Professional Documents
Culture Documents
By:
Dustin Smith
Contents
1 Complex Numbers
1.1 The Algebra of Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.1 Arithmetic Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.2 Square Roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.3 Justification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.4 Conjugation, Absolute Value . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.5 Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2 The Geometric Representation of Complex Numbers
1.2.1 Geometric Addition and Multiplication . . . .
1.2.2 The Binomial Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.3 Analytic Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.4 The Spherical Representation . . . . . . . . . .
2 Complex Functions
2.1 Introduction to the Concept of Analytical Function
2.1.1 Limits and Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.2 Analytic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.3 Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.4 Rational Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 Elementary Theory of Power Series . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.1 Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.2 Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.3 Uniform Convergence . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.4 Power Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.5 Abels Limit Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3 The Exponential and Trigonometric Functions . . .
2.3.1 The Exponential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.2 The Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . .
2.3.3 Periodicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.4 The Logarithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3 Analytic Functions as Mappings
3.1 Elementary Point Set Topology
3.1.1 Sets and Elements . . . .
3.1.2 Metric Spaces . . . . . .
3.1.3 Connectedness . . . . . .
3.1.4 Compactness . . . . . . .
3.1.5 Continuous Functions .
3.1.6 Topological Spaces . . .
3.2 Conformality . . . . . . . . . . .
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37
1 Complex Numbers
1.1 The Algebra of Complex Numbers
1.1.1 Arithmetic Operations
1. Find the values of
(1 + 2i)3 ,
2 + i 2
,
3 2i
5
,
3 + 4i
(1 + i)n + (1 i)n
For the first problem, we have (1 + 2i)3 = (3 + 4i)(1 + 2i) = 11 2i. For the second problem, we
should multiple by the conjugate z = 3 4i.
5
15 20i
3 4
3 4i
=
=
i
3 + 4i 3 4i
25
5
5
For the last problem, we will need to findthe polar form of the complex numbers. Let z1 = 1 + i
and z2 = 1 i. Then the modulus of z1 = 2 = z2 . Let 1 and 2 be the angles associated
with z1
i/4
1
,
z
z1
,
z+1
1
z2
Pn
n
k=0 k
n nk
a b
. Therefore,
4
4
4 2
4 3
4 4
(iy)4 +
x(iy)3 +
x (iy)2 +
x (iy) +
x = y4 4xy3 i 6x2 y2 + 4x3 yi + x4
0
1
2
3
4
u(x, y) =
x1+iy
x+1iy .
x2
Then z = x + 1 + iy.
x2 1 + 2xyi
x 1 + iy x + 1 + iy
=
x + 1 iy x + 1 + iy
(x + 1)2 + y2
u(x, y) =
u(x, y) =
3. Show that
1i 3 3
2
= 1 and
1i 3 6
2
= 1.
3
Both problems will can be handled easily by converting to polar form. Let z1 = 1i
. Then |z1 | = 1.
2
Let + be the
for the negative. Then + = arctan( 3) = 2
3 and
angle4for the positive z1 and2i/3
and z1 = e4i/3 .
= arctan( 3) = 3 . We can write z1+ = e
z31+ = e2i
=1
z31
= e4i
=1
i,
For
i,
1 + i,
1i 3
2
i = x + iy
i = x2 y2 + 2xyi
x2 y2 = 0
(1.1)
2xy = 1
(1.2)
From equation (1.1), we see that x2 = y2 or x = y. Also, note that i is the upperhalf plane (UHP).
That is, the angle is positive so x = y and 2x2 = 1 from equation (1.1). Therefore, i = 12 (1 + i). We
also could have done this problem using the polar form of z. Let z = i. Then z = ei/2 so z = ei/4
z = ei/4 = 12 (1 i). For 1 + i, let z = 1 + i. Then z = 2ei/4 so z = 21/4 ei/8 . Finally, for
q
1i 3
,
2
let z =
1i 3
.
2
Then z = ei/3 so
z = ei/6 = 12 ( 3 i).
4
1.
4
1 so z4 = 1. Let z = rei so r4 e4i = 1 = ei(1+2k) .
r4 = 1
= (1 + 2k)
4
3 5
4, 4 , 4 ,
and
7
4 .
3. Compute
Let z =
4
i and 4 i.
4
i and z = rei . Then r4 e4i = i = ei/2 .
r4 = 1
=
8
4
i. Then r4 e4i = ei/2 so z = ei/8 .
b b2 ac
.
2
z=
Let a + bi =
p
2 2 4 + i(2 4)
2
p
2 2 4 + i(2 4). Then
z=
(a + bi)
2
1.1.3 Justification
1. Show that the system of all matrices of the special form
!
,
combined by matrix addition and matrix multiplication, is isomorphic to the field of complex numbers.
2. Show that the complex number system can be thought of as the field of all polynomials with real
coefficients modulo the irreducible polynomial x2 + 1.
z
+1
(1.3)
z
x iy
= 2
+1
x y2 + 1 2xyi
x iy
x2 y2 + 1 + 2xyi
= 2
2
x y + 1 2xyi x2 y2 + 1 + 2xyi
x(x2 y2 + 1) + 2xy2 iy(x2 y2 + 1 2x2 )
=
(x2 y2 + 1)2 + 4x2 y2
(1.4)
and
so
|z1 | =
(3 + 4i)(1 + 2i)
3
= 2 i
(1 i)(3 i)
2
so
|z2 | =
3. Prove that
4 + 9/4 =
5
.
