Barton (14 IOCGSystems ToG2-Ch20

13.
20
Iron Oxide(CuAuREEPAgUCo) Systems
MD Barton, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA

2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
13.20.1
Introduction
13.20.1.1
Semantics and Postulated Origins
13.20.2
Geologic Context for IOCG Systems
13.20.2.1
Distribution in Space and Time
13.20.2.2
Geologic Settings
13.20.2.2.1
Association with igneous rocks (or lack thereof)
13.20.2.2.2
Framework lithologies and paleoclimate
13.20.3
Synopsis of Deposit Features
13.20.3.1
Deposit Types
13.20.3.1.1
Magnetite- and/or hematite-dominated deposits
13.20.3.1.2
Fe oxide-poor Cu(Au/Ag) deposits of proposed affinity to IOCG systems
13.20.3.1.3
Possible modern analogues
13.20.3.2
Grade, Size, and Form
13.20.3.3
Ore Mineralogy and Paragenesis
13.20.3.4
Minor Element Contents and Mineralogy: UTh, REE, CoNiV, ClFBr, B
13.20.4
Hydrothermal Alteration and System-scale Zoning
13.20.4.1
Types of Hydrothermal Alteration
13.20.4.1.1
Sodic to calcic alteration types
13.20.4.1.2
Carbonate-hosted alteration: Skarn and Fe oxide replacement
13.20.4.1.3
K-rich alteration: High-temperature and low-temperature types
13.20.4.1.4
Hydrolytic (acid) alteration
13.20.4.2
System- to Regional-Scale Spatial and Temporal Patterns
13.20.4.3
Extent of Metasomatism and Comparison with Porphyry/Alkaline Cu Systems
13.20.5
Petrologic and Geochemical Characteristics
13.20.5.1
Conditions of Formation
13.20.5.1.1
Depth
13.20.5.1.2
Temperature
13.20.5.1.3
Fluid inclusion compositions
13.20.5.1.4
Oxidation state, sulfidation state, and total sulfur
13.20.5.2
Tracer Studies and Sources of Components
13.20.5.2.1
Light stable isotopes: H, O, S, C, and B
13.20.5.2.2
Radiogenic isotopes: Sr, Nd, Pb, and Os
13.20.5.2.3
Halogens and noble gases: Ratios and isotopes
13.20.6
Summary of the IOCG Clan, Likely Origins, and the terrestrial Hydrothermal Environment
13.20.6.1
Discussion of Genesis
13.20.6.2
IOCG Systems and the Terrestrial Hydrothermal Environment
Acknowledgments
References
13.20.1
Introduction
The bulk composition (i.e., geochemistry) of the mineralization defines the iron oxide(CuAuREEPAgUCo) clan.
The numerous and geologically diverse deposits of this group
contain >10% of low-Ti Fe oxides in combination with geochemically elevated contents of Cu, Au, REE, P, U, Ag, and Co.
They tend to be structurally or stratigraphically controlled and
they are temporally and spatially associated with intense and
voluminous NaCaK metasomatism. When considered as a
group, they lack the well-defined tectonic and igneous correlations that are characteristic of well-understood magmatichydrothermal systems. These distinctive traits challenge us to
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understand what geologic processes and settings lead to this

geochemical specialization and, more generally, to see how
this family of deposits fits in the broad spectrum of hydrothermal systems.
Although ores of this kind have been known for centuries
and mined for iron, copper, and other commodities, it was not
until the 1980s that the fundamental similarities of these disparate deposits were pointed out (e.g., Hauck, 1990; Hitzman
et al., 1992; Meyer, 1988). This recognition followed a resurgence of interest in the copper-rich variants motivated by the
discovery in 1975 of the Olympic Dam deposit in South
Australia, which is currently the worlds largest U resource
and one of the largest Cu and Au deposits. Previously, and to
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-095975-7.01123-2
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some extent since then, a variety of names and contrasting

classifications have been applied to these deposits (Cox and
Singer, 2007). Beginning about 2000 (e.g., Porter, 2000), this
group has been termed iron oxide(coppergold) (IOCG) after
the several possible principal commodities. Divisions within
the IOCG clan have been proposed by a number of authors
based on economic metals, deposit mineralogy, and possible
origins (e.g., Williams, 2010a; Williams et al., 2005).
This term is useful because it unifies a widespread and
formerly ill-defined group of deposits that share distinctive
chemical and geologic characteristics (Hitzman et al., 1992).
These include a link to moderate- to high-temperature brines
but which lack globally coherent tectonic or magmatic correlations (Barton and Johnson, 1996). The definition given
above emphasizes a characteristic set of element enrichments
(not ore grades) coupled with voluminous hypogene iron
oxides. This approach is more inclusive than other definitions
that have specified temporal, tectonic, economic, or magmatic
attributes (e.g., Groves et al., 2010; Hitzman et al., 1992;
Meyer, 1988; Williams et al., 2005). Nevertheless, it still serves
to distinguish this group from sedimentary iron deposits,
magmatic irontitanium oxide deposits, and other iron
oxide-bearing hydrothermal deposits, such as many members
of the porphyry copper clan (Chapter 13.14). In particular,
Magma-derived
this usage does not restrict IOCG to those deposits containing

economic concentrations of copper and(or) gold (cf. Williams
et al., 2005), economics being a factor that reflects a societal
rather than geologic distinction even within a single hydrothermal system.
13.20.1.1
Semantics and Postulated Origins
Debate arises both from semantics (definitions and what to

include) and from contrasting interpretations of origin.
Various workers have included deposits lacking voluminous
iron oxides, notably magnetite-bearing porphyry Cu(Au)
deposits, Cu(Ag) deposits hosted in volcanic terranes with
accessory hematite, and some pyrrhotite pyrite Cu(Au)
deposits that occur in the same areas as the magnetite/hematite-dominated deposits (see Haynes, 2000; Williams, 2010a).
Connections between these other FeCuAu-bearing ore types
and the IOCG clan as defined here remain the topic of ongoing
discussion and reflect uncertainties in both geology and genesis.
The geologic diversity (in contrast to the geochemical similarity) of IOCG systems has contributed to multiple genetic
hypotheses (Figure 1): (1) magmatic-hydrothermal wherein
the key aqueous fluids are of magmatic origin, (2) terrestrial
hydrothermal wherein key fluids are basinal or surficial
Surface- or basin-derived
Surface or
basin-derived
waters
Metamorphic-derived
Surface-derived
brines
Cu(Au)
Fe-oxide
Surface-derived
waters
Fe-Oxide
Cu(Au)
(depends
on trap)
Cu(Au)
Fe-oxide
Early, barren
Fe oxide
Regional
Na(Ca)
Deep basinal
fluids
Basinal
fluids
Local magmatic
K-silicate alteration
Magmatic
fluids
Older,
Cl-rich
rocks
Metamorphic fluids
Magmatic
fluids
(generated from or salinity added by

passing through Cl-rich rocks)
Specialized magmas
(alkaline or otherwise)
Cu(Au) mineralization
Cpy/Bn Hm/Mt Py
Fe-oxide mineralization
Mt(Ap)/Hm Py Cpy
Igneous heat cation source

(other heat sources possible)
H+ alteration
Ser(Mu)/Chl + Qz + Hm
Na(Ca) alteration
Na plag/Scap + Cpx/Act/Chl
Tectonic/metamorphic drive
for fluid production and flow
K alteration (type I)
Biot/Kfsp Mt/Hm + Act/Cpx
K alteration (type II)

Kfsp + Hm (Biot + Mt)
Figure 1 Alternative hydrothermal origins and architectures for IOCG systems illustrating possible fluid sources, paths, and distribution of alteration
and ores (modified from Barton MD and Johnson DA (2004) Footprints of Fe-oxide (CuAu) systems: SEG 2004 Predictive Mineral Discovery
Under Cover. Centre for Global Metallogeny, University of Western Australia Special Publication 33: 112116). Deposits show far more varied
geometries that are illustrated here. Multiple fluid sources are possible in all cases. (a) Magmatic source implies distinctive composition and proximity to
source; regional Na(Ca) is coincidental. (b) Evaporitic source implies coeval or older brine source, necessary but indifferent to type of heat source, and
available upper crustal plumbing. (c) Metamorphic source implies metaevaporitic (or conceivably mantle) Cl source with regional plumbing. A fourth
hypothesis involving immiscible Fe oxideP-rich liquids is not illustrated (see text) but has some parallels with (a).
nonmagmatic brines circulated by igneous or crustal heat, (3)

metamorphic-hydrothermal wherein fluids are derived from
distinctive crustal sources by metamorphic devolatilization
and waterrock interaction at depth, and (4) fundamentally
magmatic wherein the key ore-forming fluid is an immiscible
volatile-bearing iron oxide melt. A further possibility, not
developed here, is that some occurrences represent the serendipitous superposition of CuAu mineralization on older,
genetically unrelated ironstones (e.g., Davidson and Large,
1994; Mark et al., 2006a; Skirrow and Walshe, 2002). In all
hydrothermal models, involvement of a second, near-surface
fluid is likely and may either mix with a deeper-sourced fluid or
be a later overprint; in many cases, this second fluid may be
necessary to supply sulfur for ore formation and might also
introduce some metals (Figure 1; e.g., Gow et al., 1994; Haynes
et al., 1995; Williams et al., 2010).
Characteristics and interpretations of IOCG systems have
been presented in many papers beginning with the early synthesis papers (Barton and Johnson, 1996; Einaudi and Oreskes,
1990; Hauck, 1990; Hitzman et al., 1992), continuing through
the comprehensive volumes edited by Porter (2000, 2002,
2010b), various other compilations (e.g., Corriveau and
Mumin, 2010; Skirrow and Davidson, 2007; Yang et al.,
2011), and the global review by Williams et al. (2005). These
publications are but a handful of over 300 papers and theses
with an IOCG focus that have been published from 2000 to
2011. Most earlier reviews have either taken a systematic review
of deposit types or focused on geochemical evidence and
processes.
This chapter reviews the nature of the IOCG clan based on
the extensive geologic and geochemical studies on these systems
517
published since the late 1980s. It briefly compares IOCG systems and related deposits to other hydrothermal ore-forming
systems and considers alternative origins in light of available
evidence. It concludes that IOCG systems comprise a diverse
family in which many but not all members form as shallow
terrestrial, brine-dominated hydrothermal systems and that
IOCG systems have compelling analogies in other terrestrial
hydrothermal ore-forming environments. (Hydrothermal fluids
are derived from magmatic, metamorphic, marine, and a compositionally diverse group of near-surface terrestrial (including
basinal) sources. Dominance by the last group defines terrestrial
hydrothermal (i.e., T > 200 C) systems as used here.)
13.20.2
Geologic Context for IOCG Systems
The variability in IOCG systems merits an overview of their

temporal, spatial, and geologic settings before moving to
deposit features and system-scale patterns.
13.20.2.1
Distribution in Space and Time
IOCG provinces span the globe and range in age from Archean
to Cenozoic and include several modern analogues (Figure 2).
Except for Antarctica, districts on all continents have produced
Cu and(or) Fe with or without other commodities. Nearly all
regions have both Cu-poor and Cu-rich deposits, although the
proportions vary greatly. Economically, the current most important regions, in order of age, are the central Andes (Cu Fe;
Mesozoic; Sillitoe, 2003), the lower Yangtze (Fe Cu; Mesozoic;
Pan and Dong, 1999; Yang et al., 2011); the southern Urals
Figure 2 Global distribution of IOCG provinces showing ages, representative abundances of sodic(calcic), potassic alteration, and economic copper
(gold). See Williams et al. (2005) for references and deposits.
518
(Fe; Paleozoic; Hawkins et al., 2010), South Australia

(Cu U Au; Mesoproterozoic; Hayward and Skirrow, 2010;
Skirrow and Davidson, 2007), north-central Australia
(Cu Au; Paleo to Mesoproterozoic; Williams, 1998; Williams
and Pollard, 2001), N Baltic (Fe Cu; Paleoproterozoic;
Billstrom et al., 2010; Frietsch et al., 1997), and Carajas
(Cu Au; Late Archean; Xavier et al., 2010).
There is an irregular distribution in time: large Cu-rich
deposits occur widely in only a few regions (Carajas, South
Australia, central Andes) consistent with their overall scarcity.
However, the evidence (summarized in Barton and Johnson,
1996; Williams et al., 2005) does not support a fundamental
secular variation, such as a Proterozoic (or Precambrian) age as
originally proposed by Meyer (1988) and advocated by some
later workers (e.g., Groves et al., 2010). Phanerozoic examples
are numerous and exhibit the same general characteristics as
Precambrian systems. Hitzman (2000) and others have
suggested that Cu-poor, magnetite-rich deposits tend to be
older than Cu-rich deposits within individual regions, yet a
number of hydrothermal systems contain both Cu-rich and
Cu-poor, and there are ample counterexamples to a simple
pattern reflecting the protracted evolution in major regions
(e.g., Cloncurry, Mark et al., 2006a,b; Oliver et al., 2008; western
United States, Barton et al., 2011a). Thus, although distinctions
between provinces exist, the differences reflect many factors
including nature of the host rocks (e.g., more abundant carbonates in the Phanerozoic), nature of magmatism, levels of exposure, and later events (e.g., superimposed metamorphism). The
possible roles of these factors are noted later.
IOCG occurrences are far more numerous than the handful
of large systems that have drawn most economic and research
attention. Many regions have hundreds of distinct occurrences
compared to the few major deposits in the same areas. IOCG
systems represent a family of common processes that have
recurred over much of geologic time.
13.20.2.2
Geologic Settings
Regional settings are geologically active yet tectonically diverse;

and, with few exceptions, they have broadly coeval but compositionally varied magmatism. The host terrains are moderately to
highly oxidized with magnetite- to hematite-stable rocks
(Haynes, 2000), and most present evidence for coeval or older
evaporitic materials that is, surface/sedimentary brines and/or
(meta)evaporites (Barton and Johnson, 1996, 2000). Many continental tectonic settings can host economically significant Fe
oxide Cu(Au) mineralization; in contrast, marine arcs and
ridges lack evidence for IOCG-type mineralization. Extensional
settings in arcs and rifts are most common (Hitzman et al., 1992),
although compressional settings appear to be widespread particularly for metamorphic-affiliated systems.
During the Phanerozoic, IOCG systems formed in compressional (Andes) and extensional arcs (Andes, southwestern
North America, Urals), back arcs (western United States,
Yangtze), intraplate (Siberia), and rift settings (Mesozoic eastern North America, northeast Africa, Salton Sea). Precambrian
districts appear to be similarly diverse. Nonetheless, the interpretation of settings remains unsettled in many regions even
for the same province (e.g., South Australia; cf. Groves et al.,
2010; Hayward and Skirrow, 2010). Regional metamorphic
(in part collisional?) settings are common in the later stages

of some Precambrian terrains (e.g., N Baltic, Rajasthan,
Cloncurry, Lufilian arc; see Figure 2) and possibly in the Mesozoic (Lund et al., 2011). Globally, this variability is amplified
by virtue of the fact that many (but not all) of these regions have
protracted histories of tectonism, and IOCG systems formed
sporadically over intervals of 100 My or more with changing
tectonic styles (e.g., Cloncurry, Duncan et al., 2011; Williams
and Pollard, 2001; central Andes, Chen, 2010; Sillitoe, 2003;
southwestern North America, Barton et al., 2011a).
13.20.2.2.1 Association with igneous rocks (or lack thereof)

