pietro.foralosso@gmail.

com

An introduction to free energy and free gravity

machines

Rev 00C
Date 2016-08-13

PDF processed with CutePDF evaluation edition www.CutePDF.com

This e-book is freely distributable with quotation of the author:

Pietro Foralosso

To Luca

INDEX
Introduction / Change log

007

Chapter 1: How it all began

009

Chapter 2: Gray patents (almost) explained

017

Chapter 3: Santagatas hydrogen

023

Chapter 4: Temperature matters

039

Chapter 5: Up is down

051

Chapter 6: Tesla and Gray reloaded

065

Chapter 7: The Freerider free energy inverter

081

Chapter 8: Force fields

095

Chapter 9: Whats next

APPENDIXES
Appendix 1: Images

103

Appendix 2: Grays patents

119

Appendix 3: Evgeny/Modanese paper

159

Appendix 4: References

201

INTRODUCTION

The theory of gravitational machines is based upon the work of Carlo Santagata which had the

intuition of the gravitational field being in fact the RMS value of an alternating electric field.

On the other side, the inertial mass of bodies is explained as the self induction coefficient of

charged particles (J.J. Thompson, 1881).

This

theory

has

then

been

extended

to

explain

the

behavior

and

optimize

some

curious

electrical machines (Edwin Gray, Nicola Tesla, Jean-Louis Naudin).

The construction details and calculations of a simple free energy inverter and electric flying

saucer are also explained and illustrated.

Pietro Foralosso

CHANGE LOG

Rev 00B: Updated image 20, formula 5.1 and expanded explanation about magnetons and

magnetic currents in image 16.

Chapter 1

How it all began

And Ive always been a nut about thunderstorms.

I watched lightning by the hours, I noticed how much stronger it appeared to be when closer to
the Earth and just naturally concluded more air had to do with that
Edwin Gray

Toward the end of the 60s, Edwin Gray caught the attention of both media and scientific
community with his prototype machines which seemingly defied the basic principles of energy
conservation.
The purpose of this chapter is to unveil the initial intuition behind Grays and Teslas machines,
and to do so we shall start with the first free energy machine ever built.

The first man who stumbled across some unconventional electric machines was Nikola Tesla,
with his famous Tesla coil transformer, a version of which is shown in image 1.

Tesla coil cycle

The condenser C1 is charged by generator G0 to a sufficiently low voltage
 until electric
breakdown field is reached in the spark gap SG.
A certain flow of electrons leaves the cathode C of the spark gap SG as per formula:
1.1.






With the negative sign meaning that the current is incoming from A into C, or else a stream of
negatively charged electrons is leaving cathode C and charging toward anode A of the spark
gap.
We also note that as far as the condenser C1 is concerned, he is only discharging its charge
into the air, which looks as good as the ground potential to him.
C1 is not at all aware of any secondary circuit R2/C2/L2 which may be dampening its discharge
in any way, and this is the reason formula 1.1 only shows R1 and not (R1+R2+L2/C2), whilst
RC is the resistance electrons encounter to jump off the metallic material and into a gas or
vacuum, and this resistance is usually much lower than R1 at sufficiently high cathode
temperatures.

Next step we calculate the current leaving anode A of the spark gap or in other words, the
quantity of electrons crossing the gap and reaching into A. This can be deducted out of
Townsend formulas for avalanche discharges:

1.2.

 =  exp ( ) =
  ;
 1


With  being the first Townsend ionization coefficient for ambient air and ultimately being a
dimensionless factor greater than one which summarizes the spark gap overall electric gain.

As per above, a small current  discharging from the condenser C1 can be amplified by many
hundreds of times into  by means of a spark gap SG by stealing electrons from the air
molecules.
This amplified surge current was eventually put into use by Tesla through a loosely coupled air
transformer L2/L3 in an attempt to broadcast the electrostatic energy accumulated on the top
hat condenser of his machines.

It must be noted that also the wire employed for the inductance L2 has a certain capacitance or
else a dedicated condenser C2 of utmost importance for the correct functioning of the system in
order to prevent the receiving anode from negatively charging itself and repelling the last part of
the electrons coming from the cathode C.

A brief description of an avalanche discharge is shown in image 2, which shows how electrons
are stripped out of air molecules and then collected on the anode A.
Since the air anions generated in the process are much slower than the free electrons
generated in the collisions, they do not have the time to reach the anode, and this process is

what Edwin Gray referred to as splitting the positive.

The base concept of overrunity for this type of machines hinges around the concept of
overrunity factor (or energy out / energy in ratio) as below:
1.3.

 (#$)

! = "

(#$)

"

With M being the current gain due to Townsend coefficient, or positive splitting in Edwin Grays
words.
Apparently Gray machines defied the laws of energy conservation and possessed a OF as per
1.3 greater than 1 (seemingly in the range of E+2), whilst a through first principle analysis would
suggest that the extra charge available at the anode, would be available at a much lower
absolute voltage as compared to the cathode so the energy process itself would have been
dissipative rather than multiplicative (OF<1).

What about Tesla

Tesla original observations started at the times when high voltage DC dynamos were still used
for normal electricity generation and transmission, probably during his years working with
Edison.
He was impressed about the surge voltages that HV DC lines were exposed to when these
dynamos were put online (think of Frankenstein style knife switches with a huge voltaic arc

between the terminals when closed).

These dangerous surge voltages caused many nuisances (and deaths too!) among unlucky
operators.
Many devices and techniques were invented and deployed to resolve these issues, including
overdesigning of equipment and extra electric insulations. Apparently there was no explanation
as to why an high voltage dynamo would multiply its operating voltage by hundreds of times
when connected to a 0 voltage line through a voltaic arc, and this unwanted voltage surge is
what Tesla tried to exploit in its magnifier transformers, in the sense that he was trying not just
to magnify the voltage through this effect, but also trying to multiply the power output against the
law of energy conservation.

Conclusions
Back in the days, engineering schools were much more unsophisticated as compared to the
ones we have nowadays. The poor guys, Tesla and Gray, hadnt been briefed about the law of
conservation of energy nor about Townsend experiments and avalanche discharges, so both in
their own way saw something which could turn a small incoming current/voltage into a much
bigger one, hence their machines deploying spark gaps as an active electricity generator.

This idea looks somewhat naive when put in front of a detailed first principle examination, but

still the question remains, why should Gray and Tesla machines have worked the way they
supposedly did, why did they invest so much resources and even bother to patent some of
these applications?

We shall see in the next chapters how both Gray and Tesla ultimately stumbled across much
more fundamental phenomena which will link gravity to electricity.

Chapter 2

Gray patents (almost) explained

The bulb lit, then Gray dropped it into a tank filled with water.
What would be happening if this was getting ordinary power right now?
Gray asked, as he dipped his hand in the water with the glowing light bulb.
The National Tattler

I invite the reader to take a look at appendix 2, containing Gray patent literature available from
the Internet, it will be a lengthy and yet enlightening exercise.
Both Tesla and Gray machines originally started from the basic concept of a spark gap
Overrunity Factor as explained in formula 1.3, which they tried to exploit in a number of ways.

Patent 1: Gray inverter

Gray inverter (first patent of appendix 2) is a circuit which relies on an inductance 5 (Gray
shooting magnets) to recharge condenser 3 against a multiplied anode current. If no external
control circuit is applied then eventually this machine will keep working at its proper resonating
frequency depending on condenser 3, inductance 5 and diode resistance 4.

My comments in red on this patent will be explained later on and will clarify the actual principle

of operation behind this machine, but it is interesting to see how the hypothesis suggested in
chapter 1 seems to explain this early Gray design.

Patent 2: EMA motor

This patent has some thrilling electro mechanic going on in regard to spark gap timing and
operation of multiple coil circuits in different configurations to change the speed of the rotor.
A part from that, it resembles a synchronous motor exploiting the gain factor of a sparked
electric current which powers up the magnets of what is ultimately an electric motor.

An air pump was needed to cool the rotor/stator, but most likely the air was also necessary to
feed the spark gap array with fresh fuel (air!).

Patent 3: Vacuum tube inverter

This patent (image 3) is clearly a game changer as compared to the previous straightforward
designs.
Main peculiarity here is that the spark gap is now a vacuum tube, so the current is not amplified
by the molecules of the gas (M = 1!!!!), but it is in fact the secondary electron emission charge of
the high voltage anode toward two collecting plates.
The main omission in Grays patent here is to show only one terminal connecting both collecting
plates inside his vacuum tube (my mark ups are shown in red).

According to Grays description of the device, the inner plate 34b should in fact collect the
emitted electrons from anode 12 toward the inductive load 36, whilst the outer plate 34a should
be connected to ground, thus forming a condenser assembly with the inner plate 34b in order to
smoothen surge currents and voltages and to protect the inductive load.

The operating cycle is dully described in the patent, and all this needless sophistication doesnt
explain why the device should produce more energy than it adsorbs or why some energy should
go to the load 36.

Wireless electricity applied to light bulbs

Another thing that is hard to explain in terms of amplified sparked current is Edwin Gray
demonstration of the bulb experiment in the water tank, which was somewhat similar to Tesla
experiment lighting a mercury vapor bulb wirelessly, so here the wires are used more like an
antenna to broadcast a strong near field rather than using an electron flow to heat up the bulb
filament.

Last clue to the puzzle is that reportedly, Edwin Gray machines were emitting an outgoing
magnetic field all around them, as if magnetic monopoles were being generated by the machine.

Since classical electromagnetism cannot predict nor explain such machines, it is time to go and

look for other equations which could explain these phenomena without contradicting but
expanding our knowledge of electromagnetism.

Chapter 3

Santagatas hydrogen

If you eliminate the impossible, whatever remains however improbable must be the true
Sherlock Holmes

Carlo Santagata was an Italian engineer fairly active in physic research and member of the
Physic Society.
He wrote quite an amazing book: The unification of electromagnetic and gravitational fields
Gravitational waves and antigravity.
Unfortunately Santagata didnt live to complete the second part of this fundamental theory, but
still he put forward enough information for us to close the circle between electric and
gravitational fields.

I will hereby provide a simplified explanation of his work as well as some extensions and
deductions starting from his formulas.
Again I strongly recommend the reader to lookup for Santagatas original work which will

provide an extremely accurate and rigorous description of some of the things I am going to dully
explain in this chapter.

Every particle only bears its own electric charge (Coulomb), its self induction coefficient (inertial
mass or magnetic moment), along with an unshielded flickering/alternating electric field whose
RMS value is called gravitational field:
We explain the structure of a particle electric field with Weber formula for electrodynamic:


3.1.





 

() =     1 +          

3.2.

() =
(

3.3.

(

3.4.



($%&'%'(%!) =  

3.5.

()

!"#)

!"#)


+
($%&'%'(%!) +
()

!*%)

=    

 



  

!*%)

+

,   

 

   



So if we consider a massive particle as the sum of two unbalanced electric charges rotating
furiously around each other, we can say that they will radiate around them a coulombian field
which is the average of the total charges inside the particle.


Also these charges will put out a small, flickering rotating field as per the term   in 3.4.
On the other end, the two electric particles rotating closely within the nucleus are hugging each


 

other with an incredibly strong force due to the term      as per 3.5.
This term is also with a negative sign meaning that positive charges will attract each other (not
repel) if pushed together at close enough distances and speeds.

In fact the short range nuclear interaction of this flickering electric field will be so strong at the
atomic level that only exact (digital/quantistic) relative distances will be allowed for any given
particle and charge within the atomic building, and this exact distance will be a function of the
elementary charge characteristic rotating frequency (also quantized and typical of each
mass/charge bearing particle).

Intermediate distances between the nuclear and gravitational distances will yield other kind of
electromagnetic forces active at molecular levels such as London forces, Wan Der Vaal forces,
gas pressure forces and so on.

The relative equilibrium of these three terms, along with the self induction coefficient effect
determine an equilibrium distance of each and every particle at any scale of observation, thus
unifying all the fundamental forces of nature under the umbrella of the electromagnetic field
extended as per Webber intuition.

Assembling a proton
A practical explanation of what we have just said is given in image 4.
The electric charge of a proton is not evenly distributed, it is composed of 2 up quarks (electric
charge +2/3e) and one down quark (electric charge -1/3e), so the total Coulombian charge is

+1e.
These charges are unbalanced and rotate within the nucleus with a certain frequency (magnetic
moment), this movement causes the quarks to hold tight together as per 3.5 so to maintain a
certain magnetic moment and a steady equilibrium position which prevents the atom from
exploding.

Since the electric charges inside the proton are unbalanced, the electric field radiated is not
constant at constant distance, but flickers and oscillates around the mean Coulombian value.
The absolute mean value of this flickering field is very small as compared to strength of the
Coulombian field, but still this faint, unshielded electric glow is what causes the gravitational (or
weak) interaction between particles which will tune in to that frequency field and be ultimately
attracted to the proton in a gravitational way.

Assembling an hydrogen atom

Another important parameter of our gravitational field (apart from its magnitude or RMS value) is
its rotating frequency. Depending on the complexity of the body or particle, this flickering electric
field might have many harmonics, in the case of a simple hydrogen atom we will assume the
proton emits a simple sinusoidal type gravitational (flickering electric) field:
3.6.




() =     -1 + ."(/*"0) sin45(/*"0) 6 + 7(/*"0) 89

3.7.

() =
() +
(:)

3.8.




() =    

Coulombian electric field

3.9.

(:) =

."(/*"0) sin45(/*"0) 6 + 7(/*"0) 8 Gravitational/reactive electric field

   

We can then say that the gravitational field radiated by the particle is in fact a very tiny
alternating electrical field:
3.10.

;() =

3.11.

A = B

@

@

 ."(/*"0) <> =sin45(/*"0) 6 + 7(/*"0) 8= ?6 = =


/

"

CD(EFDG)


This is valid for a purely sinusoidal electric fields

When this flickering field meets another particle (ie an electron), this other particle also
possesses a certain rotating frequency which interacts with the alternating electric field of the
first one, so the two particles (proton and electron) are a bit like gears of a mechanism, each
rotating with a certain frequency, therefore only certain distances are allowed between the two,
the distance at which these alternating electric fields mesh perfectly into each other with the
same tangential speed.
When you try to push an electron on a radius shorter than the Bohr radius, the two gears
(electric fields applied to the particles), will no longer mesh, and the resultant repulsive force is
in fact an anti gravitational type repulsion.

To decrease this distance, we should reduce the speed or frequency of the flickering electric
field of at least one of the two particles, so that the other one can gear down at a shorter
distance, however the minimum rotating frequency of a particle internal charge is also intimately

related to its inertial mass, so there will be distances below which is not possible for them to
gear together.

This theory has been used by Santagata to explain and predict many physical phenomena such
as:
1) Prediction of geomagnetic fields against moving masses.
2) Prediction of the Sun Wolf number against the masses and orbits of the planets
composing the solar system.
3) Prediction of the elastic module for solid materials as a simple function of density,
molecular weight of the material and crystalline structure.
4) Prediction of the speed of sound for both solid and gas media as a simple function of
density and molecular weight.
5) Prediction of the Casimir effect.
6) Deduction of the gravitational/electrical force ratio for protons.

In fact Santagata uses this residual/reactive electric field (or gravitational field) to explain any
aggregative state of the matter, from the quarks up to the galaxies, and it is fundamental for us
to go through this imaginative exercise together in order to better understand the implications of
such a revolutionary theory.

Assembling a neutron
Someone might say that since the neutron has no electric charge to swing around and bout,
then its nucleus should radiate no gravitational field, but in fact the neutron is like a proton with
a negatively coated shell which gives an overall null Coulombian electric field but still radiates a
flickering reactive electric field as per 3.9, hence its gravitational field is similar to the one of a
charged proton (image 4), although its mean (coulombian) value is zero.

Gravitational glow from an hydrogen atom

When we put together a proton and an electron, we dont just add up the inertial masses (and
gravitational fields) of the base particles, but we also put an electron into a circular orbit, and
this orbit generates some additional ripples and flickering to the overall electric field being
radiated outside the atom, so the total mass of an hydrogen atom is slightly higher than the sum
of the inertial masses at rest of a single proton and electron.
Similarly, when we push that electron up toward higher orbits, we also increase the eccentricity
or magnitude of ."(/*"0) so that the atom will appear a little bit heavier than before, in fact it is
the RMS value of the alternating electric field which increases...

Assembling a solid matrix

As explained in figure 4, the flickering electrical (gravitational) field has its own shape, which is
eventually a function of the atoms temperature and atomic number, and the quark equilibrium

positions which will be forced upon the atomic building.

Within a solid, the atoms are cold enough to exhibit a tetragonal shaped reactive electric field as
per image 5 top part. This helps to explain why they all wish to fall within right
electro/gravitational equilibrium positions of a tetragonal matrix which minimizes the overall
potential like 3D Lego blocks clicking into their only possible position.

When you separate two surfaces of a solid material, these tetragonal alternating electric fields
average out to zero very quickly and they lose their strength so two separate objects can only
pick up the base faint long distance gravitational glow of the base particles, not the strong near
field semi-nuclear force reaction explainable through Webber.

Still if we put two smooth surfaces close enough together, they could interact once more with a
strong attractive force, as if these two were welding together once more at least in some smoot
enough areas.
This is another way to look at the Casimir effect as two surfaces sufficiently smooth and close to
cause a self welding effect as Webber near field interaction kicks in, without the need to call in
zero field energies and other unnecessary complications.
Again the Lego like surfaces are a very good analogy of what is going on, only the round pins
and holes are alternating electric fields perfectly meshing into each other to generate a

consistent equilibrium position which resists to further compressive or repulsive movements.