2
ab
=1
1 ab
a b a b
1=
1 ab
1 ab
a b a b
=
1 ab
1 ab
aa ab ab
+ bb
=
1 ab
ab + aab
b
If |a| = 1, then |a|2 = aa = 1 and similarly for |b|2 = 1. Then equation (1.5) becomes
1 ab ab
+ bb
1 ab
ab + bb
and
1 ab ab
+ aa
1 ab
ab + aa
resepctively which is one. If |a| = |b| = 1, then |a|2 = |b|2 = 1 so equation (1.5) can be written as
2 ab ab
.
2 ab
ab
(1.5)
4. Find the conditions under which the equation az + bz + c = 0 in one complex unknown has exactly one
solution, and compute that solution.
Let z = x + iy. Then az + bz + c = a(x + iy) + b(x iy) + c = 0.
(a + b)x + c = 0
(1.6a)
(a b)y = 0
(1.6b)
Lets consider equation (1.6b). We either have that a = b or y = 0. If a = b, then WLOG equation (1.6a)
can be written as
c
2a
x=
c
2a
+ iy for y R.
c
.
a+b
Lets consider
i=1
i=1
16i6j6n
n
n
n
X
2 X
X
X
2
2
ai bi +
|ai bj aj bi | =
|ai |
|bi |2 .
i=1
16i6j6n
i=1
i=1
16i6j6n
i=1
n
X
j=1
16i6j6n
ai bi a j b j +
i,j=1
n
X
X
|ai |2 |bj |2 + |aj |2 |bi |2
ai a j bi b j + a i aj b i bj
i6j
|ai |2 |bi |2 +
i=j=1
n
X
+
ai bi a j b j
i6=j
i6j
i6j
ai a j bi b j + a i aj b i bj
i6j
For i 6= j,
Pn
j bj
i6=j ai bi a
P
i<j
n
X
X
|ai |2 |bi |2 +
|ai |2 |bj |2 + |aj |2 |bi |2 .
i=1
i6j
When the indicies of both series on the right hand side coincide,
n
n
n
X
X
X
2
2
|ai |
|bi | =
|ai |2 |bi |2 .
i=1
i=1
(1.7)
i=1
That is, both ai and bi index together on the left of side equation (1.7). When ai and bi dont index
together on the left side of equation (1.7),
n
n
X
X
X
|ai |2
|bi |2 =
|ai |2 |bj |2 + |aj |2 |bi |2
i=1
i=1
i6j
1.1.5 Inequalities
1. Prove that
ab
<1
1 ab
|1 ab|
|a b|2
|1 ab|
2
(a b)(a b)
=
(1 ab)(1
ab)
(1.8)
|a|2 + |b|2 ab ab
1 + |a|2 |b|2 ab
ab
2 ab ab
<
2 ab
ab
=1
(1.9)
i=1
i=1
so the base case is true. Now let the equality hold for all k 1 Z where k 1 6 n. That is, we assume
that
k1
k1
2 k1
X
X
X
2
ai bi 6
|ai |
|bi |2
i=1
i=1
i=1
to be true.
k1
k1
k1
2
X
X
X
ai bi + |ak bk |2 6
|ai |2
|bi |2 + |ak bk |2
i=1
k
X
2
ai bi 6
i=1
i=1
k1
X
i=1
k1
X
|ai |2
|ai |2
i=1
k1
X
i=1
k1
X
i=1
k
X
i=1
k
X
i=1
i=1
|ai |2
|bi |2
Therefore, by the principal of mathematical induction, Cauchys inequality is true for all n > 1 for
n Z+ .
Since
Pn
i=1 i
n
X
i=1
=1
if and only if |a| 6 |c|. If this condition is fulfilled, what are the smallest and largest values |z|?
By the triangle inequality,
|z a| + |z + a| > |(z a) (z + a)| = 2|a|
so
2|c| = |z a| + |z + a|
> |(z a) (z + a)|
= 2|a|
a
Thus, |c| > |a|. For the second implication, if a = 0, the result follow. Suppose a 6= 0. Then let z = |c| |a|
.
n
X
eki
k=0
Recall that
Pn1
k=0
rk =
1rk
1r .
So
1 ei(n+1)
1 ei
ei(n+1) 1
=
ei 1
ei/2 ei/2
2i
(1.10)
ki
sin
By taking the real and imaginary parts of equation (1.11), we get the series for
Pn
k=0 sin(n), respectively.
n
X
n
X
n
sin (n+1)
2
cos(n) =
cos
2
sin
2
k=0
n
sin (n+1)
2
sin(n) =
sin
2
sin
2
k=0
(1.11)
Pn
k=0 cos(n)
and
= cos(0) + i sin(0)
=1
2
2
1 = e2/5 = cos
+ i sin
5
5
4
4
4/5
2 = e
= cos
+ i sin
5
5
6
6
6/5
3 = e
= cos
+ i sin
5
5
8
8
4 = e8/5 = cos
+ i sin
5
5
= cos(0) + i sin(0)
=1
1 = e2/10 = cos
+ i sin
5
5
2
2
2 = e4/10 = cos
+ i sin
5
5
3
3
3 = e6/10 = cos
+ i sin
5
5
4
4
8/10
+ i sin
4 = e
= cos
5
5
10/10
5 = e
= cos() + i sin()
= 1
6
6
6 = e12/10 = cos
+ i sin
5
5
7
7
7 = e14/10 = cos
+ i sin
5
5
8
8
16/10
8 = e
= cos
+ i sin
5
5
9
9
18/10
9 = e
= cos
+ i sin
5
5
2k
n .