Most, but not all, IOCG districts contain abundant broadly
contemporaneous magmatism even though few deposits can
be linked to particular intrusive units (Williams et al., 2005).
Also lacking in IOCG systems is a link to characteristic igneous
textures, for example, to the distinctive crowded porphyry
texture that characterizes the source intrusions in porphyry
CuMoAu deposits (Seedorff et al., 2005). Compositions
range over much of the igneous spectrum from mafic to felsic
and subalkaline to, rarely, alkaline (Figure 3). Most associated
igneous rocks are magnetite-bearing, consistent with the correlation with relatively oxidized terrains (Haynes, 2000). Trace
element compositions indicate both arc and intraplate
magmas can be involved; these observations are compatible
with known or inferred tectonic settings. Mafic magmatism is
implicated in many areas (Barton and Johnson, 1996) including Australia where mafic magmas may have been key at
Olympic Dam (Skirrow et al., 2007) and are inferred to be an
important contributor to some of the Cloncurry systems
(Oliver et al., 2008). A few regions with magnetite-dominated
deposits have only basaltic compositions (e.g., Siberian trap
systems, Soloviev, 2010a; Mesozoic eastern United States,
Robinson, 1988). Elsewhere, intermediate compositions
dominate in many IOCG provinces (e.g., Andes, N Baltic,
Turkey, Yangtze), whereas felsic compositions dominate in
others (e.g., South Australia, Cloncurry, SE Missouri). These
generalizations aside, in many regions and even within
restricted areas, it is clear that multiple broadly coeval IOCGclan systems form with widely different magma types (e.g.,
northern Chile; western United States, Barton et al., 2011a,b).
It is noteworthy that many of the temporally and spatially
related intrusions lack early crystallizing (or any) amphibole
and hence were relatively water-poor. Conversely, a distinctive
connection with alkaline magmatism (e.g., Groves et al., 2010;
Hauck, 1990) appears to be the case only in a few districts with
definitive IOCG characteristics (e.g., Kuscu et al., 2011).
Interpretation of whole-rock data requires caution because
even nominally immobile elements (e.g., Al, Ti, HFSE) can move
during hydrothermal alteration. The unrecognized presence of
pervasive Na or K metasomatism has led to the interpretation of
many igneous rocks as having alkaline affinities (Figure 4). Such
patterns have been long recognized, for example, in metamorphosed iron oxide mineralized terrains (e.g., Lindgren, 1913,
p. 713), but they have been most clearly documented in young
IOCG-bearing volcanic terrains (e.g., Barton and Johnson,
2000; Marschik and Fontbote, 2001; Roddy et al., 1988).
Some hematite-dominated districts lack appreciable coeval
magmatism; thus, the implication is that other heat and material sources were dominant (e.g., Wernecke Breccias, Canada,
519
12
Carajas
granites
Cloncurry
Great
Bear
Syn-collisional
granitoids
1000
e
alin
alk kaline
al
sub
8
Siberia
Rb (ppm)
Na2O + K2O (wt%)
10
Stuart Shelf
Sweden
Within plate
granitoids
100
volcanic arc
granitoids
Great Bear
fresh /
Na(Ca) alt
10
Western US IOCG
fresh / Na(Ca) alt
Copiapo (Chile)
Ocean ridge
granitoids
Humboldt
0
45
(a)
1
50
55
60
65
70
SiO2 (wt%)
75
(b)
10
100
1000
Y+Nb (ppm)
Figure 3 Selected igneous compositions temporally and spatially associated with IOCG systems (compiled for areas summarized in Barton and
Johnson, 1996; Pollard, 2006). (a) Total alkali versus silica diagram for nominally unaltered igneous rocks. (b) Tectonic discrimination diagram (Pearce
et al., 1984) showing fresh and selected altered igneous rocks.
Hunt et al., 2007; southwestern United States detachment

deposits, Wilkins et al., 1986). Similarly, a number of
metamorphic-hosted, magnetite-dominated systems have an
enigmatic relationship to regional magmatism, such as some
of those in Rajasthan (Knight et al., 2002), N Baltic (Billstrom
et al., 2010; Niiranen et al., 2007), Namibia (Moore, 2010),
Cloncurry (Duncan et al., 2011), and possibly Tennant Creek
(Skirrow and Walshe, 2002).
13.20.2.2.2 Framework lithologies and paleoclimate

Just as with magmas, rocks hosting IOCG systems range widely
from felsic to mafic igneous rocks, clastic to chemical sedimentary rocks, and their metamorphic equivalents. Of major rock
groups, only strongly reduced (carbonaceous) host rocks are
scarce (Haynes, 2000) and even they may be significant in a
few areas, such as Cloncurry (e.g., Baker, 1998; Williams,
2010b). In some terrains, particularly in arc settings, the vast
majority of rocks are igneous-affiliated (plutonic, volcanic, and
volcaniclastic). In others, there is an abundance of (meta)
sedimentary materials with fewer igneous components (Cloncurry, Tennant Creek).
Evidence for evaporitic environments and related materials,
whether contemporaneous or older, is documented in most
IOCG regions (Barton and Johnson, 1996), although the
genetic significance of evaporitic materials remains contentious. Much of this evidence is geologic, but it is supported
by geochemistry in a number of systems (discussed in the
succeeding text). Supporting this correlation, most Phanerozoic IOCG provinces are formed at low mid-latitudes similar to
the distribution of broadly contemporaneous evaporitic settings (Figure 5(a); Barton and Johnson, 1996). The few higher
latitude districts, such as the PermoTriassic Siberian magnetite breccia pipes, are formed where older Paleozoic evaporites
are abundant (Soloviev, 2010a). Such latitudinal correlations
are similar to what is reported for Phanerozoic sediment and

volcanic-hosted Cu(AgCo U) systems (Kirkham, 1989)
and sediment-hosted PbZn deposits (Leach et al., 2010;
Figure 5(b); see also Wilkinson, Chapter 13.9).
13.20.3
Synopsis of Deposit Features
Deposits in the IOCG family share features including abundant

hypogene magnetite and/or hematite, a scarcity of sulfides, and
a distinctive suite of minor element enrichments. However, they
vary considerably in form, size, and degrees of enrichment (Cu,
Au, U, etc.), as well as in their paragenesis and zoning. This
poses the question: are these differences fundamental or part of
a continuum? Furthermore, the mineralized zones themselves
constitute only small parts of larger geologic systems that are
typified by voluminous, zoned NaCaK-dominated metasomatism and which also show considerable variability in
form, host rocks, and mineralogy (Barton and Johnson, 1996;
Hitzman et al., 1992; Porter, 2010a; Williams et al., 2005).
The deposits encompass a range of magnetite to hematite
ratios, degrees of enrichment in the minor elements (Cu, Au, P,
U, REE; rich vs. anomalous), hydrothermal alteration assemblages, and geometries. Notably, it has been long observed that
many IOCG clan occurrences are barren in that they lack
economic Cu, even though they may occur in the same district
with well-endowed deposits (Haynes, 2000; Hitzman, 2000;
Williams et al., 2005).
13.20.3.1
Deposit Types
A simple classification of economic deposits in the IOCG clan

can be made on the basis of hematite or magnetite dominance,
Cu-rich or Cu-poor, and the abundance of other minor elements (Williams, 2010a; Williams et al., 2005). Although such
Western USA
Cortez Mtns
Humboldt Complex
Yerington district
fr / alt
14
K2O (wt%)
12
10
14
12
S. Basin and Range (Tert.)
K-feldspar = albite
(70% total)
Global unaltered
igneous rocks
Na2O + K2O (wt%)
520
6
8
10
Na2O (wt%)
12
14
Coastal belt
Great Bear
K-feldspar = albite
(70% total)
Global unaltered
igneous rocks
45
50
55 60 65
SiO2 (wt%)
70
75
80
70
75
80
70
75
80
12
Na2O + K2O (wt%)
10
40
14
Canada
K2O (wt%)
(b)
Chile
12
10
8
6
4
Alkaline
Subalkaline
0
0
14
6
8
10
Na2O (wt%)
12
14
Na2O + K2O (wt%)
Kiruna area
K-feldspar = albite
(70% total)
6
4
Global unaltered
igneous rocks
50
55 60 65
SiO2 (wt%)
12
Sweden
45
14
Cloncurry
S. Australia
10
40
(d)
Australia
12
K2O (wt%)
4 Alkaline
0
0
14
10
8
6
4
Alkaline
Subalkaline
2
0
0
(e)
Subalkaline
(c)
(a)
10
6
8
10
Na2O (wt%)
12
14
(f)
40
45
50
55 60 65
SiO2 (wt%)
Figure 4 K2O versus Na2O and K2O Na2O versus SiO2 (TAS) plots for igneous rocks from major IOCG regions showing the prevalence of alkali
exchange including the shift to higher total alkali contents. These patterns are repeated worldwide (cf. Figures 2, 3, and 11). Data compiled by Barton
and Johnson (1996, 2000).
distinctions are real, many deposits, districts, and regions contain examples that span the hematite/magnetite and Cu/Fe
spectrum (Table 1; Figure 2).
13.20.3.1.1 Magnetite- and/or hematite-dominated

deposits
Some districts contain principally Cu-poor magnetite
(actinoliteapatite) (Kiruna-type) ores; these can have nearby,
shallower stratiform hematitic ores (Table 1; e.g., Daliran et al.,

2010; Johnson and Barton, 2000; Parak, 1975). Magnetite
deposits form discordant breccias, veins, and massive bodies or
concordant replacement zones and, in some cases, stratiform
bodies of syngenetic or shallow replacement origin. Magnetitedominated deposits have variable amounts (150%) of accessory apatite, calcic amphibole, and/or pyroxene. (Some workers
(e.g., Williams, 2010a) have called Kiruna-type ores iron
521
Mean age (Ma)

of mineralizaition
700
Provinces with
600 IOCG or IOCG-like
Siberian platform
500 systems
Abundance
(%/10 latitude)
Adelaidean
Iran
Saudi Arabia
evaporites
400
Altai (Devonian)
Turkey
300
S Urals
Siberian platform
deposits
Yangtze, E US
200
100
(a)
Lufilian
0
20
10
SW North America
Turkey
Central Andes
Clastic dominated
Pb+Zn deposits
(Leach et al., 2010)
Theoretical random
distribution
0
90
60
30
30
60
90
Paleolatitude
(b)
Figure 5 Paleolatitudes of Phanerozoic IOCG provinces (a) and clastic-host PbZn provinces (b). Determined using the continental reconstructions
of Scotese and Denham (1988). The lowmid-latitude environments are consistent with the availability of saline nonmagmatic fluids (Barton and
Johnson, 2000). The exception of the Siberian trap deposits reflects their formation coincident with voluminous older (Cambrian and Devonian)
evaporites for which the inferred position is shown by the arrow. Also shown in (b) is the theoretical distribution if independent of latitude (modified
from Leach DL, Bradley DC, Huston D, et al. (2010) Sediment-hosted leadzinc deposits in Earth history. Economic Geology 105: 593626).
Kirkham (1989) documented similar patterns for Phanerozoic sediment and volcanic-hosted Cu(AgCo U) deposits.
Table 1
Division of IOCG deposit types with selected district (deposit) examples (cf. Figure 1)
Key metals
Magnetite-rich (hematite)
CuAu
(Ag UCo)
Andes (Raul-Condestable, Mina Justaa),

Andes (Mantoverdea, Teresa de Colmo Punta
Carajas (Salobo, Alemaoa), Cloncurry (Ernest
del Cobrea), Carajas (Sossegoa), Gawler
Henry, Starra, Mt Elliot), Missouri (Boss
(Olympic Dam, Carrapateena, Prominent
Bixby), Tennant Creek (Juno, Gecko, West
Hilla), Great Bear (Sue Dianne)
Uncertain igneous association: Canada
Peko) W United States (Yeringtona, Lights
Creek)
(Wernecke), W United States (detachment)
Andes (Pampa Larga), Cloncurry (Valhalla?),
Singhbhum (Turamdih, Jadugudaa), Great
Bear (Echo Bay), Cloncurry
Gawler (Mt Painter a), Great Bear (Echo Bay)
Sweden (Kirunaa), Iran (Bafqa), Andes
Sweden (Kirunaa), Iran (Bafqa), Missouri (Pilot
(Marcona, El Romeral, El Laco), Missouri
Knoba), W US (Cortez Mtnsa, Humboldta,
Iron Springsa), Mexico (La Perla)
(Pea Ridgea), Siberian traps (Vetka,
Korshunovsk), Kazakhstan (Turgai), W United
States (Humboldt a, Eagle Mtn, Iron Springs)
UAgAuCoCu
Fe(CuCo)
Hematite-rich (magnetite)
Others
Igneous association: N Baltic
(Pahtohavre, Finnmark), India
(Khetri), Cloncurry
(Greenmount, Eloisea)
Cloncurry (Mt Cobalt), W United

States (Humboldta)
Magnetite-rich but uncertain
igneous association: barren
ironstones at Tennant Creek,
Cloncurry
Deposit with mixed characteristics (e.g., Mt Hm) within single deposits. In a broader context, most Fe-oxide-rich districts show mixed characteristics.
Source: Derived from Williams PJ, Barton MD, Fontbote L, et al. (2005) Iron-oxide-copper-gold deposits: Geology, spacetime distribution, and possible modes of origin. Economic
Geology 100th Anniversary Volume: 371406; Williams PJ (2010b) Magnetite-Group IOCGs with Special Reference to Cloncurry (NW Queensland) and Northern Sweden: Settings,
Alteration, Deposit Characteristics, Fluid Sources and Their Relationship to Apatite-Rich Iron Ores. Short Course Notes, vol. 20. Canada: Geological Association of Canada.
oxideapatite deposits a variant on the older term magnetite

apatite. While a valid descriptive distinction, this term logically
includes titanium iron oxide ores (e.g., nelsonites, Kolker, 1982),
which differ in many ways other than the Ti contents, notably in
their lack of hydrothermal features.) In many districts, these
bodies are transitional with actinolite- and/or apatite-rich
veins. Sulfides, including CuFe sulfides, are commonly present
in minor quantities. These deposits are also enriched in REE
(Johnson and Barton, in press). For the most part, magnetite
apatiteactinolite deposits make Fe ores and only rarely
contain economically significant Cu. They have been routinely
distinguished from magnetite-dominated, Cu-rich varieties (e.g.,

Williams, 2010b).
The magnetite-only types appear to form a continuum with
systems where magnetite is important and may be dominant,
but hematite, either as specularite or mushketovite (magnetite
replacing hematite), is present and can be common. These
magnetite-rich, hematite-bearing deposits more commonly
have Cu mineralization and include many of the major
Andean (Sillitoe, 2003), Brazilian (Xavier et al., 2010), and
Australian (Williams, 2010b) districts. Although many magnetite hematite deposits contain abundant Cu, this is far from
522
universal (e.g., SE Missouri, Seeger, 2000; S Australia,

