special Relativity. London/Berlin: Springer. p. 6. ISBN 1-85233-426-6.
Historical
Newton, Isaac, "Mathematical Principles of Natural
Philosophy", 1729 English translation based on 3rd
Latin edition (1726), volume 1, containing Book 1,
especially at the section Axioms or Laws of Motion,
starting page 19.
Newton, Isaac, "Mathematical Principles of Natural
Philosophy", 1729 English translation based on 3rd
Latin edition (1726), volume 2, containing Books 2
& 3.
Thomson, W (Lord Kelvin), and Tait, P G, (1867),
Treatise on natural philosophy, volume 1, especially
at Section 242, Newtons laws of motion.
3.11 External links

MIT Physics video lecture on Newtons three laws
Light and Matter an on-line textbook
Simulation on Newtons rst law of motion
"Newtons Second Law" by Enrique Zeleny,
Wolfram Demonstrations Project.
Newtons 3rd Law demonstrated in a vacuum on
YouTube
Chapter 4
Momentum
This article is about linear momentum. It is not to be linear momentum of a system. But each would observe
confused with angular momentum.
that the value of linear momentum does not change with
This article is about momentum in physics. For other time, provided the system is isolated.
uses, see Momentum (disambiguation).
In classical mechanics, linear momentum, translational momentum, or simply momentum (pl. momenta; SI unit kg m/s) is the product of the mass and
velocity of an object, quantied in kilogram-meters per
second. It is dimensionally equivalent to impulse, the
product of force and time, quantied in newton-seconds.
Newtons second law of motion states that the change in
linear momentum of a body is equal to the net impulse
acting on it. For example, a heavy truck moving rapidly
has a large momentum, and it takes a large or prolonged
force to get the truck up to this speed, and would take
a similarly large or prolonged force to bring it to a stop.
If the truck were lighter, or moving more slowly, then
it would have less momentum and therefore require less
impulse to start or stop.
4.1 Newtonian mechanics

Momentum has a direction as well as magnitude. Quantities that have both a magnitude and a direction are known
as vector quantities. Because momentum has a direction,
it can be used to predict the resulting direction of objects after they collide, as well as their speeds. Below,
the basic properties of momentum are described in one
dimension. The vector equations are almost identical to
the scalar equations (see multiple dimensions).
4.1.1 Single particle
Like velocity, linear momentum is a vector quantity, possessing a direction as well as a magnitude:
The momentum of a particle is traditionally represented

by the letter p. It is the product of two quantities, the mass
(represented by the letter m) and velocity (v):[2]
p = mv,
p = mv.
where p is the three-dimensional vector stating the

objects momentum in the three directions of threedimensional space, v is the three-dimensional velocity
vector giving the objects rate of movement in each direction, and m is the objects mass.
The units of momentum are the product of the units of

mass and velocity. In SI units, if the mass is in kilograms
and the velocity in meters per second then the momentum
is in kilogram meters/second (kg m/s). In cgs units, if the
mass is in grams and the velocity in centimeters per secLinear momentum is also a conserved quantity, meaning ond, then the momentum is in gram centimeters/second
that if a closed system is not aected by external forces, (g cm/s).
its total linear momentum cannot change.
Being a vector, momentum has magnitude and direction.
In classical mechanics, conservation of linear momen- For example, a 1 kg model airplane, traveling due north
tum is implied by Newtons laws.[1] It also holds in at 1 m/s in straight and level ight, has a momentum of 1
special relativity (with a modied formula) and, with ap- kg m/s due north measured from the ground.
propriate denitions, a (generalized) linear momentum
conservation law holds in electrodynamics, quantum mechanics, quantum eld theory, and general relativity. It is 4.1.2 Many particles
ultimately an expression of one of the fundamental symmetries of space and time, that of translational symmetry. The momentum of a system of particles is the sum of their
Linear momentum depends on frame of reference. Ob- momenta. If two particles have masses m1 and m2 , and
servers in dierent frames would nd dierent values of velocities v1 and v2 , the total momentum is
19
20
CHAPTER 4. MOMENTUM
p = p1 + p2
F =m
= m1 v1 + m2 v2 .
dv
= ma,
dt
so the force is equal to mass times acceleration.[2]

The momenta of more than two particles can be added
Example: A model airplane of 1 kg accelerates from rest
more generally with the following:
to a velocity of 6 m/s due north in 2 s. The net force
required to produce this acceleration is 3 newtons due
north. The change in momentum is 6 kg m/s. The rate of

p=
mi vi
change of momentum is 3 (kg m/s)/s = 3 N.
i
A system of particles has a center of mass, a point deter4.1.4

mined by the weighted sum of their positions:
Conservation
rcm
mi r i
m1 r1 + m2 r2 +
i
=
=
.
m1 + m2 +
mi
i
If all the particles are moving, the center of mass will

generally be moving as well (unless the system is in pure
rotation around it). If the center of mass is moving at
velocity v , the momentum is:
p = mvcm .
This is known as Eulers rst law.[3][4]
A Newtons cradle demonstrates conservation of momentum.
4.1.3
Relation to force
In a closed system (one that does not exchange any matter with its surroundings and is not acted on by external
If a force F is applied to a particle for a time interval t, forces) the total momentum is constant. This fact, known
the momentum of the particle changes by an amount
as the law of conservation of momentum, is implied by
Newtons laws of motion.[5] Suppose, for example, that
two particles interact. Because of the third law, the forces
p = F t .
between them are equal and opposite. If the particles are
numbered 1 and 2, the second law states that F 1 = dp1 /dt
In dierential form, this is Newtons second law; the rate and F 2 = dp2 /dt. Therefore,
of change of the momentum of a particle is proportional
to the force F acting on it,[2]
dp1
dp2
=
,
dt
dt
dp
F =
.
with the negative sign indicating that the forces oppose.
dt
Equivalently,
If the force depends on time, the change in momentum
(or impulse J) between times t 1 and t 2 is
d
(p1 + p2 ) = 0.
dt
t2
If the velocities of the particles are u1 and u2 before the
p = J =
F (t) dt .
t1
interaction, and afterwards they are v1 and v2 , then
Impulse is measured in the derived units of the newton
second (1 N s = 1 kg m/s) or dyne second (1 dyne s = 1 g
m1 u1 + m2 u2 = m1 v1 + m2 v2 .
m/s)
Under the assumption of constant mass m, it is equivalent This law holds no matter how complicated the force is
to write
between particles. Similarly, if there are several particles,
4.1. NEWTONIAN MECHANICS
21
the momentum exchanged between each pair of particles

adds up to zero, so the total change in momentum is zero.
This conservation law applies to all interactions, including
collisions and separations caused by explosive forces.[5] It
can also be generalized to situations where Newtons laws
do not hold, for example in the theory of relativity and in
electrodynamics.[6]
4.1.5
Dependence on reference frame

V1
V1
V=0
V=V1
Newtons apple in Einsteins elevator. In person As frame of

reference, the apple has non-zero velocity and momentum. In the
elevators and person Bs frames of reference, it has zero velocity
and momentum.
Since u does not change, the accelerations are the same:
a =
dv
= a.
dt
Thus, momentum is conserved in both reference frames.