Assembling a gaseous matrix

If the atom is hot enough, the shape of its gravitational (alternating electric) field changes from
tetragonal into a more unstable needle like shape (image 5 lower part).
This means that even if such an atom can find a couple of peers to neutralize a couple of its
electric arms, there will be other atoms around it which will jump in and disrupt the links
previously formed, which means that the atoms of this matrix are unable to cut an electrically
(gravitationally) stable deal with their neighbours and this overall electric unbalance results in a
repulsive force for all the atoms or molecules of the gas.

Asymmetries in the atom alternating electric fields also suggests a certain directionality and
preferential direction of interaction for these gravitational fields, thus explaining why galaxies or
solar systems can hold together with a gravitational force stronger than classic gravity would
predict (dark matter).

Assembling a solar system

Image 6 summarizes the gravitational interaction between two massive planetary bodies, only
that the gravitational field is in fact an electric alternating one.
One thing to visualize is that the reactive electric fields of the two masses are rotating in perfect

synchronism like gears meshing together.

If the kinetic energy of say the smaller mass m was higher, then the rotation of its gravitational
gear 5" would be higher, which means the equilibrium position of the two masses will be at a
greater distance.

On the other end, when an electron is orbiting around a proton, the gravitational frequency of
the electron and proton are fixed (quantized), therefore only certain exact distance positions are
allowed between the two, which are the positions in which the two gravitational fields mesh and
gear perfectly into each other.

Unification of the forces of nature

Depending on the scale we look at, the gravitational or else high frequency alternating electric
field is the cause of all the known forces of nature which distinguish themselves only as a
function of the particle temperature or electric field frequency.

It will be very strong on a small scale (atomic forces) and a bit less strong on a molecular or
solid matrix level (London forces), and less strong still on a planetary level (gravity), and even
less strong on an intergalactic / gas dust level, and so forth.

What about the inertial mass?

In his book Santagata promised to give charges to the masses, which is what we did in 3.11 but
he also promised to give masses to the electric charges, which boils down to the inertial mass
problem:
3.12.

I = A J

This equation is obviously working in a number of technical applications and does not need any
electric charge to explain itself, so at last the inertial mass seems to be an electric charge
independent property of particles.

Nevertheless, what was recognized and later proved back in the 1881 (J.J. Thomson) is that it is
more difficult to accelerate an electrically charged body than it is to accelerate the uncharged
version of the same.
This fact is simply explained in terms of self magnetic induction of the charged body, which
behaves like an electric current when it is set in motion and the induced magnetic field
generates an additional electromagnetic resistance to the acceleration of the charged body
itself.

We could simplify this concept in the following way:

M'

@ !

3.13.

K = L M =

3.14.

I = |B| ! M = A J

O M'

3.15.

A = |B|



If we follow the theory then we say that an object mass is given by the sum of its Newtonian
mass and its self induction mass:
3.16.

A = A)*P( + |B|



Here the inertial mass has been replaced by an electric charge and its self induction coefficient,
and this fact has been furthermore explored by some researchers who tried to calculate the self
induction coefficient of the electron which ultimately returned the following conclusion:
3.17.

A*+ *!*"%:(*' = A*+ '(*'%!

Q

So the theoric calculated self induction electric dependent inertial mass of an electron is 33.3%
higher than its actual measured mass value.
This result, although not satisfactory, comes very close to predicting the electron mass and
moreover is missing the target by a clean 1/3 ratio rather than an odd number, thus suggesting
the theory is somewhat close to the goal although not yet mature to deliver the right result.
Also we wonder if these calculations account for the particle self charging effect as we will
explain later on when illustrating the Biefeld-Brown effect.

So the big question mark here is whether there is still some space for a classic Newtonian
inertial mass within any particle at all, since all particles (including neutrons) should have a tiny

self induction and self charging coefficient per 3.15, regardless of our mathematical capability to
accurately predict that value.

Last suggestion is that electromagnetic and inertial masses might come to fully coincide once
the electric charge eccentricity or dual charge is accounted into the particle model under
consideration.

Chapter 4

Temperature matters

The Schrodinger cat walks in a bar and

it doesnt!
TheBIFR.com

As per earlier, we can conclude that gravity is that residual and unbalanced electric field which
pushes or pulls particles toward a certain equilibrium distance which is dictated by their
magnetic (kinetic) moment.
That equilibrium distance depends upon the rotational kinetic energy or rotational temperature
of the particles being examined.

Gearing fields
The gravitational (alternate electric) fields of each particle perfectly mesh into each other when
the particles are held at the right electric and kinetic equilibrium distance and plane of optimum
interaction. We can see the electron in image 4 gravitationally surfing on the field radiated from
the proton since their reactive fields are meshing together at the right gearing ratio.

However, if the electron (or else the proton) spin is rotationally (thermally) excited then a new
equilibrium distance will be forced upon the system (image 7), and again this equilibrium must
ensure the reactive fields have the right gearing ratio.

Also looking at image 9 we could summarize the gravitational force between two electrically
charged particles in the following way:
4.1.



 =




1 + () sin

() !

+ "() #$1 + %() sin

%() !

"%() )$ 1'
4.2.




 = 

|  |




%() cos + ()

The newly introduced cos + factor summarizes the direction of the gravitational force between
two particles, and it can vary between 1 or -1 (attractive or repulsive), whilst the term %()
suggest that a particle apparent gravitational field can be enhanced to values far greater than
their minimum thermal value and it is directly related to the eccentricity and magnitude of the
unbalanced charges inside the particle itself.

The theory predicts that the electron particle itself will show a positive electric charge nested
within an overall negative charge when stressed with the right acceleration, similarly to the
proton structure shown in image 4.

When the gravitational field frequencies are perfectly tuned into each other (cold systems) then
cos + is 0 (image 9 top part), the centrifugal force balances the coulombian force and the
system is in electro/kinetic equilibrium.
The system could however be excited so that the fields do not properly mesh into each other,
then cos + might change so the gravitational force favors and enhances the centrifugal one. This
leads the electron toward outer orbits (central part of image 9 and also image 7 which shows an
electron gearing properly and another one not gearing correctly and thus being repelled
outward).

On the other side, if the orbiting particle is too slow or else not gearing right, then cos + will be
attractive, the gravitational force will team up with the coulombian attractive force and bring
down the particle against the centrifugal pull (image 9 bottom part).

By exciting a particle spin frequency or else charge eccentricity we can forge attractive or
repulsive electric fields as compared to particles which tune in at normal thermal frequencies.
The difference between a gravitational attractive force versus its repulsive expression is
mediated by the phase angle between the electric reactive field and the particle electric
dipolephase angle.

Also to note that the thermal energy (or absolute temperature) of a particle brings upon many

agitation modes within the same, but the ones which enhance the spin of the inner electric
dipoles are the ones most relevant for the generation of strong gravitational or anti gravitational
fields.

Lighting balls
balls
Such strange and unexplained phenomena can be better understood with what we have
described so far.

Let us take the nucleus of a heavy atom and thermally charge its magnetic momentum so that
the spinning velocity of its inner charge and nucleus is as close as possible to the speed of light.
The Coulombian electric field will behave business as usual, but the alternating electric field
frequency will be extremely high and will look very spiky, like a sea urchin (image 8).
This means that the gravitational equilibrium distance of the cold/unexcited orbiting electrons
will be very far away from the nucleus, in the order of few centimeters.

Unfortunately, the lighting ball is not an isolated object, it is surrounded by pressurized

atmospheric air molecules, which will try to enter inside the lighting ball to fill the void between
nucleus and electron orbits, or by simple Brownian motion.
As fresh air pours into the lighting ball, it is exposed to highly ionizing gravitational repulsive
electric winds which will sweeps electrons off the air molecules, thus generating a sort of

ionizing wave which pushes exhausted air ions and related electron clouds outward again with a
spectacular emission of glowing light.
Eventually, the excited nucleus at the center of the lighting ball will decay its extremely high spin
velocity down to more sociable thermal kinetic energies, so the glow fades and the show slowly
ends.

An alternative ending is that as the nucleus cools down, it passes through a resonating speed
which unbalances the atomic strong force that holds the nucleons together thus exploding the
atom and bringing the show to a sudden end.
This is more likely when the atom is heavier, since its atomic structure is somewhat more
unstable and brittle than smaller ones.
Another suggestion is that within heavier atoms there might be uneven cooling and some
nucleons might slow down to thermal frequencies faster than other ones within the same atomic
building.
This phenomenon would equal to throwing literally a wrench into the atom structure which
causes it to suddenly explode since some nucleons will no longer mesh and gear properly with
the nearby ones (atomic weak force).

This theory also explains some curious observations following high altitude nuclear experiments
done by the US Army.

In one of these experiments, extremely intense aurora borealis and lighting balls appeared on
the opposite side of the Earth as compared to the explosion site. My theory is that the explosion
generates a great deal of EMP radiation which excites the atoms in a rotative way. This
radiation eventually got lensed by the atmosphere to the other side of the Earth, where it got
concentrated and caused the air molecules and atoms to behave as per image 8.

Super electrons
Like for the lighting ball, overexcited super electrons are extremely antisocial toward the other
particles, especially other electrons.
It is reported that Tesla was generating quite a few of these duringhis experiments.
These should look similar to what we have described for lighting balls, only that now it is the
electron which will look like an urchin, and probably the diameter of the ball will be smaller and
the decay rate much quicker.

When these are forced into a metallic matrix, they might not have enough antigravitational force
to explode the robust crystalline structure in which they dwell, but still they can bully nearby
electrons in the metal and keep them at bay in virtue of a highly repulsive high frequency
alternating electric field (image 10).
A metallic material irradiated with super electrons will exhibit an extremely low voltage as
compared to the ground because normal electrons cannot spread evenly within the conductor

volume, they are then forced and squeezed into a smaller material volume and they will
concentrate on the body surface.
In this case the metallic conductor will appear extremely negatively charged, thus making the
conductor highly ionizing in air and behaving in fact like anenergized condenser.

Again the super electrons will ultimately decay their rotational energy down to thermal
temperature and frequencies and the effect will fade.
Also when we look at image 10, we could draft the values of the superficial electric field
radiating from the conductor surface (image 11 top part).

To begin with the conductor has no electric field, then when the super electron enters into it, the
electric field quickly drops down to a very low value.
As the superelectron cools down, the electrostatic pressure on the surface drops too and if the
effect is due to a multitude of superelectrons we can then imagine this process to develop like
an exponential decay until in T3 all the superelectrons have faded and the electric field is back
to 0.

We can go further and develop the displacement current integral as follow:

4.3.

,- .- 5

01
02

34 = 9 7 38

That formula can be developed into an average/constant displacement current field as well as a

reactive displacement current field (Image 11 lower part).

The average part of this field is capable of inducing electric currents in conductors approaching
or leaving the proximities of the supercharged conductor, with the currents being greater the
faster the conductor is moved about. This is important to bear in mind since human body is a
good conductor, and also Tesla personnel seemed to have suffered injuries during some
experiments!

EMP radiation
This kind of electromagnetic radiation is such to enhance the rotation/spin of an electrical dipole
or else a massive particle. Supposedly a great deal of EMP radiation is generated upon
relativistic deceleration of high speed electrons, and Tesla was seemingly generating burst of
EMP radiations and then broadcasting the superelectric state or radiation to receiving stations
or other metallic objects.
The frequency of the EMP radiation is very important. Higher frequencies can interact with
metallic electrons thus being ideal for electricity generation on receiving metallic antennas,
lower frequencies seems to interact on a molecular/organic level, thus interacting with operators
nearby the machine as well documented by Tesla (see reference 9 in appendix 4).

If we look at booth Gray and Tesla machines, we could say that the EMP radiation travels
across a radiated conductor like a field thus momentarily transforming electrons into

superelectrons as the radiation/EMP field passes by, rather than having a physical movement of
superelectrons across the metallic material as shown in image 10.
The conductor also radiates part of the EMP field outward and its potential electric energy yield
can amplified by putting receiving conductors around the radiating station.

In fact Tesla was at one point claiming that few hundreds HP motor might have been enough to
power up the whole world through specially conceived emitting and receiving stations.
This seems a gross miscalculation as seen from a first principle of thermodynamics, as the
electromagnetic power will dilute to negligible values in a big volume of atmospheric air and
empty space, but in fact Tesla was thinking more of broadcasting electric power and amplify it
back up on a receiving station the same way we transmit music through very faint radio signals
and then we amplify that same signal back to audible power level.

Evaporating metals
Another interesting experiment performed by Nikola Tesla was to evaporate solid metal
conductors at ambient temperature or whilst holding these materials in his hand. How is that
possible?

If we look back at image 10, we can use supereletrons or high pulses of EMP radiation to push
out electrons from a metallic matrix which is left positively charged. Missing electrons (or else

positive charges) will place themselves at the maximum possible distance from each other,
which is the conductor surface.

If we are capable of displacing enough charges (which is expelling electrons into surrounding air
through the tip effect of the conductor), the conductor will be charged at millions of volts, then
we might start to affect the solid matrix electric forces which glue the atoms together as
discussed earlier on (image 5 top part).
So our 3D Lego block like atoms will have shorter and shorter teeth to clip on to each other as
electrons are stripped away, and the sharpest parts of the metallic material (the ones with
strongest tip effect and concentration of electric field) will start to chip and shed away due to
sheer electrostatic repulsion of the nuclei no longer neutralized by intermediate electrons.

We can imagine this effect starting from the metal surface and from the points with highest
curvature which will peel the material off into vapor from the surface to the core at ambient
temperatures rather than hundreds of degrees Celsius.

Chapter 5

Up is down

At the start of his Empire of the Air, Mouillard gave fair warning that one could be
entirely overtaken by the thought that the problem of [manned] flight could be solved by man:
When once this Idea has infected the brain, it possesses it exclusively.
The Wright brothers

Some might have heard about the Biefeld-Brown effect, which is in fact a clear and simple
gravitational effect although, if we look at Wikipedia this would be attributed to a simple ionic
wind effect, but let us look at the facts first.

It all began from the observation of HV condensers losing weight when on a scale (image 12).
The intensity of this effect depends upon the following factors:
1) The separation of the plates. The closer the plates the more intense the effect.
2) The ability of the dielectric material to store electric energy in form of elastic stress or
else dielectric K factor (it is 1 in vacuum or rarefied gas, about 80 for liquid water and so

forth). The greater the K the greater the effect.

3) The area of the plates. The grater the area, the greater the effect.
4) The voltage difference between the plates. The greater the voltage, the greater the effect.

So far only to say that this effect is dependent upon the electric charge present onto the surface
of the plates so the higher the electric charge (or electric field), the greater the effect.
However the last and most remarkable dependence is the following:
5) The mass of the dielectric material between the plates, the higher the mass, the higher
the intensity.

This last point clearly links inertial mass, gravitational fields and electric fields together, and it
was chiefly used back in the days to develop the first man made flying saucers and to bend and
reverse Earth gravity.
It would be more appropriate to say that these apparatuses offset the gravitational (high
frequency electric!) field of our planet and generate a stronger one in another direction, ideally
upward or any other desired vector.

Back in the day Brown was more interested in the force being generated by the condenser but it
would be more appropriate to focus on the acceleration
 that was generated in the material
within the plates, which is countering the  acceleration of gravity.

We can then take a look at image 13 and draft the following formula to express the acceleration
of a body or HV condenser as follow:
5.1.

   



 


  =     

With Alfa being a conversion factor whose dimension is m x Q / Kg, and a Lorentz factor is also
thrown into the equation to prevent said acceleration from moving the mass beyond the speed
of light.

This formula basically says that a certain volume of space V will be subjected to an average

acceleration 



in a generic direction  proportionally to the flow of electric field  through
the surface S which envelopes said volume.
Also the air outside the volume is subject to a gravitational magnetization and motion even if the
outter electric field is below the breakdown value of the gas.
Therefore the air molecules will travel along the lines of this electric field, and this phenomenon,
being in fact a gravitational effect of a strong electric field is often confused as a ionic wind of
gas which pushes the condenser in a given direction.
This false belief cannot explain why the effect is stronger when we increase the mass of the
dielectric between the two plates the way formula 5.1 does, nor why these machines should be
able to fly in vacuum as demonstrated back then by Brown.

The force (or better say acceleration) of gravity is therefore nothing more than an electric field
as discussed openly by Santagata, and this electric field is in fact capable of inducing a
magnetic flux on other bodies (see Santagata explanation and prediction of the Sun Wolf
number), and it is possible to counter this electric field with sufficiently strong counter electric
DC fields, a bit like it would be possible to pull ourselves up in the air by pulling our trousers up
with tight enough suspenders (laughter from the row in the back).

Another interesting observation from this formula is that it is in fact a 2 way street, so you can
charge a condenser and cause an inertial effect upon its mass, or you can impose an inertial
effect or force on an object and this in return will electrically charge the body surfaces like a
condenser.
This last statement will be easy enough to verify with simple experimental apparatuses and it is
the last nail in the coffin of the ionic wind theory.

High frequency electric radiation

It would seem that if we want to go in a zero-g (no gravity) environment we only need to step
inside a big Faraday cage which shields us from any external electric field, so imagine stepping
inside a car, or an airplane or a submarine (all big Faraday cages) just to find yourself floating in
the air due to the electric (gravitational) field being 0 inside these metallic structures.
This is obviously not happening because the g radiation is a subtle high frequency electric field

which permeates through the very atomic structure of the nucleons and electrons, so you
cannot ever be completely shielded from this high frequency electric field which causes the g
pull on the Earth surface.

Let us go inside a proton and check out what happens to its base constituents at rest and under
stress (image 14).
As already discussed the quarks inside a proton (or any atomic structure) are not steady but
they move at high frequency and they gear among themselves at the correct equilibrium speed.
A proton has 2 x +2/3 quarks and 1 x -1/3 quark, these three particles move at high speed and
overall they give out an high frequency alternating electric field.
As previously discussed the Weber electrodynamic suggests the electric force is dependent
upon particle speed and acceleration, which means that at high enough frequencies the normal
coulombian interaction (opposites attracts, sames repel), should reverse at subatomic scales
(opposite repels and sames attract), which is what we normally call strong atomic interaction.
This swinging between Coulomb and Weber type interaction suggests an equilibrium position
(or rotational speed) for the quarks inside an atomic structure.