Bastrakov et al., 2007; Siberia, Soloviev, 2010a).
Hematite-dominated deposits are apparently less common
(Skirrow, 2010; Skirrow et al., 2007; Williams, 2010a). The preeminent Cu-rich examples are those of the Stuart Shelf in South
Australia (Olympic Dam, Prominent Hill, and Carapateena;
Skirrow et al., 2007) where hematite is both primary and secondary. Hematite-rich systems, including mushketovite-rich examples, are common in the Andes as well. The copper-rich types
are mainly discordant, structurally controlled breccias and veins.
Discordant to stratabound sulfide-poor hematite(REE-bearing)
deposits occur as well (e.g., Sweden; Parak, 1991; Mt. Painter,
Lambert et al., 1982; Bafq, Iran, Daliran et al., 2010; Jami
et al., 2007; Great Basin, United States, Johnson, 2000; Tobey,
1976). In some areas, hematitic ironstones may be substantially
older than contained CuAu mineralization, though this remains
unsettled (e.g., Tennant Creek, Skirrow and Walshe, 2002). Even
in these areas, hematite is commonly associated with magnetitebearing rocks or portions of deposits.
Although magnetite and hematite types may occur independently, sufficient control is lacking in most districts to be
confident of system-scale zoning. Where the third dimension is
well exposed, both lateral and vertical zoning occurs including
from magnetite to hematite types and with corresponding
changes in alteration and accessory minerals (e.g., Gawler
province, Skirrow et al., 2007; Sossego-Sequeirinho, Carajas,
Monteiro et al., 2008a; Manto Verde, Chile, Benavides et al.,
2007, Rieger et al., 2010; Humboldt mafic complex, Nevada,
Johnson and Barton, 2000). The best Cu(Au)-mineralized
systems are discordant; conversely those stratiform deposits
that may have formed at or near the earths surface lack abundant Cu (e.g., Kiruna, Sweden, Parak, 1975; El Laco, Chile,
Rhodes et al., 1999; Bafq, Iraq, Daliran et al., 2010).
13.20.3.1.2 Fe oxide-poor Cu(Au/Ag) deposits of proposed

affinity to IOCG systems
A source of ambiguity in the IOCG clan stems from inclusion
of other deposit types that are proposed variations on the Fe
oxide-dominated theme (Table 1; Haynes, 2000; Williams,
2010a). Variations include (1) ferroan carbonate- or quartzdominated veins with accessory Cu(Au) with or without
hematite magnetite, (2) pyrite- and/or pyrrhotite-bearing
Cu(Au) deposits with sparse or absent Fe oxides, and (3)
volcanic-hosted Cu(Ag) deposits with minor (<5%) hematite. Briefly noted later are magnetite-bearing porphyry Cu and
alkaline magmatic systems, neither of which shows a close
spatial nor temporal relationship to IOCG systems.
The quartz/carbonate veins are of two types. Some represent
the fringes of Fe oxide-rich zones and have similar hematitebearing mineralogies (e.g., in Chile; Kreiner, 2011; Sillitoe,
2003; Great Bear Magmatic Zone, Mumin et al., 2010). These
can extend up to 10 km in strike and be tens of meters in width
(Mumin et al., 2010). In some of these districts, the carbonate
quartz vein systems include distal AgAsNiCoU deposits
(see Chapter 13.16). Others lack this spatial association and
are more common in metamorphic terranes where they are synor late metamorphic, commonly cutting higher temperature
fabrics and rocks (e.g., in N Baltic: Finnmark, Ettner et al.,
1993; Pahtohavare, Billstrom et al., 2010). In many respects,
this latter group resembles orogenic Au veins (Chapter 13.15).
Both types have well-developed Na and/or K alteration. An

intriguing parallel exists with vein and replacement siderite
(CuAgPb) deposits derived from basinal or orogenic fluids
(e.g., Palinkas et al., 2009).
CuAu deposits with pyrite pyrrhotite and variable
amounts of magnetite occur in several metamorphic terranes
including Khetri (Knight et al., 2002), Tennant Creek (Skirrow
and Walshe, 2002), Singhbhum (Changkakoti et al., 1987; Pal
et al., 2009), and Cloncurry (Baker, 1998; Mark et al., 2006a)
where they are accompanied by NaCa alteration and tend to
occur in areas of reduced host rocks. This group overlaps with
variably magnetite-bearing metasediment-hosted CuCoAu
deposits (Slack et al., 2011) and with Udokan, Siberia, a huge,
enigmatic sediment-hosted magnetite-bearing Cu(Ag Au)
deposit (Soloviev, 2010b).
The third group comprises hematite-bearing volcanic- and
sediment-hosted Cu(Ag) deposits. These zone from hematite
(minor, with little or no Fe addition), though chalcocite to
bornite to chalcopyrite to pyrite. The premier examples occur
in the Mesozoic volcanic rocks of northern Chile where they
overlap the time and region containing the well-defined IOCG
systems (Maksaev and Zentilli, 2002). None of the Cu(Ag)
deposits are IOCGs by the definition used here in that they lack
abundant Fe oxides; however, they share a number of distinctive features including Cu(Ag Au) enrichments, alkali
(calcic) alteration, an oxidized but sulfur-poor geochemistry,
and a genetic link with brines. The associated metals, zoning,
and aspects of alteration in these deposits overlap with features
in many sediment-hosted Cu (and some U) systems with which
they share similar paleogeographic settings (Kirkham, 1989).
13.20.3.1.3 Possible modern analogues

Several modern geothermal systems share features with IOCG
systems (Barton and Johnson, 2000). The most compelling
modern analogue is the Salton Sea geothermal system
(McKibben and Hardie, 1997). This basalt-driven geothermal
system circulates evaporite-derived low total S brines that precipitate hematitechalcopyritecobaltian pyriteallanitic epidote veins. Flashing of these brines deposits magnetite with
high Au and U contents. The most abundant metals in the
brine Mn, Zn, Pb do not precipitate for want of sufficient
sulfide. Highly saline geothermal systems are known in the
Afar region of Ethiopia and adjacent Djibouti where modern
basaltic magmatism circulates fluids derived in part from evaporated seawater and evaporites in the modern rift (Bonatti
et al., 1972; Bosch et al., 1977).
13.20.3.2
Grade, Size, and Form
Few multielement resource estimates exist for IOCG ore bodies. Copper is rarely reported in deposits mined for Fe.
Conversely, P, Ti, and other elements are rarely presented for
Cu-rich deposits. Values are skewed even when they are available. For example, S is deleterious in Fe ores and thus sulfide(and Cu-)rich zones tend to be excluded from Fe resource
calculations. Compilation of published data (Williams et al.,
2005) shows that deposits mined for Fe including the magnetite(hematite apatite) ores typically contain 3555 wt% Fe,
1 wt% Ti, 0.012 wt% P, and 02 wt% S. Where both are
reported, Fe and Cu grades span a range of metal contents for
523

both magnetite- and hematite-dominated types (Figure 6). Ore
bodies range in size from a few million to >1 billion tons. Iron
concentrations vary from about 15 to 55 wt%, whereas Cu
contents vary from a trace to about 1.5 wt%. From the
deposit-type definition, it follows that all Cu-rich IOCG ores
contain abundant Fe oxides; however, a number of the Feonly ore bodies contain >100 000 tons Cu (Figure 6(a)).
Average grades reflect the principal economic commodity,
with high Cu (and lower Fe) in those mined for Cu, and the
converse in the Fe deposits (Figure 6(b)). Data are limited to a
subset of deposits given that only one of the two commodities
is of economic interest. A few deposits have both Fe and
Cu have economic importance as byproducts or coproducts
(e.g., Candelaria and Santo Domingo Sur, Chile, Daroch
and Barton, 2011; Cornwall, Pennsylvania, Lapham, 1968;
Pumpkin Hollow, Nevada, Dilles et al., 2000). This continuum
in metal contents makes restricting IOCG deposits to the Curich group a function of economics (cf. Williams et al., 2005).
Overall, Cu tends to be more abundant in hematite/mushketovite-dominated deposits. In some regions, only a few
deposits contain appreciable Cu (N Baltic, SW, mid-continent
North America, and Iran). In other regions (Chile, Gawler),
many hematite magnetite-bearing examples are Cu mineralized, whereas the magnetite-dominated deposits are more varied in their Cu contents and many have only minor Cu. Some
older, variably metamorphosed regions (Cloncurry, Carajas)
have both hematite-dominant and magnetite-dominant Curich deposits. In Cu-rich systems, Au averages 0.10.5 ppm
(Williams et al., 2005). Analogous patterns can be deduced
for other elements including U, REE, and Co.
13.20.3.3
Ore Mineralogy and Paragenesis
In addition to the iron oxides, the ores contain <15% total

sulfides, plus accessory silicates, carbonates (commonly ferroan;
siderite is locally abundant), and phosphates (Hitzman et al.,
1992; Williams et al., 2005). Chalcopyrite and pyrite are the
most common sulfides with scattered bornite, chalcocite, pyrrhotite, sphalerite, and NiCo sulfides. Barite and anhydrite
occur in some deposits; the latter, along with rare halite, is
abundant in a few skarn systems (e.g., Soloviev, 2010a; Zhang,
1986). Weathering effects have not been discussed in most areas
with the exception of deposits in South Australia where supergene processes may have redistributed Cu, U, and Au (Oreskes
and Einaudi, 1990; Skirrow, 2010).
Hematite-dominated assemblages commonly have higher
sulfide contents than related magnetite ores. Hematite typically
occurs as specularite, which may be replaced by magnetite, but
hematite also occurs in more massive steely form and as finegrained replacement of other minerals including silicates and,
especially, magnetite. Only a few deposits, including Olympic
Dam and Salobo, contain abundant bornite digenite
chalcocite that occur with hematite or magnetite (Williams
et al., 2005). Common gangue phases in the hematitedominated assemblages include quartz, Ca(FeMg) carbonates,
chlorite, sericite, and sparse apatite. Rarer elements, including
REE and U, commonly occur as discrete phases. Related alteration minerals reflect more acid conditions and include sericite,
chlorite, quartz, and rarely, pyrophyllite, kaolinite, and alunite.
Magnetite-dominated assemblages contain apatite and/or
actinolite(hastingsite), minor to absent sulfides (typically
10
10
Main commodity
Typical recoverable
Fe grades
Dominant
oxide
Cu Fe
Mt
Hm
Porphyry
Cu deposits
10x
10
u/Fe
tal C
crus
Cu (wt%)
Cu (wt%)
Typical recoverable Cu grades
0.1
0.1
C
in
co
nt
a
0.
u/Fe
tal C
Crus
75% Mt
75% Hm
Porphyry Cu/Au limits

Cu(AuMo)
calcalkaline
CuAu alkaline
AuCu dioritic
ed
0.01
0.01
10
(a)
100
1000
Reported resource (Mt)
10 000 0
(b)
10
20
30
40
50
60
Fe (wt%)
Figure 6 Size and grade of IOCG deposits for which Cu with or without Fe contents is available (based on a compilation by Barton and Johnson used in
Williams et al., 2005). (a) Copper grades and tonnages for magnetite-dominated and hematite-dominated deposits, indicating principal commodity.
Copper contents are not commonly reported for Fe-only deposits, though many mention Cu minerals. Fields for global porphyry Cu deposits are
shown for comparison. (b) Comparison of Cu and Fe contents for the same deposits as in (a) where Fe contents are also available. Also shown are
approximate cutoff (lowest) grades for ores of Fe and Cu, a representative field for the bulk composition of magnetite-rich porphyry systems, and a
band indicating representative crustal Cu/Fe. In both figures, note the approximate continuum in grade and size. See text for discussion.
524
pyrite > chalcopyrite), and a variety of accessory minerals

including titanite. Associated alteration phases typically
include combinations of sodic plagioclase, marialitic scapolite,
calcic amphiboles or pyroxenes, epidote, titanite, and in some
places (notably, but not exclusively, in carbonate host rocks),
calcic garnets. Biotite and/or K-feldspar are also common alteration products in transitional magnetitehematite systems that
are hosted by intermediate to felsic rocks. Other Fe2 minerals
are commonly present and, in some cases, may be volumetrically important. Accessory ferroan carbonates including siderite occur in a number of deposits (e.g., at Olympic Dam;
Oreskes and Einaudi, 1990) where they may be either early
or late. Silicates have variable Fe2 contents, and locally, they
may be important as in fayalite-bearing mineralization at Vergenoeg, RSA (Borrok et al., 1998), or metamorphosed (?)
fayalitegrunerite-bearing assemblages as at Salobo (Requia
et al., 2003). Ilmenite is rare; nearly all Ti occurs in titanite.
In deposits where both Fe oxides occur, magnetite-rich
assemblages typically form earlier, at higher temperatures, and
at greater depths than hematite-dominated, variably sulfidebearing assemblages. Although magnetite commonly oxidizes
to hematite, the reverse appears to be more common in many
systems, even in deposits where there is little evidence for new
growth of magnetite (e.g., Marschik and Fontbote, 2001). Cubearing sulfides are typically late in the paragenesis and may
postdate Fe introduction. In detail, the parageneses can be
quite complicated and exhibit multiple reversals of sequence
(e.g., Kreiner, 2011) including clearly prograde sequences (e.g.,
Daroch and Barton, 2011; de Haller and Fontbote, 2009).
13.20.3.4 Minor Element Contents and Mineralogy: UTh,

REE, CoNiV, ClFBr, B
A distinctive and broad suite of minor elements occur both in the
principal phases and in accessory minerals. A few elements U,
REE, and Co have been of economic interest. Others show informative patterns including Th, NiV, FClBr, B, and AsBiTe.
Uranium, Th, and REE contents commonly, though not
universally, exceed 10 crustal abundance: 5500 ppm for U
(Hitzman and Valenta, 2005) and 0.23%, rarely >10%, for
P
REE (Johnson and Barton, in press). Abundances correlate
with those in the host rocks (Barton and Johnson, 1996); for
example, deposits associated with felsic and alkaline igneous
rocks generally have higher concentrations of the more lithophile elements, such as the REE, than those deposits associated
with more mafic rocks. This correlation has been used as
evidence for either a specialized alkaline source (e.g., Groves
et al., 2010) or a host-rock control independent of magmatic
processes (e.g., Barton and Johnson, 1996, 2000).
Common U and Th minerals include uraninite, davidite,
brannerite, thorite, thorianite, and allanite with appreciable
quantities in apatite, titanite, xenotime, and epidote
(Hitzman and Valenta, 2005; Mazdab et al., 2008). Although
fairly low grade, the worlds greatest single U resource is Olympic Dam (9.2 Gt at 270 ppm U, BHP Billiton Ann. Rept.,
2009). Smaller U resources occur in other IOCG settings
including magnetite-hosted deposits (e.g., Singhbhum district,
India, Pandey et al., 1994) and distal AgCoNiAsU veins
around the magnetiteapatiteactinolite deposits (e.g., Great
Bear Magmatic Zone, Canada, Mumin et al., 2007).
REE-bearing minerals are ubiquitous in IOCG systems. In

