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Selected Topics

Geophysics

variations in temperature
with depth
causes of reversals in Earth's
magnetic field

2. applied geophysics (also

called exploration geophysics) to find economic deposits
All methods depend fundamentally
on the presence of bodies with
contrasting physical properties,
such as density, magnetic
susceptibility, heat conductivity,
elastic constants, etc.

Abbreviated Course Notes

Active methods - stimulate

response (ex. - setting off
dynamite blast)
Passive mehtods - simply
measure property (ex. density)

Two major emphases of

geophysics:
1. "pure"
2. "applied"
1. pure geophysics - study of the
physics of the Earth
Examples:

Part 1: Gravity
Assume Earth does not rotate and
has uniform density distribution.
Determine acceleration of gravity
(usually just called "gravity" by

geophysicists) at point on Earth's

surface.
Law of Universal Gravitation:
GMeM
F = ------R2

G = Universal Gravitational
Constant = 6.673 x 10-8 dyne
cm2/gm2 +/- 0.003 (dyne = 1 gm
cm/sec2)
Newton's 2nd Law: F = Ma
for earth, use symbol "g" instead of
"a," so F = Mg
GMeM
GMe
Since F = F; then Mg = ----- and g = ---R2
2
R

g = approximately 980
cm/sec2 (or 9.8 m/sec2)
1 cm/sec2 is called a gal.
Normally use milligals (1/1000 gal
or about 1 millionth g) or gravity
units (g. u.; 0.1 mgal)

Complication #1:
Earth rotates
Result: Earth not round but bulges
at equator and is flattened at poles.
Equatorial radius is 21 kilometers
greater than at poles.
Complication #2:
Earth's mass is not
symmetrical about the equatorial
plane - Earth is "pear-shaped."
Complication #3:
The equator isn't perfectly
spherical but only varies by a few
meters.

Since g depends on distance from

center of Earth (radius), g varies
with latitude.
International Gravity
Formula can be used to determine
g at a particular latitude:
g = 9.780318 (1 + .0053024 sin2 0.0000059 sin2 2 ) where is the
latitude; units are m/sec2
Calculated value for g "corrected"
for latitude is called the theoretical
gravity and abbreviated gt

Accuracy = 0.1 mgal; measuring

apparatus not portable (although
one of the latest models available
is said to be portable because it
weighs less than one ton)

Now measure actual value of

gravity at any spot.

Average density of Earth is 5.52

gm/cm3.
Average density of surface rocks is
much less.
Therefore interior of Earth must
be of much higher density than
surface rocks.

1. can use pendulum

The regular surface which most
nearly approximates the surface of
the actual Earth is a surface called
the geoid.
The geoid surface is everywhere
perpendicular to a plumb bob.
The geoid corresponds to mean sea
level.
In land covered areas, the geoid is
the surface that would be
determined by the level to which
water would rise in narrow canals
cut through the continents.

(formula from
physics:
where L is length
of pendulum and T is period)
Accuracy = 1.5 mgal; takes about
30 minutes per measurement
2. can experimentally
measure acceleration of object
dropped at Earth's surface

3. most commonly
measure differences in
gravity from place to place by
using a "gravity meter" (Mass
suspended from spring).
Accuracy = .01 mgal

Can get some idea of Earth's

density distribution from study of
its angular momentum:
Angular Momentum = Moment of
Inertia x Angular Velocity
The moment of inertia of any
object depends on its mass

distribution.
Examples:

solid cylinder revolving

about its axis, I = 0.5 MR2;
where M is mass and R is
radius of cylinder
sphere, I = 0.4 MR2
spherical shell, I = 0.67 MR2

Earth's moment of inertia =

0.3307 MR2
Best fitting model is series of
nested ellipsoids of different
densities, but generally denser
toward center.
Measured value of g (called
"actual" value and abbreviated ga)
is not usually the same as gt.
Difference in ga and gt called
a gravity anomaly.
Actual not same as theoretical
because:
1. actual not measured at sea
level where theoretical is
calculated

2. actual not measured on a

flat surface
3. solid Earth has tides of 714 cm
4. density distribution in
Earth not uniform
To adjust for difference #1, we
apply two "corrections" to the
measured value before comparing
it to the theoretical value:

1st : adjust for elevation

(distance from center of
Earth, h)
called the Free Air
Correction; = 0.3086 h
when h is in meters
2nd: remove that portion of
g due to the mass between
sea level and the point
where measurement made
called the Bouguer
Correction = -0.0419 h (
is density in kg/m3)

To adjust for difference #2, we

then add another "correction" to
the measured value before
comparing it to the theoretical

value by removing the influence of

nearby mountains and valleys.
called the Topographic or
Terrain Correction
Since this correction rarely exceeds
1 mgal except in mountainous
areas, it is frequenty ignored.
To adjust for difference #3,
formulas are available to determine
the necessary correction. This tidal
correction is very frequently
ignored.
Finally, any difference between
the "corrected" values of actual
gravity and theoretical gravity
should be due to density
variations (#4).
Higher than average density
rock will cause the measured value
of g to be greater than the
theoretical value and produces a
positive "anomaly" while less
dense rock produces a negative
anomaly.
Consider a plumb bob hanging
near a tall mountain.
The mass of the mountain pulls it

sideways.
Knowing the density and volume
of the mountain allows us to
calculate its mass and enables us to
determine how much force it
should exert on the plumb bob.
Measurements show mountains
exert only about 1/3 of the
expected amount.
Question: Why?
Mountain supposedly has low
density "roots."
Theory of Isostasy - the total mass
of rock (and sea) in any vertical
column of unit cross section is
constant
Various models have been
developed to describe this root
(Airy, Pratt, etc.)
Questions:

Are roots permanent

features?
Why do mountains have
roots?

Large scale gravity anomalies are

called regional anomalies.