For
2
n
+ i sin
2
n
, prove that
1 + h + 2h + + (n1)h = 0
2
n
+ i sin
2
n
e2ih/n
k
k=0
Since h is an integer,
e2ih
e2ih 1
.
e2hi/n 1
e2ih/n
k
k=0
(1)n e2ih 1
1 + (1)n+1 e2ih
=
.
e2hi/n 1
1 + e2hi/n
0,
if n is even
2
1+e2hi/n
if n is odd
Let z =
x
a
+ iy
b and z0 =
h
a
k
+ ib
. If we expand the equation for an ellipse, we have
x2 y2 h2 k2 2xh 2yk
+
+
+
2 2 = 1.
a2 b2 a2 b2
a
b
x2
a2
y2
b2
|z|2 + |z0 |2
and |z0 |2 =
h2
a2
k2
.
b2
2xh 2yk yh
yh
xk
xk
2 +
i
i+
i
i = |z|2 + |z0 |2 z z0 zz 0 = 1.
2
a
b
ab
ab
ab
ab
where z and z0 are defined above. Additionally, the standard form of an ellipse in the complex plane is
of the form
|z a| + |z b| = c
where c > |a b|. Let a and b be the foci of a hyperbola. Then when the magnitude of the difference of
z and the foci is a constant, we will have a hyperbola.
|z a| |z b| = c
3. Prove that the diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other and that the diagonals of a rhombus are
orthogonal.
4. Prove analytically that the midpoints of parallel chords to a circle lie on a diameter perpendicular to
the chords.
5. Show that all circles that pass through a and 1/a intersect the circle |z| = 1 at right angles.
2|z z 0 |
p
.
1 + |z|2 1 + |z 0 |2
5. Find the radius of the spherical image of the circle in the plane whose center is a and radius R.
Let z = a + R and z 0 = a R. Then the distance d(z, z 0 ) = 2R.
2R = d(z, z 0 )
R = d(z, z 0 )/2
=p
=p
2|R|
(1 + |a|2
+ |R|2
+ 2<{aR})(1
+ |a|2 + |R|2 2<{aR})
2|R|
(1 + |a|2
2 Complex Functions
2.1 Introduction to the Concept of Analytical Function
2.1.1 Limits and Continuity
2.1.2 Analytic Functions
1. If g(w) and f(z) are analytic functions, show that g(f(z)) is also analytic.
Let g(w) = h(x, y) + it(x, y) and f(z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) where z = w = x + iy for x, y R. Then
(g f)(z) = h(u(x, y), v(x, y)) + it(u(x, y), v(x, y)).
u
v
=
y
x
h
t
=
u
x
h
x
t
y
and
t u t v
t
=
+
y
u y v y
t
t u t v
=
+
x
u x v x
h
y
t
= x
. We can then write
h u h v
t u t v
h t
=
+
x y
u x v x u y v y
h u t u h v t v
=
u x u y v x v y
|
{z
} |
{z
}
term 1
(2.1)
term 2
In order for the right hand side of equation (2.1) to be zero, we need both terms to be zero.
h u t u
h u t u
u x u y
u x y u
h u h u
=
u x u x
(2.2)
Equation (2.2) occurs since g is analytic and satisfies the Cauchy-Riemann equations.
=0
For the second term in equation (2.1), we again use the analyticity of g.
h v t v
h v h v
v x v y
v x v x
=0
=0
x y
h
t
=
x
y
h
y
t
= x
. Therefore, g(f(z)) satisfies the Cauchy-
vy = 2x
vx = 2y
Thus, the Cauchy-Riemann equation satisfied for f(z) = z2 . For f(z) = z3 , the Cauchy-Riemann
equations are
ux = 3x2 3y2
uy = 6xy
vy = 3x2 3y2
vx = 6xy
Thus, 3a = c and 3d = b so
u(x, y) = ax3 3axy2 3dx2 y + dy3 .
To find the harmonic conjugate v(x, y, we need to look at the Cauchy-Riemann equations. By the
Cauchy-Riemann equations,
ux = 3ax2 3ay2 6dxy = vy .
Then we can integrate with respect to y to find v(x, y).
Z
v(x, y) = (3ax2 3ay2 6dxy)dy = 3ax2 y ay3 3dxy2 + g(x)
4. Show that an analytic function cannot have a constant absolute value without reducing to a constant.
Let f = u(x, y) + iv(x, y). Then the modulus of f is |f| = u2 + v2 . If the modulus of f is constant, then
u2 + v2 = c for some constant c. If c = 0, then f = 0 which is constant. Suppose c 6= 0. By taking the
derivative with respect to x and y, we have
2
(u + v2 )
x
= 2uux + 2vvx
0=
= uux + vvx
2
0=
(u + v2 )
y
= uuy + vvy
(2.3a)
uuy + vux = 0
(2.3b)
Lets write equations (2.3a) and (2.3b) in matrix form. Then we have
"
#" # " #
u v u
0
x
u =
v u
0
x
u
x
u
x
" #
0
=
0
z0
g(z + z) g(z)
z
f(z + z) f(z )
z0
z
f(z + z) f(z )
= lim
z0
z
= lim
Since conjugation is continuous, we can move the limit inside the conjugation.
f(z + z) f(z )
z0
z
= f 0 (z )
= lim
Thus, g is differentiable with derivative f 0 (z ). Suppose f(z ) is analytic and let g(z ) = f(z). Then by the
same argument, f is differentiable with derivative g 0 (z ). Therefore, f(z) and f(z ) are simultaneously
analytic.