Moreover, as long as the force has the same form, in both
frames, Newtons second law is unchanged. Forces such
as Newtonian gravity, which depend only on the scalar
distance between objects, satisfy this criterion. This independence of reference frame is called Newtonian relativity or Galilean invariance.[7]
A change of reference frame, can, often, simplify calculations of motion. For example, in a collision of two particles, a reference frame can be chosen, where, one particle begins at rest. Another, commonly used reference
frame, is the center of mass frame - one that is moving
with the center of mass. In this frame, the total momentum is zero.
4.1.6 Application to collisions

By itself, the law of conservation of momentum is not
enough to determine the motion of particles after a collision. Another property of the motion, kinetic energy,
must be known. This is not necessarily conserved. If it
is conserved, the collision is called an elastic collision; if
not, it is an inelastic collision.
Elastic collisions
Momentum is a measurable quantity, and the measurement depends on the motion of the observer. For exMain article: Elastic collision
ample: if an apple is sitting in a glass elevator that is
An elastic collision is one in which no kinetic energy is
descending, an outside observer, looking into the elevator, sees the apple moving, so, to that observer, the apple
has a non-zero momentum. To someone inside the elevator, the apple does not move, so, it has zero momentum. The two observers each have a frame of reference,
Elastic collision of equal masses
in which, they observe motions, and, if the elevator is descending steadily, they will see behavior that is consistent
with those same physical laws.
Suppose a particle has position x in a stationary frame
of reference. From the point of view of another frame
of reference, moving at a uniform speed u, the position Elastic collision of unequal masses
(represented by a primed coordinate) changes with time
as
lost. Perfectly elastic collisions can occur when the objects do not touch each other, as for example in atomic
or nuclear scattering where electric repulsion keeps them
apart. A slingshot maneuver of a satellite around a planet
x = x ut .
can also be viewed as a perfectly elastic collision from a
This is called a Galilean transformation. If the particle is distance. A collision between two pool balls is a good exmoving at speed dx/dt = v in the rst frame of reference, ample of an almost totally elastic collision, due to their
in the second, it is moving at speed
high rigidity; but when bodies come in contact there is
always some dissipation.[8]
v =
dx
= v u.
dt
A head-on elastic collision between two bodies can be

represented by velocities in one dimension, along a line
22
CHAPTER 4. MOMENTUM
passing through the bodies. If the velocities are u1 and

u2 before the collision and v1 and v2 after, the equations
expressing conservation of momentum and kinetic energy
are:
m1 u1 + m2 u2 = m1 v1 + m2 v2
2
1
2 m1 u1
energy is converted into mass in the form of new particles.

In a perfectly inelastic collision (such as a bug hitting
a windshield), both bodies have the same motion afterwards. If one body is motionless to begin with, the equation for conservation of momentum is
+ 12 m2 u22 = 12 m1 v12 + 12 m2 v22 .
A change of reference frame can often simplify the analysis of a collision. For example, suppose there are two
bodies of equal mass m, one stationary and one approaching the other at a speed v (as in the gure). The center of
mass is moving at speed v/2 and both bodies are moving
towards it at speed v/2. Because of the symmetry, after
the collision both must be moving away from the center
of mass at the same speed. Adding the speed of the center of mass to both, we nd that the body that was moving
is now stopped and the other is moving away at speed v.
The bodies have exchanged their velocities. Regardless
of the velocities of the bodies, a switch to the center of
mass frame leads us to the same conclusion. Therefore,
the nal velocities are given by[5]
v1 = u 2
v2 = u 1 .
m1 u1 = (m1 + m2 ) v ,
so
v=
m1
u1 .
m1 + m2
In a frame of reference moving at the speed v), the objects are brought to rest by the collision and 100% of the
kinetic energy is converted.
One measure of the inelasticity of the collision is the
coecient of restitution CR, dened as the ratio of relative velocity of separation to relative velocity of approach.
In applying this measure to ball sports, this can be easily
measured using the following formula:[12]
CR =
height bounce
.
height drop
In general, when the initial velocities are known, the nal

The momentum and energy equations also apply to the
velocities are given by[9]
motions of objects that begin together and then move
apart. For example, an explosion is the result of a chain
(
)
(
)
reaction that transforms potential energy stored in chemm1 m2
2m2
v1 =
u1 +
u2
ical, mechanical, or nuclear form into kinetic energy,
m1 + m2
m1 + m2
acoustic energy, and electromagnetic radiation. Rockets
(
)
(
)
also make use of conservation of momentum: propellant
m2 m1
2m1
v2 =
u2 +
u1 .
is thrust outward, gaining momentum, and an equal and
m1 + m2
m1 + m2
opposite momentum is imparted to the rocket.[13]
If one body has much greater mass than the other, its velocity will be little aected by a collision while the other
body will experience a large change.
4.1.7 Multiple dimensions
Real motion has both direction and velocity and must be
represented by a vector. In a coordinate system with x,
y, z axes, velocity has components v in the x direction,
Main article: Inelastic collision
v in the y direction, v in the z direction. The vector is
In an inelastic collision, some of the kinetic energy of represented by a boldface symbol:[14]
Inelastic collisions
v = (vx , vy , vz ) .
a perfectly inelastic collision between equal masses
Similarly, the momentum is a vector quantity and is represented by a boldface symbol:
the colliding bodies is converted into other forms of energy such as heat or sound. Examples include trac collisions,[10] in which the eect of lost kinetic energy can be p = (px , py , pz ) .
seen in the damage to the vehicles; electrons losing some
of their energy to atoms (as in the FranckHertz exper- The equations in the previous sections, work in vector
iment);[11] and particle accelerators in which the kinetic form if the scalars p and v are replaced by vectors p and
4.2. RELATIVISTIC MECHANICS
23
the external force F on the object is related to its momentum p(t) by F = dp/dt, but this is incorrect, as is the
related expression found by applying the product rule to
d(mv)/dt:[16]
F = m(t)
dm
dv
+ v(t)
.
dt
dt
This equation does not correctly describe the motion of