magnetite-dominated ores, REE are located primarily in rockforming minerals including apatite, titanite, and epidote
allanite (Mazdab et al., 2008). In hematite-rich assemblages,
REE occur in apatite and in discrete REE, phases occur including
phosphates (monazite, xenotime, britholite), carbonates (bastnaesite, synchysite), and silicates (allanite, stillwellite) (Johnson
and Barton, in press; Oreskes and Einaudi, 1992). Monazite and
other REE-rich minerals postdate apatite and may reflect additional enrichment or breakdown of earlier REE-bearing apatite
and titanite (e.g., Andersson et al., 2002; Torab and Lehmann,
2007). Although REE are not currently recovered from any IOCG
system, some deposits contain large and locally high-grade
resources (Johnson and Barton, in press).
Among the siderophile elements, Co and Ni are documented in small amounts, typically in pyrite (0.12 wt%), in pyrrhotite (when present), and locally, in discrete Ni and Co
sulfides and arsenides (e.g., Mazdab, 2001; Monteiro et al.,
2008b; Pal et al., 2009; Rusk et al., 2010). By far, the highest
enrichments are in the distal CoAgAs(NiU) deposits that
occur in some districts (e.g., Great Bear, Mumin et al., 2007).
Few data are available on overall Co enrichments; estimates of
bulk ore grade based on the bulk pyrite content indicate that
Co (and Ni) rarely exceeds a few 100 ppm. Co Ni enrichment
in the iron sulfides more likely reflects the overall scarcity of
sulfur rather than an abundance of these elements. Only a
handful of IOCG-related magnetite-rich deposits are also rich
in cobalt (e.g., some CuCo ores, Slack et al., 2011); however,
for many years, principal cobalt supply in the United States
came either from magnetitebiotitesulfide ores from the
Idaho Cobalt Belt (Nash and Hahn, 1989) or the Co-rich pyrite
of the Pennsylvania deposits (Lapham, 1968).
Apart from minor V and Ti, other siderophile elements are
rarely enriched. Magnetite is purer than those from igneous or
FeTiV systems. Magnetite generally contains minor Ti (2 wt
%) and V (1 wt%) and trace amounts of Cr, Al, Ga, Zn, Mn,
Co, and Ni. Dupuis and Beaudoin (2011) argue that IOCG
magnetites have distinctive compositions, whereas others (e.g.,
Monteiro et al., 2008b; Rusk et al., 2009; Xavier et al., 2011) have
shown that magnetite compositions can be highly varied even in
the same deposit. Other Fe-bearing phases can also be
V-enriched in IOCG deposits including epidote, hematite, and
coulsonite (F.K. Mazdab, written comm., 2011). Most Ti occurs
in titanite or rutile, a reflection of the moderate temperatures
and relatively oxidized, commonly Ca-rich, conditions.
Halogens occur not only widely in OH sites in silicates
and apatite (Cl, F) but also commonly in marialitic scapolite
(Cl, Br), locally in fluorite, and rarely in chlorosilicates, such as
pyrosmalite (Dreher et al., 2008; Mazdab, 2001). With the
exception of Cl in marialitic scapolite, halogens content are
low with Cl exceeding 1 wt% only in hastingitic amphiboles,
apatites, and some biotites (e.g., Mazdab, 2001, 2003; Monteiro
et al., 2008b; Treloar and Colley, 1996). Fluorine contents are
generally low except as a constituent of apatite and as fluorite in
deposits that are hosted in F-rich, low-Ca felsic rocks (e.g., in
South Australia and SE Missouri, Einaudi and Oreskes, 1990;
Bushveld granites, RSA, Crocker et al., 1988). Br and I, are
known from fluid inclusion analyses, and Br is present in scapolite at levels (0.0X%) where evidence indicates that Br/Cl
ratios reflect fluid ratios (Pan and Dong, 2003).
Boron, though rarely abundant, occurs in accessory phases

and has captured attention particularly for use as an isotopic
tracer (Collins, 2010; Tornos et al., 2011; Xavier et al., 2008).
Nearly all IOCG regions contain tourmaline, whereas other
boron minerals, such as dumortierite, axinite, danburite, datolite,
and ludwigite, are less common. Dumortierite occurs in IOCGrelated advanced argillic assemblages in Chile, the western United
States, and elsewhere (Kreiner, 2011; Ray and Dick, 2002).
Although most IOCG tourmaline compositions lie near the
schorldravite join, they exhibit a wide range of compositions
that correlate with the alteration assemblage (Collins, 2010).
Accessory minerals containing As, Bi, and Te are reported
from many deposits, yet only a handful are known to contain
appreciable amounts. These take the forms of sulfides (arsenopyrite, cobaltite, carrollite, bismuthinite), many arsenides, and
trace tellurides. Such minerals are typically late and sparse if
recognized at all yet are common in a few regions, such as
Tennant Creek (Huston et al., 1993; Skirrow and Walshe,
2002) and the Great Bear magmatic zone (Mumin et al., 2010).
13.20.4
Zoning
clastic rocks, KNa(Ca) exchange is manifested mainly in the

changes in framework silicate mineralogy, with K-feldspar
(and/or biotite) developing in K-altered zones and variable
sodic plagioclase or scapolite in sodiccalcic (NaCa, sensu
lato) altered volumes. Whole-rock compositions in IOCG districts and regions show these changes through large shifts in
bulk composition especially Na for K exchange (Figure 4) and
minor element contents (Figure 7). In many of these areas, the
feldspars take on a characteristic maroon to red color due to
tiny inclusions of hematite and known colloquially as red
rock alteration (Wenner and Taylor, 1987; Williams, 1994a).
Carbonate hosts are far less common; where present, they
contain similar calcic minerals but reflect a fundamentally
different type of metasomatism.
13.20.4.1.1 Sodic to calcic alteration types

Sodic to calcic alteration types (individually, Na, Na(Ca), and
Ca; collectively, NaCa) encompass a spectrum reflecting
removal of K and addition of Na and(or) Ca (Figures 4 and
7(a)). It is manifested in formation of new framework silicates
(or, less commonly, epidote or garnet) as the aluminous
phase and a suite of increasingly Ca-rich mafic phases. Silica
may be added or subtracted; in many areas, quartz contents
decrease through dissolution (as on a fluid heating path;
Fournier, 1987) or by reactions to make other phases
(e.g., CaAl2Si2O8 4SiO2 2Na 2NaAlSi3O8 Ca2; Carten,
1986). Textures can be preserved or obliterated. In extreme
cases, essentially monomineralic rocks are produced including
albitites, scapolitites and epidosites. Metals including Fe and Cu
are commonly removed when the original Fe-bearing phases
(including trace magmatic sulfides) are converted to other
minerals (Figure 7(b)). Metal loss is widespread (Barton and
Johnson, 1996, 2000; de Jong et al., 1998; Johnson, 2000;
Johnson and Barton, 2000; Menard, 1995; Oliver et al.,
2004, 2008; Williams, 1994b); however, it is not universal, for
instance, NaCa alteration in many areas in Cloncurry shows
consistent depletion in Zn and Pb but irregular changes in Cu
(Oliver et al., 2004). Locally, metals including Fe and Cu are
Hydrothermal Alteration and System-scale
This section summarizes IOCG-related alteration types and

zoning, aspects of mass transfer, and a comparison of these
features with other kinds of hydrothermal systems. Complex
in detail (reflecting geologic context), alteration is remarkably
voluminous and it exhibits large gains and losses in multiple
components. Zoning also varies in detail, yet the broad patterns
resemble those illustrated in Figure 1. The combined intensity
and style of hydrothermal alteration further distinguishes the
IOCG clan from other families of ore-forming systems.
13.20.4.1
Types of Hydrothermal Alteration
All IOCG systems exhibit extensive NaCaK(Fe) exchange

coupled with gains and losses in Fe, Si, and minor elements.
Hydrolytic (acid) alteration is present in many. In igneous and
+500
Ranges and geometric means of mass changes

for IOCG-related Na(Ca) alteration
(a)
525
50 mm
(b)
(igneous protoliths; constant AI2O3 normalization)

3 of 14 > 0
Mt
Change in mass (%)
2 of 13 > 0
+100
+42
+8
2 of 14 > 0
2 of 14 > 0
+3
II
-47
-9
Ru
-24
-30
-50
-5
-9
-11
-42
-43
-53
-47
-43
-57
-90
-95
Ab
Ti
14 data sets from Australia, Chile, USA
Na2O K2O
Rb
Ba
CaO
Sr
MgO MnO SFe
Co
Cu
Zn
SiO2 TiO2 P2O5
Figure 7 Gains and losses during Na(Ca) alteration. (a) Changes in mass compared to protolith normalized to constant Al2O3. (b) Backscattered
electron image illustrating Fe removal during Na(-Ca) alteration; igneous ilmenite (Il) and magnetite (Mt) converting to rutile (Ru) then titanite (Ti) in
albitic plagioclase (Ab) (Cortez Mountains, Nevada; Johnson, 2000). See text for discussion.
526
added with NaCa alteration types near or within some deposits

(e.g., Corriveau and Mumin, 2010; Johnson and Barton, 2000;
Kreiner, 2011).
Mineralogy reflects the specific alteration type and change
in bulk composition (e.g., Dilles et al., 1995). In sodic (Na)
alteration, K and Ca are removed and albite, chlorite, and rutile
are the main minerals; they replace, respectively, the earlier
feldspars (white micas), mafic minerals, and oxides/titanite.
In sodic(calcic) (Na(Ca)) alteration, Ca-bearing minerals
including calcic amphiboles (actinolitic to hastingsitic) and
diopsidic pyroxenes replace the mafic minerals, while oligoclase, marialitic scapolite, or epidote replace the feldspars, and
titanite is the typical Ti phase. In calcic (Ca) alteration, calcic
plagioclase, garnet, or clinozoisite/epidote replace the felsic
minerals, calcic pyroxene replaces the mafic minerals, and
titanite is the Ti phase.
As implied in Figure 1, NaCa assemblages tend to be deep
and peripheral. In such cases, they tend to be metal-depleted
with loss of iron and base metals (Figure 7). However, in some
districts, NaCa assemblages accompany magnetite-rich (typically Cu-poor) styles of mineralization (e.g., Johnson and
Barton, 2000; Perring et al., 2000). NaCa alteration can be
transitional into more Fe-rich and, locally, K-bearing assemblages with hastingsitic amphibole and, locally biotite, or
when conditions become more acid, sericite, or chlorite (e.g.,
Dilles et al., 2000; Kreiner, 2011). In some IOCG systems, the
Na(Ca) minerals locally take on weakly peralkaline compositions manifested as acmitic and riebeckitic components in
pyroxenes and amphiboles (e.g., Barton and Johnson, 1996;
Vapnik et al., 2007; Wang and Williams, 2001). Significantly,
none of these areas has any evidence for peralkaline
magmatism; thus, a different source of alkalinity is required.
Sodiccalcic alteration by itself or even with some of the
other alteration types does not define an IOCG system. The
classic example is seafloor alteration, where deep sodic to calcic
alteration assemblages underlie low-temperature K alteration
and focused acid alteration in upwelling zones (e.g., Alt, 1999;
Franklin et al., 2005). NaCa mineral assemblages can also
reflect meta-evaporites or regional-scale metasomatism related
to metamorphic reactions with evaporitic fluids. These are well
documented in a number of areas (that typically also contain
IOCG systems) including Australia (Oliver et al., 2004), N
Baltic (Frietsch et al., 1997), and India (Golani et al., 2002).
13.20.4.1.2 Carbonate-hosted alteration: Skarn and Fe

oxide replacement
Where present in IOCG systems, carbonate rocks host distinctive calcsilicate and Fe oxide alteration. In contrast to the calcic
alteration (Ca addition) in aluminous (igneous or sedimentary) protoliths, formation of calcsilicate and Fe oxide minerals
in carbonate rocks requires a fundamentally different kind of
metasomatism addition of Fe Si. Most carbonate-hosted
alteration is dominated by magnetite hematite with subordinate andraditic garnet, diopsidic pyroxene, actinolitic amphibole, chlorite, serpentine, carbonates, and other nonsilicates
(rarely including anhydrite, e.g., Zhang et al., 2011, or halite,
Soloviev, 2010a). Many deposits consist largely or entirely of
Fe oxides with little or no calcsilicate minerals. Because these
types require carbonate protoliths, they are most common in
the Phanerozoic, for example, in the eastern United States
(Robinson, 1988), southwestern North America (Barton

et al., 2011a), Siberia (Soloviev, 2010a), Kazakhstan
(Hawkins et al., 2010), and the lower Yangtze basin, China
(Pan and Dong, 1999). In most of these districts, carbonatehosted magnetite skarn is but one variety of a spectrum of
deposits ranging from igneous-hosted magnetiteapatite
actinolite veins and NaCa alteration to distal hematite
magnetite chalcopyrite veins and replacement bodies in
volcanic rocks (e.g., Iron Springs, Tobey, 1976; Yerington,
Dilles et al., 2000; Yangtze region, Pan and Dong, 1999).
By no means are all Fe oxide-rich skarns IOCG type. Magnetite and hematite are common accessory minerals in many
skarn types, particularly in dolomitic hosts (Einaudi et al.,
1981). Many magnesian magnetite skarns form with other
types of igneous-related deposits (e.g., Sn greisens, porphyry
CuMo) and lack the characteristic minor element suites and
the distinctive associated alteration of the IOCG clan.
13.20.4.1.3 K-rich alteration: High-temperature and

low-temperature types
K-rich alteration in IOCG environments belongs to two separate
groups with distinctly different characteristics (Figure 1; Barton
and Johnson, 2000). The first type is proximal to, and associated
with, mineralization. It consists of discordant, moderate- to
high-temperature mineral assemblages. A second, lowtemperature type is widespread, commonly regionally extensive
and typically stratabound alteration that is commonly metal
deficient and does not coincide with orebodies. Both types can
be intense with K2O contents exceeding 8 wt% (Figure 4), yet
they represent fundamentally different parts of the systems.
The proximal variety contains K-feldspar and/or biotite,
typically in association with abundant magnetite and with
calcic or magnesian minerals, such as actinolite, epidote, titanite, or chlorite (Hitzman et al., 1992; Williams et al., 2005).
Where calcic phases are abundant, this type has been termed
calcpotassic (KCa) by analogy with other alteration types.
These assemblages are widely interpreted to be part of the
upwelling and therefore cooling part of the hydrothermal system (Figure 1; e.g., Andes, Sillitoe, 2003; South Australia,
Skirrow et al., 2007; Carajas, Xavier et al., 2010). The abundance of Fe2-bearing silicates and the scarcity of hematite
imply moderate redox conditions. Quartz may be added but,
in most cases, is minor compared to the Fe oxides. These
characteristics contrast with Ksilicate alteration in most porphyry and greisen systems which generally contain far less
magnetite, considerably more quartz, and few, if any, calcsilicate minerals (Barton and Johnson, 2000; Proffett, 2003).
Only alkalic porphyry/epithermal systems have similar assemblages though much less Fe oxide (Cooke et al., 2007; Jensen
and Barton, 2000; Lang et al., 1995, Chapter 13.14).
In contrast to proximal, discordant magnetite-bearing Krich alteration, distal K-enriched (meta)volcanic rocks with
abundant K-feldspar and/or biotite are documented in many
IOCG districts (e.g., N Sweden, Parak, 1975; SE Missouri,
Kisvarsanyi, 1972; N Chile, Marschik and Fontbote, 2001;
Ray and Dick, 2002; Turkey, Helvaci and Griffin, 1983; Great
Bear, Gandhi, 1988; SW N Am, Barton et al., 2011a) and have
been noted for over a century (e.g., Lindgren, 1913). K2O
contents may exceed 10 wt% and locally reach 14 wt% in
intermediate and mafic compositions. The presence of
hematite and available whole-rock analyses demonstrate that

many are highly oxidized (molar Fe2O3/FeO 1). They are
largely stratabound and extend for many kilometers. They
occur in the upper parts of the geologic column, which hosts
the ore-bearing systems. Where unmetamorphosed, this alteration forms hematitic, K-feldspar-dominated rocks that may
show evidence of base metal depletion (Hollocher et al., 1994;
Roddy et al., 1988). They are inferred to be shallow alteration
products of saline surficial fluids (e.g., Ennis et al., 2000; Kerrich
and Rehrig, 1987; Roddy et al., 1988; Wenner and Taylor,
1987). Such K-rich metasomatism reflects a briny diagenetic
environment but can form in the absence of the energy source
and focused high-T fluid flow needed for IOCG mineralization.
A possible variation of the low-T alteration is the widespread scapolitebiotite-bearing rock that occurs in a number
of IOCG-bearing metamorphic terranes (Serdyuchenko, 1975;
N Baltic: Frietsch et al., 1997; Australia: Oliver et al., 2004). The
origin of these NaK-rich rocks is uncertain; they might represent metamorphosed low-temperature alkali-rich alteration or
they might be metamorphosed and/or remobilized evaporitic
materials.
13.20.4.1.4 Hydrolytic (acid) alteration