We could also use the Cauchy-Riemann equations. Let f(z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y) where z = x + iy so
z = x iy. Then f(z ) = (x, y) i(x, y) where (x, y) = u(x, y) and (x, y) = v(x, y). In order for
both to be analytic, they both need to satisfy the Cauchy-Riemann equations. That is, ux = vy , uy = vx ,
x = y and y = x .
ux (x, y) = vy (x, y)
uy (x, y) = vx (x, y)
x (x, y) = ux (x, y)
y (x, y) = uy (x, y)
x (x, y) = vx (x, y)
y (x, y) = vy (x, y)
Suppose that f(z ) satisfies the Cauchy-Riemann equations. Then x = ux (x, y) = vy (x, y) = y and
y = uy (x, y) = vx (x, y) = x . Therefore,
ux (x, y) = vy (x, y)
uy (x, y) = vx (x, y)
which means f(z ) satisfies the Cauchy-Riemann equations. Now, recall that |z| = |z |. Since f(z ) satisfies
the Cauchy-Riemann equations, for an > 0 there exists a > 0 such that when 0 < |z| < ,
|f(z ) z 0 | = |f(z) z0 | < . Thus, limz0 f(z) = z0 so f(z) is analytic if f(z ) is analytic.
6. Prove that the functions u(z) and u(z ) are simultaneously harmonic.
Since u is the real part of f(z), u(z) = u(x, y) where z = x + iy. Suppose u(z) is harmonic. Then u(z)
satisfies Laplace equation.
2 u(z) = uxx + uyy = 0
2
u(z )
x2
= uxx and
2
u(z )
y2
= uyy so
Since u(z) is harmonic, uxx + uyy = 0 so it follows that u(z ) is harmonic as well.
7. Show that a harmonic function satisfies the formal differential equation
2 u
= 0.
zz
1
=
+i
z
2 x
y
1
=
i
z
2 x
y
(2.4a)
(2.4b)
Then we have
1
1
2 u
=
i
(ux + iuy ) = uxx + uyy + i(uyx uxy )
zz
4 x
y
4
Since u is a solution to the Laplace equation, u has continuous first and second derivatives. That is,
u C2 at a minimum. By Schwarzs theorem, uxy = uyx so
2 u
= 0.
zz
Schwarzs theorem states that if f is a function of two variables such that fxy and fyx both exist and are
continuous at some point (x0 , y0 ), then fxy = fyx .
2.1.3 Polynomials
2.1.4 Rational Functions
1. Use the method of the text to develop
z4
1
z3
and
1
z(z + 1)2 (z + 2)3
in partial fractions.
4
Let R(z) = z3z1 = z + z3z1 . The poles of R(z) occur when z3 = 1. Then the distinct poles are
z = 1, e2i/3 , e4i/3 . Let H(z) = z3z1 , z 7 i + 1/w, and i {1, e2i/3 , e4i/3 }.
w
w
3
3(3w2 + 3w + 1)
w
w
H(e2i/3 + 1/w) = 2i/3 2i/3 2i/3 2
3e
3e
(3e
w + 3e4i/3 w + 1)
w
w
H(e4i/3 + 1/w) = 4i/3 4i/3 4i/3 2
3e
3e
(3e
w + 3e2i/3 w + 1)
w
H(i + 1/w) =
Q(w)
3i
H(1 + 1/w) =
Then Gi (w) =
w
3i
R(z) =
i=1
The second problems numerator already is of a degree less than the denominator so we can proceed
at once. Let R(z) = z(z+1)12 (z+2)3 . The poles of R(z) are i {0, 1, 2} and z 7 i + 1/w.
R(1/w) =
=
w
(1/w + 1)2 (1/w + 2)3
w6
(w + 1)2 (2w + 1)3
w
+ Q(w)
8
w6
R(1/w 1) =
(1 w)(w + 1)3
=
= 2w w2 + Q(w)
R(1/w 2) =
w6
(1 2w)(w 1)2
17w 5w2 w3
+ Q(w)
8
4
2
1
z(z + 1)2 (z + 2)3
1
2
1
17
5
1
+
2
2
8z z + 1 (z + 1)
8(z + 2) 4(z + 2)
2(z + 2)3
2. Use the formula in the preceding exercise to prove that there exists a unique polynomial P of degree
< n with given values ck at the points k (Lagranges interpolation polynomial).
3. What is the general form of a rational function which has absolute value 1 on the circle |z| = 1? In
particular, how are the zeros and poles related to each other?
4. If a rational function is real on |z| = 1, how are the zeros and poles situated?
5. If R(z) is a rational function of order n, how large and how small can the order of R 0 (z) be?
Let R(z) = P(z)/Q(z) where P(z) has degree n and Q(z) has degree m. Let k be the degree of R(z). Then
k = max{n, m}.
R 0 (z) =
zn1 zn 0
z02
0 zm zm1
z2m
For all n > N, |an | < 1 + |a| so let A = max 1 + |a|, |a1 |, . . . , |aN | . Thus, |an | < A for some finite A and
hence {an } is bounded by A.