Usually due to density variations

in lower crust or variation in
thickness of crust.
Make it hard to recognize small or
shallow features.
Often "removed" by various
processes.
Process so subjective that I have
sometimes thought that "the
regional anomaly is what you take
out in order to make what's left
look like what you want it to."
Small scale anomalies (often
called residual anomalies)
produced by ore bodies or
geologic structures.
Seldom more than a few milligals
in size.
Use trial and error to find a body of
the right location, shape, size and
density to produce the anomaly.
Example of a spherical ore body:
For a sphere, g at a location x

where R is the radius of the sphere,

z is the depth to the center of the
sphere, x is measured from a point
on the surface directly above the
center of the sphere to the location,
and
is the density contrast
(difference in densities of body and
surrounding material).
There is usually assumed to be a
constant density difference
between an ore body and its
surroundings and a sharp, welldefined boundary separating them.
Neither assumption is likely to be
correct.
Finding the density contrast to
use in the formula is very difficult
if you don't know what lies below
ground. (And if you knew what
was down there, why bother with
exploration methods like gravity
surveys?)
Other shapes can be modeled with
similar but more complex
formulas.
Complex forms can be thought of
as combinations of simple forms.
Usually use computers.

Some general rules have been

found.

Uplifts of denser rock in

structures such as anticlines
or reverse faults.

Circular anomalies produced by:

compact mineral body

salt dome (gravity low with
small high due to dense cap
rock in center)

Elongated anomalies produced

by:

graben
buried folds
buried channels
subduction zones
oceanic ridges

Less dense rock such as in

sedimentary basins,
batholiths, subduction
zones, oceanic ridges

More dense rock such as

ultramafic masses

radiation (may occur in

Earth's core)
conduction
convection

The deeper the body, the broader

and lower in amplitude will be
the anomaly profile.

Heat flow due to conduction = K

x temperature gradient

Rapid change in amplitude or

gradient should suggest density
change in subsurface - such as a
fault or edge of a buried basin.

where K is coefficient of thermal

conductivity of substance and
temperature gradient =
T/thickness.

There is no unique answer.

Several models can produce
exactly the same anomaly.
Very important to use knowledge
of area's geology to limit possible
solutions.

The thermal diffusibility of a

Part 3: Heat
Heat flows from points of high
temperature to points of low
temperature.

Positive anomalies:

Negative anomalies:

Methods of heat transfer:

substance
where is the density and Cp is
the specific heat of the substance
at constant pressure.
Thermal conductivity
determined by:

composition (most
important)
whether saturated with
water (open cracks don't
conduct)
pressure (closes cracks)

If K is large, then material is a

good conductor of heat.
Quartz is the best conductor of heat
among minerals usually
encountered.
Heat travels extremely slowly
through soil and rocks by
conduction.
Typical values would be 15-60
km2 per million years.
If transfer due to conduction alone,
a thermal event originating at a
depth of 100 km will not be
perceptible near the surface for 10
million - 100 million years
Examples:

50 cm below surface - daily

changes are seldom more
than 1 degree and are 1/2 to
1 day late
few meters down - only
seasonal changes detectible
and arrive months late
few thousand meters down effects of last ice age still
detectible

Pliocene and Pleistocene

lavas are warmer than the
average lava

Temperature at Earth's surface

depends mainly on radiation from
Sun.
Heat flow from interior is 1/1000
as much as that from Sun.
Temperature in Earth rises with
depth.
Temperature gradient near
surface is about 10-50 oC/kilometer
but decreases with depth.
Can use mantle/core boundary
conditions to estimate internal
temperature.
Temperature on both sides must be
same.
Material at bottom of mantle solid;
material at top of core liquid.
Considering all possible materials,
maximum is 2700oK.
Some sources of Earth's internal
heat:

radioactivity (by far most

important)

left over potential energy

from formation
recrystallization
heat of fusion if outer core
solidifying
chemical reactions,
including oxidation at
surface and exothermic
reactions between sea water
and basalt
compression of rocks and
friction along fault planes

Heat flow about the same all over

the Earth; average heat flow for
continents same as that for
oceans.
However, continental materials
much richer in radioactive
materials and thus should give off
more heat.
Explanation: Some heat flow in
ocean basins due to conduction.
Total surface heat flow:

Oceans - small amount due

to conduction; large amount
due to convection
Continents - mostly due to
conduction

Interesting speculation: Is it a
coincidence that oceanic heat flow
equals continental heat flow?

Examples of local heat

anomalies useful for prospecting:

Examples of large scale

anomalies:
1. lower than average heat flow:

continental shields (1.2 x 106

cal/cm2 sec)
due to low concentrations of
radioactive elements? or
cold underlying upper
mantle?
seaward of oceanic trenches

chemical reactions which

give off heat (ex. - oxidation
of sulfide ores produces
detectable heat)
presence of local radioactive
heat sources (ex. - granite
intrusions)
differences in heat
conductivity of rocks (ex. salt is highly conductive)
presence of volcanic and
hydrothermal sources

2. higher than average heat flow

island arcs (1.8 x 106

cal/cm2 sec)
oceanic ridges (1.5 x 106
cal/cm2 sec)
other areas of recent
volcanic activity (as high as
7 x 10-6 cal/cm2 sec)
young orogenic regions
as a result of crustal
thickening?

Part 4: Magnetism

Simplest magnetic structure is

called a dipole.
A dipole consists of 2 poles of
equal strength and opposite sign
separated by a small distance.
Electrons and nuclei are dipoles.

Speculation:
Do poles always exist in pairs?
Earth is a magnet.
North-seeking pole of a magnet
(also called positive) is one that is
attracted to the Earth's north pole.
Earth's north pole is a southseeking pole.
The Earth's magnetic field is
defined by giving its strength and
direction.
The magnetic field strength (H)
at a point in the field of a magnet is
the force per unit of pole strength
which would be exerted on a pole
at that point.
Magnetic field strength is also
sometimes given in terms of the
density of imaginary lines of force
representing the field.
1 Oersted = 1 line of force per
cm2 (called a gauss)
Typical laboratory magnet has
field strength of 10,000 Oersteds
The field strength of the Earth
varies from about 0.3 Oersteds at

the equator to about 0.6 Oersteds at

the poles.

Isoclinics - contours of
equal inclination

Direction given by specifying

declination and inclination.
Declination - deflection of a northseeking pole from geographical
north; positive if toward east
Inclination or dip - deflection of
north-seeking pole from
horizontal; positive if down

Component's of the Earth's field:

Some terminology:

Internal field can be mostly

accounted for by a fictitious
magnetic dipole displaced from the
center of the Earth about 400
kilometers southward (toward
Indonesia) and tilted 11 1/2
degrees with respect to the axis of
rotation.