Hydrolytic (acid) alteration forms in the upper and proximal
portions of many systems, mostly with hematite-dominated or
mixed hematitemagnetite ores (Figure 1; Hitzman et al.,
1992). Acid assemblages include sericitic and chloritic types
and, in some areas, distinctive sulfur-poor advanced argillic
assemblages (Barton and Johnson, 1996, 2000; Kreiner, 2011).
Overall, acid alteration is considerably less voluminous than the
NaCaK(Fe) alteration. In well-developed cases, feldspars are
fully converted to sericite or more rarely chlorite, and mafic
minerals alter to chlorite and other iron minerals (hematite pyrite). Iron is added as hematite or magnetite and may
replace host minerals, locally preserving delicate textures
(e.g., Olympic Dam, Oreskes and Einaudi, 1990). Sericite
hematite quartz forms in many felsic-hosted systems (e.g.,
Olympic Dam, Pea Ridge; Einaudi and Oreskes, 1990), whereas
chlorite sericite is more common in intermediate- to mafichosted systems (e.g., in many Chilean examples; Kreiner and
Barton, 2009; Rieger et al., 2010; Sillitoe, 2003; in Carajas,
Torresi et al., 2012). In many cases, feldspar hydrolysis is
incomplete, yielding mixed sericite or chlorite plus K-feldspar
or albite assemblages. Sericitic/chloritic alteration in IOCG systems contrasts with other settings, notably in porphyry and
seafloor systems in that the others are typically pyrite-rich, lack
abundant hematite and/or magnetite, tend to exhibit more
intense acid leaching, and are commonly more voluminous.
Advanced argillic alteration has been noted in about 15
IOCG systems (Kreiner, 2011) where it is evidenced by diagnostic AlSi phases including pyrophyllite, andalusite, diaspore,
corundum, kaolinite, and dumortierite. Distinctive features of
IOCG-related advanced argillic alteration include common
specular hematite, a near absence of sulfides, and typically a
dearth of sulfates. Alunite-rich alteration at El Laco, Chile, is
unusual and may represent a steam-heated zone or it could be
unrelated to the iron oxide bodies (Sillitoe and Burrows, 2002).
Advanced argillic zones occur at high structural levels, mainly in
contemporaneous volcanic rocks (Kreiner, 2011; Ray and Dick,
2002). Although the combined structural and stratigraphic
527
control of IOCG-related advanced argillic alteration parallels

that in other hypogene advanced argillic alteration (e.g., in
epithermal AuAg systems), IOCG systems have far less sulfur
and lower sulfidation states.
13.20.4.2
Patterns
System- to Regional-Scale Spatial and Temporal
The general architecture of IOCG systems (Figure 1) derives

from observations in many regions (Barton and Johnson,
1996; Hitzman et al., 1992; Williams et al., 2005; papers in
Porter, 2000, 2002, 2010b). Superposition of KFeCaH
alteration types is the rule within the vicinity (a few km maximum) of deposits; generally, more acid and lower temperature varieties are superimposed upon and/or overlie higher-T,
less acid types. Conversely, NaCa and low-temperature K
metasomatism can extend over large areas (tens to hundreds
of km2). Although these latter types are broadly linked in time
and space, it can be difficult to relate them to individual
deposits. At regional scales, alkali-rich alteration reflects overlapping systems and, in some regions, cumulatively extends
over distances up to several hundred kilometer (Barton et al.,
2011a; de Jong and Williams, 1995; Menard, 1995; Oliver
et al., 2008; Parak, 1975). Controlling features at the regional
scale include major fault/shear zones and contacts of intrusive
complexes (e.g. Cloncurry, Oliver et al., 2008; Carajas, Xavier
et al., 2010; Chile, Menard, 1995; Sillitoe, 2003).
The vertical extent of IOCG systems is not widely documented, yet it is clear that vertical zoning is the rule. In some areas,
tilted systems or multiple levels of exhumation demonstrate
the vertical zoning summarized in Figure 1. Where such
system-scale observations are available, the vertical extent of
systems are 36 km from hematite K-rich tops to CuFepoor Na(Ca) roots (e.g., western United States, Dilles et al.,
2000; Johnson, 2000; Johnson and Barton, 2000; Andes,
Kreiner and Barton, 2009). Many ore bodies show a more
limited vertical extent ( 1 km) of metals and alteration assemblages (e.g., many districts in Chile, Kreiner and Barton, 2009;
Marschik and Fontbote, 2001; Rieger et al., 2010, SW North
America, Johnson and Barton, 2000; Barton et al., 2011a;
Carajas, Dreher et al., 2008; Monteiro et al., 2008a; Siberia,
Soloviev, 2010a; Gawler, Bastrakov et al., 2007).
Although there are many paragenetic and zoning studies,
integrated timespace relationships of alteration and magmatism have been addressed only in a few districts (e.g., Barton
et al., 2011b; Dilles et al., 2000; Johnson and Barton, 2000;
Mark et al., 2006b). In some areas, widespread alkali-rich alteration is demonstrably coeval with mineralization as evidenced
by crosscutting relationships and geochronology even in cases
where there are multiple independent hydrothermal systems
(e.g., Marcona area, Peru; Chen et al., 2010b; Copiapo area,
Chile; Barton et al., 2011b). However, in other areas, at least
some of the NaCa and K assemblages may represent independent alteration episodes, alkali-rich diagenetic changes, or metamorphism of evaporitic materials (e.g., Cloncurry, Oliver et al.,
2008; N Baltic, Frietsch et al., 1997; western United States,
Barton et al., 2011b). The common superposition of lower
temperature on higher temperature assemblages can be interpreted as cooling or telescoping of systems, potentially with
significant time lags (e.g., Skirrow, 2010).
13.20.4.3 Extent of Metasomatism and Comparison with

Porphyry/Alkaline Cu Systems
The intensity and volume of IOCG-related metasomatism
stands out when compared to that seen in most other hydrothermal environments (Figure 8). Alkali exchange alteration
and related metal redistribution commonly exceed 5% of the
mass of the original rock and are documented over tens to
hundreds of kilometer cube in single districts and much more
at regional scales. Mass transfer associated with NaCa alteration typically results in loss of Fe, K, base metals, Rb, and Ba
and addition of Na and/or Ca (Figure 7); comparable masses of
alkalis and some metal exchanges occur during lowtemperature K alteration (Figure 4). The amount of Fe, Cu,
and other metals that can be mobilized in these processes
commonly greatly exceeds the amounts reported in associated
deposits (Barton and Johnson, 2000; de Jong et al., 1998;
Roddy et al., 1988; Williams, 1994b). Volumes of K(CaNa
Fe) and H(Fe) alteration are smaller than NaCa or lowtemperature K types. In the larger systems, they range from 1
to 10 km3, which is roughly comparable to the volumes of
metal-bearing K(NaCa) and acid alteration in porphyry and
arc-related seafloor systems (Figure 8). Globally, only marine
spreading centers have more extensive metasomatism by virtue
of alteration that accompanies ongoing creation and cooling of
TH dilute Magmatic
Marine arcs
1011
(Johnson, 2000)
10 kg
12
TH saline
Ridges
1010
100
10
H+
NaK
MgCa
109
108
1
1
Isotopic
exchange
10
100
1000
10
10 000
(K2O+Na2O+CaO+MgO+FeO*)
1000
100
Absolute mass change (g kg-1 rock)
Durations of IOCG episodes are similarly diverse. Deposits

may be fairly restricted in time (e.g., 16001570 Ma in South
Australia, Skirrow et al., 2007); however, in most areas, temporal
development is protracted. For example, in the Andes (Chen,
2010; Sillitoe, 2003) and western North America (Barton et al.,
2011a), IOCG-style systems range in age from Jurassic through
the Neogene. Even in the same district, hydrothermal activity
may take place intermittently over tens of millions of years (e.g.,
Marcona, Peru, Chen et al., 2010b; Copiapo, Chile, Barton et al.,
2011b). The same holds in older, metamorphosed terranes, such
as the Cloncurry region, where there were at least two major
epochs of metasomatism and mineralization, one pre- or synmetamorphic (>1580 Ma), the other contemporaneous with
1550 Ma batholiths (Mark et al., 2006a,b; Oliver et al., 2008).
Although Hitzman (2000) and other workers have proposed
that Cu-rich systems may form relatively late in any given region,
the accumulating results on regional patterns call into question
any particular age progression; Cu-rich deposits clearly form
earlier, later, or contemporaneously with barren deposits.
Some members of the IOCG clan lack the full range of
hydrothermal features, particularly in the case of the nominally
amagmatic variants that are related to extensional or basinfluid expulsion processes (Barton and Johnson, 2000; e.g.,
SW Unite States detachment deposits, Wilkins et al., 1986;
Wernecke Breccias, Hunt et al., 2007). Such systems contain
relatively little magnetite or high-temperature alteration, yet
they share the lower temperature features notably hematiterich CuAu mineralization. Similar limitations may hold for
the oxide-poor CuAu systems that appear to have a fundamentally metamorphic origin in those cases, shallow or
regionally extensive cogenetic metasomatic features may be
absent (Figure 1; e.g., some deposits in Cloncurry, Oliver
et al., 2008; N Baltic, Billstrom et al., 2010; and Khetri,
Knight et al., 2002; see Haynes, 2000).
% Mass change from protolith
528
Volume of alteration (km3)
Figure 8 Magnitude and volume of mass changes for different families

of hydrothermal systems illustrating the size and intensity of
metasomatism in IOCG systems (Johnson, 2000). IOCG-related systems
are larger than nearly all the others, except for spreading center alteration
or the isotopic exchange associated with shallow magmatism in the
terrestrial crust (line bottom right center; Criss and Taylor, 1986). See
text for discussion.
oceanic crust. In the terrestrial environment, only H and O

isotopic exchange volatile addition are comparable in volume
though not in mass (Figure 8; e.g., Criss and Taylor, 1986).
Salient metasomatic features of IOCG systems distinctly differ from well-established magmatic-hydrothermal systems, notably porphyry Cu and skarn Cu deposits (Figure 8; Barton and
Johnson, 2000; Williams et al., 2005). IOCGs have tens of cubic
kilometers of NaCa(K) alteration, plus massive concentrations of hypogene Fe oxides, a relative scarcity of quartz, and
the distinctive suite of accessory REE, Co, and U. In contrast,
porphyry Cu systems, even alkaline varieties, lack the large volumes (in many examples, any) of Na-rich alteration. Where
present, NaCa metasomatism is either superimposed and
related to external fluids (Dilles et al., 1995) or forms limited
volumes (generally 1 km3) of various Na(KCaFeH)
types that are localized on the intrusive centers (Seedorff et al.,
2005). In contrast to IOCGs, in calcalkaline porphyry systems,
quartz veins are abundant, CuFe sulfides commonly form early,
and later acid assemblages are voluminous (110 km3) and
sulfur-rich (Seedorff et al., 2005). Magnetite-bearing veins
(quartz amphibole), though widespread, rarely occur over
large volumes (e.g., >1 km3) nor do magnetite additions average
more than a few wt% over these volumes (Clark and Arancibia,
1995; Muntean and Einaudi, 2000; Proffett, 2003). Magnetite
(and lesser hematite) can be relatively abundant in skarns associated with porphyry systems, but with the exception of dolomitic hosts, oxides are subordinate to iron-rich calcsilicates, such
as andraditic garnet (Einaudi et al., 1981) thus, these too differ
from most IOCG carbonate-hosted mineralization. These differences are subdued in alkaline porphyry systems that, due to their
distinctive igneous chemistries, commonly have less quartz, less
acid alteration, and more pronounced K(CaNa) alteration
(Cooke et al., 2007; Jensen and Barton, 2000; Lang et al.,
1995). The extreme cases are carbonatite-related deposits that
have been grouped by some with IOCGs (e.g., Groves et al.,
2010; Hauck, 1990; Hitzman et al., 1992); carbonatites have
different trace element enrichments (e.g., high Nb), have
strongly peralkaline alteration (fenites), and with the exception

of Bayan Obo, China, lack abundant massive Fe oxides.
Of course, completely independent origins are not
required. Hybrid districts reflect spatial overlap of porphyrytype and IOCG-type systems with mixed fluid sources (Barton
and Johnson, 2000). The Yerington district, Nevada, is the
preeminent example (Dilles and Proffett, 1995; Dilles et al.,
2000) and other districts show similar superimposed features including a number of Andean occurrences (e.g., Barton
et al., 2011b; Dow and Hitzman, 2002; Tornos et al., 2010)
and the deformed AitikNautanen trend deposits in Sweden
(Wanhainen and Martinsson, 2010).
13.20.5
Petrologic and Geochemical Characteristics
Study of IOCG systems over the last 15 years provides evidence

from fluid inclusions, isotopic analyses, whole-rock characteristics, trace elements, and petrology on the compositions of the
fluids, the degree and character of mass transfer, the conditions
of formation, and the possible sources of components. Recent
reviews are provided in Williams et al. (2005, 2010) and Porter
(2010a), and for selected regions including Cloncurry (Mark
et al., 2006a,b; Oliver et al., 2008), Gawler (Bastrakov et al.,
2007; Skirrow, 2010), N Baltic (Billstrom et al., 2010), Andes
(Chen, 2010), Wernecke (Hunt et al., 2007, 2011), and Carajas
(Torresi et al., 2012; Xavier et al., 2010). This section briefly
reviews the data and notes the principal inferences drawn from
each. Genetic linkages can be problematic and are discussed in
the following section.
Table 2
13.20.5.1
529
Conditions of Formation
Geologic and petrologic evidence indicates that most, though

not all, IOCG systems form in the upper crust, over a wide range
of temperatures, and from sulfur-poor, oxidized NaCaK(Fe)
brines with or without a second sulfur- or metal-bearing fluid.
Table 2 summarizes ranges in depth, temperature, and fluid
compositions for selected regions.
13.20.5.1.1 Depth
As originally summarized by Hitzman et al. (1992) and evaluated in many subsequent papers, most IOCG systems form in the
upper crust, with mineralization commonly within a few kilometer of the paleosurface but with alteration extending to greater
depths. Some systems, particularly those in metamorphic terranes, show evidence of formation in the 520 km range.
The evidence for shallow formation (see Table 2 for areas)
comes from direct evidence for proximity to the paleosurface,
stratigraphic and structural reconstructions, metamorphic and
igneous assemblages, and fluid inclusion observations including
evidence for boiling. Many IOCG systems are hosted in broadly
contemporaneous volcanic and sedimentary rocks. Stratigraphic
reconstructions preclude more than a few kilometer overburden
(e.g., Punta del Cobre, Marschik and Fontbote, 2001). In a number of districts, penecontemporaneous syngenetic iron formation
overlies discordant mineralization (Barton et al., 2011b; Hitzman
et al., 1992; Johnson and Barton, 2000; Seeger, 2000; Tobey,
1976). Some massive stratiform magnetite- or hematite-rich
bodies, such as Kiruna, Bafq, and El Laco, have been interpreted to form at, or very near the, contemporary surface (e.g.,
Jami et al., 2007; Naslund et al., 2002; Parak, 1975; Sillitoe and
Synopsis of ranges in P, T, and fluid compositions for selected IOCG regions
Region
P (kb)/T ( C)a
Principal fluid compositions (wt%

NaCleq, cations, CO2)
Comments
Key recent references
Andes, coastal
Chile and Peru
<0.51.5/150550
(>800b)
Australia, Gawler
<0.51.5?/150540
650% Na(Ca Fe K Mg);

V-rich (boiling), late fluids dilute,
CO2 (melt inclusionsb)
223%, >25% Na(CaKFe, minor
Cu), rare CO2, lower-T fluids dilute
Commonly high-T saline,

low-T dilute (melt in
Mt-Ap-Actb)
Unmixing/boiling (Moonta,
Olympic Dam)
Australia,
Cloncurry
1.54/220550
540% Na(Ca); 3070% Na(Ca