2. If limn zn = A, prove that
lim
1
(z1 + z2 + + zn ) = A.
n
|zn A| <
Now, since limn zn = A converges, it is Cauchy. Therefore, there exists n, m > N such that
|zm zn | <
N
.
2
Repeating this we have that |z1 + + zn nA| or |1/n(z1 + + zn1 ) A + (zn A)/n|. For a fixed N,
we can find n such that
n1
X
i=1
|zi A| <
N
2
6 1/n
i=1
n1
X
|zi A| + 1/n|zn A|
i=1
< 1/n
N
N
+ 1/n
2
2
<
(2.5)
3. Show that the sum of an absolutely convergent series does not change if the terms are rearranged.
P
Let
an be an absolutely convergent series and
bn be its rearrangement. Since
an converges
absolutely, for > 0, there exists a n > N such that |sn A| < /2 where sn is the nth partial sum. Let
P
tn be the nth partial sum of
bn . Then for some n > N
|tn A| = |tn sn + sn A|
6 |tn sn | + |sn A|
< |tn sn | +
2
X
X
X
|tn sn | =
an 6
|an | 6
|an | = rn <
2
n
k=n+1
Thus, |tn sn | < and a rearrangement of an absolutely convergent series does not changes its sum.
4. Discuss completely the convergence and uniform convergence of the sequence {nzn }
n=1 .
Consider when |z| < 1. Then zn =
1
wn
(n + 1)wn
1
n+1
1
lim
=
=
n
nwn+1
|w| n n
|w|
lim
In order for convergence, the ratio test has to be less than one.
1
= |z|
|w|
which is less than one by our assumption so {nzn } converges absolutely in the disc less than one. Now,
lets consider |z| > 1. By the ratio test, we get limn |an+1 /an | = |z| > 1 by our assumption. When the
limit is one, we can draw no conclusion about convergence, but when the limit is greater than one, the
sequence diverges. For |z| < 1, > 0, and n > N, |nzn 0| < for uniform convergence. Take z = 9/10,
n = 100, and = 0.001. Then
|nzn | = n|z|n <
|z|n <
n
0.000026 6< 0.00001
Thus, the sequence is not uniformly convergent in the disc with radius less than one. Lets consider the
closed disc |z| 6 R where R (0, 1). Now |nzn | is bounded above by a convergent geometric series, say
P n
r where |r| < 1. Then |nzn | < arn for |z| 6 R and a a real constant. Let Mn = arn where Mn is the
M in the Weierstrass M-test. Thus, {nzn } is uniformly convergent in a closed disc less than one.
5. Discuss the uniform convergence of the series
X
n=1
x
n(1 + nx2 )
xy, we have
or
1
2|x| n
>
1
.
1+nx2
Let fn (x) =
x
.
n(1+nx2 )
Then
|fn (x)| 6
x 1
= 3/2 = Mn
2xn3/2
2n
fn (x) is pointwise
For a fixed x, |fn (x)| 6 Mn < so |fn (x)| is absolutely convergent. Thus,
Pn
convergent to f(x). Let > 0 be given and sn = k=1 fk (x) be nth partial sum. Let n > N such that
X
X
X
X
|f(x) sn | =
fk (x)
fk (x) =
fk (x) 6
|fk (x)|
k=1
k=1
k=n+1
|f(x) sn | 6
Therefore,
x
n(1+nx2 )
k=n+1 Mk
|fk (x)| 6
k=n+1
k=n+1
Mk <
k=n+1
n
k=0 k
k
x . In our case, we have
X
m
=
(z)k
k
(2.6)
k=0
where
m
k
= (1)k
m+k1
k
(1 z)
X
m+k1 k
m(m + 1) 2
z + .
=
z = 1 + mz +
2!
k
k=0
2. Expand
2z+3
z+1
1
z+1
n
1
1
1/2
1 X
n z+1
=
=
=
(1)
z+1
z1+2
2
2
1 + z+1
2
n=0
z + 1 n
2z + 3
2z + 3 X
=
(1)n
.
z+1
2
2
n=0
The radius of convergence can be found by 1/R = lim supn n |an |. Therefore, the radius of convergence is
r
1
n
R = 1/ lim sup (1)n n = |2| = 2
p
np zn ,
X zn
n!
n ! zn ,
q n zn ,
zn !
For np zn , we can use the inverse of argument of the ratio test to determine the radius of convergence;
that is,
R = lim
n
np
np
=
lim
=1
n (n + 1)p
(n + 1)p
z
z
For
n! , we can use the fact that the sum is e which is entire or the method used previously. Since
ez is entire, the radius of convergence is R = .
For
(n + 1)!
n!(n + 1)
R = lim
=
= lim
n
n
n!
n!
n!zn , we use the modified ratio test again.
R = lim
n
For
n!
=0
(n + 1)!
p
n
q
n
P
so the radius of convergence is R. For a2n zn , we have
a 2
n
lim
= R2 .
n an+1
5. If f(z) =
an zn , what is
an z2n ? of
a2n zn ?
n3 an zn ?
nan zn1
nan zn
= a1 z + 2a2 z2 + 3a3 z3 +
X
f 00 (z) =
n(n 1)an zn2
X
z2 f 00 (z) =
n(n 1)an zn
(2.7)
(2.8)
(2.9)
n3 an zn
X
n3 an zn .
P
an zn and
bn zn have radii of convergence R1 and R2 , show that the radii of convergence of
P
n
an bn z is at least R1 R2 .
