Da 1

EE247
Lecture 11
Data Converters
EECS 247 Lecture 11: Data Converters
2004 H.K. Page 1
Material Covered in EE247

Filters
Continuous-time filters
Biquads & ladder type filters
Opamp-RC, Opamp-MOSFET-C, gm-C filters
Automatic frequency tuning
Switched capacitor (SC) filters

Data Converters
D/A converter architectures
A/D converter
Nyquist rate ADC- Flash, Pipeline ADCs,.
Oversampled converters
Self-calibration techniques
Systems utilizing analog/digital interfaces

Wireline communication systems- ISDN, XDSL
Wireless communication systems- Wireless LAN, Cellular
telephone,
Disk drive electronics
Fiber-optics systems
2004 H.K. Page 2
Data Converter Topics

Basic Operation of Data Converters
Uniform sampling and reconstruction
Uniform amplitude quantization
Characterization and Testing

Common ADC/DAC Architectures
Selected Topics in Converter Design
Practical Implementations
Desensitization to Analog Circuit Non-Idealities
Figures of Merit and Performance Trends

2004 H.K. Page 3
Suggested Reference Texts
R. v. d. Plassche, CMOS Integrated Analog-to-Digital and

Digital-to-Analog Converters, 2nd ed., Kluwer, 2003.
B. Razavi, Data Conversion System Design, IEEE Press, 1995.
S. Norsworthy et al (eds), Delta-Sigma Data Converters, IEEE

Press, 1997.
Extensive treatment of oversampled converters including
stability, tones, bandpass converters.
J. G. Proakis, D. G. Manolakis, Digital Signal Processing,

Prentice Hall, 1995.
2004 H.K. Page 4
Converter Applications
2004 H.K. Page 5
Example: Typical Cell Phone

Contains in integrated form:
4 Rx filters
4 Tx filters
4 Rx ADCs
4 Tx DACs
3 Auxiliary ADCs
8 Auxiliary DACs
Dual Standard, I/Q
Audio, Tx/Rx power

control, Battery charge
control, display, ...
Total: Filters 8
ADCs 7
DACs 12
2004 H.K. Page 6
Data Converter Basics

Analog Input
DSP is wonderful, but...

Real world signals are analog:
Continuous time
Continuous amplitude
DSP can only process:

Discrete time
Discrete amplitude
Need for data conversion from
analog to digital and digital to
analog
Analog
Preprocessing
Filters
A/D
Conversion
DSP
000
...001...
110
D/A
Conversion
Analog
Postprocessing
Filters
Analog Output
2004 H.K. Page 7
A/D & D/A Conversion

A/D Conversion
D/A Conversion
2004 H.K. Page 8
Data Converters
Stand alone data converters

Used in variety of systems
Example: Analog Devices AD9235 12bit/ 65Ms/s ADC- Applications:
Ultrasound equipment
IF sampling in wireless receivers
Hand-held scopemeters
Low cost digital oscilloscopes
Embedded data converters

Cost, reliability, and performance integration of data conversion
interfaces along with DSPs
Main issues
Feasibility of integrating sensitive analog functions in a technology optimized
for digital performance
Down scaling of supply voltage
Interference & spurious signal pick-up from on-chip digital circuitry
Portable applications dictate low power consumption
2004 H.K. Page 9
D/A Converter Transfer Characteristic
For an ideal digital-to-analog

converter with uniform, binary
digital encoding & a unipolar
output range from 0 to VFS
N
V0 = VF S
i =1
bi
i
LSB
MSB
b1 b2 b3
bn
..
V0
D/A
= bi 2 N i , bi = 0 o r 1
i =1
where N = # o f b i t s
VFS = full scale output
= step size
Example:N = 3
V0 = ( b1 . 22 + b2 . 21 + b3.20 )
N o t e :V0 (b i = 1,a l l i ) = VF S
1
= VFS 1
2N
2004 H.K. Page 10
Ideal D/A Transfer Characteristic
Ideal DAC
VFS
introduces
no error!
One-toone
mapping
from input VFS /2
to output
Analog
Output
Ideal Response
Step Height (1LSB=)
VFS /8
001
010
011 100 101 110
111
Digital Input
Code
2004 H.K. Page 11
A/D Converter Transfer Characteristic
For an ideal analog-to-digital

converter with uniform, binary
digital encoding & a unipolar
input range for 0 to VFS
LSB
MSB
b1 b2 b3
bn
..
A/D
Vin
where m = # o f bits
VFS = full scale output
= step size
N o t e : D ( bi = 1,a l l i ) VF S
1
VF S 1
2m
2004 H.K. Page 12
Ideal A/D Transfer Characteristic
Ideal ADC
introduces
error
(+-1/2)
= VFS /2m
m= # of bits
This error is
called
``quantization
error``
Digital Output
111
110
101
100
011
010
001
Analog
input
1LSB
000
3 4 5
7
2004 H.K. Page 13
Data Converter Performance Metrics
Data Converters are typically characterized by static, time-domain,