KFe, variable Cu); CO2-rich
Australia, Tennant
Crk
Brazil, Carajas
2.55(?)/300400
1020% Na(Ca) [Fe]; 110/20

35% [Cu], variable CH4, CO2
Mostly 2550% Na(CaKFe) mix
with cooler dilute; minor CO2
1535% Na(KCa); minor CO2
Multiple populations reflect

complex history and
contrasting systems
Fe precedes CuAuBi,
mixing inferred
Mostly shallow; Salobo
deep/metamorphosed
Fluid data for five element
veins petrography
Also melt inclusions,

multiphase solid-rich
Mix of metamorphic and
premet systems
Jurassic and Tertiary
Fe Cu
Broman et al. (1999), Chen

(2010), Kreiner (2011), and
Velasco and Tornos (2009)
Bastrakov et al. (2007),
Morales-Ruano et al. (2002),
and Oreskes and Einaudi (1992)
Baker et al. (2008), Fisher and
Kendrick (2008), and Rusk et al.
(2010)
Skirrow and Walshe (2002) and
Zaw et al. (1994)
Torresi et al. (2012) and Xavier
et al. (2009, 2010)
Changkakoti et al., 1986 and
Mumin et al., 2010
Hunt et al. (2011)
Soloviev (2010a)
Canada, Great Bear
<1? (Salobo, >2?)/

150570
0.51.5?/150450
Canada, Wernecke
Russia, Siberian
trap
N Baltic
0.42.4/185350
<0.51.5/130420
(rarely >600)
<13?/120500
United States,
western
<0.51.5/150550
2442% NaCa, no CO2

2747% Na(CaFe), no CO2 nor
V-rich (boiling?), solid-rich
1245% Na(CaK), minor
CO2 methane
2550% Na(Ca Fe K), no CO2
Billstrom et al., 2010 and Gleeson

and Smith, 2009
Barton et al. (2011a), Johnson
(2000), and Wilkins et al. (1986)
Pressure and temperature ranges are based on reported petrologic and geologic estimates for pressure and reported fluid inclusion homogenization temperatures, isotope
partitioning, and phase equilibria for temperature.
b
Data reported for selected MtApAct rocks.
530
Burrows, 2002). Locally, very fine-grained (10 mm) hydrothermal minerals, such as actinolite and chalcedonic silica, point
to rapid formation and subsequent lack of annealing that
would be expected with depth (e.g., Punta del Cobre and Santo
Domingo Sur, Chile, Barton, unpublished observations). Incorporation of syngenetic mineralization in breccias also implies
very shallow formation, for instance, at Olympic Dam (McPhie
et al., 2011; Oreskes and Einaudi, 1990) and Punta del Cobre
(Barton et al., 2011b). Relatively little quantitative barometry
has been done; however, fluid inclusion data locally demonstrate boiling of CO2-poor fluids thus requiring pressures <1 kb
(Table 2). The Salton Sea geothermal system demonstrates that
IOCG-style mineralization can form <1 km below the modern
surface (McKibben and Hardie, 1997).
Deeper levels of formation are inferred in areas with protracted metamorphic histories, particularly where deformation
and metamorphism may have accompanied ore formation. At
Tennant Creek and in some Cloncurry deposits, CO2-rich fluid
inclusions and host mineral assemblages indicate pressures of
1.54 kb (e.g., Baker et al., 2008; Skirrow and Walshe, 2002).
These estimates are compatible with regional metamorphic
assemblages and are among the deepest reported for large
magnetite-rich systems. Among the clearest examples of metamorphic deposits are some in Rajasthan (Knight et al., 2002),
N Baltic (Billstrom et al., 2010; Ettner et al., 1993), and
Cloncurry (Oliver et al., 2008). Not all metamorphic-hosted
deposits necessarily formed at higher pressure as evidenced
by regions with both metamorphosed (contact and regional)
and unmetamorphosed examples in the same area (contact
overprint Candelaria, Chile, Ryan et al., 1995; regional overprint on Salobo, Carajas, Xavier et al., 2010; regional overprint on a number of the older Cloncurry deposits, Oliver
et al., 2008).
13.20.5.1.2 Temperature
Temperatures of formation range from >500 C in magnetite
apatiteactinolite(or clinopyroxene) associations down to
200300 C for hematite-dominated mineralization (Table 2).
Many deposits show superposition of lower temperature on
high-temperature assemblages. Temperatures exceeding
800 C are inferred in a few magnetiteapatiteactinolite
deposits based on fluid inclusion observations and isotopic
thermometry (e.g., Broman et al., 1999; Chen et al., 2010a;
Velasco and Tornos, 2009). Fluid inclusion homogenization
temperatures are most widely cited yet are challenging in IOCG
systems because of the paucity of suitable hosts and because
postentrapment changes and superimposed events can obscure
links to earlier features. Other mineralogical and isotopic
thermometers have been applied with mixed results. In many
cases, they yield similar ranges (e.g., 250400 C with chlorite
thermometry) and are generally compatible with limits on
mineral stabilities (e.g., scapolite >400 C; Pan, 1998). Brittle
ductile behavior, implying temperatures in the 300400 C
range, is observed in a number of deposits including some
not only in metamorphic terranes (Oliver et al., 2008) but
also in shallow veins (Kreiner, 2011). Isotopic thermometers
(mainly S and O) reported in a number of papers yield mixed
results, plausible in many cases but unrealistic in others,
presumably due to lack of cogenesis, original disequilibrium,
or resetting.
13.20.5.1.3 Fluid inclusion compositions

Fluid inclusion studies by numerous authors show that Na
CaK(Fe) brines predominate in IOCG systems, with or without vapor-rich inclusions (see Table 2, recent summaries in
Chen, 2010; Torresi et al., 2012; Williams et al., 2010). Total
salinities in aqueous inclusions vary from 1 to >80 wt%
NaCleq; most are in the 1050 wt% range. Fluid inclusions
commonly have not only multiple daughter minerals, generally halite, but also other K and Ca salts, various Fe minerals
(FeClx, hematite, ferropyrosmalite), and occasionally carbonates (calcite, nahcolite). Consistent with the low sulfur mineral
assemblages, chalcopyrite daughter crystals are rare in contrast
to brine inclusions from porphyry copper deposits. Also contrasting with the typical situation in porphyry copper deposits
(Chapter 13.5), salt-rich fluid inclusion assemblages in IOCGs
commonly lack vapor-rich inclusions. CO2 is a widespread
minor component (Table 2) as it is in other deposit types.
Liquid CO2-bearing inclusions have been noted in a number
of areas, particularly in deposits found in metamorphosed
terranes (e.g., Pollard, 2001). Methane is reported in some
metamorphic-hosted deposits, particularly those with reduced
mineral assemblages (e.g., Tennant Creek, Zaw et al., 1994;
Salobo, Torresi et al., 2012; Cloncurry, Oliver et al., 2008).
Although early studies suggested that high CO2 contents might
be characteristic of IOCG deposits (e.g., Pollard, 2000), many
systems lack CO2-rich inclusions including most of those that
are not metamorphosed (Table 2). It remains to be seen how
many other IOCG deposits have moderate CO2 contents and if
the contents are comparable, for instance, to those found in
epithermal precious metal deposits (Chapter 13.5). A handful
of magnetiteapatiteactinolite occurrences have nonhomogenizing (exceptionally high T?) hydrous saline/silicate-rich
inclusions, which have been interpreted as evidence for coexisting melts at the time of mineralization (Broman et al., 1999;
Hou et al., 2010; Velasco and Tornos, 2009).
Microthermometry and direct analysis of brine inclusions
using PIXE, crush-leach, and LA-ICP-MS reveal complex, commonly metal-rich fluids. Abundant Ca and other divalent cations are widely indicated by low first melting temperatures.
Both the heating/freezing experiments and direct analyses indicate that IOCG fluids have significantly higher Ca/Na and
lower K/Ca than porphyry copper fluids (Bastrakov et al.,
2007; Rusk et al., 2009; Xavier et al., 2009). In addition to
the evidence from daughter minerals, direct analyses show that
many fluids contain Na, Ca, K, and Fe well in excess of 1 wt%
(Fe can exceed 10 wt%) and contain Mn, Ba, Zn, Pb, As, and Sr
in the 0.11 wt% range. Analyses from both Cu-rich mineralized systems and Cu-poor deposits show appreciable Cu,
mostly in the 1005000 ppm range (Baker et al., 2008;
Niiranen et al., 2005; Rusk et al., 2009; Williams et al.,
2001). A handful of areas, generally associated with granitic
intrusions, yield higher values, in excess of 1% Cu (Baker et al.,
2008; Bastrakov et al., 2007; Perring et al., 2000).
Overall, brine compositions are similar between Cu-rich
and Cu-poor IOCG systems (Rusk et al., 2009; Williams
et al., 2010). What is distinct is that there is commonly evidence for later, lower temperature, lower salinity (115 wt%
NaCleq) fluid that mixes with or is superimposed upon more
saline brines (e.g., Bastrakov et al., 2007; Chen et al., 2010a,b;
Oreskes and Einaudi, 1992; Torresi et al., 2012). This fluid is
531
often invoked to bring sulfur and/or metals into otherwise

barren iron-rich mineralization (e.g., Chen, 2010; Gow
et al., 1994; Haynes et al., 1995; Skirrow, 2010). Distinct
fluid inclusion populations are common and are widely interpreted to reflect multiple fluid sources (e.g., see Baker et al.,
2008; Chen, 2010).
aqueous sulfate must also be low based on the evidence for

substantial Ba mobility demonstrated by whole-rock data
(Figure 7) and supported by high Ba contents measured in fluid
inclusions (Williams et al., 2001). Furthermore, if sulfate were
particularly high, it would be limited on cooling to moderate to
low temperatures through sulfidation of magnetite by reactions,
such as 4H 2SO42 12Fe3O4 18Fe2O3 FeS2 2H2O
(Figure 9(c), succeeding text; Gow et al., 1994).
The exception to these generalizations is the reduced,
pyrrhotite-bearing, variably magnetite-poor deposits hosted
in metamorphosed terranes, such as a number of those (but
not all) in northern Australia (Tennant Creek, Cloncurry),
N Baltic, and India (Khetri, Singhbhum). In many districts,
pyrrhotite appears to be primary; however, in other cases,
pyrrhotite may be a metamorphic product as it is at Candelaria
where pyrrhotite occurs only in the contact metamorphosed
portion of a more extensive, pyrrhotite-free district (Marschik
and Fontbote, 2001; Ryan et al., 1995).
13.20.5.1.4 Oxidation state, sulfidation state, and

total sulfur
The mineral assemblages and temperatures in IOCG systems
require that mineralization occurred under conditions that
were relatively oxidized (SO42 > H2S) and low in total sulfur.
In comparison, most porphyry Cu systems are more sulfur-rich
and somewhat more reduced (SO42 H2S). The key indicators
of low sulfidation state coupled with relatively oxidized conditions are (1) the near absence of sulfides in high-temperature
magnetite-bearing assemblages, (2) relatively low Fe/Mg in
most hydrothermal silicates (Mazdab, 2001), (3) the presence
of bornite (or digenite) with hematite rather than magnetite,
(4) the overall scarcity of Fe(Cu) sulfides including in late-stage
intense hydrolytic alteration (Kreiner, 2011), (5) the rarity of Zn
and Pb sulfides in the deposits in spite of appreciable fluid
contents (Rusk et al., 2009), and (6) distal hematite-bearing
assemblages that in some cases have arsenides and other minerals indicative of unusually low sulfur fugacity.
The presence of sulfates (anhydrite, barite) in some deposits
indicates either moderate aqueous sulfate contents or, more likely,
mixing with a second sulfate-bearing fluid. In many systems,
Phanerozoic
marine
aq.
Considerable work has been done on IOCG systems using

tracers including stable isotopes (H, B, C, O, S, Cl), radiogenic
isotopes (RbSr, ReOs, SmNd, UThPb), and noble gas
(He, Ne, Ar) and halogen (Cl, Br, I) ratios (see recent synoptic
reviews in Williams et al., 2005, 2010). Collectively, the data
can be interpreted in terms of many possible sources, often two
or more, within the same system. This diversity contributes to
Proterozoic/Archean
sed
Sulfates
Sulfides
sed
Temperature range reported for most

sulfide deposition in IOCG systems
D = d 34Ssulfide - d 34SSSO4
oxidized
reduced
10
SSO4
IOCG veins, skarn
sed
PCD, Cu skarn
d 34Smin
15
Tracer Studies and Sources of Components
sed
lacustrine
20
minerals
25
13.20.5.2
ign
Fractionation from fluid

with uniform aqueous SSO42
-5
-10
Cpy
-15
Py
H2S
Sulfide partitioning from Ohmoto and

Rye (1979); sulfatesulfide partitioning
from Ohmoto and Lasaga (1982)
-20
(b)
-25
200
(c)
250
300
T(C)
350
400
D = d 34SH2S - d 34Sfluid
log SSO42/SH2S
M(P)/(C)
H/(C)
Wernecke Breccias, YT, Canada
MH/C
Hannuikainen, Rautuvaara, Finland
MH/C
Boss Bixby, MO, USA
H(M)/C
MH/C
Salobo, Sossego, Igarape Bahia, Carajas, Brazil
MH/C
Moonta-Wallaroo, SA Australia
Wirrda Well, Olympic Dam, Oak Dam, SA, Australia
MHP /C
Emmie Bluff, SA, QLD, Australia
MH/C
Ernest Henry, QLD, Australia
Starra, Osborne, QLD, Australia
MH/C
MP/C
M(H)/(C)
M(H)/(C)
Mt skarns, Urals/Turgai, Russia/Kazakhstan
Tennant Creek, NT, Australia
M(H)/(C)
Siberian trap Mt breccia pipes, Russia
M(H)/(C)
Mont-de-dAigle, QC, Canada
Divrigi, Turkey
HM/C
HM/C
Candelaria, Punta del Cobre, Ojancos Viejo, Chile
EI Laco, Cerro Negro Norte, Los Colorados, Chile
HM/C
Mantoverde, Santo Domingo, Teresa de Colmo, Chile
MH/C
M(H)/(C)
MH/(C)
MHP/C
Raul-Condestable, Peru
Marcona, Mina Justa, Peru
Longquiao, Yangtze region, China
MH/(C)
Humboldt, NV, USA
Cornwall, Grace, French Creek, PA, USA
HM/(C)
Cortez Mtns, NV, USA
M/C
Yerington, NV, USA
H/(C)
Salton Sea Geothermal System, CA, USA
M/C
Porphyry copper systems
Sedimentary sulfates
(a)
(individual deposits typically less)
-10
MH(P)/C
sed
-5
-25
-20
-15
Hm
Mt
-10
Increasing SS, H+
Mt
Py
Bn+
Py
-5
-1
Cpy
-0.1
Mineral equilibria modified after Ohmoto and Rye (1979)
for neutral pH, m + = 0.5, mCa2+ = 1.0, mMg2+ = 0.25
Na
Sulfatesulfide partitioning from Ohmoto and Lasaga (1982)
-5
200
250
300
Py
Po
350
400
T(C)
Figure 9 Sulfur isotopes in IOCG systems. (a) Ranges of d34S for sulfides and sulfates summarized from the many papers cited in the text for these
districts. Key FeSO minerals (bottom of range) are M, magnetite; H, hematite; P, pyrrhotite. (b) Fractionation between sulfide and sulfate over
temperature range typical of CuFe sulfide deposition in IOCG systems and compared with (c) showing calculated fractionation between sulfide and fluid
as a function of temperature and sulfate to sulfide and related mineral stabilities (reproduced from Ripley EM and Ohmoto H (1977) Mineralogic, sulphur
isotope, and fluid inclusion studies of the stratabound copper deposits at the Raul Mine, Peru. Economic Geology 72: 10171041). See text for
discussion.
532
the range of interpretations. Although results are reviewed here

by tracer type, bear in mind that most deposit and district
studies combine data sets to draw more specific and often
more restrictive (but commonly nonunique) inferences (e.g.,
see Williams et al., 2010).
13.20.5.2.1 Light stable isotopes: H, O, S, C, and B