In the case of image 14a, the negative quark -1/3 flickers between two equilibrium positions.
When it is too close to a +2/3 quark (distance d), the coulombian effect reverses and the poor
-1/3 quark is repelled away from the close +2/3 quark.

On the opposite side, another +2/3 quark is at distance D > d, which means that the normal
coulombian interaction is effective and the -1/3 quark feels attracted back toward the faraway
+2/3 quark.
In the end, the -1/3 and the two +2/3 quarks are locked together in this equilibrium conundrum
which swings continuously between a coulombian (repulsive) and a weberian (attractive) type
interaction.

All this to say that an atomic nucleus is made up of a quark soup in which every quark moves
around and trades its position against other neighbors

in accordance to strictly geometric

equilibrium positions.
These particles are nevertheless influenced also by more subtle and feeble electric fields
generated by other particles or radiations all around them, and the resulting quantic fluctuations
by these faraway particles might just be strong enough in some sweet spots of this swirling
structure to be the fatidic wrench flung inside the engine, causing the structure to explode
(nuclear fission) or rearrange in a different configuration (decay), which is what we call weak
atomic iteration.

These fast moving quarks still obey to the more general laws of electrostatic, so it is possible to
interpose an external electric field which causes the same to polarize in one particular direction
(image 14b).

There you can see that the bent protonic structure is shaped similarly to the condenser we saw
before, the proton (when neutralized by an electron) is in fact polarized and it feels a g
acceleration pushing him (or better say making it fall) toward the positively charged plate.

Also we see that the positive charges are polarized toward the positive side of the electric field
and the opposite for the negative charges mostly because the speed of these particles puts
them in a Weberian state where same charges attracts each other rather than repel each other.

Both these figures also suggest the presence of preferential direction of interaction between the
high frequency gravitational electric fields.

If we look at planetary systems in fact the planets tend to collapse their orbit within a common
plane which minimize the overall potential energy of the system.
This preferential direction or plane where each particle can better tune in with the gravitational
field of all the particle nearby and their subsequent polarization would explain indirectly the dark
matter force which binds galaxies together with an iteration which is stronger than what the flat
heterogeneous gravitational model predicts in all the directions.

Flying saucers
The most advanced man made UFO is fully described in US patent 2958790, also known as the

Brown-Bahnosn-Adamski electric flying saucer.

A simplified schematic is drafted in image 15.

The payload is in fact lodged between the plates of a HV condenser which is powered by an HV
generator (could be a free energy type generator). It is connected to the plates through some
HV isolators.
The positive anode is the upper plate and it points toward the motion direction, the negative
cathode is made of one central sphere and 3 additional spheres placed at 120 deg polar
distance, they can all be connected to the generator negative end to achieve maximum axial
thrust or else it is possible to switch one or more of the radial sphere off to achieve thrust in
another non axial direction and this turn in the electric field lines allows the saucer to perform
bending maneuvers in said direction.

The saucer can achieve very high accelerations, however, the pilots inside it would feel like
being in an elevator going down or else like falling in a no gravity environment.
The air around the saucer would also move in accordance to the lines of the electric field
generated by this bell shaped condenser so the gas will move itself out of the way as the saucer
moves into the gas medium, and the same gas is then sucked back on the tail end.
Therefore the saucer does not suffer from high vibration and shocks due to hypersonic speed
velocity and its operation is in fact incredibly quiet even at high speeds.

If it is desired to stop or move backward, it is possible to reverse the polarities of the generator
from the top plate to the four balls.

If it is desired to spin the saucer then you only need to put a spin onto the lower ball 0, and this
motion will bend and wrap the lines of electric field thus causing a torqueing moment on the
saucer.

The main issue with such flying machines is the low gravity (in fact 0 gravity) experienced during
travel time which can cause quite some physical discomforts especially during long space
flights.

The antianti-principle of thermodynamic

From a physic point of view we can say that the principles of thermodynamic are correct and
allow no free energy machines within certain relative boundary condition.
The main condition being that all particles within the system radiate a conservative type field
within the same thermal excitation condition (conventional electrostatic and gravitational fields).
In this boundary conditions the outcome of any movement or energetic transaction can only be
dissipative and produce a higher than before entropic state.

On the other side, if some particles are using some of the system energy to flip in and out of

relativistic states of excitement, the fields will no longer be conservative but will be time and
space varying as well as multiplied by a non-conservative/relative Lorentz factor.

In this case we can say that the outcome of an energetic transition or movement within this
particular system can bring about the same entropic state or even yield a lower one than the
original,

depending

upon

the

relative

equilibrium

of

conservative

and

non

conservative/relativistic/time varying fields.

This last concept is what allows Edwin Gray and Tesla machines to go beyond the principle of
energy conservation and produce the wonder effects described so far.

The tunnel effect, a simple free energy phenomenon

phenomenon
It is well known that particle of a certain medium do not have a homogeneous energy profile, but
some are hotter/more energetic and others are colder or less energetic and the energy function
of a population of particles can be described as a Gaussian shaped bell curve.
Inside a population of thermal electrons, it is possible to skim the more energetic ones to
generate a very faint voltage and current, whist the other electrons left behind will get slightly
cooler in the process.
However the colder electrons will soon enough equalize thermally with the surrounding
environment and the electricity stealing process can carry on in a direct conversion of ambient

thermal energy into electricity.

Unfortunately the bell shaped Gaussian distribution is too small for this effect to be exploited
practically in energy producing devices, however we could argue from what we have just said
that the bell shape of this distribution is in fact an indirect measure of the equilibrium between
standard/coulombian/conservative fields and non standard/relativistic/non conservative fields
which makes the overall particle interaction of a certain particle population.
By exasperating this relative equilibrium it is possible to force a system to yield electric energy
at the expenses of the surrounding thermal energy (and even more) as we shall see soon
enough.

Chapter 6

Tesla and Gray reloaded

Every great man-made invention and device had to be imagined first

before it could be built.
Peter Foss

In our previous chapters we have gathered all the electromagnetic ingredients we need to cook
both Gray and Tesla machines, let us start from image 3 as marked up in red.
Please note the schematics shown here have been edited by myself, as their original version
seems to be somewhat incomplete, possibly another attempt of an overly secretive Gray to
cover up his tracks and prevent other people from copying his original design.
Also to note that these schematics are more like a block diagram than a real line schematic,
again one more layer of interpretation introduced by Gray to prevent openly disclosing his
design.

The mystery unveiled

The vibrator 20 excites transformer 22 in order to charge condenser 16 at very high voltages
thus inducing a strong electric field between terminals 32 and 12 of the vacuum tube.
Switching mechanism 26 dictates the operating frequency of the spark gap by commanding the
gate of triode 28 which is in fact an old fashion power mosfet but very robust design and
capable of withstanding high voltages. This last one is meant to protect the low voltage cathode
circuits against induced back currents due to EMP radiation exposure of cathode 32 during
operation.

The spark event begins with a controlled flow of electrons being emitted from cathode 32 and
accelerated toward high voltage anode 12. The final kinetic energy of the electrons energy is
important here since a part of this energy converts electrons in superelectrons and also
generated EMP radiation, meaning that you can build very compact devices operating at high
voltages and frequency, or else you can have longer tubes but operating at much lower
voltages and obviously also the frequency of operation will be lower.

The resistor 30 is meant to keep the cathode hot so to enhance thermionic emission during
operation and increase specific power available at each cycle.

Once the electrons impact on the anode 12 (image 16) a relativistic deceleration arises, and this

deceleration polarizes the electrons like a charged condenser (formula 5.1), so the anode side
of the machine will see the decelerating electrons much more negative than they normally are
for just a fraction of second, whilst the tail of the electrons will look very much positively
charged.

The additional electric field lines generated upon deceleration of the electrons are funneled
inside the metallic material of the anode circuit.
This extra electric field apparently generated out of nowhere and obviously solenoidal in its
nature will soon enough disappear when all electrons of the spark have entered into the metallic
material, but in the meantime it is possible to use this solenoidal electric field to generate
electric power inside the energy recovery circuit of the Gray inverter.

Moreover, the high frequency and the time asymmetry of this high frequency electric field will be
able to excite other electrons and atoms cause spontaneous ionization of the same (image 8,
lighting ball as well as ionization of light bulbs in water).

The electrons still in mid air and travelling toward the anode will eventually be exposed to an
additional positive electric field which will cause them to furthermore accelerate toward the
anode, however the shape of the spark will be very random and unpredictable and the positive
electric field ensued is very uneven and more difficult to capture on the cathode side 32 of the

machine.

Any kinetic energy will do the trick we just described, however higher energies (higher voltages)
will help increasing the specific power of these machine, so that they could be very compact and
powerful at the same time.

As per earlier, a certain electric power can be transferred toward load 36 by irradiating plate 34b
with EMP radiation. Eventually plates 34b and 34a can be arranged in a condenser like fashion
to resonate with load 36 and operating frequency of mutivibrator 26.

As electrons and superelectrons electric field diffuses into the anode metallic material 12,
capacitance 16 will be fully discharged and eventually slightly negatively charged depending
upon the value of resistance 44 and 46, letting electrons out of the anode metallic material
(secondary circuit).

As superelectrons fade back into a normal electric state, the conductor 12 and condenser 16 will
in turn start to positively charge in the measure of total electron quantity passed by diodes 44
and 46, and there are three possible outcomes.
1) The electrons which left through diode 46 and 44 are less than the electrons which
entered in 12. In this case the transformer 22 and rectifier 24 will have to pull out some

electrons from condenser 16 to raise its voltage back to the operating value before the
next spark can be triggered.
2) The electrons which left through diode 46 and 44 are the same amount as the electrons
which entered in 12. In this case the system is in perfect equilibrium, the max operating
voltage of condenser 16 is stable and the transformer 22 could be pulled offline
altogether.
3) The electrons which left through diode 46 and 44 are more than the electrons which
entered in 12. In this case the transformer 22 will not be needed at all since the
condenser 16 will be left charged at an higher voltage than it was before and a new spark
will be automatically triggered.
This condition is an unstable one, as we can expect the voltage in 16 will increase
constantly at each cycle until condenser 16 explodes or else spark gap 42 kicks in to
prevent failure of the high voltage components. A firing from spark gap 42 will eventually
cause a misfire in the main spark tube and a temporary loss of power output and require
transformer 22 to crank up the voltage once more. The circuit can be stabilized by means
of a high voltage Zener diode 46 which will ensure stability of the operating voltage and
will allow transformer 22 to be fully disconnected during operation (no external power
source required to maintain the system going).

Tesla oscillators and also Gray first patent (full of unnecessary timing circuits to confuse the
otherwise simple operation of the system) were built exactly on the principle that the discharge
would be so powerful to allow the automatic recharge of the system at each cycle.
This is in theory possible but very tricky, and reportedly Tesla broke many jars (condensers) in
his experiments due to the instability effects we have just described and the fact that the mean
operating voltage at equilibrium might be somewhat higher than the spark gap nominal ignition
voltage.

At the beginning of operation we can expect many electrons to leave the conductor 1-36-34
through spark gap 42, and the same conductor is left with an highly positive voltage once all
superelectrons have decayed back into more stable thermal electron state after shutdown, so a
ballast resistance 48 is used as a safety grounding device when the system is not in use.

In a nutshell, this machine converts the kinetic energy of electrons into a non conservative
asymmetric electric field which can flip the overrunity factor of formula 1.3 well beyond the 1
mark.

Superelectrons = supertorque?
supertorque?
It is reported that Gray EMA motor (image 17) was delivering an exceptionally high specific
torque, not explainable in terms of standard electric currents, not even superelectric ones.

The unusual torque factor can be explained if we embrace the concept of superelectron
generation and decay also behaving like magnetons in certain excitement states (remember
image 11 but also image 16).
We can imagine that the relativistic deceleration not only polarizes an unbalanced charge inside
the impacting electrons due to formula 5.1, but also the magnetic moment of the electron is
temporarily unbalanced and it radiates a North pole which is stronger than the Southern one.
The highly varying electric field generated in the impact travels across the metallic conductor
and incites other electrons inside the metallic material to also turn momentarily into super
electrons/magnetons (secondary townsend coefficient).

Magnetic charges are some novel particles which could turn out to be quite useful, lets see
what these can do for us.
If we take a look at image 18 part 1 we see an electric charge radiating its conservative electric
field E all around.
If we swing this charge around (image 18 part 2), we obtain a magnet which has a North and
South pole. The lines of the magnetic field B are bound to close circularly upon themselves
(solenoidal field).

On the other end, a magnetic monopole or magneton is shown in image 18 part 3. This is a

much more exotic and difficult particle to obtain (at least until today).
It consists of a North pole without a matching South pole, so the magnetic field B radiates
outward from the center, similarly to a conservative field.
This particle is not commonly observed in nature nor into standard electric circuits, and only
recently it was possible to isolate some specimen in very challenging experimental conditions.
If we could isolate and swing around a magneton, we obtain an electric field which has a
solenoidal behavior (image 18 part 4).
Normal electric components will exhibit strange behaviors when exposed to flows of magnetons
also called magnetic currents, and it is important to familiarize ourselves with these new
applications.

In image 19 part 1, a simple copper wire is passing a magnetic current.

An annular electric field is induced all around the wire perimeter which in turn triggers electrons
to move in a circular way around the wire diameter.
The sum of all these annular currents will warm up the wire surface, less the wire core.
These annular electric currents will in turn induce a magnetic field inside the wire itself which will
oppose the passage of magnetons thus causing the wire to exert a certain resistance to the
passage of magnetic current.
This magnetic resistance should be greater the ticker the wire, whilst thin conductors are much
better carriers of magnetic currents.

Image 19 part 2 shows a special kind of transformer in which the primary is fed with a pulsing
magnetic current, and the output on the secondary side is necessarily a pulsed electric current.
If the magnetic current on the primary side is constant, then the secondary side of the
transformer will produce a DC electric current, which is unusual behavior as compared to
standard transformers.

Let us place two magnets in such a way to repel each other when an electric current flows
through their coils.
The passage of electric current generates two solenoidal magnetic fields opposing each other,
thus causing the coils (magnets) to repel each other.

If we now flow magnetic currents into these coils, they will again repel each other, but this time
is more like an electrostatic repulsion, not a magnetic repulsive field.
In this instance the two magnetic currents generate two solenoidal electric fields opposing each
other, thus causing an electrostatic repulsive force.
Here we have Gray experiments with the shooting magnet as well as the EMA motor unusual
torque capabilities.

A condenser fed with a pulsing magnetic tension is shown in image 19 part 5.

As magnetic charges flow in and out of the condenser left armor, there is a variation of magnetic

field on the armor surface, and this can be exploited by a secondary coil placed just in front of
the armor thus generating an alternate electric current.
If the magnetic current is constant, then the secondary coil will not generate any tension nor
current, the best dielectric for this condenser would be a ferromagnetic material.

All these weird effects can be quantified and machines designed accordingly by means of the
classic Maxwell equations with the addition of magnetons:

 

6.1.

  =    + 

6.2.

  = 



 

 


+    + ! "

 



The magnetic current term in Maxwell formulas is usually forgotten and set to zero due to
magnetic monopole scarcity, but that term can now be resumed and put to good use.

The EMA motor explained.

explained.
Again the original idea of this machine (image 17) was to steal electrons from the air and
multiply an electric current inside a spark gap, then the inductor and condenser would work in
pair (same exact principle of Tesla twin oscillator circuit), and eventually the inductor would
have overshoot and recharged the HV condenser back again to restart another cycle in a free
energy type loop.
As usual Gray was covering his tracks and wouldnt explain in full his wirings so I had to put my
markups to complete them.
The explanation of the opposing magnets is fair but for the fact that these coils are not

interacting with magnetic repulsion through electric currents but on the contrary are repelling
due to opposing electric fields generated by magnetic currents.

Here the overrunity factor is dumped into magnets to generate kinetic energy and provide a
mechanical power output through the rotor shaft (see again image 19 part 3).
To note that Gray is putting some secondary magnets alongside the primary ones which are
optional and help smooth up the otherwise bumpy torque profile, also because the main rotor
was made in plastic which is not very resistant to peak forces and torques.

We should spend some time to explain the safety circuit 46 of image 17, whose schematic is
omitted deliberately by Gray.
Namely this circuit is to recover energy during misfire events, what does this mean?
When the engine is operating at low speeds there is a chance that the recharging circuit 20/32
will overcharge the condensers above their max allowed voltage and damage them before they
can discharge across the variable distance spark gap or programmer 29-30 so a fixed distance
spark gap 46 is needed to protect the main condenser and ultimately dump this overcurrent to
recharge battery 10b.

As explained above, some of the energy from the spark gap is not 100% transmitted into the
rotor magnets but it lags behind and sits inside the HV condensers which are autocharged as

per the explanation already given in the previous patent.

The fixed spark gap 46 along with the variable/programmable spark gap 29-30 looks very
similar to the 3-way spark gap illustrated in the third patent of appendix 2, so Gray was kicking
around the same technology over and over and testing different ways of using the free energy
available from the sparked currents.
Seemingly he could not stabilize the overrunity factor of his machines properly so he always had
to rely upon an external battery to keep the system running even though the battery was
continuously being charged or better say overcharged.

Tesla revived
All the technical discussions about the sizing and operation of Tesla coils in chapter 1 still holds
true and can now be amended in the light of what already discussed.
I invite the reader to lookup for the book Colorado Spring notes by Nicola Tesla, an interesting
piece of history which shows how tesla machines evolved as more intuitions were added up.