& frequency domain performance metrics :
Static
Monotonicity
Offset
Gain error
Differential nonlinearity (DNL)
Integral nonlinearity (INL)
Dynamic
Delay, settling time

Aperture uncertainty
Distortion- harmonic content
Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), Signal-to-(noise+distortion) ratio (SNDR)
Idle channel noise
Dynamic range & spurious-free dynamic range (SFDR)
2004 H.K. Page 14
What is a discrete time signal?

qA signal that changes only at
discrete time instances?
qA continous time signal
multiplied with a train of
infinitely narrow unit pulses?
qA vector whose element
indices correspond to discrete
instances in time?
time
[1.2 2.0 2.5 0.1 ...]
qAll of the above?

2004 H.K. Page 15
Discrete Time Signals

A sequence of numbers (or vector) with
discrete index time instants
Intermediate signal values not defined
(not the same as equal to zero!)
Mathematically convenient, non-physical
We will use the term "sampled data" for
related signals that occur in real,
physical interface circuits
2004 H.K. Page 16
Typical Sampling Process

CT SD DT
time
Continuous
Time
Physical
Signals
Sampled Data
(e.g. T/H signal)
Clock
"Memory
Content"
Discrete Time
2004 H.K. Page 17
Uniform Sampling
y(kT)=y(k)
t= 1T
k= 1
2T
2
3T
3
4T
4
5T
5
6T ...
6 ...
Samples spaced T seconds in time

Sampling Period T Sampling Frequency fs=1/T
Problem: Multiple continuous time signals can yield
exactly the same discrete time signal (aliasing)
2004 H.K. Page 18
Summary
Data Converters
ADC/DACs need to sample/reconstruct to
convert from continuous time to discrete time
signals and back
We distinguish between purely mathematical
discrete time signals and "sampled data
signals" that carry information in actual
circuits
Question: How do we ensure that
sampling/reconstruction preserves
information
2004 H.K. Page 19
Aliasing
The frequencies fx and Nfs fx, N integer, are
indistinguishable in the discrete time domain
Undesired frequency interaction and
translation due to sampling is called aliasing
If aliasing occurs, no signal processing
operation downstream of the sampling
process can recover the original continuous
time signal!
Let's look at this in the frequency domain...
2004 H.K. Page 20
Sampling Sine Waves

Voltage
Time domain
fs = 1/T
time
y(nT)
Amplitude
Frequency domain
fs - fin
fs + fin
2fs f
fs
fin
2004 H.K. Page 21
Signal scenario
before sampling
Amplitude
Frequency Domain Interpretation
fin
fs /2
fs
2fs .. f
Discrete
Time
Amplitude
Signal scenario
after sampling DT
Signals @
nfS fmax__signal fold
back into band of
interest
Aliasing
Continuous
Time
0.5
f/fs
2004 H.K. Page 22
Aliasing
Multiple continuous time signals can produce
identical series of sampled voltages
The folding back of signals from nfSfsig down
to ffin is called aliasing
Sampling theorem: fs > 2fmax_Signal
If aliasing occurs, no signal processing
operation downstream of the sampling
process can recover the original continuous
time signal
2004 H.K. Page 23
Brick Wall Anti-Aliasing Filter

Amplitude
Filter
Continuous
Time
0
fs
2fs
...
Discrete
Time
0
0.5
f/fs
2004 H.K. Page 24
How to Avoid Aliasing
Must obey sampling theorem:

fmax_Signal < fs/2
Two possibilities:
1. Sample fast enough to cover all spectral
components, including "parasitic" ones
outside band of interest
2. Limit fmax_Signal through filtering
2004 H.K. Page 25
2- Pre-filter
signal to
eliminate
signals above 1/2
sampling
frequency- then
sample
Frequency domain
fin
fs_new f
2fs_old ..
fs_old
Amplitude
1- Push
sampling
frequency to x2
of the highest
freq.
Oversampled
converters
almost!
Amplitude
How to Avoid Aliasing
Frequency domain
fin
fs /2
fs
2fs
2004 H.K. Page 26
Practical Anti-Aliasing Filter