6. If
since lim supn |an |1/n = 1/R1 so |an |1/n < 1/R1 + and similarly for bn . Multiplying we obtain
|an bn |1/n <
1
+ (1/R1 + 1/R2 ) + 2
R1 R2
Then
1
1
6
R1 R2 6 R
R
R1 R2
Let > 0 be given. Suppose |z| < R. Pick such that |z| < R . Then for some n > N
an
6 R an <
R
a
a
n+1
a n+1
n
R <
an+1
(2.10)
=
=
an
aN+1 aN+2 an
aN+1 aN+2
an
aN
aN+1 .
(2.11)
a
N
(R )nN <
an
|aN |
|an | <
(R )nN
|z| nN
|an zn | < |aN zN |
R
|z|
R
< 1 and
X
z n
1+z
n=0
convergent?
In order for series to converge lim supn
lim sup
n
p
n
|an | < 1. Then
z
p
n
|z/(z + 1)|n =
<1
z+1
an zn converges absolutely
X
n=0
zn
.
1 + z2n
(2.12)
1 |z2n | 6 |1 + z2n |
|z
|z
2n
2n
| = |1 1 + z
2n
6 |1 + z
2n
|+1
| 1 6 |1 + z
2n
(2.13)
From equations (2.12) and (2.13), the triangle inequality, we have that
1 |z2n | 6 |1 + z2n |.
|z2n |
6 1 |z2n |.
m
lim sup
n
m|z|n
m
1
=
lim
sup
=
<1
2
n
|z |
|z|
|z|
n
1
When |z| > 1, the convergence of the ratio test |z|
< 1 leads to |z| > 1. If |z| < 1, then 1/|z| > 1 where we
can write 1/|z| = |z1 |. Since the choice dummy variables is arbitrary, |z| < 1. In other words, the series
will converge when |z| > 1 or |z| < 1. Suppose |z| = 1. Then by the limit test,
lim
1
1
= 6= 0;
1n + 1n
2
eiz eiz
.
2i
Then
e1 e1
e1 e1
=i
= i sinh(1).
2i
2
e1 + e1
e1 + e1
=
= cosh(1).
2
2
iz
iz
ei1 e1i
= i tanh(i 1).
ei1 + e1i
cos(iz) =
ez ez
2i
ez ez
=i
2
= i sinh(z)
sin(iz) =
ea + ea eb + eb ea ea eb eb
+
2
2
2
2
= cosh(a) cosh(b) + sinh(a) sinh(b)
=
ea ea eb + eb ea + ea eb eb
+
2
2
2
2
= sinh(a) cosh(b) + cosh(a) sinh(b)
=
For the double angle formulas, recall that cos(2z) = cos2 (z) sin2 (z) = 2 cos2 (z) 1 = 1 2 sin2 (z) and
sin(2z) = 2 sin(z) cos(z). Therefore, we have
cosh(2z) = cos(2iz)
= cos2 (iz) sin2 (iz)
ez + ez 2 ez ez 2
=
+
2
2
2
2
= cosh (z) + sinh (z)
sinh(2z) = i sin(2iz)
= 2i sin(iz) cos(iz)
ez ez ez + ez
2
2
= 2 sinh(z) cosh(z)
=2
3. Use the addition formulas to separate cos(x + iy) and sin(x + iy) in real and imaginary parts.
cos(x + iy) = cos(x) cos(iy) sin(x) sin(iy)
= cos(x) cosh(y) i sin(x) sinh(y)
4. Show that
|cos(z)|2 = sinh2 (y) + cos2 (x) = cosh2 (y) sin2 (x) = (cosh(2y) + cos(2x))/2
and
|sin(z)|2 = sinh2 (y) + sin2 (x) = cosh2 (y) cos2 (x) = (cosh(2y) cos(2x))/2.
For the identities, recall that cosh2 (z) sinh2 (z) = 1 and cos2 (z) + sin2 (z) = 1. Then for the first identity,
we have
|cos(z)|2 = cos(z) cos(z )
= cos(x) cosh(y) i sin(x) sinh(y) cos(x) cosh(y) + i sin(x) sinh(y)
= cos2 (x) cosh2 (y) + sin2 (x) sinh2 (y)
= cos2 (x)(1 + sinh2 (y)) + sin2 (x) sinh2 (y)
= cos2 (x) + sinh2 (y)
|cos(z)|2 = cos2 (x) cosh2 (y) + sin2 (x)(cosh2 (y) 1)
= cosh2 (y) sin2 (x)
|cos(z)|2 =
= (cosh(2y) + cos(2x))/2
|sin(z)| = sin(z) sin(z )
= sin(x) cosh(y) + i sinh(y) cos(x) sin(x) cosh(y) i sinh(y) cos(x)
2
2.3.3 Periodicity
2.3.4 The Logarithm
1. For real y, show that every remainder in the series for cos(y) and sin(y) has the same sign as the leading
term (this generalizes the inequalities used in the periodicity proof).
The series for both cosine and sine are
cos(y) =
X
k=0
(1)k
y2k
(2k)!
y2 y4
+
2!
4!
X
y2k+1
sin(y) =
(1)k
(2k + 1)!
= 1
k=0
= y
y3 y6
+
3!
6!
Z
n
X
f(k) (0) k 1 y
y +
(y t)k f(k+1) (t)dt.
k!
k! 0
k=0
sin(y) =
k=0
n1
X
k=0
(1)k y2k+1
1
+
(2k + 1)!
n!
