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ABSTRACT
The alluvial-fan deposits in the Cretaceous Yongdong Basin, Korea, consist of conglomerates with a muddy or sandy
matrix and sandstones with thick or thin laminations. The conglomerates and sandstones occur commonly in couplets,
constituting apparently single sedimentation units. Facies transitions in the deposits can be summed up in a tripartite
facies sequence: (1) a clast-supported conglomerate with a muddy or sandy matrix and parallel clast alignment (facies
A and B), (2) a matrix-supported coarse-tail normally graded conglomerate with random clast orientation (facies C)
and thickly stratified pebbly sandstone (facies D), and (3) laminated sandstone (facies E). The clast-supported conglomerate is interpreted as deposits of debris flows dominated by frictional grain interactions. Development of pervasive parallel clast alignment, lacking large floating clasts and inverse grading, suggests deposition via incremental
aggradation rather than en masse freezing. The matrix-supported conglomerate and thickly stratified sandstone are
interpreted as deposits of dense inertia layers or traction carpets developed beneath a high-concentration bipartite
flow. The laminated sandstone indicates traction sedimentation associated with dilute flows. The facies sequence
therefore suggests deposition from a composite sediment flow that comprises a preceding debris flow, a trailing watery
flow, and an intermediate flow between. The intermediate flow is regarded as a hyperconcentrated flow on the basis
of its bipartite nature because a hyperconcentrated suspension has a meager yield strength and is prone to be density
stratified. The measured section comprises three depositional sequences, decameters thick and separated by thick
mudstone beds, which could be interpreted in terms of fan evolution (progradation and retreat) under an influence
of changing sediment supply from a drainage basin. Close association of sediment type with constituent facies in the
three sequences suggests that composite sediment-flow deposits are favorably developed by sand-matrix debris flows
drained from large and less rugged catchments.
Introduction
Debris flows are important depositional processes
on alluvial fans, responsible for many coarsegrained deposits (Blackwelder 1928; Bull 1963;
Hooke 1967; Gloppen and Steel 1981; Nemec and
Steel 1984; Whipple and Dunne 1992; Blair and McPherson 1994). They are gravity-driven flows of
highly concentrated mixtures of sediment and water, resulting in massive, poorly sorted, and generally ungraded deposits with lobate fronts and latManuscript received August 12, 1997; accepted July 30, 1998.
1
Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, College
of Natural Sciences, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju
361-763, Korea; e-mail: gloryees@cbucc.chungbuk.ac.kr.
2
Geological Research Division, Korea Institute of Geology,
Mining and Materials, Taejon 305-350, Korea; e-mail: kbc@
rock25t.kigam.re.kr.
[The Journal of Geology, 1999, volume 107, p. 111132] q 1999 by The University of Chicago. All rights reserved. 0022-1376/99/10701-0002$01.00
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Y. K. SOHN ET AL.
Journal of Geology
113
Figure 1. a, Distribution of Cretaceous nonmarine basins and fault pattern in the Korean Peninsula (modified after
Korea Institute of Geology, Mining, and Materials 1995; Choi 1996). Numbers indicate Cretaceous basins. 1, Pungam;
2, Eumsung; 3, Kongju; 4, Puyeo; 5, Yongdong; 6, Jinan; 7, Neungju; 8, Kyongsang. b, Distribution of dominant
lithologic units in the southern part of the Yongdong Basin. I, Conglomerate; IIai, conglomerate/gravelly sandstone;
IIIa, b, gravelly sandstone; IVad, gravelly sandstone/reddish mudstone; V, sandstone; and VI, mudstone. Paleoflow
patterns measured from clast imbrications and attitude of channel walls or trough axes are indicated by arrows. The
measured section (marked by asterisk) is present in the unit IIg adjacent to the northern basin boundary.
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Y. K. SOHN ET AL.
dium to thick bedded (0.31 m thick) and are generally massive and ungraded (fig. 2). Unit boundaries are mostly parallel sided, but some units have
slightly scoured bases and undulatory upper contacts with positive primary relief. Rarely, units of
this facies pinch out abruptly (fig. 3; arrows). Clasts
are mostly pebble to cobble sized; boulder-size
clasts are less abundant; large mudstone chips are
abundant in some units; large protruding clasts are
not observed. Clasts are subangular to subrounded
and generally elongate. They are mostly in tight
contact and are aligned parallel to bedding planes
(fig. 4). This facies occurs mainly in the middle
sequence as thick amalgamated packets (fig. 2).