Amplitude
Filter
Continuous
Time
0
fs/2
fs
2fs
...
Practical filter: Nonzero "transition band"

In order to make this work, we need to
sample faster than 2x the signal bandwidth
"Oversampling"
2004 H.K. Page 27
Practical Anti-Aliasing Filter

Desired
Signal
Parasitic
Tone
Attenuation
Continuous
Time
0
fs/2
B/fs
0.5
fs-B
fs
...
Discrete
Time
f/fs
2004 H.K. Page 28
How much Oversampling?

Maximum
Aliasing
Dynamic
Range
[R. v. d. Plassche,
CMOS Integrated
Analog-to-Digital and
Digital-to-Analog
Converters, 2nd ed.,
p.41]
Filter Order
fs/2fmax
Tradeoff: Sampling speed vs. filter order
2004 H.K. Page 29
Data Converter
Classification
fs > 2fmax Nyquist Sampling
"Nyquist Converters"
Actually always slightly oversampled
fs >> 2fmax Oversampling

"Oversampled Converters"
Anti alias filtering is often trivial
Oversampling is also used to reduce quantization noise, see
later in the course...
fs < 2fmax Undersampling (sub-sampling)

2004 H.K. Page 30
Sub-Sampling
Amplitude
BP Filter
Continuous
Time
0
fs
...
Discrete
Time
0
0.5
f/fs
Sampling at a rate less than Nyquist rate aliasing

For signals centered @ an intermediate frequency Not destructive!
Sub-sampling can be exploited to mix a narrowband RF or IF signal down to
lower frequencies
2004 H.K. Page 31
Where Are We Now?

Analog Input
We now know how to

preserve signal
information in CTDT
transition
Analog
Preprocessing
Sampling
(+Quantization)
A/D
Conversion
000
...001...
110
DSP
D/A
Conversion
How do we go back
from DT CT?
Anti-Aliasing
Filter
Analog
Postprocessing
Analog Output
2004 H.K. Page 32
Ideal Reconstruction
x(k)
x(t)
The DSP books tell us:

x(t ) =
x(k ) g (t kT )
g (t ) =
k =
sin(2Bt )
2Bt
Unfortunately not all that practical...

2004 H.K. Page 33
Zero-Order Hold Reconstruction

1
0.8
0.6
0.4
Amplitude
0.2
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
sampled data
after ZOH
-1
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
Time
3.5
How about just creating

a staircase, i.e. hold
each discrete time value
until new information
becomes available
What does this do the
frequency content of the
signal?
Let's analyze this in two
steps...
-5
x 10
2004 H.K. Page 34
1) DT CT: Infinite Zero Padding

Time Domain
DT sequence
...
Frequency Domain
...
0.5
Zero padded
DT sequence
Infinite
Interpolation:
CT Signal!
...
f/fs
...
...
0.5/i
1.5/i
2.5/i
f/fs
0.5fs
1.5fs
2.5fs
...
2004 H.K. Page 35
2) Effect of Hold Pulse

...
...
Tp
Ts
Usubg the Fourier transform of a

rectangular impulse we get:
H( f ) =
Tp sin(fTp )
Ts
fTp
2004 H.K. Page 36
Hold Pulse Tp=Ts

1
0.9
| H ( f ) |=
0.8
0.7
T p sin(fTp )
fTp
Ts
abs(H(f))
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0.5
1.5
f/fs
2.5
2004 H.K. Page 37
Hold Pulse Tp=0.5Ts

1
0.9
| H ( f ) |=
0.8
0.7
T p sin(fTp )
fTp
Ts
abs(H(f))
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0.5
1.5
f/fs
2.5
2004 H.K. Page 38
ZOH Spectral Distortion