variable-mass objects. The correct equation is
Two-dimensional elastic collision. There is no motion perpendicular to the image, so only two components are needed to represent
the velocities and momenta. The two blue vectors represent velocities after the collision and add vectorially to get the initial (red)
velocity.
F = m(t)
p = mv
This equation is derived by keeping track of both the momentum of the object as well as the momentum of the
ejected/accreted mass (dm). When considered together,
the object and the mass (dm) constitute a closed system
in which total momentum is conserved.
dv
dm
u
,
dt
dt
where u is the velocity of the ejected/accreted mass as

seen in the objects rest frame.[16] This is distinct from v,
v. Each vector equation represents three scalar equations. which is the velocity of the object itself as seen in an inertial frame.
For example,
represents three equations:[14]
px = mvx
py = mvy
pz = mvz .
P (t+dt) = (mdm)(v+dv)+dm(vu) = mv+mdvudm = P (t)+m
4.2 Relativistic mechanics
The kinetic energy equations are exceptions to the

above replacement rule. The equations are still onedimensional, but each scalar represents the magnitude of See also: Mass in special relativity and Tests of relativistic energy and momentum
the vector, for example,
v 2 = vx2 + vy2 + vz2 .
4.2.1 Lorentz invariance
Each vector equation represents three scalar equations.

Often coordinates can be chosen so that only two components are needed, as in the gure. Each component
can be obtained separately and the results combined to
produce a vector result.[14]
Newtonian physics assumes that absolute time and space

exist outside of any observer; this gives rise to the
Galilean invariance described earlier. It also results in
a prediction that the speed of light can vary from one reference frame to another. This is contrary to observation.
A simple construction involving the center of mass frame In the special theory of relativity, Einstein keeps the poscan be used to show that if a stationary elastic sphere is tulate that the equations of motion do not depend on the
struck by a moving sphere, the two will head o at right reference frame, but assumes that the speed of light c is
angles after the collision (as in the gure).[15]
invariant. As a result, position and time in two reference
frames are related by the Lorentz transformation instead
of the Galilean transformation.[17]
4.1.8
Objects of variable mass
Consider, for example, a reference frame moving relative

The concept of momentum plays a fundamental role in to another at velocity v in the x direction. The Galilean
explaining the behavior of variable-mass objects such as transformation gives the coordinates of the moving frame
a rocket ejecting fuel or a star accreting gas. In analyzing as
such an object, one treats the objects mass as a function
that varies with time: m(t). The momentum of the object
at time t is therefore p(t) = m(t)v(t). One might then try t = t

to invoke Newtons second law of motion by saying that x = x vt
24
CHAPTER 4. MOMENTUM
while the Lorentz transformation gives[18]

(
vx )
t = t 2
c
x = (x vt)
where is the Lorentz factor:
is invariant under Lorentz transformations (in this expression and in what follows the (+ ) metric signature has been used, dierent authors use dierent conventions). Mathematically this invariance can be ensured in one of two ways: by treating the four-vectors
as Euclidean vectors and multiplying time by 1; or by
keeping time a real quantity and embedding the vectors in
a Minkowski space.[21] In a Minkowski space, the scalar
product of two four-vectors U = (U 0 ,U 1 ,U 2 ,U 3 ) and V
= (V 0 ,V 1 ,V 2 ,V 3 ) is dened as
1
=
.
1 v 2 /c2
U V = U0 V0 U1 V1 U2 V2 U3 V3 .
Newtons second law, with mass xed, is not invariant under a Lorentz transformation. However, it can be made In all the coordinate systems, the (contravariant) relativisinvariant by making the inertial mass m of an object a tic four-velocity is dened by
function of velocity:
m = m0 ;
m0 is the objects invariant mass.[19]
dR
dR
=
,
d
dt
and the (contravariant) four-momentum is
The modied momentum,

P = m0 U ,
p = m0 v ,
where m0 is the invariant mass. If R = (ct,x,y,z) (in

Minkowski space), then
obeys Newtons second law:

P = m0 (c, v) = (mc, p) .
F=
dp
.
dt
Using Einsteins mass-energy equivalence, E = mc2 , this

can be rewritten as
Within the domain of classical mechanics, relativistic

momentum closely approximates Newtonian momentum:
)
(
at low velocity, m0 v is approximately equal to m0 v, the P = E , p .
c
Newtonian expression for momentum.
4.2.2
Four-vector formulation
Main article: Four-momentum

In the theory of special relativity, physical quantities are
expressed in terms of four-vectors that include time as
a fourth coordinate along with the three space coordinates. These vectors are generally represented by capital
letters, for example R for position. The expression for
the four-momentum depends on how the coordinates are
expressed. Time may be given in its normal units or multiplied by the speed of light so that all the components
of the four-vector have dimensions of length. If the latter scaling is used, an interval of proper time, , dened
by[20]
c2 d 2 = c2 dt2 dx2 dy 2 dz 2 ,
Thus, conservation of four-momentum is Lorentzinvariant and implies conservation of both mass and energy.
The 4-Momentum is related to the 4-WaveVector in Special Relativity [22]
(
P=
E
, p
c
)
= K =
(
c
, k
The (temporal component) PlanckEinstein relation E =
The (spatial components) de Broglie matter wave relation

p = k
The magnitude of the momentum four-vector is equal to
m0 c:
||P||2 = P P = 2 m20 (c2 v 2 ) = (m0 c)2 ,
4.3. GENERALIZED COORDINATES
25
and is invariant across all reference frames.
if q is a Cartesian coordinate, pi will not be the same

momentum if the potential depends
The relativistic energymomentum relationship holds as the mechanical
[6]
on
velocity.
Some
sources represent the kinematic moeven for massless particles such as photons; by setting m0
mentum
by
the
symbol
.[28]
= 0 it follows that
In this mathematical framework, a generalized momentum is associated with the generalized coordinates. Its
components are dened as
E = pc .
In a game of relativistic billiards, if a stationary particle

