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Define weight as the force on an object due to a gravitational field

Mass
Mass is the amount of matter
in an object (kg)

Weight
Weight is the force with which an
object is attracted to the Earth (N)

The gravitational field is a model used to explain the region of


influence within which the gravitational force between any two
masses exist.
- The weight of a person is equal to the gravitational force of
attraction since the gravitational force of attraction is responsible for
the weight of a person
w eight =graviational force of attraction
G m1 m2
d

=m1 g

g=

G m2
d

Formula for acceleration due to gravity

The acceleration due to gravity(m/s2) is equal in magnitude to the


gravitational field strength (N/kg) however acceleration due to gravity has
a direction i.e. towards the centre of the planet
Define Newtons law of universal gravitation

F=G

m1 m2
d2

Every object in the universe attracts every other object with a force directly
proportional to each other masses and inversely proportional to the square of
the distance separating them
Explain that a change in gravitational potential energy is related to work
done

W =F rcos w here

r is changedisplacement ,

isthe angle thehorizontal

The work done on an object is defined as the force acting on the object over a
displacement If the force is a net force then the object will accelerate. Thus, work
causes a change in the kinetic energy of an object. Work depends on the
direction of force compared to the direction of displacement.
Gravitational potential energy of an object is given by:

Graviational potential energy=mgh , givenJoules


This gives us the difference in potential energy between the surface and the
point above. The work done by an external force to move the object further
away from the Earth is positive and increases the gravitational potential
energy.

The work done by an external force to move an object closer to the Earth is
negative and decreases the gravitational potential energy
Define gravitational potential energy as the work done to move an object
from a very large distance to a point in a gravitational field-

Potential energy=G

m1 m2
d

Gravitational potential energy is the work done to move an object from an


infinite distance to a point in the gravitational field. When an object moves away
from the surface of the Earth, the gravitational potential energy increases
from a negative value to zero

When an object undergoes a change in altitude, its gravitational potential energy


also changes as work is either done by or against the gravitational field.
-

When the altitude decreases, work is done by the gravitational field and
the gravitational potential energy decreases. Therefore, the change in
potential energy is negative.
When the altitude increases, work is done against the gravitational field
and gravitational potential energy increases

Perform an investigation and gather information to determine a value for


acceleration due to gravity using pendulum motion or computer assisted
technology and identify reason for possible variations from the value 9.8
ms-2
Aim:
Use a pendulum to determine the value of acceleration due to gravity and
compare with accepted value of 9.8m/s2
Method:
1. Set up the retort stand, clamp and pendulum on the edge of the table as
shown in the diagram below
2. Measure the length of the pendulum, using a ruler, and put a mark on the
string at the 100,90,80,70,60 cm length from the centre of the mass.
3. Tie the pendulum to the clamp at the 100cm mark
4. Set the pendulum to swing gently, with an approximate 10 deviation from
the vertical
5. Allow the pendulum to swing at least 4 times.
6. Measure the time of 10 complete oscillations of the pendulum, using a
stopwatch. Ensure to start and stop the stopwatch at the extreme of the
motion of the pendulum.
7. Record the time taken in a table
8. Repeats steps 3 to 7 for the lengths of 100cm, 90cm,80cm, 70cm, 60cm
9. Calculate the time taken for 1 oscillation by diving the time taken for 10
oscillations by 10
10.Calculate the square of time taken for 1 oscillation
11.Plot a graph of L vs T2 and draw a line of best fit

12.Calculate the gradient of the line of best fit, which is equal to


13.Using the formula

g=4 2

L
T2

T
L

, calculate g using the gradient of the line

of best fit.

Length of
pendulum
(m) +0.0005
1.000
0.900
0.800
0.700
0.600

Definiti
on

Sources
of error

Effect
How to
reduce
error

Time for 10
oscillations
(s) +0.05

Period of 1
oscillation
(s) +0.005

The square of one


oscillation (s)
+0.005

Types of experimental errors:


Random error
Systematic error
Results in fluctuations in both
Systematically shifts the
directions around the true value
measurement in one direction away
from the true value therefore
repetition will not reduce its effects
Uncontrolled unpredictable Incorrect calibration or the
instrument consistently reads
change to equipment
changes in quantity greater or less
All instruments have finite
than actual value
precision that limits its
ability to measure.
Reduces reliability
-Reduces accuracy
Difficult to trace
-To take multiple measurements
Calibrate instruments
and average
Draw a line of best fit
-Draw a line of best fit and
identify and exclude outliers from

Pendulu
m
Experim
ent

Reliabi
lity

Accura
cy

the calculations
Vibration and changes in wind
cause irregular changes in the
period of a pendulum swing
Starting or stopping the timer
slightly before or after the
pendulum completes a swing

Ruler has shrunk


Timer is not calibrated
properly

Improving experimental technique


Technique
Effect
Starting and stopping at the
At the extreme of the motion
extremes of the motion
the pendulum is stationary, so
it is easier to judge when a
swing is complete, reducing
timing error
Use a range of long lengths
Using a long string(0.5m+)
ensures the periods are
reasonably long and any
measurements due to reaction
time will be a smaller fraction
of the period, increasing
reliability
Plotting T2vs and drawing a line
Drawing a line of best fit
of best fit to calculate the
averages out random errors
gradient and find g
and allows to easily identify
outliers and assess the
reliability your result
Calibrate ruler length and
stopwatch speed

Calibration is essential for


obtaining the correct gradient.