Zy
sin(y) =
k=0
m1
X
k=0
(1)k y2k+1
1
+
(2k + 1)!
(2m 1)!
Zy
e3i/4 = ( 2 + i 2)/2
e2i/3 = (1 + i 3)/2
ez = 1
z = log(2)
z = log(1)
= log|i| + i(arg(1) + 2k)
e =i
z = log|i| + i(arg(i) + 2k)
i
= (1 + 4k)
2
ez = 1 i
z = log|1 i| + i(arg(1 i) + 2k)
3i
= log( 2)
+ 2ki
4
log(2) 3i
=
+ 2ki
2
4
= i(1 + 2k)
i
ez =
2
i
= log(2) (1 + 4k)
2
ez = 1 + 2i
log(5)
2
+ i(arctan(2) + 2k)
where u(x, y) is the real and v(x, y) is the imaginary part of exp(ez ).
2 +y2 )y(arctan(y/x)+2k)
i
2 +y2 )y(arctan(y/x)+2k)
2 +y2 )y(arctan(y/x)+2k)
iz
x2 1
x2 + 1
e2iz =
iw
.
i+w
which leads to
9. Show how to define the "angles" in a triangle, bearing in mind that they should lie between 0 and .
With this definition, prove that the sum of the angles is .
10. Show that the roots of the binomial equation zn = a are the vertices of a regular polygon (equal sides
and angles).
Let z = rei . Then
rn ein = ae2ik .
Therefore, r = a1/n and = 2ik/n. Since r is just the radius, the roots will be located on a circle of
radius r at exp(2ik/n) for k [0, n 1]. Since each root are angle multiplies about the origin, they will
be n equally spaced points. n equally spaced points will form the vertices of a regular n-gon.
(3.1a)
d(x, y) = d(y, x)
(3.1b)
(3.1c)
By equation (3.1a), for x = y, d(x, y) = 0 so (x, y) = 0/1 = 0, and when x 6= y, d(x, y) > 0 so (x, y) > 0
since a positive number divided by a positive number is positive. We have that (x, y) > 0 and equal
zero if and only if x = y. By equation (3.1b), we have
d(x, y)
1 + d(x, y)
d(y, x)
=
1 + d(y, x)
(x, y) =
= (y, x)
Lets multiple through by the product of all three denominators. After simplifying, we obtain
d(x, z) 6 d(x, y) + d(y, z) + 2d(x, y)d(y, z) + d(x, y)d(y, z)d(x, z)
We have already shown that d(x, y) > 0 and zero if and only if x = y. If x = y = z, the triangle inequality
is vacuously true. When x 6= y 6= z, the triangle inequality follows since each distance is positive and
equation (3.1c); that is,
(x, z) 6 (x, y) + (y, z).
2. Suppose that there are given two distance functions d(x, y) and d1 (x, y) on the same space S. They are
said to be equivalent if they determine the same open sets. Show that d and d1 are equivalent if to
every > 0 there exists a > 0 such that d(x, y) < implies d1 (x, y) < , and vice versa. Verify that this
condition is fulfilled in exercise 1.
Let , > 0 be given. We can write (x, y) =
whenever d(x, y) < , (x, y) < .
1
d(x,y)
1+d(x,y)
= 1
1
<
1 + d(x, y)
d(x, y) <
1
1
1+d(x,y) .
Let =
1 .
1 ,
(x, y) = 1
then
1
1
< 1
= .
1 + d(x, y)
1 + 1
d(x,y)
If > 1, (x, y) = 1+d(x
,y) < 1 < . For the reverse implication, we need to find a such that d(x, y) < .
Let = 1+ . For any > 0, if (x, y) < = 1+
, then
d(x, y)
<
1 + d(x, y)
1+
d(x, y)(1 + ) < + d(x, y)
d(x, y) <
as was needed to be shown. Therefore, d(x, y) and (x, y) are equivalent metrics on S.
3. Show by strict application of the definition that the closure of |z z0 | < is |z z0 | 6 .
4. If X is the set of complex numbers whose real and imaginary parts are rational, what is Int X, X , X?
0
5. It is sometimes typographically simpler to write X 0 for X. With this notation, how is X related to
0 0 0 0
0 0
X? Show that X = X .
6. A set is said to be discrete if all its points are isolated. Show that a discrete set in R or C is countable.
Let S be a discrete set in R or C. If z S, then for some i > 0, for i Z, Ni (zi ) is the i-th neighborhood
of zi . Since S is discrete, there exists an for each i such that the only point in Ni (zi ) is zi . Let i be
this . Consider the following function
0,
1 ,
f(i) =
2i,
2(i) + 1,
i=0
i=1
i>0
i<0
3.1.3 Connectedness
1. If X S, show that the relatively open (closed) subsets of X are precisely those sets that can be expressed
as the intersection of X with an open (closed) subsets of S.
Let {U } be the open sets of S such that U = S. Then X = X U = (X U ). Let {An } =
{X U }. Then An is relatively open in X since An belongs to the topology of X; that is, for each n,
S
An X and X = n An .
S
2. Show that the union of two regions is a region if and only if they have a common point.
For the first implication, , suppose on the contrary that the union of two regions is a region and they
have no point in common. Let A and B be these two nonempty regions. Since they share no point in
= . Therefore, A and B are separated so they cannot be a region. We have
common, A B = B A
reached a contradiction so if the union of two regions is a region, then they have a point in common.