Magnetic equator - curve

around the Earth connecting
points where inclination is
horizontal
Magnetic dip poles - points
on the Earth's surface where
inclination is vertical
(several in polar region; also
occur where strong local
fields exist)
Isomagnetic charts - plots
of Earth's magnetic field
Isodynamics - contours of
equal intensity
Isogonics - contours of
equal declination

internally generated (99%

of total); called the dipole
component
externally generated (1%
of total); called the nondipole component

Question: Where does Earth's

internal field originate?
Since a uniformly magnetized
sphere gives the same magnetic
field as a dipole at center; there are
two possibilities:
1. Whole earth is magnetized

2. Field comes from Earth's

center
If #1, Field strength should
decrease with depth
If #2, Field strength should
increase with depth.
Experimental evidence supports #2
Question: How is Earth's internal
field produced?
Two possibilities:
1. permanently magnetized
material (will discuss
process later)
2. electric currents
Problem with possibility #1:
All materials lose their ability to
become permanently magnetized at
temperatures which are reached in
the lower crust.
Support for possibility #2:
Experimental studies show that
relatively simple motions of a
conducting fluid (such as a nickleiron alloy) can produce a magnetic
field.

Michael Faraday's experiment:

Conducting disk, spinning about an
axle in a magnetic field.
Result is voltage difference
between axle and rim of disk.
If we connect wire from axle to
rim, a current will flow.
The current in the wire generates
its own magnetic field which can
add to the original.
Now remove original magnetic
field.
If disk continues to spin quickly
enough, the current keeps flowing
through the wire and a magnetic
field still exists.
Called a self-exciting dynamo.
Notice 2 things necessary:

must supply energy

continually to spin disk
must have small initial
applied magnetic field

Possible initial field for Earth's

dynamo?

some kind of primitive

battery action produced by

variations in chemical
composition and
temperature in Earth's
interior?
the Sun?

Source of energy to keep dynamo

"spinning"?

thermal convection?
If so, source of heat?
Why doesn't the convection
disturb the layering of the
outer core (called fine
structure)?
solification of inner core?
rocking of Earth as it moves
around Sun (precession)
setting liquid in outer core
in motion
try rocking a bottle of liquid
to see similar effect

Magnetic fields which

will spontaneously reverse
polarity can be produced by a
combination of disk generators.
(Will examine significance of this
fact later)

Source of external field is mostly

circulating electric currents in the
ionosphere.
Earth's magnetic field not constant.
Changes:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

magnetic storms
diurnal changes
secular variation
westward drift
reversals

Continuous recordings of changes

are called magnetograms.
1. Magnetic storms:

last several days

change of about 1000
gamma (1 gamma = 10-9
Oersteds)
produced by charged
particles emitted by the Sun.

2. Diurnal changes:

last about a day

change of about 25 gamma
produced by:

effect of radiation
from Sun on
ionosphere (varies
with latitude)
tidal pulls of Sun and
Moon on atmosphere

3. Secular variation:

regional changes
occur over decades or
centuries
possible cause?
variations in core motions,
especially eddies near the
core boundary

4. Westward drift:

entire magnetic field "drifts"

around Earth in period of
about 2000 years
possible cause?
core rotates slower than rest
of Earth

5. Magnetic reversals:
North magnetic pole becomes a
south pole and vice versa.

There are no reasons why the

Earth's field should have a
particular polarity and there is no
fundamental reason why its
polarity should not change.
Magnetic reversals are known to
occur in the Sun and have been
observed in other stars.
Major groupings of normal and
reversed sequences are
called magnetic epochs.
Briefer fluctuations in polarity are
called events.
Average of three reversals per
million years.
Reversals occurred in the
preCambrian and have been found
in all subsequent periods except
the Permian.
Question: Why were there no
reversals in the Permian?

In one area in southeastern Oregon,

a gradual transition from normal to
reverse magnetization can be
observed across a section made up
of 6 individual flows.
During a reversal, the dipole field
strength decreases to near zero.
The strength is currently dropping
5% per century and has been
dropping for the past 2000 years.
We may be approaching a reversal.
Earth's magnetic field shields
surface from cosmic radiation.
Cosmic radiation produces
mutations.
In general, there is a rough
agreement between faunal
extinctions and reversals.
The probability of a correlation
occurring by chance is 1 in 700.
Other correlations found:

The most recent period of

reversed polarity was about 8000 20000 years ago.
Reversal process takes about 5000
years.

Higher magnetic field

strengths correlate with
colder climates.
Question: Could climatic
changes cause extinctions?

Reversals correlate with

tektite increases in deep sea
sediments.
Question: Do violent
meteorite impacts produce
reversals?

Lenz's law:
When a substance is placed in a
magnetic field, little extra currents
are generated inside the atoms by a
process called induction.
These currents produce a magnetic
field opposite in direction to the
applied field.
(For details, look up Larmor
precessions in a quantum
mechanics book.)
This induced field is called
the Intensity of Magnetization (I)
and is proportional to the applied
field: I = kH
k is called the magnetic
susceptibility of the substance
Examples of direct uses of
magnetic susceptibility
measurements:

maximum in direction of
bedding planes and foliation
planes
earthquake prediction (will
discuss later)

The total new field in the substance

is the applied field plus the induced
field.
This is called the Magnetic
Induction (B): B = H + I
B is usally given in Tesla
(104 Oersteds).
Gamma (or nonotesla, 109
Oersteds) are usually used in
exploration geophysics.
Motions of electric particles
(including electron spin and orbital
motion) produce magnetic fields.
Three types of magnetic
behavior:
1. diamagnetic
2. paramagnetic
3. ferromagnetic
1. In diamagnetic substances,
small magnetic fields produced by

particle motions are randomly

oriented and cancel each other out,
leaving atoms and ions with no net
magnetic field.
Examples: salt, gypsum, marble,
quartz, graphite
2. In paramagnetic
substances (which include most
substances), the small fields don't
cancel each other out but leave the
atoms or ions with net magnetic
fields.
However, since the atoms are
randomly arranged, the substance
as a whole has no net magnetic
field.
3. In ferromagnetic substances,
the atoms have net magnetic fields
and the atoms are arranged in
regions called domains in such a
way that each domain has a
magetic field.
(Domains can only be explained by
using quantum theory.)
However, normally the domains
are randomly oriented and there is
no net magnetic field in the
substance.