The amplitude must be


restricted to 10 or less
Plotting T2 vs L and drawing a
line of best fit to determine the

The equation is only valid for


small values of theta.
The gradient is determined
using relative values rather

Validity

gradient and to find g

than absolute ones. This


removes zero error from
results and makes them more
accurate.
Measuring the time taken for 10 Measuring 10 periods reduces
swings rather than one
the error on the value of a
single period by a factor of 10
Note: Air resistance has negligible effects on the period of the oscillation
The measurements validity was ensured by measuring the time for three os
cillations and dividing by 3. This reduces the significance of human reaction ti
me and errors made in judging the beginning and end points of the
timed oscillations, compared to that which would be made
if a single oscillation were timed. This process reduces the
likely percentage error in the measurement, increasing the
validity of the value for the period.
Outline Newtons concept of escape velocity
Escape velocity is the minimum velocity needed to escape from the
gravitational field of a planet
Velocity
Trajectory of projectile
V< Vescape velocity
The path of the projectile curves faster
than the surface of the Earth. Hence,
the projectiles path will intersect with
the Earths surface
V= Vescape velocity
The curvature of the path of the
projectile is equal to the curvature of
the Earths surface so the particle will
fall continually around the Earth and
orbit it
V> Vescape velocity
The path of the projectile curves more
slowly than the Earths surface, and
the projectile will spiral away from the
Earth
- Use Law of conservation of energy to calculate escape velocity
Escape velocity is independent of:
-Mass of the object
- Independent of the direction of the velocity provided the trajectory of the
velocity

1
GMm 1
GMm
m v inital2
= m v final2
where r final =v final=0
2
r intial 2
r final
1
2 GMm
mv
=0
2
r intial
1
GMm
m v 2intial=
2
r intial
v=

2 GM
r

Describe Galileos analysis of projectile motion


Galileo stated all objects fall at the same rate, regardless of mass
Galileo analysed projectile motion by rolling a ball down a groove on an
inclined plane. Galileo first proved a projectile follows a parabolic path.
i)
He used the inclined plane to vary the speed of the object by starting it
at different heights
ii)
By varying the height, and measuring the distance, Galileo found the
trajectory to be parabolic for an object under the influence of a uniform
gravitational field
iii)
Galielo traced a path by letting the balls fall into a movable platform
and rasing the platform little by little and marking where the ball hits at
higher and higher plane.
Discovered the mathematical equation that governs the relationship between
starting point on the ramp and the distance travelled.

1
m v 2=mgh due conservation of energy
2
u x = 2 gh

Analyse the changing acceleration of a rocket during launch in terms of:


- Laws of conservation of momentum
- Forces experienced by astronauts
Rocket propulsion:
When the rocket is fired, the gas particles are pushed downwards, and the rocket
moves upwards since the gas particles exert an upwards force on the rocket
which causes it to accelerate

Kinetic energy intial + Potential energy intial =Kinetic energy final + Potential energy final
During a launch, the rocket will be subjected to 3 forces
1. Weight- Downward gravitational force acting on the rocket W =mg
2. Air resistance- Frictional force acting in the opposite direction to the
motion of the rocket
3. Thrust force- Upward reaction force exerted by gas particles on the rocket

F=ThurstWeight

ma=Thurstmg
Thurst=mamg

a=

Thurstmg
m

Rocket propulsion is a gradual rather than instaneous process, as the fuel is


burned and ejected as exhaust gases at a certain rate rather than a single
lump.

Thurst=m
v

Thurst=
-

m
v
t

Engine provides thrust force that must be greater than weight force for the
rocket to take off
Thrust is a constant so acceleration increases as the mass decreases, due
to the fuel being burnt and ejected as exhaust gas.
Acceleration quickly decreases as the rocket runs out of fuel.

mrocket urocket +mgas ugas =mrocket v rocket + mgas v gas


V rocket =

m( gas ) v gas
mrocket

Effect of air resistance:


The rocket is launched vertically to:
1. Increase its altitude quickly
2. Escape the higher, less dense atmosphere which has a lower atmospheric
drag
3. Minimise fuel used to overcome atmospheric drag.