is hit by a moving particle in an elastic collision, the paths
L
formed by the two afterwards will form an acute angle. pj = q .
j
This is unlike the non-relativistic case where they travel
Each component pj is said to be the conjugate momentum
at right angles.[23]
for the coordinate qj.
4.3 Generalized coordinates
Now if a given coordinate qi does not appear in the Lagrangian (although its time derivative might appear), then
See also: Analytical mechanics

pj = constant .
Newtons laws can be dicult to apply to many kinds
of motion because the motion is limited by constraints.
For example, a bead on an abacus is constrained to move
along its wire and a pendulum bob is constrained to swing
at a xed distance from the pivot. Many such constraints
can be incorporated by changing the normal Cartesian coordinates to a set of generalized coordinates that may be
fewer in number.[24] Rened mathematical methods have
been developed for solving mechanics problems in generalized coordinates. They introduce a generalized momentum, also known as the canonical or conjugate momentum, that extends the concepts of both linear momentum
and angular momentum. To distinguish it from generalized momentum, the product of mass and velocity is also
referred to as mechanical, kinetic or kinematic momentum.[6][25][26] The two main methods are described below.
This is the generalization of the conservation of

momentum.[6]
Even if the generalized coordinates are just the ordinary
spatial coordinates, the conjugate momenta are not necessarily the ordinary momentum coordinates. An example
is found in the section on electromagnetism.
4.3.2 Hamiltonian mechanics

In Hamiltonian mechanics, the Lagrangian (a function of
generalized coordinates and their derivatives) is replaced
by a Hamiltonian that is a function of generalized coordinates and momentum. The Hamiltonian is dened as
t) ,
H (q, p, t) = p q L (q, q,
4.3.1
Lagrangian mechanics
where the momentum is obtained by dierentiating the

Lagrangian as above. The Hamiltonian equations of moIn Lagrangian mechanics, a Lagrangian is dened as the
tion are[29]
dierence between the kinetic energy T and the potential
energy V:
H
pi
H
pi =
qi
dH
L
=
.
t
dt
qi =
L=T V .
If the generalized coordinates are represented as a vector

q = (q1 , q2 , ... , qN) and time dierentiation is represented by a dot over the variable, then the equations of
motion (known as the Lagrange or EulerLagrange equaAs in Lagrangian mechanics, if a generalized coordinate
tions) are a set of N equations:[27]
does not appear in the Hamiltonian, its conjugate momentum component is conserved.[30]
(
)
L
d L
= 0.
dt qj
qj
4.3.3 Symmetry and conservation
If a coordinate qi is not a Cartesian coordinate, the associated generalized momentum component pi does not nec- Conservation of momentum is a mathematical conseessarily have the dimensions of linear momentum. Even quence of the homogeneity (shift symmetry) of space (po-
26
CHAPTER 4. MOMENTUM
sition in space is the canonical conjugate quantity to mo- The electromagnetic momentum is
mentum). That is, conservation of momentum is a consequence of the fact that the laws of physics do not depend
on position; this is a special case of Noethers theorem.[31] Peld = 1

E B dV ,
0 c2
Q
4.4 Electromagnetism
In Newtonian mechanics, the law of conservation of momentum can be derived from the law of action and reaction, which states that every force has a reciprocating
equal and opposite force. Under some circumstances,
moving charged particles can exert forces on each other in
non-opposite directions.[32] Moreover, Maxwells equations, the foundation of classical electrodynamics, are
Lorentz-invariant. Nevertheless, the combined momentum of the particles and the electromagnetic eld is conserved.
4.4.1
Vacuum
and the equation for conservation of each component i of

the momentum is
d
(Pmech + Peld )i =
dt
Tij nj d .
The term on the right is an integral over the surface area

of the surface representing momentum ow into and
out of the volume, and nj is a component of the surface
normal of S. The quantity Tij is called the Maxwell stress
tensor, dened as
(
)
Tij (
0) Ei Ej 21 ij E 2
1
1
2
. [33]
0 Bi Bj 2 ij B
In Maxwells equations, the forces between particles are

mediated by electric and magnetic elds. The electro- 4.4.2 Media
magnetic force (Lorentz force) on a particle with charge
q due to a combination of electric eld E and magnetic The above results are for the microscopic Maxwell equations, applicable to electromagnetic forces in a vacuum
eld (as given by the B-eld B) is
(or on a very small scale in media). It is more dicult
to dene momentum density in media because the division into electromagnetic and mechanical is arbitrary.
F = q(E + v B).
The denition of electromagnetic momentum density is
This force imparts a momentum to the particle, so by modied to
Newtons second law the particle must impart a momentum to the electromagnetic elds.[33]
1
S
g = 2E H = 2 ,
In a vacuum, the momentum per unit volume is
c
c
where the H-eld H is related to the B-eld and the
magnetization M by
1
g=
E B,
0 c2
where 0 is the vacuum permeability and c is the speed
B = 0 (H + M) .
of light. The momentum density is proportional to the
Poynting vector S which gives the directional rate of en- The electromagnetic stress tensor depends on the properties of the media.[33]
ergy transfer per unit area:[33][34]
S
.
c2
If momentum is to be conserved over the volume V over
a region Q, changes in the momentum of matter through
the Lorentz force must be balanced by changes in the momentum of the electromagnetic eld and outow of momentum. If P is the momentum of all the particles
in Q, and the particles are treated as a continuum, then
Newtons second law gives
g=
dPmech
=
dt
(E + J B) dV .
Q
4.4.3 Particle in eld

If a charged particle q moves in an electromagnetic eld,
neither its kinetic momentum mv nor its canonical momentum is conserved.
Lagrangian and Hamiltonian formulation
The kinetic momentum p is dierent from the canonical
momentum P (synonymous with the generalized momentum) conjugate to the ordinary position coordinates r, because P includes a contribution from the electric potential
(r, t) and vector potential A(r, t):[28]
4.6. DEFORMABLE BODIES AND FLUIDS
27
where the operator p acting on a wave function (p)

yields that wave function multiplied by the value p, in an
where = v is the velocity (see time derivative), q is the analogous fashion to the way that the position operator
1
electric charge of the particle and = (1 /c2 ) 2 acting on a wave function (x) yields that wave function
is the Lorentz factor. See also Electromagnetism (mo- multiplied by the value x.
mentum). If neither nor A depends on position, P is For both massive and massless objects, relativistic moconserved.[6]
mentum is related to the phase constant by [35]
The classical Hamiltonian for a particle in any eld
equals the total energy of the system the kinetic energy
T = p2 /2m (where p2 = p p, see dot product) plus the
potential energy V. For a particle in an electromagnetic
eld, the potential energy is V = e, and since the kinetic
energy T always corresponds to the kinetic momentum p,
replacing the kinetic momentum by the above equation (p
= P qA) leads to the Hamiltonian in the table.
p =
Electromagnetic radiation (including visible light,

ultraviolet light, and radio waves) is carried by
photons.Even though photons (the particle aspect
of light) have no mass, they still carry momentum. This
leads to applications such as the solar sail. The calculaThese Lagrangian and Hamiltonian expressions can detion of the momentum of light within dielectric media
rive the Lorentz force.
is somewhat controversial (see AbrahamMinkowski
controversy).[36][37]
Canonical commutation relations
The kinetic momentum (p above) satises the
commutation relation:[28]
4.6 Deformable bodies and uids