It is funny to see how at some points Tesla was discharging huge superelectric currents to the
ground, thus causing sparks to happen between the pavement and the feet of people walking
on the streets.
Another time he broadcasted huge amounts of EMP radiation through the antenna of his
laboratory which in return was picked up by the local electric distribution grid and fried a whole

array of electric generators miles down the line

If we go back to 1891 and more specifically to Tesla lecture to AIEE at Columbia University, he
lit a mercury vapor bulb wirelessly, the quantity of power transmitted back then was quite
impressive even for nowadays technology which deploys solid state components that do not
take advantage of sparked currents like Tesla and Gray did.

Radiating electricity
electricity
Behind the scenes of the mercury bulb there were two radiating plates, like condensers which
were connected to alternating superelectric currents.
What Tesla tried to develop here and in many other patents was in fact an energy broadcasting
system which would use EMP radiation.

Tesla would rather broadcast the spin superstate of electrons to a faraway receiving station (or
bulbs) capable of amplifying the received electromagnetic EMP power hundreds of times rather
than locally produce and use them in a tube like Gray did.

As per above, we can expect a conductor filled with superelectrons to have a strong thermionic
emission, as well as a strong reactive electric field which resonates more with the low pressure
gasses of a bulb.

These ionizing antigravitational fields can eventually be strong enough to ionize atmospheric air
and lit flying butterflies on the spot as happened in Colorado Spring during Tesla experiments.

Danger: High supervoltages ahead

Last thing to observe on Tesla experiments is that the frequency and currents employed in his
sparks gaps had different effects depending on the operating frequency (see appendix 3,
reference 9).

Lower frequencies would cause the EMP radiation to resonate at an organic level (possibly
exciting water molecules) thus posing a sensible hazard to personnel around the machine.
On the other end, high operating frequencies would seemingly interact on a free electron level
like the ones found in metallic materials, thus making the machine safe to humans and easy to
convert and amplify back into electric current through a receiving antenna.

Intermediate frequencies seemed to interact best with gasses, causing intense ionization of low
pressure mercury bulbs, but even fluorescence of air gas.

Chapter 7

The Freerider free energy inverter

Mankind will one day come to realize that

My most important invention is in fact my spark gap oscillator
Nikola Tesla

I invite the reader to pay attention to image 20 and 21 containing the schematic and the

construction details of a simple free energy inverter still capable of delivering an interesting

electric power.

It is in fact a modified slayer exciter with an energy recovery circuit to allow the system to self-

sustain without an external battery.

On the right side of image 20 we have low voltage coil L1 normally disconnected from the

battery, switch S1 is normally open so nothing happens.

When S1 is closed, the battery B1 powers up the gate of type N mosfet MOS1 so to allow

current through coil L1.

The way coils L1 and L2 are wound together is important and it is shown in detail in image 21

bottom part.

When the current from B0 inflows into L1, the variation of magnetic flux into L2 will induce a

positive voltage in terminal B2 and a negative voltage on terminal T2

The negative voltage in T2 will not be strong enough to trigger a flow of electrons from plate A

toward the pointy conductor C on the other side of the spark gap SG1.

Since coil L1 is a short circuit as seen from battery B0, then the voltage on terminal B1 will also

drop down to 0, thus switching off MOS1, then the collapse in current and magnetic field from

L1 will positively charge terminal T2 (and also anode plate A), whilst terminal B2 will be firmly

held at 0 volts due to diode D2 connecting that terminal to the ground.

This ON and

OFF

cycle happens many times

per seconds (in the order

of

KHz or MHz

depending on circuit self inductance and capacitance of the coupled RLC circuits 1 and 2), and

the primary current cutoff time can be enhanced by means of an additional (optional) transistor

shown behind dotted lines and wired in an IGBT configuration so to furthermore enhance peak

voltage in T2.

The high voltage in T2 will in draw a flow of electrons (spark) from the pointy tip C toward the

collecting anode plate A.

Electrons will accelerate between cathode C and anode A, best results will be obtained in

vacuum

as there is no loss in kinetic energy

due to friction of

the electrons with the air

molecules.

At some point the electrons will impact on anode A and will be decelerated down to thermal

speeds once inside the hard solid metallic material of the anode.

The deceleration of the electrons is of uttermost importance, so we should use highest possible

voltages and longest possible spark gaps (high final electron kinetic energy) in conjunction with

hardest

and

densest

possible

materials

for

the

anode

(highest

possible

deceleration

of

electrons when impacting on the anode).

Plate A should be as smooth and flat as possible to ensure perfectly orthogonal impact of

electrons with the anode, thus having highest possible deceleration coefficient of impacting

electrons.

The current output of the inverter is in fact dictated by the spark gap construction.

The power output (spark gap length) of the system must be carefully regulated to avoid high

operating currents on the components of the power recovery circuit on the left of image 20.

Once few sparks have been triggered by battery B0, the voltage in supercondenser C3 should

reach a steady desired value and battery B0 can be brought offline whilst C3 continues to feed

and sustain the circuit at the proper resonance frequency.

How is this possible?

possible?
When the electrons impact in A, they are subject to a relativistic deceleration, this in turn will

generate a lot of X-rays, braking radiation most importantly some EMP radiation as well as an

high polarization of impacting electrons (image 16).

An EMP radiation is an high harmonic type of electrostatic radiation which causes the electrons

to spin very fast around their axis (self ionization or else lighting ball type particle).

As they do so they will in turn generate an anti-gravitational field which will cause the excited

electrons

(or

superelectrons)

to

repel

each

other

with

much

stronger

force

than

the

only

coulombian repulsion itself.

We can say that the electrons received at anode A will appear to have a greater coulombian

repulsive charge than their normal coulombian charge (it will be the sum of the coulombian

charge + the antigravitational decelerative charge), at least during impact with anode A hard

surface.

The superelectric effect will soon fade as the electron train is fully received at the anode but

before it does so it will cause many other good electrons to leave the conductor L2 through

diode D2.

When the superelectric effect fades completely then the electrons which left through D2 will be

more than the electrons which entered into the anode plate A, thus leaving inductor L2, optional

capacitor C2 and terminal T2 highly charged at positive voltages.

This residual positive voltage in turn draws another pulse of electrons from cathode C, and so

forth until a certain operating frequency and operating voltage is established and self sustains in

such a way that the electron received at the anode fully balance the quantity of electrons exiting

from D2.

Unfortunately the anode will also draw electrons available from the nearby air molecules (tip

effect) and some electrons will leak in from diode D2 thus decreasing the voltage and the kinetic

energy available from the electron trains drawn from the cathode.

Therefore a condenser C2 (Leyden jar type) is also present as an optional component to help

sustain

the

voltage

of

the

metallic

material

for

long

enough

time,

diode

D2

should

be

thermionic type (0 leak currents!) or have a very small rated current in order to reduce also leak

current typically in the range of 10E-4 the rated current of the diode.

The time it will take for cathode electrons to reach the anode is in fact very short due to the low

electron mass and high voltage/acceleration across the gap so the capacity of this condenser

can be furthermore reduced in systems operating at very high frequencies.

In fact an high voltage condenser and thermionic type diodes are not very cost effective or

common components, however Edwin Gray originally used to keep the HV side of his inverter

self charged with these. As we shall see, a more economic way of storing the energy produced

is to store it on the low voltage side of the circuit.

How do we recover the energy?

In this schematic there are three effective ways to do that on the low voltage side of the

schematic, on the left:

1)

A metal pipe or meshed wire collector is placed around the cylindrical anode conductor

similarly to an Edwin Gray tube. This conductor is irradiated by the EMP radiation emitted by

anode A body and wiring, we can therefore expect a certain number of electrons to turn into

superelectrons (the heavier the collector, the more electrons will be converted). Possibly a thick

metallic tube also capable of shielding the X-ray emission should be used.

Electrons on collector metallic material P1 are therefore pushed out of the conductor due to the

superelectric pressure and they will be allowed to leave the metal pipe through diode D3A.

When the superelectric effect fades and is radiated out of the conductor then the pipe metallic

material will be left positively charged and it will draw more electrons from diode D3B and D3C.

This conductor will in fact behave like an high frequency pulse current generator.

2)

Also the cathode metallic material is exposed to the back end of the decelerating super

electron charge (namely a positive charge due to the direction of the deceleration vector) and

could be connected between diodes D3x and D3y to furthermore charge condenser C3.

A dished type metallic plate could be integral part of the cathode tip in order to better capture

the lines of electric field beamed from the tail of the sparked current.

3) The collector conductor will be flushed with EMP radiation but as discussed earlier on, this

EMP radiation might also turn electrons into small magnetic monopoles for a brief moment, so it

is be possible to wound some wire around the collector wire and measure a pulse voltage as a

function of the number of coils around the wire. This voltage could also be used to recover

electricity as per point 1 inside the low voltage condenser C3 (more rectifying diodes will be

needed).

The LV energy recovery circuit

As discussed, the collector plate P1 will generate a pulsed alternate current in conductor 3, this

current is split and straightened by diodes D3A and D3B into a steady DC current by means of

condenser C3 (low voltage type) which in turn can power up a load LB3 (optional) and also feed

the ignition coil L1 in case the HV energy recovery system C2 is not enough to sustain the

sparking sequence.

In any case battery B0 must be disconnected altogether in order to obtain a fully self sustaining

free energy inverter (infinite overrunity factor).

A normal 9V battery should give out about 6 amps in short circuit condition, so C3 must be able

to supply 6 amps worth of current at 0 voltage in node B1 so the equilibrium between R3, C3

and R1 (the low resistance of the L1 coil) must be studied carefully so to have the right current

through L1 when MOS1 is cut off.

How to control the power output

The

inverter

will

make

available

certain

DC

current/voltage

between

nodes

and

G,

regardless of the interposed load.

Of this voltage/current, a certain fraction will be used to power up primary coil L1 as described

above.

Operating voltage V3, and therefore power delivered, between the two terminals will be dictated

by the load receiving the current (bulb LB3 or any other kind of loads), so the higher the voltage

(heavier the load) the greater the power output.

To throttle down the generated current it is necessary to either shorten the distance between the

anode and cathode in the spark gap, or otherwise increase the value of resistance R2C which

will limit the amount of electrons and voltage in each spark and reduce the kinetic energy of

electrons impacting on the anode.

A resistance R3 modulates the power from condenser C3 to primary coil L1 which generates the

sparks when the HV recovery system C2 is not enough, so R3 can be used as a way to

modulate the power of the system by indirectly controlling the spark voltage.

Also RM2 and RM1 can be increased to reduce operating current in L1, thus permitting the

overall power output to decrease.

Either way, through energy stored in HV condenser C2 or through LV condenser C3, the

machine will self-sustain itself without the need of an external power B0.

Switching off the inverter

Following options are available

1)

You starve the electrons emitted by the cathode by increasing resistance R2C or by

disconnecting its path to the ground altogether.

2)

In case the HV energy recovery system is self-sustaining then you short circuit the high

voltage coil to the ground (switch S2).

3)

In case the low voltage recovery system is self-sustaining through C3 you increase the

value of resistance R3 until the primary coil current is too low to trigger a spark event.

4)

You increase value of resistance RM1 or/and RM2 to decrease operating current of

primary inductance L1 untill it is too low to draw a spark in the HV coil.

FAQs
First thing to clarify is that the described circuit does not transfer energy from battery B0 to light

bulb LB3.

Battery B0 is only used for few seconds to ignite the first sparks on the high voltage coil, once

the coil has received few EMP pulses then it will keep self charging and drawing more electrons,

discharging and then recharging again in a cyclic way pretty much forever by means of either

condensers C2 (high voltage energy storage) or C3 (low voltage energy storage).

Only wear parts for this kind of machine are the tip of the cathode C (might overheat and slowly

consume itself thus slowly increasing the spark gap distance).

Max power output available on the inverter is dictated by the max current and voltage which can

be handled by diode D0A, B as well as the max current handled by LB3.

Other critical components are D2 and C2 which should be able to handle peak voltages greater

than the spark gap nominal Air Ignition Voltage.

Safety disclaimer
Aside from the normal recommendations when harnessing HV circuit (high electromagnetic

interferences and near fields, people with peace makers might suffer fatal injuries when nearby

these machines), it is also important to note that metallic conductors (screws or bolts on the

machine) will tend to expel electrons when the machine is operating and they will suddenly

charge positively when the machine is switched off, so all metallic components around the

machine should be solidly grounded.

Beware also of the grounding port G, to be connected to an earth ground, not to a plug ground

as the electric interferences might interact with other nearby appliances (remember when Tesla

fried a bunch of electric generators in a power station few miles away from Radiator Spring?).

On the same note, the EMP radiation can have disruptive effects on electronic devices such as

mass memory storage (beware of your selphones, or nearby hard disks, nevermind the pace

maker of your 80yr old neighbor walking the dog just outside your porch).

In regards to the spark gap, it will also generates X-rays in the spark process, so it is a good

idea to enclose the entire cathode-anode assembly within some thick steel pipe (elbows on both

ends to prevent x-rays escaping through the axis openings).

Chapter 8

Force fields

Dear Mr Einstein
Your application has not been successful []
While you posed an interesting theory in your article [] we feel that your conclusions about the
nature of light and the fundamental connection between space and time are somewhat radical.
University of Bern

Let us backtrack a bit and make some more observations about the Edwin Gray spark tube.

As described in image 3, right part, the train of electrons gains speed across the spark gap and

then smashes with high relativistic deceleration on the HV anode of the same which is made of

solid metallic conductor.

As

per

formula

5.1,

the

decelerating

electrons

would

then

behave

like

an

highly

charged

condenser, and they will display a strongly negative charge to the metallic anode as already

discussed, but also radiate a strongly positive charge on the other side, toward the air gap

(image 16).

The unbalanced, high frequency electric field generated by the relativistic negative charge is

funneled inside the metallic material of the HV anode and is put to use so to either deliver an

electric power or else to broadcast an highly ionizing electric field to low pressure gas bulbs.

The unbalanced positive electric field issued on the other side of the anode could also be

exploited and put to use in what Tesla used to call teleforce or telegeodinamyc, more recently

re-discovered by Eugene Podkletnow as a mysterious g pulse or radiation.

In image 22 I tried to make a representation of the very elusive Tesla ray of peace (or death)

depending on the intended use of the wielder.

In any case, a very high current / high voltage Van Der Graaf derivative generator, is connected

to many vacuum bulbs with a thin foil electrode inside.

In this way an highly concentrated electric field on the foil electrode is radiated outward.

Stray electrons from the glass insulation might accelerate and impact against the electrode then

suddenly decelerate (remember image 16), or else the thin electrode foils might lift because of

the electrostatic pressure and touch the glass surface thus causing a microdischarge or else

microvariation of the electrode capacitance. In any case this will cause the electric field to

collapse and flicker momentarily on each of described bulbs.

All these technical complications in order to generate an electric field of any magnitude radiating

in any direction toward the sky, and we saw before how a strong or even high frequency electric

field is in fact a gravitational field which can overlap and override the one of the Earth, resonate

at particle level and cause Newtonian forces on the materials exposed to it.

One issue with this kind of spherical force field generator (in fact a traction force field) is that the

electric field radiated outward might not be very well focused nor smooth, and this might in turn

induce uneven forces and vibrations onto beamed objects.

In fact, in later embodiments of this invention Tesla was trying to generate more focused and

intense electric fields in order to concentrate the effects (and damages) of this broadcasted

mechanical force.

The purpose of his vacuum gun was not to eject particles at high speed, but rather have a very

powerful particle accelerator and smasher so to generate superelectric fields of even greater

intensity as compared to the ones generated with less massive electrons.

80

years

after

Teslas

fidgeting

with

gravitational

forces,

the

Russian

scientist

Evgeny

Podkletnov made some experiments with superconductors and eventually stumbled across

some weird gravitational effects and force fields capable of traveling in space without being

attenuated, the same claims Tesla did about his machine back then.

Lets

take

look

at

image

23,

in

this

picture

we

have

spinning

superconductive

disk

generating an anti-gravitational field right on top of it and reducing the Earth gravitational pull by

about 2% (it is actually dependent upon the spinning velocity).

As of today there is no explanation as of why this disc should radiate a counter gravitational

field, the only tool available on our hands is that a strong electric field is what a gravitational field

really is.

My attempt to explain this effect is that eventually the electrons inside the superconductive disk

are centrifugally pushed on the disk outter surface, so the disc surface is also highly negatively

charged as a function of his diameter, rotational speed and possibly mass density.

This negative electric field is mechanically generated due to centrifugal/mechanical effects so it

is not induced by other coulombian charges which would neutralize and shield it on the short

range and therefore it can overlap and partially offset the high frequency Earth gravitational

field, thus causing a reduction of the same on nearby objects.

For the sake of precision, it is fair to say that the superconductive electrons inside the disk

would not feel any centrifugal force due to the movement of atoms forming the conductor solid

matrix, since superconductive electrons hardly interact with the underlying solid matrix (which is

the reason why the material is superconductive and its electric resistance is zero).

However

as

the

solid

material

nuclei

start

to

spin

without

dragging

electrons

along,

they

generate a mass current of positively charged nuclei, which in turns generates an increase of

magnetic flux through the disk.

Of course the superconductive electrons would subsequently oppose to an increase in magnetic

flux

throughout

the

disk

and

will

start

spinning

along

with

the

disks

nuclei

to

generate

countercurrent

which

annihilates

the

nuclei

current

and

increase

in

magnetic

flux,

so

the

electrons, although superconductive, would spin along the metallic matrix and be subject to

centrifugal forces and therefore dispose themselves as outlined in view A-A of image 23.

To note also that the electric field generated inside the disk would generate a Biefeld-Brown

force such to compress and crush the disk material itself, so mechanical resistance of the disk is

a critical parameter when playing with such strong electric fields.