Examples: iron (which is

technically ferrimagnetic),
magnetite, hematite (technically
canted anti-ferrimagnetic),
ilmenite, pyrrhotite, goethite, many
other iron compounds
When each of these kinds of
substances is placed in an
external magnetic field (like the
Earth's field, for example),
additional small magnetic fields
are induced.
1. Diamagnetic substances:
Small induced field produced
opposite to applied field.
Thus total field is slightly less than
the applied field.
Produces small negative magnetic
anomaly.
Remove applied field; induced
field disappears.
2. Paramagnetic substances:
Two effects occur:
1. Small induced field
produced opposite to
applied field.

2. Small magnetic fields

already existing are partially
lined up in same direction as
applied field.
Don't line up completely because
of thermal agitation; so the lower
the temperature, the stronger the
effect
Effect 2 is greater.
Net effect is total field larger than
applied field.
Produces small positive magnetic
anomaly.
Remove applied field; induced
field disappears, thermal agitation
randomly distributes the atoms

Effects 2 and 3 are very large

effects.
Result is a total field is
considerable larger than applied
field.
Remove applied field,

Exceptions:

3. Ferromagnetic substances:
Three effects:
1. Small induced field
produced opposite to
applied field.
2. Domains which are oriented
in a favorable direction
grow larger.
3. Domains may rotate to a
more favorable direction.

effect 1 disappears
effect 3 disappears because
of thermal agitation
effect 2 remains and
substance becomes
"permanently magnetized"

When temperature of
substance is above
the Curie Temperature,
domains break down;
substance becomes
paramagnetic.
Can also remove
"permanent" magnetization
by reversing applied field.
The strength of the reversed
field necessary to reduce the
magnetization to zero is
called the coercive force.

The effects of an applied external

magnetic field on a ferromagnetic
substance are usually shown by
using a plot called a hysteresis
curve.
Magnetism remaining in a rock
when the applied field is removed
is called natural remanent
magnetization (NRM) or
paleomagnetism.
Types include:

Thermoremanent
magnetization
Depositonal remanent
magnetization
Chemical remanent
magnetization
Isothermal remanent
magnetization
Viscous remanent
magnetization

Example of thermoremanent
magnetization (TRM):
when lava cools and freezes, it will
acquire a TRM dependent on the
strength and orientation of the
Earth's field at that time.

Example of depositional
remanent magnetization (DRM):
small grains of magnetic minerals,
when settling or while a sediment
is still wet and unconsolidated, will
align themselves with the direction
of the Earth's magnetic field.

how much the magnetization has

been altered by later changes.
Examples of uses of
paleomagnetism:

Example of chemical remanent

magnetization (CRM):
acquired during growth or
recrystallization of mineral grains;
such as iron oxidizing

1. relative dating
Example: preCambrian dikes in
one part of the Canadian Shield all
have the same orientations but 3
different remanence directions,
indicating that they are of 3
different ages.

Example of isothermal remanent

magnetization (IRM):
exposure to strong magnetic field
for short time at relatively low
temperature; such as field from
lightning strike

2. Did Japan "bend" during

Tertiary?
Tertiary and Quaternary
declinations for the north and south
ends are the same; pre-Tertiary
declinations vary.

Example of viscous remanent

magnetization (VRM):
on exposure to a magnetic field for
a long time, thermal fluctuations
gradually favor direction of applied
field.

3. Has Spain rotated with respect

to Europe?
Late Paleozoic rocks have a
declination 35o different from
Europe; less difference with time

One problem in interpreting

paleomagnetic data is in deciding

4. Paleomagnetic correlation of
deep-sea cores

5. Paleomagnetic inclinations
allow the determination of past
latitudes
Examples:

trace India's path

distinguish among terrains

Can produce local disturbances of

3 Oersteds or more
(remember, Earth's average is
much less)

bipolar (have associated highs and

lows).
However, no major
"corrections" are made.

Anomalies due to:

Note: sedimentary
rocks usually produce no
significant magnetic effect.

6. Determine former fit of

continents and time of plate breakup by use of "polar wandering"
curves which are identical until the
time of break-up and then diverge
(or convergence of plates if curves
merge)

7. Marine anomalies (will examine

later)
Earth's magnetic field shows little
relationship to broad features of
geography and geology;
no obvious relationship to
mountains, oceanic ridges,
continents or oceans
However, field strength varies
from place to place due to
magnetization of rocks beneath the
surface

variation in distance to
magnetic body (including
relief in basement rocks)
difference in magnetic
susceptibility (how easily
rocks magnetized)
Magnetic susceptibility is
very low for most materials;
only high for ferromagnetic
substances.
Susceptibility of rocks is
primarily controlled by the
amount of ferromagnetic
minerals in the rock and is
extremely variable.
difference in NRM

Magnetic methods involve looking

for these anomalies.
More complicated than gravity
anomalies because strength and
direction must be
determined and because they are

Examples of use:
1. depth to basement
measurements close to anomalous
bodies show sharp anomalies;
distant bodies produce smaller,
broader and smoother anomalies
On maps, the closer the contours,
the shallower the source.
2. (Variation on 1) map structural
features on basement
sedimentary basins are
characterized by smooth contours
and low magnetic relief
uplifted areas have steep gradients
and high magnetic relief
3. prospect for magnetic
minerals or non-magnetic
minerals often found associated

with magnetic minerals

(Example: diamonds in kimberlite
pipes)
Note: salt (which is diamagnetic)
produces negative anomalies
4. Map rock bodies whose
magnetic properties are very
different from those of surrounding
rocks.
5. (Variation on 4) presence of
magnetic anomalies generally
means lack of sediments
6. Locate faults
A sudden change in spacing of
contour lines suggests a
discontinuity at depth.
Offsets of magnetic anomalies may
indicate strike-slip faults which
extend below the sedimentary
cover.
Magnetic anomalies are
commonly interpreted
qualitatively.
Sometimes individual magnetic
anomalies are found which stand
out so clearly that they can easily

be separated from neighboring

effects and which are so simple in
appearance that they seem to be
due to a single, magnetized body.
In these situations, quantitative
methods can be used.
Example of sphere studied in
profile:
The vertical component of the
magnetic field strength (V) at a
location x

where R is the radius of the sphere

I is the Intensity of Magnetization
Z is the depth to the center of the
sphere
x is measured from a point on the
surface directly above the center of
the sphere to the location
Other formulas can be used for
horizontal cylinders (useful for
veins), horizontal sheets (for dikes

or layers faulted by vertical faults),

etc., but are considerably more
complicated.
All the formulas assume
susceptibility known, Earth's
field is vertical and
magnetization is in the directions
of Earth's field, none of which is
usually true.
Marine anomalies:
Due to thermoremanent
magnetization of basalt, which is
injected along the central rifts in
oceanic ridges, magnetized in the
direction of the Earth's field, and
then conveyed away in either
direction from the ridge.
Reversals result in parallel, linear,
alternating positive and negative
anomalies which are symmetrical
about the ridge axis.
Age of reversals and distance from
ridge can be used to determine rate
of spreading.
Varies from 1-8 cm/year.