4.6.1 Conservation in a continuum
ie
[pj , pk ] =
jkl Bl
Main article: Cauchy momentum equation
c
where: j, k, l are indices labelling vector components, Bl In elds such as uid dynamics and solid mechanics, it is
is a component of the magnetic eld, and kjl is the Levi(n)
Civita symbol, here in 3 dimensions.
3
4.5 Quantum mechanics
v
dV
Further information: Momentum operator

In quantum mechanics, momentum is dened as a selfadjoint operator on the wave function. The Heisenberg
uncertainty principle denes limits on how accurately the
momentum and position of a single observable system can
be known at once. In quantum mechanics, position and
momentum are conjugate variables.
For a single particle described in the position basis the
momentum operator can be written as
n v
dS
x2
V
x1
Motion of a material body
p = = i ,
i
where is the gradient operator, is the reduced Planck
constant, and i is the imaginary unit. This is a commonly
encountered form of the momentum operator, though the
momentum operator in other bases can take other forms.
For example, in momentum space the momentum operator is represented as
p(p) = p(p) ,
not feasible to follow the motion of individual atoms or

molecules. Instead, the materials must be approximated
by a continuum in which there is a particle or uid parcel
at each point that is assigned the average of the properties
of atoms in a small region nearby. In particular, it has a
density and velocity v that depend on time t and position
r. The momentum per unit volume is v.[38]
Consider a column of water in hydrostatic equilibrium.
All the forces on the water are in balance and the water
is motionless. On any given drop of water, two forces are
28
CHAPTER 4. MOMENTUM
balanced. The rst is gravity, which acts directly on each

atom and molecule inside. The gravitational force per unit
volume is g, where g is the gravitational acceleration.
The second force is the sum of all the forces exerted on its
surface by the surrounding water. The force from below
is greater than the force from above by just the amount
needed to balance gravity. The normal force per unit area
is the pressure p. The average force per unit volume inside
the droplet is the gradient of the pressure, so the force
balance equation is[39]
and shear. The local conservation of momentum is expressed by the Cauchy momentum equation:
Dv
= + f,
Dt
where f is the body force.[43]

The Cauchy momentum equation is broadly applicable
to deformations of solids and liquids. The relationship
between the stresses and the strain rate depends on the
properties of the material (see Types of viscosity).
p + g = 0 .
If the forces are not balanced, the droplet accelerates. 4.6.2 Acoustic waves
This acceleration is not simply the partial derivative v/t
because the uid in a given volume changes with time. In- A disturbance in a medium gives rise to oscillations, or
waves, that propagate away from their source. In a uid,
stead, the material derivative is needed:[40]
small changes in pressure p can often be described by the
acoustic wave equation:
D
+ v .
Dt
t
2p
= c2 2 p ,
Applied to any physical quantity, the material derivative
t2
includes the rate of change at a point and the changes due
to advection as uid is carried past the point. Per unit vol- where c is the speed of sound. In a solid, similar equations
ume, the rate of change in momentum is equal to Dv/Dt. can be obtained for propagation of pressure (P-waves)
and shear (S-waves).[44]
This is equal to the net force on the droplet.
Forces that can change the momentum of a droplet include the gradient of the pressure and gravity, as above.
In addition, surface forces can deform the droplet. In the
simplest case, a shear stress , exerted by a force parallel
to the surface of the droplet, is proportional to the rate of
deformation or strain rate. Such a shear stress occurs if
the uid has a velocity gradient because the uid is moving faster on one side than another. If the speed in the x
direction varies with z, the tangential force in direction x
per unit area normal to the z direction is
zx =
vx
,
z
The ux, or transport per unit area, of a momentum component vj by a velocity vi is equal to vjvj. In the linear
approximation that leads to the above acoustic equation,
the time average of this ux is zero. However, nonlinear
eects can give rise to a nonzero average.[45] It is possible
for momentum ux to occur even though the wave itself
does not have a mean momentum.[46]
4.7 History of the concept

See also: Theory of impetus
In about 530 A.D., working in Alexandria, Byzantine

where is the viscosity. This is also a ux, or ow per philosopher John Philoponus developed a concept of mounit area, of x-momentum through the surface.[41]
mentum in his commentary to Aristotle's Physics. ArisIncluding the eect of viscosity, the momentum balance totle claimed that everything that is moving must be kept
equations for the incompressible ow of a Newtonian moving by something. For example, a thrown ball must
be kept moving by motions of the air. Most writers
uid are
continued to accept Aristotles theory until the time of
Galileo, but a few were skeptical. Philoponus pointed
Dv
out the absurdity in Aristotles claim that motion of an
2
= p + v + g.
object is promoted by the same air that is resisting its
Dt
passage. He proposed instead that an impetus was imThese are known as the NavierStokes equations.[42]
parted to the object in the act of throwing it.[47] Ibn Sn
The momentum balance equations can be extended to (also known by his Latinized name Avicenna) read Philomore general materials, including solids. For each surface ponus and published his own theory of motion in The
with normal in direction i and force in direction j, there Book of Healing in 1020. He agreed that an impetus is
is a stress component ij. The nine components make up imparted to a projectile by the thrower; but unlike Philothe Cauchy stress tensor , which includes both pressure ponus, who believed that it was a temporary virtue that
4.8. SEE ALSO

would decline even in a vacuum, he viewed it as a persistent, requiring external forces such as air resistance to
dissipate it.[48][49][50] The work of Philoponus, and possibly that of Ibn Sn,[50] was read and rened by the European philosophers Peter Olivi and Jean Buridan. Buridan, who in about 1350 was made rector of the University of Paris, referred to impetus being proportional to the
weight times the speed. Moreover, Buridans theory was
dierent from his predecessors in that he did not consider impetus to be self-dissipating, asserting that a body
would be arrested by the forces of air resistance and gravity which might be opposing its impetus.[51][52]
29
4.8 See also