Light stable isotope data for IOCG systems have been summarized in a number of papers including Williams et al. (2005,
2010), Mark et al. (2006a,b), Bastrakov et al. (2007), Chen
(2010), and Torresi et al. (2012).
Oxygen and hydrogen isotopes have rock (or magma)dominated signatures with or without a later meteoric or
low-T sedimentary signature (e.g., Carajas, Torresi et al., 2012;
Xavier et al., 2010; Gawler, Bastrakov et al., 2007; Oreskes and
Einaudi, 1992; Andes, Chen, 2010; Rieger et al., 2012; Great
Bear, Reardon, 1992). The nonigneous signatures may correlate
with the second fluid observed in many fluid inclusion studies.
Calculated fluid d18OSMOW mainly ranges from 5 to 11%
but extend to light values (5 to 5%) particularly in the later
stages of mineralization. Similarly, dDSMOW values cluster
from 60 to 20%, but overall, they span 0% to 140%.
Most data are for mineralization and wall rock alteration in
the deposits themselves; however, extensive isotopic exchange
also accompanies the system-scale alteration, notably the
extensive metal-poor Na(Ca) and K metasomatism including
red rock alteration (SE Missouri, Wenner and Taylor, 1987;
W United States, Roddy et al., 1988; Solomon and Taylor,
1993). This exchange is similar in scale to other areas of
terrestrial O and H exchange (e.g., Criss and Taylor, 1986).
Overlapping compositions preclude unambiguous interpretation of the source of water from d18O and dD. Many
studies interpret the intermediate dD, rock-dominated d18O
values as representing magmatic sources; however, magmatic
and metamorphic water compositions overlap with compositions for mid-latitude surface fluids or basinal brines that
have exchanged with rock oxygen at elevated temperatures
(Sheppard, 1986). Most studies infer a nonmagmatic water
source for the more extreme dD values (<80%, >30%);
however, in an alternative interpretation, Mark et al. (2004)
proposed that large changes in dD at constant d18O in Cloncurry regional NaCa alteration reflect H isotope fractionation
during magma degassing.
Sulfur isotopes are of particular interest given sulfurs essential role in precipitation of Cu- and the S-limited nature of the
hydrothermal fluids. Sulfide d34SCDT ranges from 10 to 30%
(Figure 9; selected summaries in Bastrakov et al., 2007;
Benavides et al., 2007; Chen, 2010; Davidson and Dixon,
1992; Rose et al., 1985; Torresi et al., 2012; Vakhrushev et al.,
1981; Zhang, 1986). Although median values cluster near
0 5%, heavier values occur in many districts, and many
deposits show spreads of 520%. Late sulfides commonly
have higher d34S than early sulfides (e.g., Chen, 2010), and
in a few districts, there is evidence for zoning outward to
higher d34S (Raul-Condestable, de Haller and Fontbote, 2009;
Mantoverde, Rieger et al., 2010). A number of Cu-poor systems
have uniformly high d34S (>5%, commonly >10%; see
Figure 9(a)). Rarely, late sulfides have d34S < 20%, indicating involvement of biogenic sulfur (e.g., Raul-Condestable,
de Haller and Fontbote, 2009; Ripley and Ohmoto, 1977).
When present, hydrothermal sulfates (anhydrite, barite) are

820% heavier than the sulfides (Figure 9(a)); such sulfate
sulfide differences are broadly consistent with fractionation
at the inferred temperatures of 250400 C (cf. Figure 9(b)).
Published interpretations of bulk fluid d34S and hence sulfur sources vary; yet all must be considered in light of the redox
control on fractionation (Ohmoto and Rye, 1979). Many
investigators interpret values near 0% as indicative of an
igneous origin for sulfur (nominally magmatic), which is
plausible if conditions are relatively reduced and aqueous
sulfur is sulfide (H2S, HS)-dominated (Figure 9(c)). Sulfidedominant conditions are reasonable for the few IOCG-clan
deposits that have hydrothermal pyrrhotite and, possibly, for
a handful of other magnetite-bearing assemblages, particularly
at high temperatures (Figure 9(a); Chen, 2010); however, as
described earlier and noted on Figure 9(a), the majority of
IOCG systems contain hematite or mushketovite and other
indications of higher oxidation states. Under these conditions,
sulfate species (SO42, HSO4, NaSO4, etc.) will dominate,
particularly in brines where additional sulfate complexes
become important (Ohmoto and Rye, 1979; Ripley and
Ohmoto, 1977; see Figure 9(c)). Thus, it is more likely that
in many systems, the bulk fluid is sulfate-dominated and
515% heavier than coexisting sulfides (e.g., Bastrakov et al.,
2007). Consequently, typical d34Sfluid would be 10 to 20%
(e.g., modern Salton Sea fluids, McKibben and Hardie, 1997).
The shift from relatively light to heavier d34S that is observed in
many Andean deposits has been interpreted either as progressive evolution of a single source or as mixing of several sources
with an early igneous source and a later marine/evaporitic
component (Benavides et al., 2007; Chen, 2010; de Haller
and Fontbote, 2009; Rieger et al., 2012). Summing up, the
d34S results require multiple sources, some of which are isotopically heavy, others are near 0%, and a few may have quite
light values. This variability occurs within the same regions,
districts, and even some deposits (e.g., Andes, Chen, 2010;
Gawler, Bastrakov et al., 2007; Carajas, Torresi et al., 2012).
In contrast to sulfur, carbon isotopes in IOCG systems are
not particularly illuminating even when combined with other
isotopic data, such as d18O. Most hydrothermal carbonates
have d13CPDB between 0 and 10% and there is a broad
positive correlation of d13C with d18O. Values commonly
span large ranges within districts (e.g., 21 to 3, Copiapo,
Kreiner, 2011; 10 to 1, Wernecke, Hunt et al., 2011; 15 to
2, Carajas, Torresi et al., 2012; 8 to 11, Misi region,
Finland, Niiranen et al., 2005). Carbonate-hosted deposits
show systematic decreases in both d13C and d18O from marine
values toward lighter values. These changes reflect combinations of decarbonation and involvement of isotopically lighter,
permissibly magmatic fluids. In a handful of examples,
d13C < 10% implies involvement of reduced carbon, likely
from organic materials or graphite (e.g., Khetri, Deb and
Sarkar, 1990; Copiapo, Kreiner, 2011).
A few recent studies have examined boron isotopes that
have the potential to fingerprint certain fluid sources. Tourmaline d11B in IOCG systems ranges from 10 to 25%
(Figure 10). Ratios in some regions exhibit nearly as much
variation as has been reported globally, although individual
deposits commonly show less spread (Carajas, Xavier et al.,
2008; Singhbhum, Pal et al., 2010; Chile, Tornos et al., 2012;
-20
-10
10
20
533
30
Carajas, Brazil
(Xavier et al., 2008)
Singhbhum, India
(Pal et al., 2010)
Chilean Iron Belt

(Collins, 2010; Tornos et al., 2011;
Mazdab and Barton, unpubl. data)
Jurassic W USA
IOCG and NaCa
(Johnson and Barton., 2010;
Mazdab and Barton, unpubl.)
Tourmalinefluid
f fractionation at 350C
Sedimentary and
metamorphic rocks
Igneous rocks and magmas
Marine evaporites and brines

Nonmarine evaporites and brines
-20
-10
10
20
30
d11B ()
Figure 10 Boron isotope ratios for tourmalines from worldwide IOCG districts, for representative reservoirs, and tourmaline-aqueous borate
fractionation at 350 C (Palmer et al., 1992; cf. Meyer et al., 2008). See text for discussion.
Collins, 2010). Many analyses cluster in an ambiguous range

around 0 10%, which is somewhat heavier than typical magmatic values and which overlaps with other crustal materials
(Kasemann et al., 2004; Palmer and Swihart, 1996). Given that
tourmaline is 38% heavier than aqueous boron (Meyer et al.,
2008; Palmer et al., 1992), most IOCG-related fluids had
d11B > 0% (Figure 10).
13.20.5.2.2 Radiogenic isotopes: Sr, Nd, Pb, and Os

Radiogenic isotopic signatures in IOCG systems have been
investigated as tracers in addition to their use as geochronometers (see Chapter 13.4). Many initial isotope ratios resemble those of associated igneous rocks; however, some notable
differences have been observed.
Nd isotopes reveal mixed sources. Most commonly Nd
isotope ratios resemble their host rocks as reported from
North America (Gleason et al., 2000) and South Australia
(Skirrow et al., 2007). The exception is Olympic Dam, where
eNd in the CuAu(REE) exceeds that of the host rocks and
magnetite mineralization and is interpreted to reflect an
additional contribution from mafic rocks (Johnson and
McCulloch, 1995). Nd isotopic evidence points to a syn- or
postmetamorphic source for REEU mineralization at Mary
Kathleen at Cloncurry (Maas et al., 1987), which although
not an IOCG deposit, has many features in common and is
broadly contemporaneous with nearby IOCG systems (Oliver
et al., 2008). Similarly, Nd and Sr data from Finnmark,
Norway, evidence a crustal source in this metamorphic deposit

and are interpreted to reflect crustal metal and fluid sources
(Bjorlykke et al., 1990).
In Chile, where there is a large isotopic contrast, Sr isotopes
demonstrate mixing between igneous and external Sr. Fresh
igneous rocks have initial 87Sr/86Sr of 0.7033 0.0002,
whereas altered igneous rocks and mineralization range from
0.7037 to 0.7062 (Barton et al., 2005; Chiaradia et al., 2006;
Kreiner, 2011). Similar evidence for introduction of nonigneous Sr occurs in intrusion-hosted IOCG-related mineralization in the Yerington and Iron Springs districts of the western
United States (F.K. Mazdab, written comm., 2012). Yu et al.
(2008) interpret initial 87Sr/86Sr of 0.70710.7073 in apatite
from Ningwu district magnetite ores to reflect an igneous
source from variably crustally contaminated gabbrodiorites
(0.70450.7077). Given the abundance of alteration in the
Yangtze IOCG-associated igneous rocks, a mixed hydrothermal
source seems equally plausible. Pb isotope ratios have been
determined for a number of South American deposits. The
results, though somewhat complex in detail, are all compatible
with igneous sources for Pb (de Haller et al., 2006; Galarza
et al., 2008; Marschik et al., 2003; Rieger et al., 2010).
Sparse Os data suggest several possible sources. In the most
extensive study to date, Mathur et al. (2002) found that there
was evidence for both igneous and nonigneous Os sources in
Chile. Magnetiteapatite deposits, such as El Romeral, yielded
elevated initial 187Os/188Os (1.48), whereas Cu-rich systems
534
and igneous rocks at Candelaria and Manto Verde yielded

more primitive ratios (0.20.4). They interpreted the mantlelike ratios in the Cu(Au) deposits to indicate a magmatic
source. McInnes et al. (2008) reported sulfide and whole-rock
isochron ages, respectively, at Olympic Dam and Tennant
Creek that are considerably younger than the host rocks.
Although resetting seems likely at Olympic Dam, in both
cases, evidence points to relatively primitive sources for Os
and precludes major involvement of older radiogenic crust.
Conversely, Kontak et al. (2008) found elevated initial
187
Os/188Os of 1.0 0.4 in orogenic IOCG-like mineralization
in Nova Scotia, suggestive of a crustal source.
13.20.5.2.3 Halogens and noble gases: Ratios and isotopes

Halogen (Cl, Br, I) and noble gas (Ar, He, Ne, Xe) ratios and
isotopes can potentially fingerprint the source(s) of these
mainly conservative elements (i.e., with the exception of
scapolite apatite, they are confined to the fluid). Halogen
ratios have been most widely applied as determined from
PIXE, crush-leach, and thermal decrepitation studies of fluid
inclusions. Observations, summarized in Figure 11, show that
the Br/Cl spans a broad range from ratios typical of residual
brines (bitterns), though nominally magmatic values to values
consistent with dissolution of halite evaporites (Cloncurry,
Kendrick et al., 2008a, 2011; Perring et al., 2000; Andes;
Chiaradia et al., 2006; Carajas, Xavier et al., 2009; Wernicke,
Kendrick et al., 2008b; Sweden, Gleeson and Smith, 2009). No
simple pattern emerges even within single regions, and even
single deposits can show a fairly wide spread in values (e.g.,
Williams et al., 2010). Although extreme values (exceptionally
high or low Br/Cl) may point to particular evaporitic sources,
most data overlap with ratios seen in basinal fluids and
magmas (Figure 11). Exchange reactions with rock govern

Na/Cl and similar nonconservative cation/anion ratios and
thus reflect paths rather than ultimate source. In addition to
halogen ratios, d37Cl has been measured in a number of South
American and Swedish districts (Figure 11(b)). In some cases,
d37Cl 0% and thus is consistent with either seawater (or
evaporite) or magmatic values. The negative values found in
some of the Swedish metamorphic-hosted deposits suggest
that other fractionation processes may be involved (Williams
et al., 2010).
Recently, I/Cl, 40Ar/36Ar, and other noble gas measurements have been undertaken by Kendrick and others on Cloncurry (Fisher and Kendrick, 2008; Kendrick et al., 2008a,
2011), Wernecke (Kendrick et al., 2008b), and Chilean
deposits (Marschik et al., 2011). 40Ar/36Ar varies from nearatmospheric values (296) in Chile (300420) to much less
radiogenic values in the Proterozoic deposits (<1000 to
>30 000). Measured I/Cl has higher values than would be
expected from simple evaporation of seawater or dissolution
of halite but overlap with fields for basinal brines (see
Chapter 7.14). The combined results, together with halogen
ratios, point to mixed sources of solutes sedimentary brines
plus deeper components. In the case of the noble gases, this
includes a deep magmatic or metamorphic signature in addition to a component of crustal or near-surface fluids.
13.20.6 Summary of the IOCG Clan, Likely Origins,

and the terrestrial Hydrothermal Environment
The recognition of IOCG systems as a distinct group reflects a
shared geochemistry and a common set of geologic features
that serves to distinguish them from other major classes of
100
10
Carajas - Sossego, Gameleira