On another and even more interesting experiment (appendix 4 part 1), Evgeny managed to

beam even stronger gravitational fields for very brief periods of time though, still powerful

enough to knock of object at distance.

His

main

concern

was

to

have

repeatable

experiment

but

the

spark

was

so

randomly

scattered that the g pulse was rather difficult to harness and focus in a repeatable direction to

properly measure it.

In his second device (appendix 4 second part), we have again a spark gap and some electrons

moving

across

from

superconductive

and

cold

cathode

connected

to

an

high

voltage

generator (again a spark gap type one which can generate even stronger superelectric fields

when triggered).

In this case the spark generated is highly focused and straightened thanks to external magnets,

more like a cylindrical cloud of cold electrons orderly accelerating toward the anode.

A few instant after the cold spark has reached the anode, a g pulse is radiated orthogonally to

the surface of the cathode/anode and it is repulsive in its nature.

We

would

assume

that

the

cold

electrons

impacting

on

the

anode

would

decelerate

and

generate an electric field (or superelectric field), very focused and of an high frequency capable

of interacting at the atomic level (Weberian/fast moving type interaction) without being adsorbed

or shielded by other metallic materials.

Another explanation is that the g pulse or field is caused by the thermal electrons pouring onto

the cold cathode surface. They then undergo a phase change from thermal to coupled/cold

state. This phase change would have to induce a sort of sudden acceleration on the electrons to

allow them to pour into the superconductive cold metallic surface, and it is this acceleration that

generates the high frequency electric field (or g pulse) rather than the cold electrons impacting

onto the anode.

Appendix 1

Images

Appendix 2

Grays patents

PDF processed with CutePDF evaluation edition www.CutePDF.com

This is the simplest possible free energy

generator.
According to the theory of superelectric
charges, the inductive load 5 or battery 7 might
or might not be present, but once a sufficiently
long spark gap is ignited against a sufficiently
high capacitance 3 as compared to the leak
kurrents through diode 4, the circuit will keep
self recharging and sparking again without a
recharging battery 1.
In this case it is important for diode 4 to have a
relatively low resistance or else to be able to let
out an high peak current without burning, whilst
at the same time having a minimum back
current to prevent condenser 3 from unwanted
discharge.

This inductance was Edwin Gray shooting

magnet.
It was meant to draw more free electrons
out of the spark gap to enhance current
multiplication factor and recharge
condenser 3 without an external battery
charger (1).
Most effective way of syncing the magnet
pulse is to wire a stator magnet in parallel
with a moving one.

This should be in fact a spark gap.

No switch control 8 is needed as the circuit would
normally operate at its resonating frequency like a slayer
exciter.

Mark ups in red by Pietro Foralosso

PDF processed with CutePDF evaluation edition www.CutePDF.com

46

10b

Mark ups in red by Pietro

Foralosso

PDF processed with CutePDF evaluation edition www.CutePDF.com

1
34a

48

Mark ups in red by Pietro Foralosso

Dielectric material

This terminal shall be

connected to the ground

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Appendix 3

Evgeny/Modanese paper

arXiv:physics/0108005v2 [physics.gen-ph] 30 Aug 2001

Impulse Gravity Generator Based on Charged

Y Ba2Cu3O7y Superconductor with Composite Crystal
Structure
Evgeny Podkletnov1 , Giovanni Modanese2
1

Moscow Chemical Scientific Research Centre

113452 Moscow - Russia
E-mail: epodkletnov@hotmail.com

California Institute for Physics and Astrophysics

366 Cambridge Ave., Palo Alto, CA 94306
and
University of Bolzano Industrial Engineering
Via Sernesi 1, 39100 Bolzano, Italy
E-mail: giovanni.modanese@unibz.it
Abstract

The detection of apparent anomalous forces in the vicinity of high-Tc superconductors under non equilibrium conditions has stimulated an experimental research in
which the operating parameters of the experiment have been pushed to values higher
than those employed in previous attempts. The results confirm the existence of an
unexpected physical interaction. An apparatus has been constructed and tested in
which the superconductor is subjected to peak currents in excess of 104 A, surface
potentials in excess of 1 M V , trapped magnetic field up to 1 T , and temperature
down to 40 K. In order to produce the required currents a high voltage discharge
technique has been employed. Discharges originating from a superconducting ceramic
electrode are accompanied by the emission of radiation which propagates in a focused
beam without noticeable attenuation through different materials and exerts a short
repulsive force on small movable objects along the propagation axis. Within the
measurement error (5 to 7 %) the impulse is proportional to the mass of the objects
and independent on their composition. It therefore resembles a gravitational impulse.
The observed phenomenon appears to be absolutely new and unprecedented in the
literature. It cannot be understood in the framework of general relativity. A theory
is proposed which combines a quantum gravity approach with anomalous vacuum
fluctuations.

Contents
1 Introduction

2 Experimental

2.1

General description of the installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.2

Superconducting emitter, fabrication methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.3

Organization of the discharge and measurements of the effect. . . . . . . .

1
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3 Results

4 Discussion

10

4.1

A possible theoretical explanation. Basic concepts.

. . . . . . . . . . . . .

12

4.2

Possible interpretation of the gravitational-like impulse at the discharge . .

19

4.3

Known effects which could be connected to the observed phenomenon. . . .

21

5 Conclusions

26

Introduction

Experiments showing possible anomalous forces between high-Tc ceramic superconductors

under non equilibrium conditions and test objects have been reported by several investigators since 1992 [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]. The observed phenomenology was difficult to explain
and has been attributed to a so called gravity modification, because the reported effects
mimic well the properties of the gravitational interaction, although their nature has never
been clearly understood. In fact several alternative explanations of these results have been
proposed [6, 7, 8, 9, 42] in the attempt to bring the observed anomalies into the realm of
known effects.
Because of the great importance of any possible technical application of the reported
effects, research activities have started in many laboratories since the first observation of
the phenomenon [1]. Our recent research work focused on the improvement of the structure
of the high-Tc ceramic superconductors which have demonstrated capabilities of creating
anomalous forces. Moreover a high-voltage discharge apparatus has been designed and
constructed in order to easily reach those non equilibrium electromagnetic conditions that
seem required to produce the force effects in HTCs.
The results described in this report should be regarded as preliminary. An improved
version of the experiment is currently being planned. Nevertheless, the body of results, as
well as the complexity of the experimental procedures and of the theoretical interpretation
are such that a detailed description and diffusion could not be further delayed. All measurements were done by E. Podkletnov in Moscow, while G. Modanese provided theoretical
advice.

2
2.1

Experimental
General description of the installation

The initial variant of the experimental set-up was based on a high-voltage generator placed
in a closed cylinder chamber with a controlled gas atmosphere, as shown in Fig. 1. Two
metal spheres inside the chamber were supported by hollow ceramic insulators and had
electrical connections that allowed to organize a discharge between them, with voltage
2

up to 500 kV . One of the spheres had a thin superconducting coating of Y Ba2 Cu3 O7y
obtained by plasma spraying using a Plasmatech 3000S installation. This sphere could
be charged to high voltage using a high voltage generator similar to that of Van de Graaf.
The second sphere could be moved along the axis of the chamber, the distance between
the spheres varying from 250 to 2000 mm. Spheres with a diameter from 250 to 500 mm
were used in the experiment. It was possible to fill the chamber with helium vapours or to
create rough vacuum using a rotary pump. The walls of the chamber were made of nonconducting plastic composite material, with a big quartz glass window along one of the
walls which allowed to observe the shape, the trajectory and the colour of the discharge.
In order to protect the environment and the computer network from static electricity and
powerful electromagnetic pulses, the chamber could be shielded by a Faraday cage with
cell dimensions of 2.0 2.0 cm and a rubber-plastic film material absorbing ultra high
frequency (UHF) radiation.
The superconducting sphere was kept at a temperature between 40 and 80 K, which
was achieved by injecting liquid helium or liquid nitrogen through a quartz tube inside the
volume of the superconducting sphere before the charging began. The inside volume of the
chamber was evacuated or filled with helium in order to avoid the condensation of moisture
and different gases on the superconducting sphere. The temperature of the superconductor
was measured using a standard thermocouple for low temperature measurements and was
typically around 55-60 K. Given the good heat conductivity of the superconductor, we
estimated that the temperature difference in the ceramic did not exceed 1 K.
An improved variant of the discharge chamber is shown in Fig. 2. The charged
electrode was changed to a toroid attached to a metal plate and a superconducting emitter
which had the shape of a disk with round corners. The non-superconducting part of the
emitter was fixed to a metal plate using metal Indium or Woods metal, the superconducting
part of the emitter faced the opposite electrode. The second electrode was a metal toroid
of smaller diameter, connected to a target. The target was a metal disk with the diameter
of 100 mm and the height of 15 mm. The target was attached to a metal plate welded to
the toroid.
This improved design of the generator was able to create a well-formed discharge
between the emitter and the target, still the trajectory was not always repeatable and it
was difficult to maintain constant values of current and voltage. The chamber was also not
rigid enough to obtain high vacuum and some moisture was condensing on the emitter,
damaging the superconducting material and affecting the discharge characteristics. The
large distance between the electrodes also caused considerable dissipation of energy during
discharge. In order to improve the efficiency of operation, the measuring system and the
reproducibility of the discharge, an entirely new design of the vacuum chamber and the
charging system was created.
The final variant of the discharge chamber is presented in Fig. 3 (the apparatus is
shown in a vertical position though actually it is situated parallel to the floor). This set-up
allowed to reduce the dimensions of the installation and to increase the efficiency of the
process. The chamber has the form of a cylinder with the approximate diameter of 1 m
and the length of 1.5 m and is made of quartz glass. The chamber has two connecting
sections with flanges which allow to change the emitter easily. The design permits to
3

create high vacuum inside or to fill the whole volume with any gas that is required. The
distance of the discharge has been decreased considerably giving the possibility to reduce
energy dissipation and to organize the discharge in a better way. The distance between
the electrodes can vary from 0.15 to 0.40 m in order to find the optimum length for each
type of the emitter.
The discharge can be concentrated on a smaller target area using a big solenoid with
the diameter of 1.05 m that is wound around the chamber using copper wire with the
diameter of 0.5 cm. The magnetic flux density is 0.9 T . A small solenoid is also wound
around the emitter (Fig. 3) so that the magnetic field can be frozen inside a superconductor
when it is cooled down below the critical temperature.
The refrigeration system for the superconducting emitter provides a sufficient amount
of liquid nitrogen or liquid helium for the long-term operation and the losses of gas due to
evaporation are minimized because of the high vacuum inside the chamber and thus of a
better thermal insulation.
A photodiode is placed on the transparent wall of the chamber and is connected to
an oscilloscope, in order to provide information on the light parameters of the discharge.
Given the low pressure and the high applied voltage, emission of X-rays from the metallic
electrode cannot be excluded, but the short duration of the discharge makes their detection
difficult. Use of a Geiger counter and of X-rays sensitive photographic plates did not yield
any clear signature of X-rays.
A precise measurement of the voltage of the discharge is achieved using a capacitive
sensor that is connected to an oscilloscope with a memory option as shown in the upper
part of Fig. 3. Electrical current measurements are carried out using a Rogowski belt,
which is a single loop of a coaxial cable placed around the target electrode and connected
to the oscilloscope.
The old fashioned Van de Graaf generator used in the previous stage of this work
was replaced by a high voltage pulse generator as shown in Fig. 4. This pulse generator
is executed according to the scheme of Arkadjev-Marx and consists of twenty capacitors
(25 nF each) connected in parallel and charged to a voltage up to 50-100 kV using a high
voltage transformer and a diode bridge. The capacitors are separated by resistive elements
of about 100 k. The scheme allows to charge the capacitors up to the needed voltage
and then to change the connection from a parallel to a serial one. The required voltage is
achieved by changing the length of the air gap between the contact spheres C and D. A
syncro pulse is then sent to the contacts C and D which causes an overall discharge and
serial connection of the capacitors and provides a powerful impulse up to 2 MV which is
sent to the discharge chamber. The use of such an impulse generator allows for a precisely
controlled voltage, much shorter charging time and good reproducibility of the process.

2.2

Superconducting emitter, fabrication methods

The superconducting emitter has the shape of a disk with the diameter of 80-120 mm
and the thickness of 7-15 mm. This disk consists of two layers: a superconducting layer
with chemical composition Y Ba2 Cu3 O7y (containing small amounts of Ce and Ag) and
4

a normal conducting layer with chemical composition Y1x Rex Ba2 Cu3O7y , where Re
represents Ce, P r, Sm, P m, T b or other rare earth elements. The materials of both
layers were synthesized using a solid state reaction under low oxygen pressure (stage 1),
then the powder was subjected to a melt texture growth (MTG) procedure (stage 2). Dense
material after MTG was crushed, ground and put through sieves in order to separate the
particles with the required size. A bi-layered disk was prepared by powder compaction
in a stainless steel die and sintering using seeded oxygen controlled melt texture growth
(OCMTG) (stage 3). For the emitters with the diameter of 120 mm usual sintering was
applied instead of seeded OCMTG (stage 4). After mechanical treatment the ceramic
emitter was attached to the surface of the cooling tank in the discharge chamber using
Indium based alloy.
Stage 1 - Micron-size powders of Y2 O3 and CuO, BaCO3 were mixed in alcohol
for 2 hours, then dried and put in zirconia boats in a tube furnace for heat treatment.
The mixture of powders was heated to 830 o C and kept at this temperature for 8 hours at
oxygen partial pressure of 2.7 102 P a (or 2-4 mBar) according to [10, 11]. The material
of the normal conducting layer was sintered in a similar way.
Stage 2 - Micron-size powder of Y Ba2 Cu3 Ox was pressed into pellets using a metal
die and low pressure. The pellets were heated in air to 1050 o C (100 o C per hour) then
cooled to 1010 o C (10 o C per hour) then cooled to 960 o C (2 o C per hour) then cooled
to room temperature (100 o C per hour) according to a standard MTG technique [12, 13].
The quantity of 211 phase during heating was considerably reduced and the temperature
was changed correspondingly. ReBa2 Cu3 O7x was also prepared using MTG, but the
temperature was slightly changed according to the properties of the corresponding rare
earth oxide.
Stage 3 - Bulk material after MTG processing was crushed and ground in a ball
mill. The particles with the size less than 30 m were used for both layers of the ceramic
disk. The particles were mixed with polyvinyl alcohol binder. The material of the first
layer was put into a die, flattened and then the material of the second layer was placed over
it. The disk was formed using a pressure of 50 MP a. The single crystal seeds of Sm123
(about 1 mm3 ) were placed on the surface of the bi-layered disk so that the distance
between them was about 15 mm and the disk was subjected to a OCMTG treatment in
1% oxygen atmosphere. The growth kinetics of YBCO superconductor were controlled
during isothermal melt texturing. A modified melt texturing process was applied, where
instead of slow cooling following melting, isothermal hold was employed in the temperature
range where the growth is isotropic. By this modification, the time required to texture the
disk was reduced to 7 hours which is about 10 times faster than a typical slow cooling melt
texturing process. The crystallization depth was controlled by applying the corresponding
temperature and time parameters. Cubic Sm123 seeds were obtained using the nucleation
and growth procedure as described in [16, 17]. A thin layer of the material was removed
from the top surface of the disk to a depth of 0.3 mm and the edges of the upper surface
were rounded using diamond tools.
Stage 4 - For the emitters with the diameter of 120 mm it is technically difficult
to apply seeded MTG method, therefore normal sintering was carried out. Bulk material
after MTG processing (after stage 2) was crushed and sieved and the following size particles
5

were used for both layers of the ceramic disk, the amount is given in weight percent:
500-400 m
120-60 m
< 20 m

50-60%
25-35%
15-25%

The particles were mixed according to the ratio listed above using polyvinyl alcohol
as a binder. The material of the first layer was put into a die, flattened and the material
of the second layer was placed over it. The disk was formed using the pressure of 120
MP a and sintered in oxygen at 930 o C for 12 hours followed by slow cooling down to room
temperature. The edges of the upper surface were rounded using diamond tools.
X-ray diffraction, transition temperature, electrical conductivity and critical current
density were measured for both layers of various emitters using standard techniques.

2.3

Organization of the discharge and measurements of the effect.

The discharge chamber is evacuated to 1.0 P a using first a rotary pump and then a cryogenic pump. When this level of vacuum is reached, liquid nitrogen is pumped into a tank
inside the chamber that contacts the superconducting emitter. Simultaneously a current
is sent to the solenoid that is wound around the emitter, in order to create a magnetic flux
inside the superconducting ceramic disk. When the temperature of the disk falls below
the transition temperature (usually 90 K) the solenoid is switched off. The experiment
can be carried out at liquid nitrogen temperatures or at liquid helium temperatures. If
low temperatures are required, the tank is filled with liquid helium and in that case the
temperature of the emitter reaches 40-50 K.
The high voltage pulse generator is switched on and the capacitors are charged to
the required voltage. It takes about 120 s to charge the capacitors. A syncro pulse is sent
to a pair of small metal spheres marked as C and D in Fig. 5. A discharge with voltage up
to 2 MV occurs between the emitter and the target. Half a second before the discharge,
a short pulse of direct current is sent for 1 s to the big solenoid that is wound around
the chamber, in order to concentrate the discharge and to direct it to the same area on
the target electrode. This pulse lasts for only 1 s not to cause the overheating of the big
solenoid.
The effects are measured along the projection of the axis line which connects the
center of the emitter with the center of the target. Laser pointers were used to define the
projection of the axis line and impulse sensitive devices were situated at the distance of 6
m and 150 m from the installation (in another building across the area).
Normal pendulums were used to measure the pulses of gravity radiation coming from
the emitter. The pendulums consisted of spheres of different materials hanging on cotton
strings inside glass cylinders under vacuum. One end of the string was fixed to the upper
cap of the cylinder, the other one was connected to a sphere. The spheres had typically
a diameter from 10 to 25 mm and had a small pointer in the bottom part. A ruler was
placed in the bottom part of the cylinder, 2 mm lower than the pointer. The deflection
6

was observed visually using a ruler inside the cylinder (Fig. 5). The length of the string
was typically 800 mm, though we also used a string 500 mm long. Various materials
were used as spheres in the pendulum: metal, glass, ceramics, wood, rubber, plastic. The
tests were carried out when the installation was covered with a Faraday cage and UHF
radiation absorbing material and also without them. The installation was separated from
the impulse measuring devices situated 6 m away by a brick wall of 0.3 m thickness and a
list of steel with the dimensions 1 m 1.2 m 0.025 m. The measuring systems that were
situated 150 m away were additionally shielded by a brick wall of 0.8 m thickness.
In order to define some other characteristics of the gravity impulse - in particular
its frequency spectrum - a condenser microphone was placed along the impact line just
after the glass cylinders. The microphone was connected to a computer and placed in a
plastic spherical box filled with porous rubber. The microphone was first oriented with a
membrane facing the direction of the discharge, then it was turned 22.5 degrees to the left,
then 45 degrees to the left, then 67.5 degrees and finally 90 degrees. Several discharges
were recorded in all these positions at equal discharge voltage.