Thin discontinuous units of sandy deposits (facies
D or E) commonly overlie this facies. Sparingly, the
matrix of facies A conglomerates becomes sandier
acteristics in common with facies A conglomerates, having similar clast sizes and shape, fabric,
bed thickness, and bed geometry, except that the
matrix is composed of poorly sorted granular coarse
sand. Scoured bases are also more common. This
facies commonly passes upward into matrix-supported conglomerates or stratified sandstones (facies C or D; fig. 5). This facies is most common in
the upper sequence (fig. 2).
This facies is suggestive of cohesionless debris
flows dominated by frictional grain interactions
(Kim et al. 1995; Sohn et al. 1997). The lack of
inverse grading and imbrication of clasts is probably due to suppression of clast collision. The welldeveloped parallel clast alignment suggests frictional interaction among clasts along deposit margins (snout/lobe) (Major 1998).
Facies
C:
Sand-Matrix-Supported Conglomerate.
Journal of Geology
115
Figure 2.
Columnar log of the measured section (for location, see fig. 1). The section comprises three sequences
(lower, middle, and upper sequences) bounded by thick homogeneous mudstone units. Capital letters (AF) represent
facies codes. Numbers represent stratigraphic levels above the base of the measured section in meters. M 5
mudstone; S 5 sandstone; G 5 conglomerate.
erates have lenticular geometry with positive primary relief and abrupt lateral terminations. Grading is mostly absent. This facies is common in the
lower sequence (fig. 2).
The coarse-tail normally graded conglomerates
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Y. K. SOHN ET AL.
Figure 2 (Continued)
Journal of Geology
117
Figure 2 (Continued)
planes. Internal truncation surfaces are rare. Meterthick units occur in the lower sequence, where the
stratification is defined by repetition of centimeters-thick, generally ungraded, coarse- to finegrained sand layers. Pebble clasts are either sparsely
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Y. K. SOHN ET AL.
Figure 3. Sketch of part of the middle sequence. Stacked conglomerate beds (facies A and B) are either continuous
(lower left part) or abruptly terminating (open arrows) and are draped by (pebbly) sandstone layers (facies D and E).
Conglomerate beds overlying a topographic relief (facies B, bracketed) compensate for the relief and are laterally
offset, as shown by inclined layers of mudstone chips. A bouldery conglomerate bed in the upper part is rapidly
pinching out and suggests selective migration of large clasts to the lateral margins of a debris flow. For stratigraphic
position, see figure 2.
Journal of Geology
119
Figure 4. Photograph showing amalgamated units of facies A conglomerates with clasts aligned parallel to bedding
planes. Note that large clasts are concentrated in the lower part (near scale). For stratigraphic position, see figure 2.
Hammer is 30 cm long.
F:
Fine-Grained
Homogeneous Deposits.
This facies includes all fine-grained deposits intercalated between gravelly and sandy beds. Except for
units along scoured contacts, they are bounded by
flat bases and tops. They are generally homogeneous and purple but appear to be stratified when
diffuse bands of sand are intercalated. They range
in grain size from clay to muddy sand and, in some
cases, contain scattered granule to fine pebble
clasts and thin sheetlike layers of massive or strat-
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Y. K. SOHN ET AL.
Figure 5. Photograph showing gradual facies transition from clast-supported conglomerate (facies B) to matrixsupported conglomerate (facies C) and crudely stratified pebbly sandstone (facies D). The facies C unit is wedge
shaped. For stratigraphic position, see figure 2. Hammer is 30 cm long.
occurrences in the outcrops. The relationship between these bed types and individual facies could
be determined by vertical facies transitions in several beds that are composed of more than four facies
units (figs. 7, 8) as well as by the summation of all
facies transitions in the measured section (fig. 10).
The facies sequence is tripartite, consisting of massive and clast-supported conglomerates with
muddy or sandy matrix in the lower part (facies A
or B), sand-matrix-rich and normally graded conglomerates and stratified gravelly sandstones in the
middle part (facies C and D), and thinly stratified
or laminated sandstones in the upper part (facies E)
(fig. 11). The facies sequence can be regarded as an
idealized depositional sequence produced by a composite sediment flow that comprises a debris flow,
a streamflow, and an intermediate flow condition
between. The facies sequence depicted in figure 10
is only a vertical expression of the facies relationships that may exist more commonly as proximaldistal relationships in the field rather than as vertical successions in a single locality.
Organization of Flow Types. The facies relationships suggest that the responsible sediment flows
comprised different flow types, either across the
flow depth (vertically) or along the flow length (longitudinally). We surmise that the flows were essentially longitudinally segregated, comprising a
preceding debris flow and a trailing dilute flow (fig.