Part 5: Electrical Methods

Most commonly used in searching

for metals.
Increasingly used for finding depth
to basement, in the study of
groundwater, and in geothermal
exploration.
Types of methods:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Self Potential Methods

Resistivity Methods
Well Logging
Electromagnetic Methods

1. Self- Potential Methods:

Uses Potential Difference or
Voltage - the difference in
electrical potential energy between
two places. Unit is volt.
Potential differences occur
naturally within the Earth and can
be measured.
These potential differences are
caused by
a.
ore bodies behaving like
natural "batteries" with separation
of positive and negative charge

(called Electrolytic Potential)

How this works is not understood.
The most accepted theory for
sulfides suggests that the portion of
the ore body above the water table
is being oxidized (losing electrons)
while the portion below is being
reduced, setting up a flow of
electrons from one end of the ore
body to the other.
This theory cannot explain
anomalies where the ore body is
completely below the water table,
explain why a clay overburden
prevents a self-potential from
forming, or explain how selfpotentials form in poor conductors.
b. differences in salt
concentration in water
(called Electrochemical
Potential)
c. solutions flowing through
permeable rocks
(called Streaming
Potential)
d. electric activity caused by
life processes of plants and
animals (such as differences
between open ground and

bush) (called Bioelectric

Potential)
2. Resistivity methods:
Make use of the fact that some
materials are good conductors of
electricity and some are poor
conductors

where I is the amount of current

flowing through a body
A is the cross sectional area
through which the current flows
V is the voltage
L is the distance the current flows
is the conductivity of the
material of which the body is made
The reciprocal of the conductivity
is the resistivity.
Resistivity is measured in ohm cm
or ohm m.
Resistance (Resistivity x L/A), in
ohms, is more commonly used by
physicists.
Poor conductors have high
resistivities.

Note: for inhomogeneous bodies,

we actually measure a sort of
average resistivity along the path
of current flow, called
the apparent resistivity.
Good conductors include metals,
graphite, most sulfides.
Intermediate conductors (called
semi-conductors) include most
oxides and porous rocks.
Poor conductors (insulators)
include most common rockforming minerals.
Current in most rocks is carried by
ions in fluids in the rock's pores
(called electrolytic conduction).
A small change in water content
affects resistivity enormously.
Also, the salinity of the water is
highly important in determining
conductivity.
The shapes and arrangements of
the pores can result in greater
current flow in some directions
than in others.
Faults, joints, etc., can produce
"structural" conductors.

Procedure:
Current driven through ground
using 2 electrodes
Potential distribution mapped with
2nd set of electrodes to determine
potential difference pattern
(voltage distribution) and
directions of current flow.
Anomalies (conducting bodies, for
example) disturb regular patterns
that would normally be produced
Common methods look for:
1. variation of resistivity with
depth
2. variation of resistivity
horizontally
1. to measure variation of
resitivity with depth:
current penetrates to deeper depths
with increasing separation of
current electrodes
can determine approximate depths
to layers but not thicknesses of
layers
problem 1- the deeper you go, the
wider the electrodes must be

spaced and the more powerful the

current supply necessary.
This limits the method to a few
hundred feet.
problem 2- a layer with
intermediate resistivity between
layers of high and low
resistivitywill not show up.
Example - looking for groundwater
where layer of wet alluvium lies
between layer of dry alluvium and
layer of shale
Often used for basement depth
determinations:
sedimentary section generally has
range of resistivities substantially
lower than basement rocks, so can
be thought of as a 2-layer problem
Quantitative method for first
approximations, rough work:
(gives reasonable estimates for
shallow depths; does not give good
results on thick beds)
sum all apparent resistivity values
up to and including present reading
and plot vs electrode spacing
Example: If readings are 100, 200,

300 ohm m for spacings of 10, 20,

30 m; plot 100, 300, 600 ohm m vs
10, 20, 30 m
then draw segments of straight
lines through as many readings as
possible
cross-overs of segments gives
depths to interfaces
2. to measure horizontal
variations in resistivity
place current electrodes great
distance apart and move closely
spaced potential electrodes along
grid between them
plot resistivity vs. locations of
potential electrodes
can use map or profile to display
data; profiles are most common.

locations of good conductors or

good resistors
Interpreting profiles:

Interpreting maps:
Can use either current lines or
equipotential lines on maps
Lines of current flow always
perpendicular to equipotential lines
(lines along which potential is
constant)
Usually interpret maps
qualitatively to simply identify

Estimate of depth to
conducting body (to +/100%) can be made by
the shape of the profile depth is half of the width of
the curve at half its
maximum height.
Steep gradients in
resistivity curve
are characteristic markers
of structures with nearvertical boundaries, such
as faults, dikes, veins,
stream channels, etc.
A lack of symmetry in the
profile implies a dipping
body, with steeper slope and
positive tail on the downdip
side.

3. Well Logging:
In well logging, both potential
differences and resistivities are
used.

Example:
High resistivity could be due to
limestone or oil bearing sand.
A potential difference indicates
flow of water into or out of well
and/or difference in salt
concentration.
Therefore indicates oil bearing
sand.
Main value of well logging lies in
the possibility
of correlation between wells.
4. Electromagnetic Methods:
a.

Telluric methods
b. Magnetotelluric methods
c. Electromagnetic Induction
methods
d. Induced Polarization
methods

a. Telluric methods:
Faraday's Law of Induction:
changing magnetic fields produce
alternating currents.
Changes in the Earth's magnetic
field produce alternating electric
currents just below the Earth's

surface called Telluric currents.