Results

Several unexpected phenomena were observed during the experiments. The discharge in
the installation corresponding to the initial set-up (Fig. 1) at room temperature in the
voltage range from 100 kV to 450 kV was similar to a discharge with non-coated metal
spheres and consisted of a single spark between the closest points on the spheres. When
the superconductor coated sphere was cooled down below the transition temperature, the
shape of the discharge changed in such a way that it did not form a direct spark between two
spheres, but the sparks appeared from many points on the superconducting sphere and then
moved to the corresponding electrode. When the voltage was over 500 kV the discharge at
the initial stage had a tendency to cause some glow with the shape of a hemisphere. This
glow separated from the sphere and then broke into multiple sparks which combined into
more narrow bundle and finally hit the surface of the target electrode.
Repeated discharges at high voltages caused damage to the superconducting coating
and partial separation of the ceramic material from the metal sphere, as the refrigeration
system was not efficient enough. Also the direction of the discharge was not always repeatable. The experiments were continued with the improved variant of the installation
as shown in Fig. 2 and then with the final variant of the installation as shown in Fig. 3.
This new configuration allowed to increase the reproducibility of the discharge and the
superconducting emitter was not damaged with high voltage. With voltage lower than 400
kV the discharge had the shape of a spark but when the voltage was increased to 500 kV
the front of the moving discharge became flat with diameter corresponding to that of the
emitter. This flat glowing discharge separated from the emitter and moved to the target
electrode with great speed. The whole time of the discharge as defined by the photo diode
was between 105 and 104 s. The peak value of the current at the discharge for the
maximum voltage (2 106 V ) is of the order of 104 A.
It was found that high voltages discharges organized through the superconducting
7

Table 1: Emitter N. 2. Influence of high voltage discharges on the deflection of the pendulum. Experimental data are the average of 12 measurements. The standard deviation of
the single data is between 5 and 7 %.
Voltage (kV ) l (mm)
500
56.5
750
91.3
1000
110.4
1250
123.0
1500
131.6
1750
137.6
2000
142.0

h (mm)
2.0
5.2
7.7
9.5
10.9
11.9
12.7

Estimated E (J 104 )
3.6
9.5
13.9
17.3
19.8
21.7
23.1

emitter kept at the temperature of 50-70 K were accompanied by a very short pulse of
radiation coming from the superconductor and propagating along the axis line connecting
the center of the emitter and the center of the target electrode in the same direction as
the discharge. The radiation appeared to penetrate through different bodies without any
noticeable loss of energy. It acted on small interposed mobile objects like a repulsive
force field, with a force proportional to the mass of the objects. As the properties of this
radiation are similar to the properties of the gravity force, the observed phenomenon was
called a gravity impulse.
In order to investigate the interaction of this gravity impulse with various materials,
several tests were carried out, with pendulums and microphones, as described in the experimental part. The deflection of the pendulum was observed visually (see Fig. 5) and
the corresponding l value was measured as a function of the discharge voltage. The correlation between the discharge voltage and the corresponding deflection of the pendulum
as measured for two different emitters is listed in Tables 1, 2. Each value of l that is
given in the table represents the average figure calculated from 12 discharges. A rubber
sphere with a weight of 18.5 grams was used as material of the pendulum for the data
listed in Tables 1, 2. The deflection caused an alteration in the potential energy of the
pendulum which was proportional to h as shown in the table. A graphic illustration of
this dependence for two different emitters is given in Fig. 6.

Both emitters, N. 1 and N. 2, were manufactured using the same OCMTG technology,
but the thickness of the superconducting layer was equal to 4 mm for the emitter N. 1 and
8 mm for the emitter N. 2. Emitter N. 2 could be magnetized to a much higher value. The
thickness of the normal conducting layer has a smaller influence on the force of the gravity
impulse, but for better results the thickness should be bigger than 5 mm.
It was found that the force of the impact on pendulums made of different materials
does not depend on the material but is only proportional to the mass of the sample.
Pendulums of different mass demonstrated equal deflection at constant voltage. This was
proved by a large number of measurements using spherical samples of different mass and
8

Table 2: Same for Emitter N. 1.

Voltage (kV ) l (mm)
500
40.0
750
70.9
1000
85.3
1250
94.6
1500
100.8
1750
104.7
2000
107.1

h (mm)
1.0
3.2
4.6
5.6
6.4
6.9
7.2

Estimated E (J 104 )
1.8
5.7
8.3
10.2
11.6
12.5
13.1

diameter. The range of the employed test masses was between 10 and 50 grams. It was
also found that there exist certain deviations in the force of the gravity impulse within the
area of the projection of the emitter. These deviations (up to 12-15% max) were found to
be connected with the inhomogenities of the emitter material and various imperfections of
the crystals of the ceramic superconductor, and with the thickness of the interface between
superconducting and normal conducting layers.
Measurements of the impulse taken at close distance (3-6 m) from the installation
and at the distance of 150 m gave identical results, within the experimental errors. As
these two points of measurements were separated by a thick brick wall and by air, it is
possible to admit that the gravity impulse was not absorbed by the media, or the losses
were negligible.
The force beam obtained with the latest experimental set-up does not appear
to diverge and its borders are clear-cut. However, considerable efforts were necessary
in order to concentrate the radiation and reach a good reproducibility. As mentioned
above, the direction emission always coincides with the direction of the discharge. In the
initial experiments (with the Van den Graaf generator), the direction of the beam varied,
depending on the direction of the discharge, as the sparks moved to different points on the
superconducting sphere. Later it was found that the magnetic field created by the solenoid
wound around the chamber is able to concentrate the discharge and to direct it to the same
area on the superconducting electrode.
The bi-layered emitters used in this experiment were mainly of two types. The first
one was obtained after Stage 3 and had a structure typical for multiple-domain levitators
with well crystallized and oriented grains of the superconducting layer. The second type
was made by the material obtained after Stage 4 and consisted of densely packed non
oriented polycrystalline structure in both layers. The superconducting layer in both types
of emitters consisted of Y Ba2 Cu3O7y orthorhombic superconductor with lattice parameters a = 3.89
A, b = 11.69
A, c = 3.82
A. The addition of small amounts of CeO2 led
to an improvement in the magnetic flux pinning properties of the Y123 compound. The
emitter obtained by seeded MTG process had a superconducting layer with a maximum
trapped field of 0.5 T at 77 K and a critical current density in excess of 5 104 A/cm2 . The
transition temperature varied from 87 to 90 K with a transition width of about 2 degrees.
The normal conducting layer had crystal lattice parameters close to those of the super9

conductor: a = 3.88
A, b = 11.79
A, c = 3.82
A. Both layers demonstrated high electrical
conductivity (over 1.5 Sm) at room temperature and the Y1x Rex Ba2 Cu3 O7y layer was
a normal conductor above 20 K.
In general the emitters obtained by seeded OCMTG were much more efficient than
the sintered bi-layered emitters and allowed to obtain a much stronger radiation impulse,
contained by the projection of the emitter. The sintered bi-layered emitters had much lower
values of the trapped magnetic field and this yielded bigger energy dissipation and a weaker
gravity impulse. The only advantage of the sintered emitters is that a weak impulse effect is
always present, probably because the diffusion between the layers is limited. The emitters
with oriented crystal structure (after seeded MTG) can be easily spoiled if the interface
thickness between the two layers reaches a certain value, therefore the temperature and
time parameters should be monitored carefully in order to limit the interaction between
the two layers. It was found that the seeded crystal growth should be stopped before it
reaches the interface region.
It was also found that the gravity impulse was to some extent proportional to the
magnetic field inside the superconductor, which was created using a small solenoid during
cooling down to liquid nitrogen temperature. Therefore, at recent stages of the experiment
the solenoid was replaced by a powerful permanent NdFeB magnet (50 MOe) with a
diameter corresponding to the diameter of the emitter and a thickness of 20 mm. This
disk-shaped magnet was attached with one surface to the cooling tank and with another
surface to the ceramic emitter.
The response recorded by the microphone has the typical behavior of an ideal pulse
filtered by the impulse response of a physical low pass system with a bandwidth of about
16 kHz, attributed to the microphone (Fig. 7). In spite of the filtering, the relative energy
of the pulses can be measured as a function of the angle of the normal to the diaphragm
respect to the axis of propagation of the force.
Relative pulse amplitude with energies averaged over four pulses per angle are shown
in Fig. 8 and are in agreement with a possible manifestation of a vector force acting directly
on the membrane. No signal has been detected outside the impact region.

Discussion

(a) Capacitance of the emitter. Current at the discharge.

High voltage discharges like those described in Sections 2, 3 are well known in the
literature. They do not require pre-ionisation, provided the electric field between the
electrodes is sufficient to cause avalanche ionisation. However, the presence of a superconducting electrode causes some difference in the form and colour of the crown and of the
sparkle, with respect to discharges between normal electrodes.
We recall that for the maximum voltage (2 106 V ) the peak value of the current is
of the order of 104 A, and the duration of the discharge varies between 105 and 104 s.
This implies a total negative charge Q on the emitter, just before the discharge, up to 0.1
C. The associated electrostatic energy is U = QV /2 105 J.
10

If the emitter was made of a normal conductor, its capacitance could be at most
1010 F (for an estimate one can consider the capacitance of a sphere, namely C 1010 R
in SI units, where R is the radius). The above value for Q implies a much higher effective
capacitance, of the order of 107 F .
During the discharge an intense super-current flows from the superconducting electrode towards the ionised gas. After the superconducting charge carriers leave the negative
electrode, pairs are broken and electrons are captured by the helium ions which are striking
the electrode. We thus have a peculiar kind of superconductor-normal junction. Another
junction is that between the superconducting emitter and the normal metallic plate.
From the theoretical point of view, these junctions can be described by GinzburgLandau models without specific reference to the microscopic theory. A typical time scale
for the time-dependent Ginzburg-Landau equation in YBCO is of the order of 108 s [42],
much smaller than the discharge time. This suggests that a quasi-stationary approximation
could be adequate. The situation is however complicated by the following circumstances:
(1) In anisotropic materials like HTCs the Ginzburg-Landau equation involves an
order parameter with non-trivial symmetry and the pairs are thought to possess intrinsic
angular momentum.
(2) The transport current is very intense. In type-II superconductors, transport
currents are associated to non-reversible displacement of flux lines, and this effect in turn
depends strongly on the pinning properties of the material.
(3) The emitter is subjected to a strong external magnetic field during the discharge.
More efforts are therefore necessary, both on the experimental and theoretical side, for
a complete understanding of the state of the superconducting emitter during the discharge.
(b) Evidence of the gravitational-like nature of the effect.
The gravitational-like nature of the effect is best demonstrated by its independence
on the mass and composition of the targets (see Section 3). We are aware, of course, that
gravitational interactions of this kind are absolutely unusual (see Sections 4.1, 4.3). For
this reason, several details of the experimental apparatus were designed with the explicit
purpose of reducing spurious effects like mechanical and acoustic vibrations much below
the magnitude order of the observed anomalous forces.
Indirect evidence for a gravitational effect comes from the fact that any kind of
electromagnetic shielding is ineffective. Note that if one can explain in some way the
anomalous generation of a gravitational field in the superconductor, its undisturbed propagation follows as a well-known property of gravity (see Section 4.2). Indirect support for
the gravitational hypothesis also comes from the partial similarity of this apparatus to that
employed by Podkletnov for the stationary weak gravitational shielding experiment [1].
If the effect is truly gravitational, then the acceleration of any test body on which
the impulse acts should be in principle independent on the mass of the body. Suppose that
l is the length of a detection pendulum and g is the local gravitational acceleration. Let
d be the half-amplitude of the oscillation. Let t be the duration of the impulse, and F its
strength. F has the dimensions of an acceleration (m/s2 ) and can be compared with g.
11

One easily computes that the product of the strength of the impulse by its duration is
Ft =

2gl[1

1 (d/l)2 ]

(1)
q

If d l, this formula can be simplified, and we have approximately F t (g/l)d = 2d/T ,

where T is the period of the pendulum. With the data of Table 1, taking t = 104 s, one
finds F 103 g.
Here, however, we encounter a conceptual difficulty. Suppose to place on the trajectory of the beam a very massive pendulum (say, 103 Kg). If the effect is gravitational, then
the acceleration of a test mass should not depend on its mass. However, it is clear that in
order to give this mass the same oscillation amplitude of the small masses employed in the
experiment, a huge energy amount is necessary, which cannot be provided by the device.
Therefore the effect would seem to violate the equivalence principle. Considering the backreaction is probably necessary, namely the fact that the test mass exerts a reaction on the
source of the impulse. This reaction is negligible as long as we use small test masses.
(c) Anomalous features of the observed radiation.
Independently from any interpretation, the abnormal character of this radiation appears immediately clear. It appears to propagate through walls and metal plates without
noticeable absorption, but this is not due to a weak coupling with matter, because the
radiation acts with significant strength on the test masses free to move. Furthermore, this
radiation conveys an impulse which is certainly not related to the carried energy by the
usual dispersion relation E = p/c. A corresponding energy transfer to the test masses
is not in fact observed (unless one admits perfect reflection, which seems however very
unlikely).
The denomination radiation is actually unsuitable, and one could possibly envisage
an unknown quasi-static force field. In this way one could explain why an impulse is
transmitted to the test masses. However, it is hard to understand how such a field could
be so well focused.

4.1

A possible theoretical explanation. Basic concepts.

The following Sections contain an informal introduction to a theoretical model originally

developed by one of the authors [18, 19, 20, 21, 22] in order to explain the weak gravitational
shielding effect by HTC superconductors [1, 2]. We suggest that this theory may be a
starting point for the explanation of the impulsive gravitational-like forces described in the
present paper.
The quantum properties of the gravitational field play an essential role in this model.
These properties are not adequately known yet, therefore the proposed model is still in a
preliminary development phase and its predictive capabilities are quite limited. Its primary
merit is to envisage a new dynamic mechanism which could account for the effect. However,
a full theory which justifies the model does not exist so far. This should be, in fact, a theory
of the interaction between gravity (including its quantum aspects), and a particular state
of matter - that of a HTC superconductor - which in turn is not completely known.
12

The glossary below 1 collects some keywords and their equivalent, also for a better
orientation in the cited works.
(a) Weakness of the standard coupling with gravity. Anomalous coupling.
The standard coupling of matter to gravity is obtained from the Einstein equations by
including the material part of the system into the energy-impulse tensor. Since the coupling
constant is G/c4 , very large amounts of matter/energy, or at least large densities, are always
necessary in order to obtain gravitational effects of some importance. This holds also at
the quantum level, in weak field approximation. It is possible to quantize the gravitational
field by introducing quantum fluctuations with respect to a classical background, and then
calculate the graviton emission probabilities associated to transitions in atomic systems.
These always turn out to be extremely small, still because of the weakness of the coupling.
What we proved in our cited works is that a peculiar anomalous coupling mechanism exists, between gravity and matter in a macroscopic quantum state. In this state
matter is described by a collective wave function. Also in this state the energy-impulse of
matter couples to the gravitational field in the standard way prescribed by the equivalence
principle. However, the new idea is that besides this standard coupling there is another
effect, due to the interference of the Lagrangian L of coherent matter with the natural
vacuum energy term /8G which is present in the Einstein equations. The two quantities
have in fact the same tensorial form but possibly different sign, and it turns out that their
interference can lead to a dramatic enhancement of vacuum fluctuations.
(b) Contribution of a quantum condensate to the vacuum energy density.
It is well known that the natural vacuum energy, or cosmological term, is very
small. Until recently, it was thought to be exactly null. The most recent observations give
a value different from zero, but in any case very tiny [23, 47], of the order of 0.1 J/m3 .
This is usually supposed to be relevant at cosmological level, in determining the curvature
and expansion rate of the universe on very large scales.
The observed value can be regarded as the residual of a complex interplay, in a still
unknown high energy sector of particle physics, between positive and negative vacuum
energy densities. According to [24], the observed residual should also be scale-dependent
and this dependence could appear most clearly at length scales corresponding to the mass
of the lightest particles like neutrinos or unidentified scalars.
1

Cosmological term = vacuum energy density: see (b).