12c). Such a flow segregation was documented by
a number of workers (Beaty 1963; Okuda et al. 1980;
Pierson 1980, 1986; Suwa and Okuda 1983; Suwa
1988; Best 1992; Wan and Wang 1994). They note
that the flow head or the preceding debris flow has
a steep front and contains the densest slurry and
the coarsest particles. The flow head consumes
much kinetic energy and hence moves slower than
the main body, occasionally slowing the flow and
allowing the slurry behind to pile up to great depths
(Pierson 1980, 1986; Wan and Wang 1994). The flow
body is more fluidal than the head and changes into
a progressively more dilute tail that accounts for
the recessional limb of a slurry-flood wave. The
body, having intermediate characteristics between
the preceding debris flow and the trailing water
flow, may be vertically segregated into a dense inertia layer and a dilute overlying flow as a result
of the meager yield strength of interstitial fluid (discussed later). Such a vertical segregation seems un-
Journal of Geology
Figure 6. Photograph of matrix-supported conglomerates (facies C) gradationally overlain by stratified sandstones (facies D or E). Note the erosional lower contact
of the facies C conglomerate. For stratigraphic position,
see figure 2. Scale is 10 cm long.
121
bulent water floods and then transformed into debris flows (lahars) by incorporating sediments. The
debris flows transformed farther downcurrent into
hyperconcentrated flood flows (lahar-runout) by
mixing of the leading edges of the debris flows with
perennial streamflows (Pierson and Scott 1985;
Smith 1986; Scott 1988; Pierson et al. 1990; Best
1992; Scott et al. 1995). These flows therefore comprised a peak flow of hyperconcentrated flood flow
followed by a recessional debris flow (fig. 12a). In
the resultant deposits, hyperconcentrated floodflow deposits thicken downcurrent, whereas the
overlying debris flow deposits thin and disappear
downcurrent, producing an inversely graded transitional facies between (figs. 12b and 13). The opposite organization of flow types seems to have resulted from the difference in depositional setting.
The debris flows documented in the above studies
were mainly initiated by catastrophic events and
had large volumes. They mostly flowed and deposited their sediments along a river valley where they
were subject to continuous mixing with ambient
water. The facies sequence in this study is, however, applicable to noncatastrophic flows that had
already passed through river valleys in catchment
areas. The flows spread out laterally and moved on
unconfined alluvial-fan surfaces, where abundant
water for flow dilution is not available. Therefore,
these flows had only a small chance to be diluted
at the leading edges, thus resulting in different
organization of flow types and depositional
sequences.
Deposition from Debris Flows. Interpretation of
debris-flow deposits has relied mainly on the viscoplastic flow model (Johnson 1970, 1984) and the
inertial grain-flow model (Takahashi 1978, 1981).
Both models assume that the emplacement of a
debris flow occurs via en masse freezing as the driving shear stress drops below the yield strength of
the viscoplastic substance or as the dispersive pressure drops and grains lock up frictionally. Although
the applicability of these models has been questioned recently (Iverson 1997), many features of debris-flow deposits can be explained by these models, including lobate geometry, basal or overall
inverse grading, large floating or protruding clasts,
high-angle or subvertical clast imbrication, vertical
variation in clast alignment, semicircular channel
structures, and the presence of large friable sediment blocks and clast clumps (Johnson 1970, 1984;
Naylor 1980; Nemec et al. 1980; Postma et al. 1983;
Nemec and Steel 1984; Hiscott and James 1985; Cas
and Landis 1987; Nemec 1990; Sohn and Chough
1992; Kim et al. 1995).
Facies A and B conglomerates, however, show
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Y. K. SOHN ET AL.
Figure 7. Photograph showing a fining-upward unit consisting of facies A (not shown), C, D, and E. Note dispersed
elongate clasts in the facies D unit, which are aligned parallel to the gradational facies boundaries. For stratigraphic
position, see figure 2. The pen is 13 cm long.
few of these features but have generally thin sheetlike geometry and parallel-aligned gravel clasts
from base to top of units. These features can be
explained if deposition has occurred incrementally
from a debris flow. Recent experiments and field
observations show that a debris flow usually consists of a number of surges or roll waves, and its
deposition occurs not by abrupt freezing of the entire flow but by incremental aggradation of individual surges (Li and Yuan 1983; Davies 1986, 1990;
Wan and Wang 1994; Major 1997). Each surge
shoulders aside deposits of earlier surges, spreads
out, and leaves a deposit that is thinner and longer
than the surge itself. However, the cumulative deposit thickness produced by a series of surges may
greatly exceed the average flow thickness. Deposits
of earlier surges do not consolidate before the arrival of later surges, resulting in amalgamation of
many surge layers into a single massive layer (Major 1997). A similar process of incremental deposition has also been observed in muddy debris flows
(Li and Yuan 1983; Wan and Wang 1994), suggesting
that such a process is common in both cohesive
and cohesionless debris flows.