1
Continuous Time
Pulse Train
Spectrum
0.5
0.5
1.5
2.5
0.5
1.5
2.5
0.5
1.5
2.5
ZOH Transfer
Function
("Sinc Distortion")
0.5
0
1
ZOH output,
Spectrum of
Staircase
Approximation
0.5
f/fs
2004 H.K. Page 39
Smoothing Filter
1
Again:
A brick wall
filter would be
nice
Oversampling
helps to
reduce filter
order
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
f/fs
2004 H.K. Page 40
Summary
Sampling theorem fs > 2fmax, usually dictates
anti-aliasing filter
If theorem is met, CT signal can be recovered
from DT without loss of information
ZOH and smoothing filter reconstruct CT from
DT signal
Oversampling helps reduce order &
complexity of anti-aliasing & smoothing filters
2004 H.K. Page 41
Next Topic
Analog Input
Done with
"Quantization in time"
Next: Quantization in
amplitude
Analog
Preprocessing
Anti-Aliasing
Filter
Sampling
(+Quantization)
A/D
Conversion
DSP
000
...001...
110
D/A
Conversion
D/A+ZOH
Analog
Postprocessing
Smoothing
Filter
Analog Output
2004 H.K. Page 42
Amplitude
Quantization
Amplitude quantization
quantization noise
Static ADC/DAC performance measures

Offset
Gain
INL
DNL
2004 H.K. Page 43
Ideal ADC ("Quantizer")

A/D Characteristics [1]
Quantization step (= 1 LSB)

Digital Output Code
E.g. N = 3 Bits
Full-scale input range:
-0.5 (2N-0.5)
ADC characteristics
ideal converter
5
4
3
2
1
0
-1
ADC Model
Vin
Dout
q (Vin )
2
3
4
5
ADC Input Voltage [1/]
1
Quantization error [LSB]
Quantization error:
bounded by /2 +/2
for inputs within full-scale range
0.5
-0.5
-1
-1
2004 H.K. Page 44
Quantization Error PDF
Uniformly distributed from

/2 +/2 provided that
Busy input
Amplitude is many LSBs
No overload
Not Gaussian!
Pdf
e2 =
1/
Zero mean
Variance
+ / 2 2
de = 12
/ 2
Spectral density white if the joint

pdf of the input at different
sample times is smooth
Ref: W. R. Bennett, Spectra of quantized signals,

Bell Syst. Tech. J., vol. 27, pp. 446-72, July
1988.
-/2
+/2
error
B. Widrow, A study of rough amplitude

quantization by means of Nyquist sampling
theory, IRE Trans. Circuit Theory, vol. CT-3, pp.
266-76, 1956.
2004 H.K. Page 45
Signal-to-Quantization Noise Ratio
If certain conditions are met (!) the quantization error can be

viewed as being "random", and is often referred to as noise
In this case, we can define a peak signal-to-quantization noise
ratio, SQNR, for sinusoidal inputs:
2
1 2N
2 2
SQNR = 2 = 1.5 22 N
12
= 6.02 N + 1.76 dB
e.g.
N
8
12
16
20
SQNR
50 dB
74 dB
98 dB
122 dB
Actual converters do not quite achieve this performance due to

other errors, including
Electronic noise
Deviations from the ideal quantization levels
2004 H.K. Page 46
Static, Ideal Macro Models

ADC
Vin
Dout
DAC
Vout
Din
2004 H.K. Page 47
Cascade of Data Converters

ADC
Vin
DAC
Vout
DAC
ADC
Din
+
Dout
2004 H.K. Page 48
Static Converter Errors

Deviations of characteristic from ideality
Offset
Gain error
Differential Nonlinearity, DNL
Integral Nonlinearity, INL
Offset Errors
ADC
2004 H.K. Page 49
DAC
Ref: Understanding Data Converters, Texas Instruments Application Report

SLAA013, Mixed-Signal Products, 1995.
2004 H.K. Page 50
Gain Errors
ADC
DAC
2004 H.K. Page 51
Offset and Gain Errors

Alternative Specification in % Full Scale =
100% * (LSB value)/ 2N
Non-trivial to build a converter with extremely
good gain/offset specs
Typically gain/offset is most easily
compensated by the digital pre/postprocessor
More interesting: Linearity DNL, INL
2004 H.K. Page 52
Offset and Gain Error

7
ADC characteristics
ideal converter
Full-scale error
Digital Output Code
6
5
4
3
2
1
Offset error
0
-1
2
3
4
5
ADC Input Voltage [LSB]
2004 H.K. Page 53
ADC Differential Nonlinearity

ADC characteristics
ideal converter
-0.4 LSB DNL error
DNL = deviation
of code width from
(1LSB)
Digital Output Code
4
3
+0.4 LSB DNL error