Lagrangian L = action density. Minimization of the action of a system gives its dynamical equations.
Quantum condensate in a superconductor: ensemble of the Cooper pairs, with collective wave function
GL (also called an order parameter) supposed to obey the Ginzburg-Landau (GL) equation. In the
non-relativistic limit, the Lagrangian density of the condensate is just the opposite of the GL free energy
density.
Zero-modes of the Einstein action = gravitational dipolar fluctuations: see (c).
Critical region: region of the condensate with positive Lagrangian density. According to the GL theory,
it can only exist for constant solutions of the GL equation or in the neighbourhood of a local relative
maximum of the Cooper pair density |GL |2 . See (f).
Noise source = density matrix: a formal way to express the fact that inside a critical region the gravitational field undergoes strong dipolar fluctuations and therefore takes on at random values h2i with
probability i . See (h), (i).

13

In certain conditions, the action density of a Bose condensate in condensed matter

can be greater than the cosmological term, but it is nonetheless very small. Its effect on
the local space curvature is absolutely negligible.
(c) The gravitational zero modes and the polarization of the gravitational vacuum.
Why so do we think that the interference of these two terms, which are in any
case very small, can lead to some observable gravitational effect? Because we proved the
existence of gravitational field configurations in vacuum, for which the value of the pure
Einstein action (without the cosmological term) is exactly null, like for flat space. We called
these configurations zero modes of the Einstein action. At the quantum level, where
fluctuations are admitted with respect to flat space, they are free to grow unrestrained.
In a certain sense, the quantum space-time is unstable and has a natural tendency not to
stay in the flat state, but to fall into these configurations, with a definite probability. They
are virtual configurations, in the sense that they are permitted in the Feynman integral
describing the quantum theory. In the Feynman integral all the possible configurations are
admitted - not only those satisfying the field equations - each weighed with probability
equal to the exponential of its action divided by h
. All these configurations (fluctuations)
take part in defining the state of the system.
The zero-modes of the Einstein action are in all the same as fields produced by
mass dipoles. In nature, mass dipoles do not exist as real sources. Nevertheless, the
dipolar fluctuations mathematically have such a form. Being vacuum fluctuations, they
are invariant under translations and Lorentz transformations, they are homogeneously
allocated in space and at all length scales. That is, the dipolar fluctuations correspond
to the fields produced by dipoles of various sizes, distributed in a uniform way. They can
only show their presence if, in some way, their homogeneity and uniformity are broken. We
are in presence of an analogue of the vacuum polarization in quantum electrodynamics. In
that case, virtual couples of electrons/positrons pop up in the vacuum, and then quickly
annihilate, generating uniform fluctuations. It is well known that these virtual processes
must be taken into account, because they affect, for instance, the bare charge of the particles
and their couplings. However, quantum corrections are, as a rule, very small in quantum
electrodynamics.
It is important to be aware that the gravitational dipolar fluctuations we are talking
about are neither the ordinary fluctuations of perturbation theory nor the well known
spacetime foam fluctuations, which appear in quantum gravity at very short distances.
Their nature is completely different. Although their intensity can be very large, they have
null action, thanks to the compensation of positive and negative curvature between adjacent
zones of space-time. The dipolar fluctuations are not zero-modes of the Lagrangian, but of
the action. Their existence is possible thanks to the fact that the gravitational Lagrangian
is not defined positive, unlike the Lagrangian of electromagnetic and gauge fields.
(d) The vacuum energy cuts the gravitational zero-modes to a certain level.
Let us go back to the cosmological term. One finds that it is related to the dipolar
fluctuations, because it sets an upper limit on their amplitude. The contribution of a
14

dipolar fluctuation to the cosmological term is typically of the form [21]

S = Mr 2 Q

(2)

where natural units are used (

h = c = 1); is the duration of the fluctuation, M is the
order of magnitude of the virtual +/- masses, r their distance and Q is an adimensional
function which depends on the detailed form of the dipole. If S 1, then the fluctuation
is suppressed.
With an electromagnetic analogy (not to be pushed too far) we could then say that
the cosmological term sets the gravitational polarizability of free space. One expects that
in a full non-perturbative theory of quantum gravity the bare value of the gravitational
constant G should be renormalized by this effect. However, as long as the cosmological
term is uniform in space and time, there are no observable consequences. On the other
hand, if the vacuum energy density changes locally, this can have observable effects. In
particular, if there are positive local contributions which subtract from the natural density,
the result can be a local increase in the gravitational polarizability.
(e) The anomalous coupling is only active when the condensate is in certain
particular states.
Our model can also explain why only certain superconductors in certain conditions
show evidence of anomalous coupling with the gravitational field. The key point is not
simply the presence of a quantum condensate, nor the density of this condensate. In
fact, if this was the case, anomalous gravitational effects would be observed also with
low temperature superconductors, or with superfluids. But even in the static Podkletnov
experiment, only in certain conditions observable effects are obtained, and their intensity
is variable.
Therefore the presence of the condensate is not sufficient to cause the effect. What
are the necessary conditions? The anomalous contribution to the cosmological term is
given by the Lagrangian density of the condensate, according to the following equations.
Consider a scalar field interacting with gravity (we use units h
= c = 1; SI units will
be restored in eq. (12)). The interaction action is obtained from the energy-momentum
tensor:
1
L = ( m2 ||2 )
(3)
2
T = g L = g L
(4)
Z
q
1
d4 x g(x)T (x)h (x)
(5)
Sinteraction =
2
To lowest order in h the interaction action can be rewritten as
Sinteraction =

1
2

d4 x (h TrhL)

(6)

On the other hand, the cosmological term is (still to lowest order in h and expanding

g = 1 + 12 Trh + ...)


Z
1

4
d x 1 + Trh
S =
(7)
8G
2
15

Therefore the sum of the two terms can be rewritten as

1
Sinteraction + S =
2

1
d xh +
2
4

d xTrh
L
8G
4

(8)

We see that to leading order the coupling of gravity to gives a typical source
term (h ) and subtracts from the local density 8GL(x). This separation is
arbitrary, but useful and reasonable if the Lagrangian density is such to affect locally the
natural cosmological term and change the spectrum of gravitational vacuum fluctuations
corresponding to virtual mass densities much larger than the real density of .
For example, suppose that represents a condensate with the density of ordinary
matter ( 1 g/cm3 ). At the scale r 104 cm, 104 s, with the observed value of
, the upper bound on the virtual source density is 1017 g/cm3 , which is much larger
than the real density. If L is comparable to /8G in some region, an inhomogeneity in
the cut-off mechanism of the dipolar fluctuations will follow, and this effect could exceed
by far the effects of the coupling (h ) to real matter.
The value of the Lagrangian depends on the state the condensate is in, and more
exactly on the macroscopic wave function GL of the Cooper pairs. The problem of finding
the wave function in given experimental conditions is still open. From the wave function
one can compute the Lagrangian, and then the local contribution of the superconductor
to the vacuum energy, and its ability to produce anomalous gravitational coupling.
(f) L subtracts from only where the density |GL |2 has a local maximum.

The Lagrangian L in eq. (3) is the Klein-Gordon Lagrangian which describes a relativistic free scalar field. In order to relate it, in the low energy limit, to the GinzburgLandau (GL) free energy of superconductors [25] one makes the standard transformation
KG (x) = eimt (x)

(9)

where m is the Cooper pair mass. Then one turns to the GL wave function by renormalizing KG as follows

KG (x) = mGL (x)

(10)
This normalization corresponds to the standard relation |GL (x)|2 = (x), where is the
density of Cooper pairs. Finally, the free Lagrangian is generalized by adding a quadratic
and a quartic interaction term and the minimal electromagnetic coupling. In this way one
finds
1
1
| i + 2eA|2 ( )2
(11)
L=
2m
2
This is the Lagrangian density to be inserted into eq. (8) as contribution to the vacuum
energy density. It is the opposite of the GL free energy density [?], as expected. For wave
functions which satisfy the wave equation derived from (11), the expression of L simplifies
to
i
1 h 2
L=
(12)
h
()2 + h
2 2 m2
2m
where h
has been re-introduced to allow for a better numerical estimate.
16

We recall [26] that the and coefficients depend on the absolute temperature T .
The coefficient is always positive and approximately constant near Tc ; is negative for
T < Tc and near Tc behaves like const.(T Tc ). The ratio between and is given
by the relation np = /, where np is the average density of pairs in the material.
Finally, is linked to the value of the Ginzburg-Landau parameter = / by the relation
2 = m2 /(20h
2 e2 ). Two further important points which should be taken into account
are (i) the boundary conditions on GL at the superconductor/ normal conductor and
superconductor/ionized gas interfaces; (ii) the intrinsic anisotropy of HTC materials, which
actually also affects the form of the GL free energy.
The relative importance in eq. (12) of the terms with the gradients and the term
proportional to depends on the length scale at which the variations of GL can occur.
If, as usual for Type II and HTC superconductors, this scale is of the order of 108 m or
less, the terms with the gradient dominate.
It is straightforward to check that the sign of L is negative, except for two types of
configurations:
(1) For the constant solutions of the Ginzburg-Landau equation in the absence of
external field, namely (x) = np . The corresponding constant Lagrangian density is L1 =
1
n2p .
2
(2) For regions of the condensate where 2 is negative and greater, in absolute
value, than ()2 . It is straightforward to check that these are regions located around
local density maximums, or more generally about lines and surfaces where the first partial
derivatives of are zero and the second derivatives are negative or null. The Lagrangian
1
| |. If the maximum is sharp, L can be much larger
density at a maximum is L2 2m
than for constant solutions. Configurations of this kind are characteristic of solutions of
the Ginzburg-Landau equation with strong magnetic flux penetration [27].
Now we make some numerical estimates of L. Assuming for YBCO 1027 m3 ,
109 m, 102 , we obtain for the configurations (1) and (2) densities L1 104 J/m3
and L2 107 J/m3 , respectively. With reference to our experiment we must explain, on
the basis of these figures, why anomalous coupling at the emitter takes place, but only at
the moment of the discharge and in presence of strong magnetic flux penetration.
We remind that the vacuum energy density acts as cut-off for the dipolars fluctuations,
so that their maximum amplitude A is inversely proportional to . Therefore in presence
of a local contribution by the superconductor we have
A

1
|/8G L|

(13)

So an amplification of the fluctuations is possible when L has the same sign as . From
the experimental observations it is clear that a negative value of L does not give the
necessary conditions. In fact, in that case anomalous coupling would be observed every
time there are strong density gradients in the superconducting material - which occurs
almost always. From this we obtain a first piece of information about the value of at
atomic scale (otherwise unknown): it must be positive. /8G must furthermore be much
larger than L1 , because a constant density does not give observable anomalous effects
17

either. In conclusion, /8G must be larger than L2 , and the amplitude A of the dipolar
fluctuations increases as the local value of L approaches it from below. 2
This can happen in presence of strong magnetic flux penetration (Point 2 above), but
that requisite is not sufficient: the presence of a strong transport current is also necessary.
In fact, with strong flux penetration, the density is depressed. The current appears like
a means to obtain at once a large and a large value of in correspondence of the maximums. Indeed, in inhomogeneous materials like HTCs, a very intense transport current
inevitably forces a large density in certain regions. In the case of the weak gravitational
shielding [1] the transport current is mostly due to the accelerated rotation of the disk [28].
In the present case it is due to the discharge.
(g) The anomalous coupling inside the condensate modifies the field also outside.
Summarizing, we can say that in particular conditions a quantum condensate is able
to modify locally the cosmological term of the gravitational action. In turn, the cosmological term fixes the cut level of the dipolar fluctuations, and so the local gravitational vacuum
polarizability. Therefore an anomalous coupling of the condensate with the gravitational
field is observed. This coupling can be abnormally strong, due to the large amplitude of
the vacuum fluctuations. It is a kind of coupling that completely eludes the standard form
and so is not proportional, through the G/c4 constant, to the energy-impulse content of
the condensate.
The next question is: how is the gravitational field modified inside the condensate and
in its neighbourhood? In other words, let us suppose that the gravitational field displays
a much higher level of dipolar fluctuations in some regions of the condensate. What is
the consequence for the global behaviour of the field? For instance, with reference to the
static experiment, why is there a noticeable reduction of the terrestrial field above the disc?
We can say that in that case there is a big gravitational source - the earth - producing a
uniform field in the region of interest, according to the usual classical field equations. Into
these equations, however, we must also introduce a kind of random source located in the
condensate. This affects the field also outside.
(h) The modified field equation contains an arbitrary constant.
We have proposed to introduce into the gravitational field equations a term representing a random source located in the condensate. This procedure has some intrinsic
arbitrariness. The intensity of the source is arbitrary, too, and cannot be obtained from
the ratio between the energy density of the condensate and the natural vacuum energy
density. In fact, it is true that this ratio allows us to determine the maximum amplitude
of the dipolar fluctuations. However, the probability of these fluctuations, and so their
weight with respect to the external configurations, is still an unknown element of the theory. We know that certain field configurations give a null contribution to the pure Einstein
2

The density L2 can be compared with that obtainable for an electromagnetic field alone - which can
also be regarded as coherent matter in this context. The electromagnetic energy density is proportional
to (E2 + B2 ), but the action density is proportional to (E2 B2 ), therefore only an electrostatic field has
the right sign. But even with a field strength of 3 106 V /m, one obtains a density of 100 J/m3 , definitely
lower.

18

action and can grow up without limit, and we can determine the cut-off amplitude due to
the intervention of the cosmological term; however, the probability that these fluctuations
really happen is a feature of the quantum theory, which is not known yet. In principle, it
would be possible to write a functional integral containing all the involved fields, the test
masses etc., evaluate it and obtain everything. In practice, what we can do with such an
integral is only a weak field expansion about the minimum of the action.
In conclusion, if we represent the gravitational fluctuations in the quantum condensate as a random source, the intensity of this source must be inserted as a parameter which
is fixed a posteriori from the experimental data. This should not be unexpected. The
experimental observations described in this work are absolutely new and unprecedented.
They inform us about a sector of the theory which is otherwise unknown. The validity of
our model consists of suggesting a new interaction process, while avoiding contradictions
with known facts, and while giving the freedom to fix a new coupling constant.
(i) The modified field equation must be able to describe the observed phenomenology.
After modelling the effect of the fluctuations on the external field (for instance, as
random source with a certain strength), we are able to verify the consistency and correctness
of the procedure by calculating this field and comparing the result to the data - not only as
intensity but also as shape. For instance, we know that in the static experiment a shielding
cylinder was observed which extended far above the superconducting disc and showed net
borders, without diffraction. Obtaining this characteristic from the field equations modified
by the anomalous coupling is all but trivial. The observed field configuration is furthermore
clearly not conservative. (This can be understood remembering that there is a source term
in the equation.) Nonetheless, we succeeded in [20] in obtaining a result of this kind (see
also [29]).
(j) Euclidean and Lorentzian formulation of the anomalous coupling and of the
modified action.
From the technical point of view, the general program outlined above has been implemented in the Euclidean (or imaginary-time) version of quantum gravity [18, 19, 20],
and more recently in the standard Lorentzian version [21].
The occurrence of the dipolar fluctuations and the cut-off role of the vacuum energy
density are most clearly and safely exhibited in the Lorentzian formalism. On the other
hand, the Euclidean formulation is reliable and more suitable for perturbative calculations
of the modified field equations.
The Lorentzian formulation is indispensable for the latest developments (calculation
of the low-energy limit of L and determination of its sign as a function of ).

4.2

Possible interpretation of the gravitational-like impulse at

the discharge

We focus now our attention on the new, puzzling effects described in the experimental part
of this paper, and partially analysed at the beginning of this Section. We cannot offer any
19

quantitative interpretation of these effects yet, so we shall limit ourselves to an hypothesis

based on our previous work on the static effect.
(a) From the static to the transient effect: the virtual dipoles emit virtual
radiation.
We have seen that the observed impulse can neither be described as a real radiation, nor as a quasi-static field. These are the two types of field configurations which are
predicted by any classical theory.
However, we also saw that the weak gravitational shielding effect can be explained
introducing the concept of anomalous dipolar quantum fluctuations induced by the condensate. These fluctuations locally increase to observable levels the gravitational vacuum
polarizability.
In the transient case, the virtual dipolar fields are rapidly varying in time, because
the critical conditions in the quantum condensate are produced only for a short time at
the discharge. Therefore it is natural to expect that in this case the formation of virtual
dipoles is accompanied by the emission of virtual dipolar radiation.
(b) In quantum mechanics every interaction is equivalent to an exchange of
virtual radiation.
Let us recall the concept of virtual radiation as intermediate state of a quantum
process. In quantum mechanics, every interaction is thought to take place through the
exchange of virtual particles - photons, gauge bosons, gravitons. This is especially clear in
scattering processes, but also the static interaction potential can be written as an integral
over time and four-momentum of the propagator of a mediating virtual particle [30]. In
this integral, all values of energy-momentum are included, not only the on-shell values
satisfying the condition E = p/c which is typical of real photons and gravitons. This
is possible just because the mediating particles are virtual, i.e. so short-living that the
Heisenberg principle allows for a large indetermination in their energy. In fact, the static
force obtained as a sum of virtual processes is very different from the effect of a collection
of free photons or gravitons.
It is also possible to compute along these lines the quantum corrections to the classical
force. To this end, one includes in the sum some less probable processes, involving the
exchange of several mediating particles at the same time, or the creation-annihilation of
virtual pairs, and so on.
(c) The impulse at the discharge is made of off-shell gravitons.
In order to explain the weak gravitational shielding effect we hypothesised an anomalous strong quantum correction to the field of the earth. In the transient case, on the other
hand, all the emitted radiation should be regarded as a quantum effect. The observed
impulsive force could be the effect of virtual processes in which:
1. The intense supercurrent flowing across the superconducting cathode produces
critical gravitational regions, with strong dipolar vacuum fluctuations. The necessary conditions are those discussed in Section (4.1-f).
20

2. These fluctuations emit a beam of virtual off-shell gravitons with E p/c. The
direction of the beam is sharply defined by momentum conservation. Whatever the exact
microscopic mechanism, the momentum carried by the virtual radiation can only originate
from that of the Cooper pairs entering the critical regions, i.e. from the momentum of the
supercurrent. This is in agreement with the fact that if the impact direction of the discharge
changes (like in the earlier set-up, see 3), also the direction of the emitted radiation changes.
3. When the beam hits a mobile target, it conveys an impulse to this target. Like
for usual gravitational forces (which can also be interpretated as graviton exchange, as
mentioned), interposed bodies do not affect transmission.