For the finally implication, suppose they have a point in common and the union of two regions is not
a region. Since the union of two regions is not a region, the regions are separated. Let A and B be
= ; therefore, A and
two nonempty separated regions. Since A and B are separated, A B = B A
B cannot have a point in common. We have reached contradiction so if they have a point in common,
then the union of two regions is are a region.
0 .5
0.2
0 .4
0 .6
0 .8
0.5
Figure 3.1: Topologists sine curve plotted on the domain x (0, 1].
Let S = A B. We claim that the closure of B in R2 is B = S. Let x S. If x B, then take a constant
sequence {x, x, . . .}. If x A, then x = (0, y) for |y| 6 1 or said another way y = sin() for [, ].
We can write y = sin() as y = sin( + 2k) for k Z+ . Let xk = 1/( + 2k) > 0. Then y = sin(1/xk ).
Now {xk } 0 when k . Then (xk , sin(1/xk )) = (xn , y) (0, y) B since |y| 6 1. Therefore, S B .
Let {(xn , yn )} S such that {(xn , yn )} (x, y) R2 . Then limn xn = x and limn yn = y. From
the definition of the sets, x > 0 and |y| 6 1 so |y| = limn |yn | 6 1. If x = 0, then (0, y) S since
|y| 6 1. Suppose x > 0. Then there exist m > N such that xm > 0 for all m > N so (xn , yn ) B. Let
yn = sin(1/xn ) since (xn , yn ) B. Notice that for z (0, ), sin(1/z is continuous. Since {xn } x and
yn = sin(1/xn ), we have
y = lim yn = lim sin(1/xn ) = sin(1/x).
n
6. Prove that the components of a closed set are closed (use exercise 3).
7. A set is said to be discrete if all its points are isolated. Show that a discrete set in a separable metric
space is countable.
3.1.4 Compactness
1. Given an alternate proof of the fact that every bounded sequence of complex numbers has a convergent
subsequence (for instance by use of the limes inferior).
2. Show that the Heine-Borel property can also be expressed in the following manner: Every collection of
closed sets with an empty intersection contains a finite subcollection with an empty intersection.
The statement above is equivalent to: A collection F of closed subsets of a topological space (X, T)
has the finite intersection property if F 6= for all finite subcollections F F. Show that (X, T),
a topological space, is compacy if and only if every family of closed sets F P(X) having the finite
intersection property satisfies F 6= .
Let F = {F : A} be a collection of closed sets in X. Now
\
F =
Fc = X.
Therefore, the set Fc is an open cover of X since F is closed. If the intersection of the set {Fn }
S
is empty for a finite n, then Fcn is a finite subcover of X. Then every open cover of X has a
finite subcover if and only if every collection of closed sets with an empty intersection has a finite
subcollection with an empty intersection. Thus, X is compact if and only if every collection of closed
sets with the finite intersection property has a nonempty intersection.
S
3. Use compactness to prove that a closed bounded set of real numbers has a maximum.
Since we are dealing with a set of real numbers, we are speaking of compact metric spaces. A subset
E of a metric space X is compact if and only if every sequence in E has convergent subsequence in E
(sequentially compact).
First, we will show by contradiction. Let {xn } be a sequence in E. Suppose {xn } doesnt have a
convergent subsequence in E. Then for x E, there exists > 0 such that xn N (x) for only finitely
many n. Then N (x) would be an open cover of E which has no finite subcover. Therefore, E couldnt
be compact contradicting the premise. Thus, if E is compact metric space, then E is sequentialy compact.
In order to prove , we need to prove that a sequentially compact set contains a countable dense
subset.
Lemma 3.1.4.1 : A sequentially compact set contains a countable dense subset (separable space).
Let A be an infinite sequentially compact set. Since A is sequential compact, A is bounded; otherwise, we
would have nonconvergent subsequences in A. Let {yn } be a dense sequence in A. Choose y1 , y2 , . . . , yn
of {yn }. Let n = supyA mink6n d(y, yn ) > 0. Let yn+1 be such that d(yn+1 , yk ) > /2 for k = 1, . . . , n.
Since {yn } has a convergent subsequence, for all > 0 there exist m, n Z+ such that d(ym , yn ) < .
Then
d(y, yn1 ) < n1 /2 < d(ym , yn ) < n1 < 2
Thus, all y A is in 2 of yk for k < n. Since > 0 and arbitrary, {yn } is dense in A because every
nonempty open set contains at least one element of the sequence.
Now for . Let F be an open cover E and let {yn } be a dense sequence. Let r Q and let G be the
family of neighborhoods, Nr (yn ), that are contained in F . Since Q is countable, G is countable. Let
x E and x F . Then N (x) F for > 0. Since {yn } is dense in E, by lemma 3.1.4.1, d(y, yn ) < /2 for
some n. For all r Q, d(yn , y) < r < d(yn , y). Then x Nr (yn ) N (x) G. Since x Nr (yn ) G
and G is countable, we can find a finite subcover of G. Replace each G by F where G F for some
. Then this set of F is a finite subcover. Thus, if E is a sequentially compact metric space, then E is
compact.
Consider the topological space R1 . Let En = {n Z>0 : [n, )}. Then En En+1 . Since (, n) is
open in R1 , [n, ) = (, n)c is closed. The infinite intersection of En is
\
n=1
En =
[n, ) = .
n=1
3.2 Conformality
|x| sin(x)?