CE 3514 Introduction to Soil Mechanics

Course handout #2
By Dr. Marte Gutierrez

SOIL ORIGIN AND COMPOSITION, AND TYPES OF SOIL DEPOSITS

Main forces acting on the surface of the earth (the regolith):

Gradation alteration of physical topography by weathering

Diastrophism major movement along the earth surface (e.g., plate tectonics)
Vulcanism movement of molten rocks (lava and magma) within and on the earth
surface

Major types of rocks:

Igneous
o formed from cooling of lava and magma
o called the parent rock material
o crystalline structure (large crystal from slow cooling, finer crystal from fast cooling)
o intrusive formed below the earth surface usually under slow cooling
o extrusive formed above the earth surface usually under fast cooling
o dykes formed along faults
o Examples: granite, gabro and basalt
Sedimentary
o formed from sedimentation, and mechanical and chemical compaction of sediments.
o mechanical compaction accounts for most of the changes in the structure of sedimentary
rocks buried not deeper than 2-3 km. Below 2-3 km, most of the changes are due to
chemical compaction (e.g., cementation from increase in CaCO3, illite to smectite
transition, etc).
2-3 km below surface:
most of the changes are due to mechanical
compaction (reduction in porosity)
Deeper than 2-3 km:
most of the changes are due to chemical compaction
(cementation of the grain contacts causing the rock
structure to become stiffer (i.e., less resistant to
mechanical compaction), and filling of the void space
by cements)
o structure of the rock depends on the grain size of the original sediments (sand
sandstone, siltsiltstone, clays mudstone and shales).

CE 3514 INTRODUCTION TO SOIL MECHANICS

DR. M. GUTIERREZ

o Examples of clastic sedimentary rocks: shale, sandstones and conglomerates.

o Examples of sedimentary rocks formed from mechanical compaction: limestone and
dolomite.
Shales
The main difference between shales and mudstones is fissility shales are highly
fissile material which easily break or slake along bedding planes when exposed to the
elements of weathering.
About 95% of foundation construction involve shale.
Cementation shales with particles bonded together by cement (such as silica and
CaCO3) and are rather stable when exposed to weathering.
Compaction shales with particles held together by molecular attraction of the
particles, and are less stable than cementation shales.
Metamorphic rocks
o formed mainly from the action of heat and pressure on residual soils and sedimentary
rocks. Examples: clay->schist->gneiss, limestone->marble.
o contact metamorphism temperature increase in narrow zones (e.g., near hot magma
masses).
o dynamic metamorphism pressure changes due to major earth movements:
1) plastic strain - permanent or non-recoverable due to mechanical loading,
2) granulation - crushing of rocks,
3) re-crystallization - the re-grouping of various elements into new crystals; and
4) metasomatism solution and precipitation of original minerals, and replacement by
and alteration into other minerals
o Two texture groups: 1) foliated texture formed mainly during dynamic metamorphism,
and 2) non-foliated texture contains less directional structure and orientation.
Examples of non-foliated metamorphic rocks: marble, hornfells and quartzite
Examples of foliated metamorphic rocks: slate and schist
The geologic cycle (simplified version see the book for a more complete version)

Soils

Diagenesis
Heat and pressure

Weathering

Rocks

CE 3514 INTRODUCTION TO SOIL MECHANICS

DR. M. GUTIERREZ

Weathering- includes disintegration of rock by mechanical weathering, and decomposition of

rock by chemical weathering.
Mechanical weathering
Temperature changes
Freezing and thawing
Splitting action of plant roots
Abrasive movments

Chemical weathering
Oxidation
Carbonation
Hydration
Vegetation

Diagenesis a geological term designating all actions which convert soils to more
compentent rocks, including mechanical compaction, chemical compaction and
sedimentation.
In general, soils are formed from rocks and vice versa. Exceptions:
1) igneous rocks come directly from lava (that is why they are called the parent rock),
2) sediments have to be transformed to sedimentary rocks before they can be
transformed to metamorphic rocks,
3) residual soils are formed only from weathering of igneous rocks,
4) residual soils are exposed further to weathering and are transported to become
sedimentary deposits,
5) metamorphic rocks can be re-introduced into the molten part of the earth (e.g.,
through subduction zones), and become magma or lava.
Clays and clay minerals
Clays constitute the smallest soil particles, with particle size not larger than 2m (210-6 m).
The mineralogy of clay minerals can be studied by SEM (Scanning Electron Microscope) or
XRD (X-ray diffraction). The table below gives an example of the results of an XRD analysis
on a shale.
Mineralogy of Kimmeridge shale
determined from XRD analysis.
Composition
Smectite and
I/S
Quartz
Chlorite
Kaolinite
Illite/Mica
Pyrite
Siderite
Calcite

Bulk
sample
10%

Clay
fraction
10%

30%
trace
30%
20%
>5%
trace
>5%

5%
35%
20%
trace
trace

Fig. 1 SEM of Kimmeridge Shale

CE 3514 INTRODUCTION TO SOIL MECHANICS

DR. M. GUTIERREZ

Main component (building block) of clay minerals is the hydrous aluminum silicate.
Tetrahedral silica sheet:
O

Symbol

Si

Octahedral alumina sheet:

OH

Al

Three main groups of clay minerals based on their lattice structure:

Kaolinites:
7.210-10 m

Most residual clays consists of kaolinites,

sometimes intermixed with illites. Kaolinites
are stable minerals, with a tight cohesive
structure and do not expand when invaded by
water.

Si
Al

Montmorillonites:
Loosely held water and
free metallic ion

Si
Al

Si
9.610-10 m

Consist of alumina sheets between two silica sheets,

which are weakly held together by water and free
metallic ions. Structure is weak and unstable upon
contact with water. Montmorillonites swell upon
contact with water, and shrink and crack when dried.
Bentonite is a highly expansive montmorillinitic clay
formed from volcanic ash. It has many applications:
1) backfills to stabilize ground excavations, 2) for
plugging leaks, 3) removal of drill cuttings.

CE 3514 INTRODUCTION TO SOIL MECHANICS

DR. M. GUTIERREZ

Illites (more complicated than montmorillonites)

Si

9.610-10 m

K-ions

Consist of octahedral gibbsite sheets between

silica sheets. Has less affinity to water than
montmorillonites and hence experiences less
water-induced swelling. Has higher internal
friction angle than montmorillonites.

Flocculation and Dispersion

Flocculation
Flocculation is a process by which colloidal solutions
(e.g., clay particles in suspension) coagulate into flocs.
Coagulation can be caused by the introduction of
electrolytes or oppositely charged fluids (such as seawater
or water from limestone) into the suspension.
Due to the opposite charge, the clay platelets arrange in a
stronger edge-to-edge arrangement (nearly honeycomb
structure).
Flocculated clays have higher strength, stiffness and
permeability than dispersed clay of the same porosity.

Dispersion
Dispersion causes a face-to-face arrangement of the clay
platelets.
Dispersion maybe due to the lack of oppositely charged fluids
in the void space, or due to mechanical remolding of the clay.
Clays with dispersed structure are stronger and stiffer than
flocculated clay only in the direction normal to the clay
particles. Dispersed clays have very little strength parallel to
the clay particles, and any small disturbance can cause the
entire lattice structure to collapse, releasing the clay particles
to float freely in the water. The result is a quick clay slide.

CE 3514 INTRODUCTION TO SOIL MECHANICS

DR. M. GUTIERREZ

Structure of an undisturbed marine clay (from A. Casagrande)