The lower the frequency of the
current, the greater the depth of
penetration.
Telluric methods use these natural
currents to detect resistivity
differences which are then
interpreted using procedures
similar to those described earlier
under resistivity methods.
b. Magnetotelluric methods:
The changing magnetic fields of
the Earth and the telluric currents
they produce have different
amplitudes.
The ratio of the amplitudes can be
used to determine the apparent
resistivity to the greatest depth
in the Earth to which energy of
that frequency penetrates.
Typical equation:

apparent resistivity =
where Ex is the strength of the
electric field in the x direction in
millivolts

Hy is the strength of the magnetic

field in the y direction in gammas
f is the frequency of the currents

important in mineral exploration

and surveys are easy to conduct
form airplanes.

Depth of penetration

(Advantages to using an airplane to

conduct geophysical surveys:

This methods is commonly used in

determining the thickness of
sedimentary basins.

c. Electromagnetic Induction
methods:
Changing magnetic fields are
produced by passing alternating
currents through long wires or
coils.
These changing magnetic fields
induce electric currents in buried
conductors such as ore bodies
which then produce their own
induced magnetic field.
There are a huge variety of
techniques which use either the
induced electric currents or the
induced magnetic field which these
currents in turn produce.
This method is especially

not necessary to get permits

from landowners
straight, evenly spaced
survey grid pattern easier to
obtain)

d. Induced polarization methods:

When a current is applied to a
formation containing metallic
minerals, each metallic mineral
grain has a small voltage produced
across it in the direction of current
flow.
---------> ----------> [
mineral grain ] ---------->
current
negative
negative
charge
charge
added
removed

When the current is turned off, the

separation of charge remains for a
short time and the voltage can be
measured.
The total voltage for the formation
depends on the percentage of
metallic minerals it contains.

Part 6: Seismology
Stress - specifies the nature of the
internal forces acting within a
mineral
Strain - defines the changes of size
and shape (deformation) arising
from those sources
An elastic substance is one in
which stress is proportional to
strain (Hooke's Law)
The constants of proportionality
are known as the elastic
constants and are different for
different kinds of stress (twisting,
compressing, stretching) and for
different materials.
Examples:

If wire is stretched and

becomes thinner, the
proportionality constants are
E, Young's modulus and
, Poisson's ratio.
If wire twisted, the
proportionality constant is ,
the modulus of rigidity
or shear modulus.
If a sphere is compressed,
the proportionality constant
is K, the bulk modulus.

Five most important types of

waves:

In a plastic substance, under a

given stress, strain is not constant
but is dependent on time.
The Earth is constantly undergoing
stress.
The rocks of the Earth sometimes
behave elastically and sometimes
plastically.
If the stress becomes large enough
(the elastic limit is reached),
fracturing will occur, suddenly
releasing stress and producing
elastic waves which travel through
the Earth (earthquake)

Body waves o compressional

(longitudinal,
primary or P-waves)
o transverse (shear,
secondary or Swaves)
Surface waves (S-waves) o Love waves
(transverse,
horizontal)
o Rayleigh waves
(circular, reverse of
water wave motion)
Free oscillations

P-waves:
usually have the smallest
amplitude
Velocity can be calculated from
elastic constants of material
through which wave is traveling one formula is:

vp =

where

is density

S-waves:
If the particles in an S-wave all
move in a parallel line, the wave is
said to be polarized.
An S-wave with all vertical
particle motion is called SV; one
with all horizontal motion is SH.
The velocity of S-waves is given
by the formula:
Vs =
Question: Why can't S-waves
travel through fluids?
In a fluid, rigidity ( ) is zero,
therefore Vs must also be zero.
Question: Why are P-waves
always faster than S-waves?

Because K and are always

positive numbers, the ratio of Vp to
Vs will always be greater than 1.
Love waves:
transverse and horizontal
possible only in a low-speed layer
overlying a medium in which
elastic waves have a higher speed
Rayleigh waves:
particle motion in circles like water
waves, but in opposite direction
travel only along the free surface
of an elastic solid
amplitude decreases with
depth below surface
slower than Love waves
When there is a low speed layer
overlying a much thicker layer of
material in which the speed of
elastic waves is higher, the surface
wave velocity varies with
wavelength.
This variation of velocity with
wavelength is called dispersion.
For deep focus earthquakes,
surface waves are either non-

existent or have very low

amplitudes.
Free Oscillations:
motions of the Earth as a whole
The energy of a seismic wave is
proportional to the square of its
amplitude.
As a wave spreads out from its
source, the energy spreads out over
a large area and therefore the
amplitude decreases.
There is also a loss of energy due
to friction converting the elastic
energy into heat, leading to an
additional reduction in amplitude.
The loss of amplitude is
called attenuation of the wave.
Need many seismographs
to completely record motion of
ground during an earthquake,
including one each to record N-S
motion, E-W motion and up-down
motion.
The relation between the natural
period of a seismograph and the
period of the waves being

recorded determines whether the

instrument will measure the
displacement, the velocity or the
acceleration associated with the
Earth motion.

If the natural period of a

seismograph is much less
than that of the earth
vibration (frequency
greater), the displacement of
the seismograph becomes
proportional to the
acceleration of the Earth and
the instrument acts as
an accelerometer.
If the two periods are
approximately equal, the
instrument reading will be
proportional to
the velocity of the Earth
motion.
If the natural period is much
greater than the period of
Earth vibration, the reading
becomes proportional to the
actual displacement of the
Earth.