0
-1
3
4
5
6
2004 H.K. Page 54
ADC Differential Nonlinearity

4
3
4
3
Non-monotonic
(> 1 LSB DNL)
-1
Missing code
(+0.5/-1 LSB DNL)
ADC characteristics
ideal converter
Digital Output Code
Digital Output Code
ADC characteristics
ideal converter
3
4
5
6
-1
3
4
5
6
2004 H.K. Page 55
DAC Differential Nonlinearity
2004 H.K. Page 56
Impact of DNL on Performance

Same as a somewhat larger
quantization error, consequently
degrades SQNR
How much later in the course...
People sometimes speak of "DNL
noise", i.e. "additional quantization
noise due to DNL"
2004 H.K. Page 57
ADC Integral Nonlinearity

A/D Charac teristics [6]
INL = deviation of code

transition from its ideal
location
ADC characteristics
ideal converter
-1 LSB INL
A straight line through the

endpoints is usually used as
reference,
i.e. offset and gain errors
are ignored in INL
calculation
Note that INL errors can be
much larger than DNL errors
and vice-versa
Digital Output Code
-1
2
3
4
5
2004 H.K. Page 58
Large DNL Errors

ADC characteristics
ideal converter
Digital Output Code
A converter with DNL larger

than 1LSB could be
equivalent an ideal ADC
with 1 bit less resolution
5
4
3
2
1
1
0.5
-0.5
-1
1
Quantization error [LSB]
At right:
alternating DNL 1/+1 LSB
3
4
5
2004 H.K. Page 59
DAC Integral Nonlinearity
2004 H.K. Page 60
DAC DNL and INL
* Ref:
Understanding Data Converters, Texas Instruments Application
Report SLAA013, Mixed-Signal Products, 1995.
2004 H.K. Page 61
Example: INL & DNL
Large INL & Small DNL
Large DNL & Small INL
2004 H.K. Page 62
Monotonicity
Monotonicity guaranteed if
| INL | = 0.5 LSB
The best fit straight line is taken as the reference for determining the INL.
This implies
Note: these conditions are sufficient but not necessary for monotonicity
| DNL | = 1 LSB
* Ref: R. J. van de Plassche, Integrated Analog-to-Digital and Digital-to-Analog Converters, Kluwer Academic
Publishers, 2nd ed., 2003.
2004 H.K. Page 63

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EE247

EECS 247 Lecture 11: Data Converters

2004 H.K. Page 1

Material Covered in EE247

Switched capacitor (SC) filters

Systems utilizing analog/digital interfaces

2004 H.K. Page 2

Data Converter Topics

Characterization and Testing

Figures of Merit and Performance Trends

2004 H.K. Page 3

Suggested Reference Texts

R. v. d. Plassche, CMOS Integrated Analog-to-Digital and

B. Razavi, Data Conversion System Design, IEEE Press, 1995.

S. Norsworthy et al (eds), Delta-Sigma Data Converters, IEEE

J. G. Proakis, D. G. Manolakis, Digital Signal Processing,

EECS 247 Lecture 11: Data Converters

2004 H.K. Page 4

EECS 247 Lecture 11: Data Converters

2004 H.K. Page 5

Example: Typical Cell Phone

Dual Standard, I/Q

Audio, Tx/Rx power

2004 H.K. Page 6

Data Converter Basics

DSP is wonderful, but...

DSP can only process:

EECS 247 Lecture 11: Data Converters

2004 H.K. Page 7

A/D & D/A Conversion

EECS 247 Lecture 11: Data Converters

2004 H.K. Page 8

Stand alone data converters

Embedded data converters

EECS 247 Lecture 11: Data Converters

2004 H.K. Page 9

D/A Converter Transfer Characteristic

For an ideal digital-to-analog

EECS 247 Lecture 11: Data Converters

2004 H.K. Page 10

Ideal D/A Transfer Characteristic

Step Height (1LSB=)

011 100 101 110

EECS 247 Lecture 11: Data Converters

A/D Converter Transfer Characteristic

For an ideal analog-to-digital

EECS 247 Lecture 11: Data Converters

2004 H.K. Page 12

Ideal A/D Transfer Characteristic

EECS 247 Lecture 11: Data Converters

Data Converter Performance Metrics

Data Converters are typically characterized by static, time-domain,

Delay, settling time

EECS 247 Lecture 11: Data Converters

2004 H.K. Page 14

What is a discrete time signal?

[1.2 2.0 2.5 0.1 ...]

qAll of the above?

2004 H.K. Page 15

Discrete Time Signals

2004 H.K. Page 16

Typical Sampling Process

EECS 247 Lecture 11: Data Converters