Andes - Candelaria, Raul-Cond.
Andes - Romeral
Sweden - IOCG-low Cu
Sweden - IOCG-high Cu
Sweden - hybrid Cu(-Au)
High T processes
(dissolution, boiling etc.)
Scapolite-bearing
alteration, Copiap
Basinal brines
Br/Cl x 103 (wt)
Bittern brines
10
Basinal brine d 37Cl
Br/Cl x 103 (wt)
25 C halite
saturation
100
Mantle
Magmatic
1
1
Wernercke Bx - Hm-Cu
Cloncurry - Ernest Henry
Cloncurry - Lightning Crk
Sweden - IOCG-low Cu
Sweden - IOCG-high Cu
Sweden - hybrid Cu(-Au)
0.1
(a)
1.0
Salton Sea
geothermal
system
Metamorphic
brines?
Halite
10
CI (wt%)
-4.0
100
(b)
-3.0
-2.0
-1.0
0.0
1.0
2.0
0.1
3.0
d 37CI ()
Figure 11 Summaries of (a) Br/Cl versus Cl for IOCG fluids (see Williams, 2010b, for sources) and other reservoirs including basinal fluids (Kharaka
and Hanor, Chapter 7.14) and (b) Br/Cl versus d37Cl for Swedish (Gleeson and Smith, 2009) and Chilean (Chiaradia et al., 2006) IOCG systems.
ore-forming systems. Key among these are concentrated hypogene iron oxides, low sulfide contents, a distinctive family of
trace elements (Cu, Au, P, REE, Co, U), and voluminous Na
CaKFeH hydrothermal alteration. Like the other major
groups, such as marine-hydrothermal systems or the porphyry/
greisen clan, IOCG systems exhibit considerable diversity in
detail but share system-scale patterns and geologic context.
Within the IOCG clan, alkalic alteration is ubiquitous and
voluminous, yet the assemblages and forms of deposits vary
considerably, notably with regard to the abundance of Cu, Au,
and U. Likewise, contemporaneous magmatism is commonly
present but is compositionally diverse precluding an essential
role for any particular type. Geologic settings span a broad range
of active tectonic regimes but widely share evidence for evaporitic materials. The principal common genetic factor is an
unequivocal association with a distinctive range of sulfur-poor,
high-salinity fluids across the IOCG spectrum.
13.20.6.1
Discussion of Genesis
Genetic interpretations span a range of origins (Figure 1)

including a possible role for immiscible melts. With the exception of those who advocate an immiscible melt contribution to
magnetiteapatiteactinolite deposits (e.g., Chen et al., 2010a;
Naslund et al., 2002; Velasco and Tornos, 2009), all agree on a
fundamentally hydrothermal origin of IOCG-clan deposits.
A role for oxide melts in the formation of some IOCG
deposits has been advocated on the basis of evidence for
immiscibility of Fe(Ti)-rich melts in nature (e.g., Clark and
Kontak, 2004; Hurai et al., 1998), from experiments (e.g.,
Charlier and Grove, 2012; Lledo, 2005), from high-T meltlike fluid inclusions (Broman et al., 1999; Velasco and Tornos,
2009), from textural evidence (e.g., Chen et al., 2010a;
Naslund et al., 2002), and from a parallel with FeTiP nelsonite deposits (Kolker, 1982). The immiscibility hypothesis has
been challenged on many geologic, textural, geochemical, and
petrologic grounds (e.g., Bookstrom, 1995; Parak, 1975;
Rhodes et al., 1999; Sillitoe and Burrows, 2002). At best, a
role for immiscibility in most IOCG systems seems problematic given the breadth of geologic evidence that is incompatible
with oxide melts and points to solely hydrothermal origins and
because associated magma types extend far beyond the dry,
reduced, and ferrobasaltic compositions that favor immiscibility (e.g., Charlier and Grove, 2012).
Most discussion centers on sources of fluids and metals,
depositional mechanisms, possible linkages among deposit
types (e.g., magnetite vs. hematite, Cu-rich vs. Cu-poor,
IOCG-clan vs. others), and the role of geologic setting. There
is general agreement that IOCG geochemistry reflects the high
solubility of iron (and other metals) in brines at elevated
temperatures and pressures, the consequences of cooling such
a fluid and its interaction along that path with different rock
types and other fluids (e.g., Barton and Johnson, 1996;
Williams et al., 2005). Saline, low-S fluids can carry many
metals at high temperature and will precipitate Fe and other
nonchalcophile elements on cooling, wall rock reaction or
mixing (e.g., Barton and Johnson, 1996; Chou and Eugster,
1977; Hemley et al., 1992). Consanguineous wall rock reaction
generates ubiquitous NaCaK alteration, and with localized
acid alteration, all are distributed in a regular manner in space
535
and time (Figure 1). These features parallel the patterns found
in many types of hydrothermal systems (Meyer and Hemley,
1967; Seedorff et al., 2005). The large physical and chemical
gradients in the upper few kilometer of the crust are reflected in
the telescoped nature of mineralization in many areas. Conversely, where deeper (metamorphic) saline fluids are key
actors, alteration patterns may be more subtle given the typically smaller physical gradients in metamorphic terrains.
Low aqueous sulfur contents inhibit sulfide precipitation;
therefore, a second sulfur source seems required in most cases
where chalcophile elements are abundant (Chen, 2010;
Haynes, 2000; Williams et al., 2005). However, in favorable
circumstances, sulfide could be generated by the reduction of
sulfate through the oxidation of magnetite to hematite (Gow
et al., 1994). The scarcity of sulfur precludes sulfate being
either the prime acid source (e.g., H2SO4) or the oxidant
required to make hematite from magnetite or aqueous Fe2
species. Possible acid species include HCl and, most likely,
FeCl2. The latter creates acidity via reactions, such as
3FeCl2 4H2O Fe3O4 6HCl H2. Note that in the absence
of sulfur species, water is likely the only oxidant that is sufficiently abundant to make voluminous hypogene magnetite or
hematite; even then, such a process would likely require selective loss of H2 perhaps via phase separation. Inefficient H2 loss
could lead to reduction of hematite to magnetite as could
diffusive reequilibration with most host rocks that are not
hematite stable. In such a scenario, a separate reduced fluid
pulse is not required.
The sources of metals, fluids, and sulfur remain contentious. Most IOCG systems are associated with magmatism,
and as reviewed earlier, many observations are compatible
with an igneous source though not necessarily a magmatic
source. Magmatic fluids can transport abundant Fe along
with other metals (Clark and Arancibia, 1995; Hemley et al.,
1992; Whitney et al., 1985), yet it is difficult to account for the
mass of Fe based on magmatic fluid contents alone just as it is
difficult to account for the extent of other hydrothermal features (Barton and Johnson, 2000). No viable mechanism exists
to create large volumes of NaCa alteration (Figure 8) from
magmatic fluids (the CO2-unmixing model of Pollard, 2001
fails due to the lack of acid to drive the decarbonation
reaction). Nevertheless, many geochemical and experimental
data are compatible with a possible magmatic-hydrothermal
sources (e.g., Groves et al., 2010; Pollard, 2000, 2006), and
such an origin has been argued for many deposits and regions
(e.g., de Haller and Fontbote, 2009; Marschik and Fontbote,
2001; Perring et al., 2000; Rusk et al., 2010). Magmatic heat is
clearly implicated especially at shallow levels, and magmatic
volatile components or phreatic processes undoubtedly play a
role in generating many IOCG-related breccias (e.g., Oliver
et al., 2008). Ultimately, a magmatic contribution of energy
is certain in most systems, even though indisputable evidence
is lacking for a direct magmatic (melt) source for any of the key
constituents in IOCG mineralization.
Conversely, external sources for fluids and nonmagmatic
(though perhaps igneous rock) sources are evidenced by the
volumes of, and types of, alteration (including the mass of
leached metals), the overall lack of correlation with igneous
compositions, the geochemical evidence for clearly nonigneous components, and a correlation with external sources of
536
Bn
log (Cl-)
log (Cl-)
Springs
Seawater
Alkaline lakes
Basinal brines
fresh
0.0
1.0
-2
-3.0
(b)
1 Zn
10 0.1
350 C 500 b
pH: Mu-Kf fo2: Mt/Hm
-1.0
log (SS)
-1
Py Mt
Solubilities in ppm
+
+
K /Na = 0.1
LS epithermal
Calculated using data from

Ohmoto et al. (1983)
-2.0
log (SS)
Ambient waters
-1.0
Py
SO4=/H2S
e-S
-F ion
Cu osit
p
de
-2.0
100 Zn
1 Fe
Py Hm
2
Cl
Au
-3.0
seawater
1 Cu
Sl
-4.0
10 000 Zn
solubility shifts
with increasing
SO4=/H2S
S) 2
(H
Au
-6.0
-5.0
Terrestrial
Terrestrial - saline
Marine
Marine - Red Sea
Volcanic gases
100 Fe
tic
Precipitation
(a)
Hm
/Mt
>
Fe
Dg
S
H2
a
gm
Geothermal fluids
-+
4
SO
100 Cu
-1
-4.0
Bn
ma
0
-2.0
Ccp
evaporitic
IOCG
log (Cl-)
0.0
SS = 0.001
10 000 Fe
10 000 Cu
SW
Modified from Davidson and Large (1994)
200
0.0
(c)
300
-2
400
T (C)
Figure 12 Diagrams illustrating the spectrum of natural fluids in terms of chloride and sulfur contents and implications for metal transport
and deposition in the terrestrial hydrothermal environment. Total Cl versus total S in natural fluids (a) and with mineral stability and solubility in (b).
(Adapted from Barton MD and Johnson DA (1996) Evaporitic source model for igneous-related Fe oxide(REECuAuU) mineralization. Geology 24:
259262 and Barton MD and Johnson DA (2000) Alternative brine sources for Fe-oxide (CuAu) systems: Implications for hydrothermal alteration
and metals. In: Porter TM (ed.) Hydrothermal Iron Oxide CopperGold and Related Deposits: A Global Perspective, pp. 4360. Glenside, SA: Australian
Mineral Foundation.) (c) Transport of Au and Cu as a function of T and Cl content for contrasting fluid types illustrating parallels with other
ore-forming settings, such as high and low sulfidation epithermal deposits. See text for discussion.
salinity (Barton and Johnson, 1996, 2000; Haynes, 2000).

In particular, the volumes and types of alkali-rich alteration
(Figure 8) exceed in amount and differ in kind from what can
be produced from hydrous magmas (Barton and Johnson,
2000; Johnson, 2000). Magmatic aqueous fluids might contribute in some cases, but highly saline metamorphic, basinal, and
surface fluids (Figure 12(a)) are more widely available and are
consistent with known sources and settings (e.g., Figure 5).
Such fluids have high Cl/S because of the relatively low solubility of anhydrite (Barton and Johnson, 1996). Moreover, evaporitic or metamorphic saline fluids have the appropriate
compositions to transport large quantities of iron and other
metals in a sulfur-deficient fluid (Figure 12(b)) but only a
limited ability to precipitate chalcophile elements on cooling
this is the central feature of the spectrum of IOCG-clan deposits
thus the importance of having additional sulfur available for
Cu Au enrichment. Availability of a shallow sulfur source will
reflect the setting; therefore, it stands to reason that different
regions may have widely different Cu endowments in otherwise similar Fe-rich hydrothermal systems. Enrichment in U
and Cu may also require a second near-surface source (Haynes
et al., 1995) that could either be contemporaneous or related
to a protracted history (Skirrow, 2010).
13.20.6.2 IOCG Systems and the Terrestrial Hydrothermal

Environment
In conclusion, these results reviewed here indicate that most
IOCG systems represent a high-salinity end-member of terrestrial hydrothermal systems ore-forming environments in
which surface or basinal fluids play a dominant, but not necessarily an exclusive, role. Low sulfur contents and high salinities are expressed in the oxide-dominated mineralogy, the
paucity of sulfides (with the most chalcophile, Cu, being predominant), and the voluminous system-scale alkali exchange
alteration together with the relative lack of acid alteration.
Variations on this theme reflect a diversity of fluid and solute
sources, expressed as differences in element enrichments, in intensity of alteration, and in some cases, in the abundance of key
components, such as the Fe oxides themselves. In spite of the
diversity (a common feature in many families of ore-forming

systems), the unifying themes tie these together in a way that
is comparable to other major groups of ore deposits.
Based on the evidence presented here, most IOCG systems
comprise the higher temperature analogues to various S-poor
basin-related lower temperature environments (e.g., stratabound Cu, PbZn(Ag)) and, as such, might be considered
igneous-powered red-bed copper systems (see Chapters 13.10
and 14.6). Ultimately, IOCG systems reflect a broad range of
fluidrock interactions starting with saline, broadly surfacederived terrestrial fluids but with likely metamorphic and
possible magmatic variants. As such, they are high-salinity
parallels to lower salinity terrestrial hydrothermal systems
Au(Ag)-bearing, quartz-rich, but base-metal-poor deposits
that form from an analogous array of lower salinity terrestrial
fluids and which have their own metamorphic (orogenic Au)
and magmatic (intrusion-related Au) analogues (Figure 12(c)).
Acknowledgments
Many students and postdocs have contributed to University of
Arizona IOCG studies, in particular David Johnson, Douglas
Kreiner, James Girardi, Frank Mazdab, and Eric Jensen. Financial support has come recently from the USGS MRERP
(08HQGR0060), the US National Science Foundation
(EAR08-38157, EAR98-15032), and the multiple companies
and Science Foundation Arizona who support this work
through the IMR. I thank Mike Porter for sharing selected preprints from his recent volumes. Thoughtful reviews by Steve
Scott, Roger Skirrow, Brian Rusk, and Hamid Mumin were
much appreciated.
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13.

Iron Oxide(CuAuREEPAgUCo) Systems

MD Barton, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA

Treatise on Geochemistry 2nd Edition

understand what geologic processes and settings lead to this

Iron Oxide(CuAuREEPAgUCo) Systems

some extent since then, a variety of names and contrasting

this usage does not restrict IOCG to those deposits containing

Semantics and Postulated Origins

Debate arises both from semantics (definitions and what to

(generated from or salinity added by

Igneous heat cation source

K alteration (type II)

Iron Oxide(CuAuREEPAgUCo) Systems

nonmagmatic brines circulated by igneous or crustal heat, (3)

Geologic Context for IOCG Systems

The variability in IOCG systems merits an overview of their

Distribution in Space and Time

Iron Oxide(CuAuREEPAgUCo) Systems

(Fe; Paleozoic; Hawkins et al., 2010), South Australia

Regional settings are geologically active yet tectonically diverse;

(in part collisional?) settings are common in the later stages

13.20.2.2.1 Association with igneous rocks (or lack thereof)

Iron Oxide(CuAuREEPAgUCo) Systems

Na2O + K2O (wt%)

Hunt et al., 2007; southwestern United States detachment

13.20.2.2.2 Framework lithologies and paleoclimate

are similar to what is reported for Phanerozoic sediment and

Synopsis of Deposit Features

Deposits in the IOCG family share features including abundant

A simple classification of economic deposits in the IOCG clan

Iron Oxide(CuAuREEPAgUCo) Systems

S. Basin and Range (Tert.)

Na2O + K2O (wt%)

Na2O + K2O (wt%)

13.20.3.1.1 Magnetite- and/or hematite-dominated

shallower stratiform hematitic ores (Table 1; e.g., Daliran et al.,

Iron Oxide(CuAuREEPAgUCo) Systems

Mean age (Ma)

Andes (Raul-Condestable, Mina Justaa),

Cloncurry (Mt Cobalt), W United

oxideapatite deposits a variant on the older term magnetite

distinguished from magnetite-dominated, Cu-rich varieties (e.g.,

Iron Oxide(CuAuREEPAgUCo) Systems

universal (e.g., SE Missouri, Seeger, 2000; S Australia,

13.20.3.1.2 Fe oxide-poor Cu(Au/Ag) deposits of proposed

Both types have well-developed Na and/or K alteration. An

13.20.3.1.3 Possible modern analogues

Grade, Size, and Form

Iron Oxide(CuAuREEPAgUCo) Systems

Ore Mineralogy and Paragenesis

In addition to the iron oxides, the ores contain <15% total

Typical recoverable Cu grades

Porphyry Cu/Au limits

Reported resource (Mt)

Iron Oxide(CuAuREEPAgUCo) Systems

pyrite > chalcopyrite), and a variety of accessory minerals

13.20.3.4 Minor Element Contents and Mineralogy: UTh,

REE-bearing minerals are ubiquitous in IOCG systems. In

Iron Oxide(CuAuREEPAgUCo) Systems

Boron, though rarely abundant, occurs in accessory phases

clastic rocks, KNa(Ca) exchange is manifested mainly in the

13.20.4.1.1 Sodic to calcic alteration types