Crystal momentum
Galilean cannon
Momentum transfer
Planck momentum
4.9 References
Ren Descartes believed that the total quantity of mo- 4.9.1 Citations
tion in the universe is conserved, where the quantity of
motion is understood as the product of size and speed. [1] Ho-Kim, Quang; Kumar, Narendra; Lam, Harry C. S.
This should not be read as a statement of the modern law
(2004). Invitation to Contemporary Physics (illustrated
of momentum, since he had no concept of mass as distinct
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Extract of page 19
from weight and size, and more importantly he believed
that it is speed rather than velocity that is conserved. So
[2] Feynman Vol. 1, Chapter 9
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Leibniz, in his "Discourse on Metaphysics", gave an argument against Descartes construction of the conservation
of the quantity of motion using an example of dropping
blocks of dierent sizes dierent distances. He points
out that force is conserved but quantity of motion, construed as the product of size and speed of an object, is
not conserved.[55]
The rst correct statement of the law of conservation of
momentum was by English mathematician John Wallis in
his 1670 work, Mechanica sive De Motu, Tractatus Geometricus: the initial state of the body, either of rest or
of motion, will persist and If the force is greater than
the resistance, motion will result.[56] Wallis uses momentum and vis for force. Newtons Philosophi Naturalis Principia Mathematica, when it was rst published
in 1687, showed a similar casting around for words to
use for the mathematical momentum. His Denition II
denes quantitas motus, quantity of motion, as arising from the velocity and quantity of matter conjointly,
which identies it as momentum.[57] Thus when in Law II
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mean momentum and not motion.[58] It remained only to
assign a standard term to the quantity of motion. The rst
use of momentum in its proper mathematical sense is
not clear but by the time of Jennings Miscellanea in 1721,
ve years before the nal edition of Newtons Principia
Mathematica, momentum M or quantity of motion was
being dened for students as a rectangle, the product
of Q and V, where Q is quantity of material and V is
velocity, s/t.[59]

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[51] T.F. Glick; S.J. Livesay; F. Wallis. Buridian, John. Medieval Science, Technology and Medicine:an Encyclopedia.
p. 107.
[52] Park, David (1990). The how and the why : an essay
on the origins and development of physical theory. With
drawings by Robin Brickman (3rd print ed.). Princeton,
N.J.: Princeton University Press. pp. 139141. ISBN
9780691025087.
[53] Daniel Garber (1992). Descartes Physics. In John Cottingham. The Cambridge Companion to Descartes. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 310319. ISBN
0-521-36696-8.
[54] Rothman, Milton A. (1989). Discovering the natural laws
: the experimental basis of physics (2nd ed.). New York:
Dover Publications. pp. 8388. ISBN 9780486261782.
[55] G. W. Leibniz (1989). Discourse on Metaphysics. In
Roger Ariew; Daniel Garber. Philosophical Essays. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Publishing Company, Inc. pp. 49
51. ISBN 0-87220-062-0.
[56] Scott, J.F. (1981). The Mathematical Work of John Wallis,
D.D., F.R.S. Chelsea Publishing Company. p. 111. ISBN
0-8284-0314-7.
[57] Grimsehl, Ernst (1932). A Textbook of Physics. Translated by Leonard Ary Woodward. London, Glasgow:
Blackie & Son limited. p. 78.
4.11. EXTERNAL LINKS
[58] Rescigno, Aldo (2003). Foundation of Pharmacokinetics.

New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. p. 19.
ISBN 0306477041.
[59] Jennings, John (1721). Miscellanea in Usum Juventutis
Academicae. Northampton: R. Aikes & G. Dicey. p. 67.
4.10 Bibliography
Halliday, David; Resnick, Robert. Fundamentals of
Physics. John Wiley & Sons. Chapter 9.
Dugas, Ren (1988). A history of mechanics. Translated into English by J.R. Maddox (Dover ed.). New
York: Dover Publications. ISBN 9780486656328.
Feynman, Richard P.; Leighton, Robert B.; Sands,
Matthew (2005). The Feynman lectures on physics,
Volume 1: Mainly Mechanics, Radiation, and Heat
(Denitive ed.). San Francisco, California: Pearson
Addison-Wesley. ISBN 978-0805390469.
Feynman, Richard P.; Leighton, Robert B.; Sands,
Matthew (2005). The Feynman lectures on physics,
Volume III: Quantum Mechanics (Denitive ed.).
New York: BasicBooks. ISBN 978-0805390490.
Goldstein, Herbert (1980). Classical mechanics
(2nd ed.). Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley Pub.
Co. ISBN 0201029189.
Hand, Louis N.; Finch, Janet D. Analytical Mechanics. Cambridge University Press. Chapter 4.
Jackson, John David (1975). Classical electrodynamics (2nd ed.). New York: Wiley. ISBN
047143132X.
Jammer, Max (1999). Concepts of force : a
study in the foundations of dynamics (Facsim ed.).
Mineola, New York: Dover Publications. ISBN
9780486406893.
Landau, L.D.; Lifshitz, E.M. (2000). The classical theory of elds. English edition, reprinted with
corrections; translated from the Russian by Morton
Hamermesh (4th ed.). Oxford: Butterworth Heinemann. ISBN 9780750627689.
Rindler, Wolfgang (1986). Essential Relativity :
Special, general and cosmological (2nd ed.). New
York u.a.: Springer. ISBN 0387100903.
Serway, Raymond; Jewett, John (2003). Physics
for Scientists and Engineers (6th ed.). Brooks Cole.
ISBN 0-534-40842-7.
Stenger, Victor J. (2000). Timeless Reality: Symmetry, Simplicity, and Multiple Universes. Prometheus
Books. pp. Chapter 12 in particular.
31
Tipler, Paul (1998). Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Vol. 1: Mechanics, Oscillations and Waves,
Thermodynamics (4th ed.). W. H. Freeman. ISBN
1-57259-492-6.
Tritton, D.J. (2006). Physical uid dynamics (2nd
ed.). Oxford: Claredon Press. p. 58. ISBN
0198544936.
4.11 External links

Conservation of momentum A chapter from an online textbook
Chapter 5
Eulers laws of motion