When a wave meets a surface of

discontinuity, part of it will be
reflected and part
refracted (bent).
Every reflection or refraction
generates additional waves,
producing an incredibly complex
situation and seismograms which
are extremely confusing.
The recognition of the several
different arrivals is a skill acquired
by long practice.
It is often easier to follow reflected
and refracted waves by viewing
them as rays moving at right
angles to the wave front.
Review of physics:
When a wave is reflected, the
angle to reflection is equal to the
angle of incidence.
When a wave is refracted, Snell's
Law applies:

where v1 is the velocity in the 1st

medium; v2 is the velocity in the
2nd medium;
is the angle of incidence and ' is
the angle of refraction.
A wave which strikes the
discontinuity at the particular angle
when sin = v1/v2 will not
penetrate into the 2nd medium but
will travel along the interface. is
known as the critical angle of
refraction when this occurs.
Some applications of seismology:
1. determining location of an
earthquake
2. determining magnitude of
an earthquake
3. determining direction of
motion along a fault
4. locating "liquid" layers
inside the Earth
5. determining structure and
composition of Earth, both
on large scale and small
scale (seismic exploration)

1a. determining epicenter:

Since velocity of P and S waves
are different, time interval between
arrivals increases with increasing
distance, allowing the calculation
of the distance between epicenter
and recording station.
Must have 3 stations to fix
location.
Can usually be done to within 15
miles for a moderate earthquake
and to within 3 miles in a wellmonitored area such as California.
1b. determining depth of focus:
Consider 2 P-waves produced by
an earthquake, one traveling
directly through the Earth to a
recording station on the opposite
side, the other first bouncing off
the Earth's surface at the epicenter
and then traveling to the same
recording station.
The "bounced" wave has traveled
farther than the direct wave by an
amount equal to twice the depth of
focus.
Thus the time interval between the
arrivals of these 2 waves can be

used to calculate the depth of

focus.
2. determining magnitude:
The magnitude of an earthquake is
a quantitative measure of its size.
Magnitude scales were originally
determined from the amplitudes of
the elastic waves generated.
The Richter Magnitude Scale can
be described by the following
formula:
M = log10 (a/T) + f ( , h) + C

a is the amplitude of the

ground motion for surface
waves from a Southern
California earthquake
recorded on a WoodAnderson seismograph (in
microns, .001 mm)
T is the dominant wave
period (in seconds)
is the distance (measured
as the angle subtended at the
center of the Earth) between
the earthquake and the
seismometer
h is the depth of focus

f ( , h) is a term found
from a study of many
recordings. It is basically an
expression for the
attenuation of the waves and
has the effect of reducing all
observations to a standard
distance
C is a station correction to
adjust for local peculiarities
of seismometer siting.

The Richter Magnitude Scale did

not originally specify which wave
type used.
Now we commonly use P-waves
for deep focus earthquakes and the
horizontal component of Rayleigh
waves for shallow focus
earthquakes.
One big problem with the
Richter Magnitude Scale is that it
doesn't directly measure anything
related to fault mechanics.
A relatively new scale, called
the Moment Magnitude Scale,
which attempts to address this
problem is now becoming widely
used.

The seismic moment is defined

as: Mo = A u

is the shear modulus

A is the area of the fault
u is the average
displacement on the fault

The Moment Magnitude is: Mw =

2/3 log Mo - 10.7
A formula often used to give
the relationship between
magnitude and total elastic wave
energy of an earthquake is:
log10 E = 12.24 + 1.44 M (E is in
ergs)
3. First Motion Studies:
For simplification, we will choose
simple horizontal strike-slip
motion and choose axes parallel
and perpendicular to fault. Other
cases more complicated.
In 2 of the quadrants, first motion
will be away from the epicenter; in
other 2 quadrants, 1st motion will
be toward epicenter.
Motion away from the epicenter
(and toward the observer) appears

as an upward movement on a
seismic record.
At right angles to the fault, the
motion would be at a minimum,
while at small angles to the fault,
motion would be maximum.
There will be a reversal in the
direction of first motion as one
crosses the trend of the fault.
Transform faults were found to
be different from regular strike-slip
faults by looking at their relative
movement as determined by First
Motion Studies.
4. locating areas of molten or
partially molten rock:
The formulas for the velocities of P
and S waves indicate

the lower the rigidity, the

lower the velocity
S-waves don't travel
through fluids.

Major regions:

the molten outer core

the partially melted zone in
the upper mantle (about 100

km down) called the Low

Velocity Zone
or asthenosphere
5a. determining depths to
discontinuities
Travel times for P and S waves
depend primarily on the distance
they travel and therefore the depth
to which they penetrate into the
Earth.
The velocities of seismic waves
depends on rocks' elastic properties
and can be determined.
Knowing velocities and timing the
arrivals of reflected and refracted
waves at known distances from
source allows the calculation of the
depths to discontinuities.
Within the Earth, major
discontinuities occur at depths of
30 to 60 km (the Mohorovicic
discontinuity), 2900 km
(the Gutenberg discontinuity)
and 5000 km.
These discontinuities are used to
divide the Earth into the crust,
mantle, outer core and inner
core.

In addition, there are many minor

discontinuties.
Notable ones are:

Crustal layers
Low Velocity Zone in upper
mantle (discussed
previously)

The Earth can be thought of as

being made up of an infinite
number of layers, each with greater
density than the one above. This
results in an infinite number of
refractions and is responsible for
the generalcurved nature of the
paths of seismic waves through
the Earth.
Diagrams which trace the paths of
seismic waves through the Earth
usually use symbols as follows:

reflection at surface of Earth

indicated by succession of
chief symbols (ex. PP, PS,
SS)
reflection at the outer
surface of the core is shown

by interposing C (ex. PcP,

ScS, PcS)
K is used for a P-wave
refracted through the outer
core (PKP) and is often
abbreviated P'
I is used for a P-wave
refracted through the inner
core.
J is used for an S-wave
refracted through the inner
core.
For deep focus earthquakes,
a small preceding s or p is
used to indicate a wave
moving up from the focus to
the surface (ex. pP, pS,
pPcP)

5b. determining compositional

variations
Knowing the velocities of seismic
waves at different locations allows
us to determine densities and
elastic properties at those
locations.
Exploring the Earth's interior with
P and S waves is sometimes
called seismic tomography by

analogy with CAT scans (Cathode

Applied Tomography) which use
x-rays to study the interior of a
human body.
5c. Seismic prospecting methods:
Explosions, vibrations and dropped
objects often used to produce
artificial earthquakes.
Basic procedure is to set up
seismic waves and time their
arrivals at known distances.
The waves may travel along direct
paths, or may be refracted or
reflected.
Almost always use only the first
arrivals of P-waves (regardless of
the path taken).
Two commonly used types of
methods:
1. Seismic refraction methods
2. Seismic reflection methods
1. Seismic refraction:
Can be used to detemine
thicknesses and dips of layers
and seismic velocities in each