We interpret the facies A and B conglomerates to
be mainly incrementally aggraded materials, rather
Journal of Geology
123
itary or unified debris flow. Otherwise, the following flow may modify the deposits of the preceding
debris flow to produce thinner and broader deposits.
It is suggestive that debris flow deposits associated
with composite sediment-flow events show thin
sheetlike geometry (e.g., Ballance 1984; Wells
1984).
Deposition from Hyperconcentrated Flood Flows.
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Y. K. SOHN ET AL.
Figure 9. Three representative bed types common in the middle sequence (bed type I), the upper sequence (bed
type II), and the lower sequence (bed type III). They are composed of relatively thick conglomerate divisions overlain
by thin sandstone divisions.
Journal of Geology
Figure 10.
125
fining upward cycles (813 m and 1822 m) demarcated by decimeter-thick purple mudstones.
Such cycles are suggestive of sporadic emplacement of coarse-grained sediments, probably by
shifting debris-flow lobes across fan surface.
The middle sequence contains the most abundant and coarsest gravel clasts and is dominated by
amalgamated disorganized conglomerates, 23 m
thick, with a muddy or sandy matrix (fig. 2). Conglomerate beds are bounded by slightly erosional
bases and relatively flat tops. Each depositional
unit can be discerned by the contrast in texture or
by the presence of mudstone chips and lenticular
sandstone interbeds. Pebble- to boulder-sized clasts
are tightly packed, with elongate ones aligned parallel to bedding planes. Clasts consist of granite
(48%), slate (35%), and metasandstone (17%) fragments. Interbedded mudstones are rare and thin
and tend to drape underlying conglomerate beds
with positive relief (near 43 m; fig. 3). Mudstone
chips are relatively abundant and range in size from
granule to boulder. They are in some cases crossbedded (fig. 3).
The upper sequence consists of stacked, sheetlike conglomerates separated by (pebbly) sandstone
wedges. It is characterized by fining-up units, 5070
cm thick, composed of clast-supported conglomerates with sandy matrix and overlying stratified
conglomerates or pebbly sandstones (fig. 2). The
stratified deposits compensate for local relief produced by underlying conglomerates and are commonly scoured by overlying conglomerates. The
conglomerates occur mostly as discrete beds, compared with the amalgamated beds of the middle
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Y. K. SOHN ET AL.
Figure 11. Facies sequence obtained by the summation of facies transitions within individual sedimentation units
(fig. 10) and comparison with real occurrences (e.g., figs. 7, 8), with brief descriptions and interpretations on the right
columns. The facies sequence represents an idealized sequence of facies that can be produced by a composite debris
flowhyperconcentrated flood flowstreamflow event.
ward trend from the lower to the middle sequences is therefore interpreted to represent progradation of a proximal fan segment over distal
fan deposits. The abrupt changes in clast composition from granitic (lower sequence) to polymictic (middle sequence) are, however, interpreted
to have been caused by the changes in drainage
basin characteristicsespecially the source-rock
lithology. The transition from the middle to the
upper sequences is characterized by fining of
clast sizes and thinning of bed thicknesses but
most notably by the changes in the matrix type
from muddy to sandy. There are only a few conglomerate units with sandy matrices in the middle sequence, whereas the upper sequence totally
lacks conglomerates with a muddy matrix. The
fining- and thinning-upward trend from the middle to the upper sequences is probably attributable to the retreat of an active fan segment, but
the abrupt changes in the matrix type are more
likely caused by the changes in drainage basin
characteristics.