Identify why the term g forces is used to explain the forces acting on an
astronaut during launch
A person of mass m in an elevator has two forces acting on the them:
Weight- Acting down on the person
Normal force acting upwards. This is the reaction force of the person
pushing down on the lift due to their weight
The true weight of a person is their actual weight, W=mg, the
gravitational force of attraction
The apparent weight of a person is the normal force acting on the
person from the surface on which they are standing. Apparent weight
depends on acceleration, therefore can vary
Acceleratio
n
Acceleratio
n= 0

Net force

Apparent Weight

When the elevator is moving with


a constant velocity or is
stationary. It has an acceleration

Apparent weight=True
weight

of zero. Therefore, it has a net


force of 0
Acceleratio
When the lift is accelerating
Apparent weight> true
n upwards
upwards, the object has a net
weight
force acting upwards on it
Acceleratio
If there the lift is accelerating
Apparent weight< True
n
downwards, there is a net force
weight
downwards
acting on the object
Weightlessness occurs when there is no force of support on your body i.e.
apparent weight is zero
1. When your body is in free fall, accelerating downwards at the acceleration
due to gravity, then you are not being supported
2. The sensation of apparent weight comes from the support you feel from
the floor
3. Hence, if there is no support there is no apparent weight. If you were
standing on a free-falling scale, it would read zero
The astronaut and the International space station are in free fall- they are
accelerating downwards due to gravity. Hence, the astronauts do not press down
on the floor of the space station. Whilst, there is a gravitational force acting on
them, what is missing is the upward reaction force provided by a stationary
platform undernearth. Instead of pushing back, the floor of the international
space station is accelerating due to gravity as fast as the astronauts, thus the
apparent weight of the astronauts is zero
Some large stations can rotate on its axis to create its own artificial gravity. The
rotating wheel provides centripetal force towards the centre. The astronaut
reacts against this force according to Newtons third law, this providing a
simulated gravity
g-force is a convenient way to express the contact force on an astronaut in
multiples of the force experienced on the surface of the Earth
-A force is greater than 1 -force if it accelerates upwards
A force is less than 1 g-force, if it accelerates upwards
A force is equal to 1 g-force, if it not accelerating
G-force is a ratio thus it has no unit. G-forces experienced by astronauts would
rise as the rocket takes off because acceleration would increase due to fuel
consumption and a decrease in mass, while thrust remains constant.

Discuss the effect of the Earths orbital motion and its rotational motion on
the launch of a rocket
The Earth is rotating on its axis on its axis once per day. We can take advantage
of this to increase the velocity of the rocket.
To take advantage of the Earths rotational axis rockets are launched.
1. Near the equator where the velocity of the ground is highest
2. In the direction of the Earths rotation

rocket relative
rocket relative
V the centre of the earth=V the earth +V earth around its axis
analyse the forces involved in uniform circular motion for a range of
objects, including satellites orbiting the Earth
An object travelling in a circle at a constant speed is said to e undergoing
uniform circular motion
In uniform circular motion:
I.
II.
III.
IV.

Speed is constant
Linear velocity is not constant due to changing direction
Period of rotation is constant
Centripetal acceleration is directed towards the centre of the circle

Centripetal force F c =

m v2
r

Orbital speed of satellite


An orbit is the certain path that is determined by Earths gravitational field.
In a stable orbit:
I.
-The radius of the orbit remains constant
II.
The gravitational force of attraction between the Earth and the satellite
acts as the centripetal force

Two methods of calculating orbital speed:


V=

circumference of the earth


2 r
V=
time
T

Gravitational force=centripetal force


GMm mv
=
2
r
r
v=

G M earth
r

If the velocity at a given position does not match the orbital velocity, the
object will not be able to travel in a circular orbit. If it is moving faster, it
will move further away from the planet. If it moving faster, it will move
further away from the planet. If is moving slower, it will move closer to the
planet.
compare qualitatively low Earth and geo-stationary orbits
Low Earth Orbit-

A low Earth orbit describes a satellite which orbits the Earth with an
altitude(160-1000km)
LEO satellites are used for
Military activity
Telecommunication activity
Remote sensing of Earths surface
The coverage area of LEO satellite is relatively narrow due to their
proximity to Earth. The fast-orbital speed means a satellite is only
overhead and in range for a short duration. Thus, a constellation of LEO
satellites is required to provide continuous coverage. A constellation of
satellites can provide continuous coverage to be used for
communication purposes e.g. GPS
Leo satellites can capture detailed images of Earths surface due to
their low altitudes. LEO satellites do not require powerful amplifiers for
successful transmission due their proximity to the Earths surface.
Geostationary orbit:
Geostationary orbit is one in which the satellite is always in the same
position in respect to the earth. The satellite orbits to an elevation of
35,800 km because that produces an orbital period equal to the period
of rotation of the Earth ( 23 hours 56 minutes 4.0 seconds)
Hence, the satellite appears to remains in the same position above the
Earth and is called a geostationary satellite.
The satellite must be above the equator and move in the same
direction as the Earth to produce a geostationary orbit. It must be over
the equator to be a geostationary orbit, a circular path with the Earths
centre at the centre of the orbit and where latitude is always the same.
The only path that satisfies all conditions is around the equators.
GEO satellites as a line of sigh

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