layer, making identification of

rock types possible.
Example of one layer case:
Plot time of arrival of waves (T)
versus distance to detector (x).
Will obtain a straight line with a
slope of dT/dx (which is equal to
1/velocity), allowing calculation of
velocity of P-waves in layer.
Of limited usefulness, obviously.
Example of two layer case:
Waves can travel from source to
the detectors directly or by critical
refraction along the boundary
between the layers.
Those that travel directly will
produce the same type of plot as in
the one layer case.
The travel time versus distance
plot for refracted waves will also
produce a straight line but one
which has an intercept on the T
axis.
(The mathematical proof for this
statement and the associated
calculations can be found in any
introductory geophysics text,
generally occupying a number of

pages of manipulations of
formulae. Go look it up if you are
interested.)
The depth to the
boundary,
where Ti is the intercept on the T
axis and V2 is the velocity in the
lower layer.
The slope of the line is 1/V2.
In reality, since we measure only
first arrivals, at distances less than
a certain distance (called the
critical distance), the direct wave is
recorded and at distances beyond
the critical distance, the refracted
wave is recorded.
The plot we obtain is thus made up
of segments of two straight lines
and allows us to obtain the
velocities in both layers and the
depth to the interface.
For multi-layer cases, the
procedure is similar but more
complicated.

The plot is made up of one line

segment for each layer.
Velocities can be read off the
graph fairly easily but the
equations used to obtain the depths
to the interfaces are horrendous
and generally impossible without
the use of a computer.
Example of a situation where
the higher velocity layer is on
top (very rare in nature):
No critical refraction occurs
Layer missed and thickness not
accounted for
Leads to depth calculation errors
Example where velocity increases
continuously with depth:
Basically the same as a multi-layer
case with an infinite number of
layers.
Plot will look like a curve with the
shape of the curve dependant upon
how the velocity varies with depth.
Example of case of fault:
If a bed is faulted vertically, the
plot obtained perpendicular to the
strike of the fault will consist of 2

parallel but displaced linear

segments.
The throw (vertical displacement)
of the fault can be calculated from
the difference between the T
intercepts of the the two linear
segments.
Example of dipping layers:
If layers are horizontal, the same
plot will be obtained by reversing
positions of the energy source and
the detector.
This will not be true if layers dip.
The apparent dip and velocities in
the layers can still be determined
but the procedure is extremely
complicated. Consult geophysics
text if interested.
2. Seismic reflection:
the most widely used and
valuable geophysical exploration
method and one of the easiest to
interpret qualitatively
Seismic waves traveling down
from a source are reflected upward
from each interface encountered.
Interfaces are not necessarily

boundaries between layers but

could be any of a number of
lithologic changes which cause
velocity contrasts.
Reflections from a single shot are
usually recorded by groups of
geophones - frequently as many as
96.

longer distances to travel.

The dynamic correction has the
effect of mathematically placing all
geophones at the same distance
from the shot point.
Other corrections might involve:

When several closely spaced

detectors are laid out along a line,
each will record a reflection from
each interface.
If the seismograms from these
detectors are recorded parallel to
each other, the waves
corresponding to a reflection will
all line up across the records in
such a way that the crests and
troughs on adjacent traces will
appear more or less to fit into one
another.

To make a record easier to analyse,

we usually make a dynamic
correction (also called normal
moveout).
The different geophones were at
different distances from the shot
point and therefore the waves had

elevation variations
removing the effects of the
surface layer because it is
generally very variable and
not of particular interest
correcting for the fact that
we are assuming vertical
paths for the incident and
reflecting rays and this
would not be true for
dipping or irregular
surfaces and correcting for
diffraction effects (both
corrections called seismic
migration)
removing multiple
reflections (called
deconvolution)

After reflections have been

identified, they are timed, using
the trough of the 1st wave.

For horizontal beds, where T is the

travel time, x is the distance
between the shot point and the
receiver, and V is the average
velocity in the section above the
interface, the depth to the
interface is:

The average velocity in an area is

often determined by exploding
charges of dynamite in a shallow
drill hole alongside a deep
exploratory borehole and recording
the arrival times of waves at
detectors at a number of depths in
the hole.
The average velocity is simply the
total vertical distance divided by
the total time.
The difference between the times
of a peak or a trough for the same
reflection at successive detector
positions gives information about
the dip of the reflecting interface.

Changing the distance between the

shot point and the geophones
gives several readings for the
same reflecting surfaces.
This results in the same reflection
signal being recorded but different
"noise" signals, enabling us to
remove the noise signals (or at
least to minimize them) with the
use of various techniques.
Filters used in geophysics can be
compared to maps of different
scales
One geophysicist's noise is
another's music. Rayleigh waves
(disparagingly called ground roll)
get in the way of exploration
geophysics but are very important
in crustal studies.
Noises are due to many things and
we could devote an entire course to
the techniques used to deal with
them.
Interpretation:
Know thicknesses and know
velocities.
Have at least some knowledge of
the geology of the area.
In addition to type of rock,

several other factors also affect

velocity, including porosity and
water content.
Guess a little.

Seismic Tomography
Seismic tomography uses data
from hundreds of earthquakes and
recording stations to generate a
sort of CAT scan of the Earth in a
way that is similar to the wholebody scanning method used for
medical purposes.
The computer modeling methods
are very complex. The end result is
a three-dimensional model of the
shear-wave velocity within the
Earth.
These S-wave variations
provide information about
temperature conditions and
mantle flow.

Earthquake Prediction
Geophysical properties used
in earthquake
prediction attempts:
1. slowing down of seismic waves

Before an earthquake, the Pwave velocity drops to a

minimum and then returns
to normal.
Quake occurs in about 1/10
time that anomaly lasted.
Size of quake correlates to
duration of anomaly
Possible explanation: When
cracks first begin to open, Pwaves slow down because
they don't travel as fast
through open
space as they do through
solid rock. Ground water
then seeps in and P-wave
velocity returns to normal;
also rocks are lubricated.
Problems:
o usually doesn't occur

Sometimes when it
occurs, earthquakes
don't

2. rock deformation

characterised by tilting or
vertical changes

3. increase in electrical resistivity

Possible explanation: air in

cracks is not a good
conductor

4. local magnetic field changes

Laboratory experiments
show that compression in
direction of magnetization
reduces susceptibility and
remanence; perpendicular
compression increases it.
Effect probably due to
rotation of magnetic
domains.
Could be related to increase
in stress before quake or
release of stress at time of
faulting.

5. electromagnetic "noise"
6. "earthquake lights"