Eulers rst law and Eulers second law redirect to
here. For other uses, see Euler (disambiguation).
M=
In classical mechanics, Eulers laws of motion are
equations of motion which extend Newtons laws of motion for point particle to rigid body motion.[1] They were
formulated by Leonhard Euler about 50 years after Isaac
Newton formulated his laws.
5.1 Overview
dL
dt
Note that the above formula holds only if both M and L

are computed with respect to a xed inertial frame or a
frame parallel to the inertial frame but xed on the center
of mass. For rigid bodies translating and rotating in only
2D, this can be expressed as:[5]
M = rcm acm m + I
where r is the position vector of the center of mass with

respect to the point about which moments are summed,
Eulers rst law states that the linear momentum of a is the angular acceleration of the body about its center
body, p (also denoted G) is equal to the product of the of mass, and I is the moment of inertia of the body about
mass of the body m and the velocity of its center of mass its center of mass. See also Eulers equations (rigid body
dynamics).
v :[1][2][3]
5.1.1
Eulers rst law
5.2 Explanation and derivation
p = mvcm
The distribution of internal forces in a deformable body

are not necessarily equal throughout, i.e. the stresses vary
from one point to the next. This variation of internal
forces throughout the body is governed by Newtons second law of motion of conservation of linear momentum
and angular momentum, which for their simplest use are
applied
to a mass particle but are extended in continuum
F = macm
mechanics to a body of continuously distributed mass.
where a = dv /dt is the acceleration of the centre of For continuous bodies these laws are called Eulers laws
mass and F = dp/dt is the total applied force on the body. of motion. If a body is represented as an assemblage
This is just the time derivative of the previous equation of discrete particles, each governed by Newtons laws of
motion, then Eulers equations can be derived from New(m is a constant).
tons laws. Eulers equations can, however, be taken as
axioms describing the laws of motion for extended bodies, independently of any particle distribution.[6]
5.1.2 Eulers second law
Internal forces between the particles that make up a body
do not contribute to changing the total momentum of the
body as there is an equal and opposite force resulting in
no net eect.[4] The law is also stated as:[4]
The total body force applied to a continuous body with

Eulers second law states that the rate of change of mass m, mass density , and volume V, is the volume inangular momentum L (sometimes denoted H) about a tegral integrated over the volume of the body:
point that is xed in an inertial reference frame (often
the mass center of the body), is equal to the sum of the
external moments of force (torques) acting on that body

F
=
b
dm
=
b dV
[1][2][3]
B
M (also denoted or ) about that point:
V
V
32
5.3. SEE ALSO
33
where b is the force acting on the body per unit Where v is the velocity, V the volume, and the derivatives
mass (dimensions of acceleration, misleadingly called the of p and L are material derivatives.
body force), and dm = dV is an innitesimal mass element of the body.
Body forces and contact forces acting on the body lead to
corresponding moments (torques) of those forces relative
to a given point. Thus, the total applied torque M about
the origin is given by
where MB and MC respectively indicate the moments

caused by the body and contact forces.
Thus, the sum of all applied forces and torques (with respect to the origin of the coordinate system) acting on
the body can be given as the sum of a volume and surface
integral:
F=
a dm =
V
List of topics named after Leonhard Euler

Eulers laws of rigid body rotations
Newton-Euler equations of motion with 6 components, combining Eulers two laws into one equation.
M = MB + MC
5.3 See also
tdS +
S
r tdS +
M = MB + MC =
S
[1] McGill and King (1995). Engineering Mechanics, An Introduction to Dynamics (3rd ed.). PWS Publishing Company. ISBN 0-534-93399-8.
[2] Eulers Laws of Motion. Retrieved 2009-03-30.
a dV =
V
5.4 References
b dV
V
r b dV.
V
where t = t(n) is called the surface traction, integrated

over the surface of the body, in turn n denotes a unit vector normal and directed outwards to the surface S.
Let the coordinate system (x1 , x2 , x3 ) be an inertial frame
of reference, r be the position vector of a point particle
in the continuous body with respect to the origin of the
coordinate system, and v = dr/dt be the velocity vector of
that point.
Eulers rst axiom or law (law of balance of linear momentum or balance of forces) states that in an inertial
frame the time rate of change of linear momentum p of
an arbitrary portion of a continuous body is equal to the
total applied force F acting on that portion, and it is expressed as
dp
=F
dt
d
v dV =
tdS +
b dV.
dt V
S
V
Eulers second axiom or law (law of balance of angular
momentum or balance of torques) states that in an inertial
frame the time rate of change of angular momentum L of
an arbitrary portion of a continuous body is equal to the
total applied torque M acting on that portion, and it is
expressed as
dL
=M
dt
d
r v dV =
r tdS +
r b dV.
dt V
S
V
[3] Rao, Anil Vithala (2006). Dynamics of particles and rigid

bodies. Cambridge University Press. p. 355. ISBN 9780-521-85811-3.
[4] Gray, Gary L.; Costanzo, Plesha (2010). Engineering
Mechanics: Dynamics. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07282871-9.
[5] Ruina, Andy; Rudra Pratap (2002). Introduction to Statics
and Dynamics (PDF). Oxford University Press. p. 771.
Retrieved 2011-10-18.
[6] Lubliner, Jacob (2008). Plasticity Theory (Revised Edition) (PDF). Dover Publications. pp. 2728. ISBN 0486-46290-0.
34
CHAPTER 5. EULERS LAWS OF MOTION
5.5 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

