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u
=
u
(
v
,
T
)
u
o
internal energy
o h = h ( p, T ) h enthalpy h= u + p (1)
Ideal Gases
An ideal gas is one where intermolecular forces are negligible (so
that gas molecules are widely separated)
Universal gas constant
u = u (T ) only and therefore cv(T) = in general
by: h= u + RT and
w.r.t. Temperature gives:
differentiating
dh du
=
+ R cp cv = R
dT dT
cp
k=
We will define the ratio of specific heats, k, as:
cv
kR
R ( )
It then follows that c p = k 1 (*) and cv = k 1 **
1
1
du + pd + dp (6)
Differentiating (1) gives: dh =
1
Combining (5) and (6) gives: Tds
= dh dp (7)
T2
p2
s2 =
s1 c p ln R ln
T1
p1 (9)
Eqs. 8 and 9 allow us to solve for the change in entropy of an ideal gas
from one section to another, with constant cp and cv
T2
2 p2
= =
(11)
T1
1 p1
= constant
(x)
u(x)
A2
p2
p1
1
u1
u2
V n dA = 0
Applied to CV
1u12 A1 + 2u22 A2 =p1 A1 p2 A2
1 2
=
p V n dA
s u + 2 V V ndA
s
No heat added
No body forces
No shaft work
Flow work W f
Applied to CV
1
1
2
1u1 + 1u1 u1 A1 + 2u2 + 2u22 u2 A2 = p1u1 A1 p2u2 A2
2
2
Where h = enthalpy
h1
h2
p1
Stagnation Properties
Applying the energy equation to the
streamline between 1 and 0 gives:
V02 V12
q + ws = h0 h1 +
+ gz0 gz1
2
2
Wshaft net in
Q net in
where q =
and ws =
m
m
By definition, q, ws, V0, and z0 are all zero which yields:
V12
h0 =h1 +
+ gz1 where h0 is called the stagnation enthalpy
2
Gravity and potential energy are negligible for compressible flow, and the
subscript 1 is dropped to obtain a general definition:
V2
(12)
h0 h +
2
V2
T0 c pT +
For an ideal gas with constant cv & cp Eq. 12 becomes: c p=
2
2
V
(13)
T
=
T
+
Re-arrange to find the stagnation temperature: 0
2c p
p0 T0
=
p T
k ( k 1)
1 ( k 1)
(14)
0 T0
=
T
T0
V2
= 1+
Dividing Eq. 13 by T yields:
T
2c pT
(15)
(16)
V
=
p0 p 1 +
2c T
p
k ( k 1)
V
=
0 1 +
2c T
p
(17)
1 ( k 1)
(18)
Ma
For isentropic flow of an ideal gas, it can be shown that the speed of sound is
given by:
c = kRT
The speed of sound is tabulated in textbook, Tables B.1 and B.2 for water
and Tables B.3 and B.4 for air
If we square the Mach number and assume an ideal gas we obtain:
2
2
V
V
2
Ma
=
=
kRT
kp
Eqs. 16, 17, & 18, can be written in terms of the Mach numbers as:
k ( k 1)
1 ( k 1)
T0
k 1
k 1
2 p0
0
Ma
= 1+
= 1 +
Ma 2
= 1 +
Ma 2
2
T
p
2
2
p
k 1
2
Ma
[ Ma=] 1 +
p0
2
k
k 1
p
refers to a single number from the graph or table for argument z
p0 z
p
= 0.528
p0 Ma=1
This notation applies to other ratios T/T0, /0, and A/A* (explained later)
References
All images and equations used to prepare this lecture are
from Munson, Young and Okiishi's Fundamentals of Fluid
Mechanics, 8th Edition: by authors Philip M. Gerhart
Andrew L. Gerhart John I. Hochstein
Copyright 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights
reserved.