Traditionally, alluvial fans have been divided
Journal of Geology
127
Figure 12. Comparison of two contrasting styles of debris flowhyperconcentrated flood flowstreamflow events.
a, A hyperconcentrated flood flow is generated by the dilution at the leading edge of a debris flow that entered a
river valley. The resultant sediment flow therefore comprises a preceding hyperconcentrated flood flow, followed by
a recessional debris flow. As the dilution front propagates behind a debris flow, the entire flow may transform into
a hyperconcentrated flow (Pierson and Scott 1985; Smith 1986, 1987b; Scott 1988). b, The resultant deposits from
this sediment flow consist of downstream-thickening (and eventually thinning) hyperconcentrated flood-flow deposits
overlain by upstream-thickening debris-flow deposits. Four columns, showing representative facies in proximal to
distal parts, are given. c, This study suggests a different organization of flow types with a debris flow preceding in
advance of a hyperconcentrated flood flow and streamflow. d, The resultant deposits are envisaged to comprise debrisflow deposits in the proximal part, which are successively overlain and replaced by hyperconcentrated flood flow and
streamflow deposits toward the downstream direction. Four representative columns are given. The transition facies
(col. 2) is markedly different from that of b. The two models may differ greatly in time scale and dimension and
should not be compared on a footing of equality.
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Y. K. SOHN ET AL.
Figure 13. Photograph of 1980 Mount St. Helens lahar deposit exposed along the North Fork Turtle River, Washington. The lower part of the deposit is finer-grained and inversely graded and erosionally overlies pre-1980 mud
deposits (below the dotted line). This part is interpreted as being composed of deposits of a hyperconcentrated flood
flow (lahar runout) that proceeded a debris flow. The gravelly debris-flow deposit gradually overlies the hyperconcentrated flood-flow deposits, forming an overall inversely graded transition facies. The pencil is 17 cm long.
Implications of the Composite Sediment Flow Deposits. There is a close association between the ma-
trix type of conglomerates and the depositional processes in the measured section. The conglomerates
in the lower and upper sequences, mostly having
sandy matrices, are commonly intercalated with
hyperconcentrated flood-flow deposits (facies C and
D), whereas the conglomerates in the middle sequence, which comprise muddy matrices, generally
lack interbeds of dilute-flow deposits. This association suggests that sand-matrix debris flows are
more prone to transform into hyperconcentrated
flows. In general, noncohesive flows tend to transform easily into dilute flows via dilution, whereas
cohesive flows remain debris flows to their termini
(Pierson 1986; Scott 1988; Vallance and Scott 1997).
The availability of silt-clay fractions in the drainage
area therefore seems important in determining
types and spacial distribution of facies.
Flow behavior of debris flows from a drainage
basin to its associated fan is largely governed by
longitudinal profiles of tributaries because the
channel slope regulates transportation forces (trac-
tive force and the slope-direction component of sediment weight) that affect runout distances and geomorphic processes (erosion and deposition) of the
debris flows (Ohmori and Shimazu 1994; Cenderelli
and Kite 1998). In channels of an exponential function type, large curvature may significantly decrease transportation forces downstream, and thus
upstream debris flows cannot runout to the gentle
downstream segment (alluvial-fan surface) unless
they are transformed into fluid, turbidity flows
(Ohmori and Shimazu 1994). According to Ohmori
and Shimazu (1994), tributaries of an exponential
function type develop in a less rugged drainage basin. We infer that the facies variations among the
three sequences reflect the changes in relief development and thus the changes in the longitudinal
profiles of tributaries in the catchment area with
time.
According to recent experiments on cohesionless
debris flows (Major 1997), temporally distinct debris flows as well as contemporaneous ones produce mostly amalgamated beds without distinct in-
Journal of Geology
129
cremental aggradation of debris flows and modification of debris-flow deposits by later surges of
composite sediment flows. The deposits of intermediate flows show evidence for deposition from
bipartite flows that comprise dense inertia layers
or traction carpets beneath dilute and turbulent
flows. We suggest that the bipartite flow can be
approximately equated with a hyperconcentrated
flow based on the fact that a hyperconcentrated
suspension has a meager yield strength and is prone
to be density stratified. The relationship between
density stratification and rheology (viscosity, yield
strength, and sediment concentration) of a flow
needs to be established.
As far as can be judged from exposures of the
Yongdong alluvial-fan succession, deposition from
the composite sediment flows produces spatiotemporal variations in facies composition both as a result of an alluvial-fan evolution and as a result of
flow transformation over travel distances: the
lower sequence dominated by sandy-to-gravelly hyperconcentrated flow deposits mostly with granitic
clasts, the middle sequence dominated by coarsegrained debris-flow deposits with mud matrix and
polymictic gravel clasts, and the upper sequence
dominated by sand-matrix debris-flow deposits.
The coarsening to fining of the sequences reflects
progradation and retreat of an alluvial fan, but the
changes in clast composition and matrix type more
likely resulted from the changes in the characters
of supplied sediments as different source rocks
were exposed in the drainage area.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
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