4.3

Known effects which could be connected to the observed

phenomenon.

The following concepts are often quoted to explain anomalous gravitational effects. So
we summarise them quickly, even though in our case they do not fit to the observed
phenomenology.
We recall that several alternative theories were proposed, in the last decades, in the
attempt to explain and give a physical basis to spacetime and vacuum. Every one of
these, to be credible, must first of all reproduce the known results of general relativity and
quantum field theory. Notable examples are theories of induced gravity according to
Sakharovs idea [31], and string theory. It is not easy to judge if anyone of these theories
can also predict, in addition, unusual effects in the presence of superconductors. Some are
not developed enough to give a definite answer. Many have been proposed recently, still
their authors did not envisage any anomalous coupling to matter in a macroscopic quantum
state. In general, if the coupling of gravity to matter conforms to the classical Einstein
equations, then the intensity of any generated gravitational field will depend only on the
energy-momentum of the source multiplied by G/c4 , so there is no chance for anomalous
effects. A notable exception could be torsion theory, which predicts a coupling to quantum
spin not allowed in the Einstein equations; however, as we shall see below, there are strict
experimental limits on the coupling of matter to torsion. Another possibility is to consider
strong quantum effects, as done in Section 4.2; in that case, we chose to start from the
standard form of the classical theory.
(a) The gravitomagnetic field
Could the observed anomalous forces be due to the fact that the superconductor
produces during the discharge a strong gravitomagnetic field? It is well known from general
relativity that the gravitational field contains components of magnetic type, called the
gravitomagnetic field. These components have the property to be produced by moving
objects and to act on objects in movement. It is possible to write the Einstein field
equations in weak field approximation in a form very similar to that of Maxwell equations.
The important difference, with respect to the Maxwell equations for electromagnetism, is
that gravitomagnetic effects are suppressed by factors 1/c or 1/c2 . So they are always
very small with respect to gravitoelectric effects - those which have a Newtonian limit.
See for instance [32, 33]; in these references an analysis of the Maxwell equations for
21

gravity and also of the Gravity Probe B gyroscope experiment for detecting the Earths
gravitomagnetic field is given.
In certain conditions the gravitomagnetic field can be repulsive. In neutrons stars it
can produce a gravitational analogue of the Meissner effect. As one would expect, however,
the gravitational Meissner effect is exceedingly weak: for instance, it has been computed
that in a neutron star with a density of the order of 1014 g/cm3, the London penetration
depth is ca. 12 km [34]. In the 1970s experiments were done to detect possible weight
decreases of a rotor while it was rotating at very high speed [35], but conclusive results
were never obtained.
(b) Gravitomagnetism and quantum spin
The aspects of the theory of quantum gravity concerning the spin are summarized,
for instance, in [36]. In previous work [37] OConnell examined the implications arising
from the fact that spin contributions to the gravitational potential are as large as the spinindependent contributions for interparticle separations of the order of Compton length and
also that such spin-dependent forces could be repulsive for certain spin orientations. An
analysis was also carried out of the possibility of measuring gravitational spin-dependent
forces in the laboratory [38]. An idea of one such experiment, as proposed in [39], is to
observe a breaking of the equilibrium of a polarized body, hanging in the gravitational
field, when its polarized state is destroyed. This effect, if present, is predicted to be
extremely small. (See also the results by Ritter et al. [40].) Claims like those by Wallace of
antigravity forces produced by spin orientation in nuclei [41] appear as totally unreliable
today.
(c) The works by Ning Li and Torr
In a series of articles Ning Li and Torr [6] calculated the gravitomagnetic field which
would be produced by a superconductor containing circulating supercorrents. According
to them, in this case also the movement of the ions, which produce a current of mass, has
particular importance. Also the fact that spin alignment is present would be very important. The alignment of the spin of the lattice ions would be a source of gravitomagnetic
field. The objections to this model are of two types. First, the total spin amount that
is possible to obtain in normal condensed matter is always very small, also in presence of
alignment. Therefore, given the weak coupling with the gravitomagnetic field, one does not
understand how it could reach detectable intensity. Another objection is of more technical
nature. Ning Li and Torr use the Maxwell equations for gravity, which hold in weak field
approximation. However, when they find that some terms of these equations explode,
they keep this result even if it is inconsistent with the initial approximation.
Previously to the first Podkletnov experiment [1] and without reference to it, Ning
Li and Torr determined another consequence of their model [7]. Not only the alignment of
the spin of the lattice ions would produce a gravitomagnetic field, but in the presence of an
outside applied time-dependent vector potential, this would be converted into a perceptible
gravitoelectric field. Such a conversion is necessary, if one wants to apply this theory to
the weak gravitational shielding, because in that case the test bodies are at rest, and so
they would not respond to a gravitomagnetic field. However, this is in contrast with the
22

short-lived permanence of the effect also after all the outside fields are turned off. At last,
we notice that Ning Li and Torr never published a work in which they try to interpret the
phenomenology of the effect in terms of their model nor to explain why it is observed only
with certain types of superconductors.
(d) Other models connected to gravitomagnetism
There have been proposals of alternative interpretations of gravitomagnetism in connection with the Mach principle [45]. In this context, the gravitomagnetic phenomena
would achieve a greater importance. Still with reference to a Machian theory, Woodard
claims to have experimentally obtained some transient fluctuations in the inertial mass of
a capacitor [46]. However we will not be concerned here with these approaches, which to
a large extent remained at a subjective level.
Recently Ummarino [42] tried to establish a link between the Podkletnov effect and
the gravitomagnetic and gravitoelectric field, following a more standard approach, connected with the Ginzburg-Landau theory for superconductors.
(e) Theories with torsion
We now come to the theories of gravity with torsion. Could the observed phenomenology, not understandable in general relativity, be related to the existence of a torsion field?
Let us first recall how the concept of torsion was born: from the idea of considering the
connection (which in the metric formalism is simply a quantity derived from the metric
and is symmetric with respect to a couple of indexes) like an independent quantity, with
its own dynamics and, generally, not symmetric. Torsion theory is an extension of general
relativity, which was investigated in great detail in the past. It is necessary in fact in order
to introduce the interaction of the gravitational field with the quantum spin, and allows to
connect general relativity to the usual gauge theories. After admitting the possibility of the
existence of torsion, its features (for instance, its propagation), do not descend from first
principles or from the geometrical structure of the theory, but from the form of the various
possible terms in the action and from coupling constants fixed on the basis of experimental
observations. Over the years a large amount of experimental data have been accumulated,
which place strong limits on the couplings.
A picture of the current situation is for instance presented by Carroll and Field [43].
What is concluded is that the possible existence of the torsion can be of interest at the
level of gravitational interactions at very short distances (Planck scale), but not at the
level of laboratory experiments.
In their work Carroll and Field discuss possible actions for torsion and its interaction
with matter fields like those of the standard model of particle physics. They construct
a free Lagrangian from powers and derivatives of the torsion, and couple it minimally
to matter through the covariant derivative. They find that there is only a small range of
models possible without placing arbitrary restrictions on the dynamics. In these models
only a single mode interacts with matter, either a massive scalar or a massive spin-1
field, and each mode is parameterised by two constants with the dimension of mass. They
concentrate on the scalar theory, which is related to several proposals found in the literature
and discuss what regions of parameter space are excluded by laboratory and astrophysical
23

data. Carroll and Field find that a reasonable expectation would be for each of the two
mass parameters to be of the order of the Planck scale; such a choice is a safe distance away
from the regions excluded by experiment. They conclude that, while there are reasons to
expect that the torsion degrees of freedom exist as propagating fields, there is no reason
to expect any observable signature from torsion.
Other not orthodox points of view are represented in literature [44]. But even
though theories of torsion exist since a long time, no attempts to explain the phenomenology
of the Podkletnov effect were ever presented.
(f) The value of G and the measurements at short distances
The fundamental characteristics of the gravitational interaction keep on being a very
alive and interesting research field. We do not mean by this the consequences of gravity on
the structure of the universe, and so the applications of general relativity to black holes, astrophysics etc.; we mean the basic features of the force, including the issue whether general
relativity is an adequate and complete description of it. We recall that only two predictions
of general relativity have not been verified yet, namely the existence of gravitational waves
and of gravitomagnetic fields. There are furthermore several current experiments to detect
possible violations of the equivalence principle. Up to now no contradiction has ever been
observed with respect to the predictions of general relativity [47].
The precision with which the value of G is known is clearly unsatisfactory compared
to the precision with which the other fundamental physical constants are known. This
is also due to the fact that while the definition of the other fundamental constants relies
on microscopic experiments performed with high precision devices, for the G constant it
is necessary to use more or less sophisticated versions of the Cavendish experiment. In
particular, we do not know the behaviour of gravity at short distances (millimeters or
less). According to Gillies [48], in the second half of 1900 more measurements of G were
made than ever before. Some discrepancies were observed in recent times with respect to
the best official value fixed in 1982.
The value of G has been called into question by new measurements from respected
research teams in Germany, New Zealand, and Russia [49]. The new values disagree wildly.
For example, a team from the German Institute of Standards obtained a value for G that is
0.6% larger than the accepted value; a group from the University of Wuppertal in Germany
found a value that is 0.06% lower and one at the Measurement Standards Laboratory of
New Zealand measured a value that is 0.1% lower. The Russian group found a space
and time variation of G of up to 0.7%. The collection of these new results suggests that
the uncertainty in G could be much larger than originally thought. This controversy has
spurred several efforts to make a more reliable measurement of G.
A recent theoretical prediction suggests that gravity penetrates extra, compact dimensions so that the gravitational inverse square law must be modified at short ranges
(less than 1 mm). Arkani-Hamed, Dimopoulos, and Dvali [50], have offered this as an
explanation of the hierarchy problem. A team at the university of Washington is doing
new measurements in order to check this, but results are negative up to now [51].
(g) The anomalous acceleration of the Pioneer and scalar-tensor theories
24

Let us now pass from the shortest distances at which it is possible to observe gravitational interactions in the laboratory, to the largest. Surprising results were obtained
recently by the observation of the motion of the Pioneer space probes [53]. Direct measurements are possible thanks to the radio signals transmitted by the spacecrafts, which
give precise information about their position, speed and acceleration. From the analysis of
the data a residual acceleration was found, not explainable through the usual orbit tracking
models. Some proposals for a theoretical explanation of the phenomenon were presented.
One of these [54] calls for the existence, in addition to Einsteins gravitational field, of a
scalar field which, supposed it has certain properties, could lead to the observed effect.
This field could also be responsible for the rotation anomalies observed in the galaxies,
because it gives a modification of the behaviour of gravity at large distances. The cited
model belongs in practice to a wide group of extensions of the standard theory of gravitation [52], which originate from the Brans-Dicke model and in more recent times refer to
string theory and to the so-called dilaton field.
(h) Gravitational anomalies at solar eclipses
There is a long history of claims of possible anomalous changes of gravity during sun
eclipses. These would be different from tidal changes, which are well known and calculable
with precision, and could show that some kind of shielding of the solar attraction by the
moon exists, at the moment when it steps in between the earth and the sun. The data,
however, are quite contradictory [55].
The original experiments by Allais, in which the change of the oscillation period of
a pendulum was observed, seemed to imply a decrease in g of about 1/100 of the solar
gravity. The consequence would be an apparent increase of the terrestrial attraction of
about one part in a million. During the eclipse of 2000 a net of observers with pendulums
and gravimeters was organised by initiative of the NASA, in order to observe possible
changes; the definitive results are not available yet. A work was published in 2000 by a
Chinese team, with reference to the eclipse of 1997 [56], in which data measured with a
high precision gravimeter are reported. Also in this case, some anomalies were observed
at the eclipse, but with features very different from those reported before. There is a
noticeable decrease of the terrestrial attraction, that is, an apparent anti-screening of the
solar gravity. The shielding factor is much smaller than the one declared by Allais, and the
time sequence rather strange, with maxima at the beginning and the end of the darkness
period.
It is important to remember that other experiments clearly exclude any shielding of
gravitation of the so-called Majorana type (these phenomena were first investigate by
Majorana at the beginning of 1900) [57]. Besides, one would expect a possible shielding
effect by the moon to have an analogue for artificial satellites, namely a shielding of solar
gravity when the satellite enters the shadow of the earth. Anomalies of this type were
actually reported [58], though they are very difficult to confirm, because the irregularities
which affects the motion of the artificial satellites are numerous, especially when they are
close to the surface of the earth.
(i) Weak gravitational shielding by superconductors

25

In this variegated field of investigations on possible gravitational anomalies, the work

by E. Podkletnov stands out, originally appeared in 1992 [1], then in improved version in
1995 [2]. It describes possible gravitational anomalies caused by HTC superconductors.
The observed anomalies reached a maximum of about 2% of g, in transient situations,
and 0.3-0.5% of g in almost stationary form. These anomalies were produced by means of
discs with multiple layers, rotating at high speed, in very particular conditions, which still
have not been completely duplicated. A NASA team already produced a first simplified
reproduction of the experiment in 1997 [3], and a new version should start giving some
data this year. Besides the remarkable experimental difficulties, the results are puzzling
under the theoretical point of view. In fact, the strength of the anomalies is very large with
respect to what has been previously observed, and no sufficiently complete theory exists,
which can explain this kind of phenomena (see Section 4.1). Here in fact both gravitation
is called into play, of which a complete quantum theory does not exist, and typically
quantum phenomena (behaviour of the macroscopic wave functions in superconductors).
Furthermore, not conventional superconductors are involved, but HTC superconductors,
for which several issues are still unsettled, like the pairing mechanism etc.
(j) Terahertz radiation emission by HTC superconductors
A new type of terahertz radiation was discovered by Japanese scientists by irradiating HTC superconductive films with femtosecond laser pulses [59, 60]. The radiation
mechanism is thought to be connected with the ultrafast supercurrent modulation by the
laser pulses, which induces nonequilibrium superconductivity. The principal design of the
experimental installation has some common features with our gravity impulse generator
and the behavior of the superconducting crystallized materials might have a similar origin.

Conclusions

The experimental apparatus has shown that an impulse of gravitational-like force freely
propagating through different physical media can be generated by a dual layered YBCO
HTSC under pulsed electric current. The impulse propagates parallel to the direction of
the discharge and orthogonal to the surface of the HTSC. The intensity of the impulse has
been found to increase with increasing discharge energy, and to depend on the chemical
composition and structure of the HTSC and on its internal magnetic state. In a typical
measurement, the mechanical energy imparted by the impulse to a pendulum of mass 18.5 g
was between 4 104 J and 23 104 J (Table 1).

From the theoretical point of view, we understand the effect as the result of an
anomalous interaction between a special class of gravitational vacuum fluctuations and
the macroscopic wave function of the superconductor. This interaction is locally activated
when the product of the pairs density and its second derivative is sufficiently large.
The sign of must furthermore be positive. These conditions can be satisfied in the
presence of intense transport current and magnetic flux penetration.
Attempts of scientists to control gravity have been present for a long time and in the
future these efforts will almost certainly become more prominent. Albert Einstein spent the
26

last years of his life trying to integrate gravity with the other laws of physics and the entire
scientific community remains intrigued with the problem of gravity ever since. However,
since our knowledge of gravity is poor in comparison to that of the other fundamental
forces, we are unable to control it in any fundamental way. We are therefore left with
the option of carrying out experiments based on new theories, on scientific intuition and
careful analysis of previous results. This work indicates that a kind of artificial gravity
can be generated using the unique properties of superconducting ceramic materials and a
combination of electric and magnetic forces.
Acknowledgment - G.M. was supported in part by the California Institute for Physics
and Astrophysics via grant CIPA-MG7099.

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31

Figure Captions
Fig.1 Initial setup of the impulse gravity generator.
Fig.2 Improved variant of the impulse gravity generator.
Fig.3 Discharge chamber of the impulse gravity generator.
Fig.4 Arkadjev-Marx high-voltage pulse generator.
Fig.5 Pendulum in a glass cylinder under vacuum. (The actual cylinder is wide enough to
allow a complete oscillation.)
Fig.6 Correlation between the voltage discharge and the deflection of the pendulum.
Fig.7 Impulse recorded by the microphone at a 67 deg. impact angle. Time scale is
sampling periods at fs = 44.1 kHz. There is a 50 Hz noise due to power grid. The signal
is unfiltered.
Fig.8. Relative pulse impulse versus impact angle.

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Appendix 4

References

1: Carlo Santagata - Lunificazione dei campi elettromagnetici e gravitazionali. Le onde gravitazionali.

Lantigravit. Parte prima (2012)
2: Nikola Tesla Colorado Spring Notes (1899)
3: Nikola Tesla biography:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikola_Tesla
4: Short biography of Edwin Gray:
http://www.free-energy.ws/pdf/ed_gray_bio.pdf
5: Edwin Gray articles and patents:
http://www.free-energy.ws/edwin-gray.html
6: Electromagnetic mass:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_mass
7: Nuclear test effects on atmosphere:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Fishbowl
8: Instructable for slayer exciter circuit:
http://www.instructables.com/id/How-to-Build-a-Slayer-Exciter/
9: Jean Louis Naudin
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UYEJcMW8uK8
10: FLying saucer technology
http://www.icestuff.com/~energy21/bahnsonufo.htm
http://www.icestuff.com/~energy21/ufopropagation.htm
11: Peter A. Liendemann
The free energy secrets of cold electricity

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