5.5.1
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36
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ARUNEEK, GravyKnives, Gareld Gareld, Loraof, Y-S.Ko, Gouravsxs, KasparBot, Wikidalien and Anonymous: 1572
Momentum Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Momentum?oldid=750254267 Contributors: Tobias Hoevekamp, Ap, Mark, Andre
Engels, Christian List, Matusz, William Avery, Roadrunner, Jdpipe, Heron, Comte0, Isis~enwiki, Patrick, Michael Hardy, Ixfd64,
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5.5. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
37
Vaibhavsaccountforwikipedia, LOTRrules, Juswill3, YohanN7, SieBot, Cwrong10, Tiddly Tom, Jauerback, Keilana, Klinfran, Oda Mari,
Grimey109, Paolo.dL, Guycalledryan, Timepass wiki, Faradayplank, AngelOfSadness, Bagatelle, Steven Crossin, Lightmouse, Matassasa,
Tombomp, Ks0stm, LonelyMarble, Anarchic Fox, Tesi1700, Abmcdonald, Dolphin51, Kjkatusc, ClueBot, The Thing That Should Not
Be, Nozo, Pkbharti, Temporary1139, Unbuttered Parsnip, J8079s, Nikzbitz, CptCutLess, Neverquick, Langphysics, Myhmamin, Excirial,
-Midorihana-, Billybob1023, Iner22, Estirabot, Cybertiberius, Cenarium, Markgriz, PhySusie, SomariX, Okulov99, Corkgkagj, SoxBot
III, Pvkampen, Crowsnest, JKeck, Skunkboy74, Damasta2221, Calvinchankf, Davidothaca, Hotcrocodile, Roxy the dog, Snoopy874, Interferometrist, TZGreat, WikiDao, Truthnlove, Airplaneman, Coco0305, Bishop, Addbot, Some jerk on the Internet, Puggel, Fgnievinski,
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Deylen tau, Citation bot, Herrmario, E2eamon, Eumolpo, Vuerqex, Shia4isam, Xqbot, Capricorn42, Karinsteinbock, LarryUHouston,
Abce2, Frosted14, Call me Bubba, Omnipaedista, JenyaTsoy, Voltorb, Josh Sosby, Srr712, Aaron Kauppi, Physicsdoc, GliderMaven,
Dgyeah, Allen 124, Tobby72, Lookang, Dger, Rkr1991, HamburgerRadio, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Claudiodib, Tom.Reding,
Hamtechperson, RedBot, Thinking of England, Ezhuttukari, Jeppiz, Reconsider the static, Merlion444, Jauhienij, IVAN3MAN, FoxBot,
TobeBot, John1114, Vrenator, Seahorseruler, Tbhotch, Edwardgraef, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Onel5969, Mean as custard, TjBot, Timmo999,
Mchcopl, WildBot, Salvio giuliano, Potnugget, J36miles, EmausBot, Gpooseh, Yuhuach, Enixer, Syncategoremata, GoingBatty, RA0808,
JustinTime55, Nobrow, Winner 42, Weleepoxypoo, Dcirovic, Hhhippo, Mz7, JSquish, ZroBot, John Cline, Knight1993, Pineapples911,
Jenks24, Dd254, Derekleungtszhei, Kwalke8, Stemoc, Battoe19, Quondum, Maschen, Zueignung, Gijops, RockMagnetist, Forrestdale,
28bot, Zmcneish, Rememberway, Xonqnopp, ClueBot NG, This lousy T-shirt, Satellizer, Natalandus, Snotbot, Man21120, Widr, Varunrau, Helpful Pixie Bot, Bibcode Bot, Lowercase sigmabot, BG19bot, Mongolengineer, WithSelet, F=q(E+v^B), Carystus, ClockVapor,
Thegreatgrabber, Dlituiev, Shaun, Guanghuilin, BattyBot, Briancrafton, Cpiercejr, BGahan, Teammm, Cyberbot II, I can change the laws
of nature, Funny674, Webclient101, Hratanpa, Lugia2453, Frosty, Graphium, Prabat, Kevin12xd, Naruto1894, Mattypryke, Zakstevens, I
am One of Many, Jakehambone, PBriddon, NYBrook098, DavidLeighEllis, Zmoq, Babitaarora, Sol1, SJ Defender, 22merlin, Monkbot,
Vieque, BethNaught, Biblioworm, Roshu Bangal, LimeHunter7, Sauer202, Imdrathlir343, Intellectual Bookworm, KH-1, AHusain3141,
Loraof, Serevix, Game3412, Cesar 2602, Wikiman10128, Scipsycho, Zachbt43, Snickins, MusikBot, TheRavenOfNicholasQ., MSTN,
Shashank R Yadav, Ugion, Jonathan Bradshaw, More-kenlouise, Cobra8viper, Sazehenteghal, Aeomei and Anonymous: 856
Eulers laws of motion Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euler{}s_laws_of_motion?oldid=717744489 Contributors: Ubiquity,
Giftlite, Bender235, Jalexiou, Fixme, Krishnavedala, Sanpaz, Dhollm, Katieh5584, Canthusus, Skizzik, Cydebot, Mikewax, AndrewDressel, Headbomb, McSly, ClueBot, Gerhardvalentin, Addbot, Cst17, Citation bot, Benhen1997, , Dger, Jonesey95, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, Maschen, ClueBot NG, Satellizer, Helpful Pixie Bot, Zedshort, AddWittyNameHere, Monkbot, Hrdhj, Sanleo messi and Anonymous:
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5.5.2
Images
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Newtons First, Second, and Third Laws. MIT Course 8.01: Classical Mechanics, Lecture 6, (0:00-6:53). Cambridge, MA, USA.
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List of imperceptible human motions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Sun and solar system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Constant velocity vs acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Distinction between speed and velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Quantities that are dependent on velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Newtons laws of motion

Newtons rst law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Newtons second law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Newtons third law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Newtons 1st Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Newtons 2nd Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Newtons 3rd Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Importance and range of validity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Relationship to the conservation laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

References and notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.10 Further reading and works cited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Dependence on reference frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Objects of variable mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Symmetry and conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Deformable bodies and uids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

History of the concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Eulers laws of motion

Eulers rst law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Eulers second law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Explanation and derivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.1.1 Classical mechanics

Classical mechanics is used for describing the motion

Classical mechanics is fundamentally based on Newtons

1.1 Laws of motion

Main article: Mechanics

2. An object will travel in one direction only until an

3. Whenever one body exerts a force F onto a second

CHAPTER 1. MOTION (PHYSICS)

Main article: Quantum mechanics

Quantum mechanics is a set of principles describing

1.2 List of imperceptible human

The Earth is orbiting around the Sun in an orbital

The human heart is constantly contracting to move

Inside the atomic nucleus the protons and neutrons

According to the laws of thermodynamics all

1.4 Types of motion

CHAPTER 1. MOTION (PHYSICS)

1.5 See also

[15] M. Fischer, U. K. Franzeck, I. Herrig, U. Costanzo, S.

The velocity of an object is the rate of change of its

2.2 Distinction between speed and

Velocity is a physical vector quantity; both magnitude

Speed describes only how fast an object is moving,

2.3 Equation of motion

Main article: Equation of motion

2.3.1 Average velocity

2.3. EQUATION OF MOTION

The average velocity is always less than or equal to the

Example of a velocity vs. time graph, and the relationship be-

where we may identify

Since the derivative of the position with respect to time

2.3.3 Relationship to acceleration

If we consider v as velocity and x as the displacement

yellow area under the curve labeled s (s being an alternav