ArchitectureofKerala

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Keralaarchitectureisakindofarchitecturalstyle
thatismostlyfoundinIndianstateofKeralaandall
thearchitecturalwondersofkeralastandsouttobe
ultimatetestmonialsfortheancientvishwakarma
sthapathisofkerala.Kerala'sstyleofarchitectureis
uniqueinIndia,initsstrikingcontrasttoDravidian
architecturewhichisnormallypracticedinother
partsofSouthIndia.ThearchitectureofKeralahas
beeninfluencedbyDravidianandIndianVedic
architecturalscience(VastuShastra)overtwo
millennium.TheTantrasamuchaya,ThachuShastra,
ManushyalayaChandrikaandSilparatnaare
VadakkumnathanHinduTempleatThrissurisaclassical
importantarchitecturalsciences,whichhavehada
exampleofKeralaarchitecture
strongimpactinKeralaArchitecturestyle.The
ManushyalayaChandrika,aworkdevotedto
domesticarchitectureisonesuchsciencewhichhasitsstrongrootsinKerala.
ThearchitecturalstylehasevolvedfromKeralaspeculiarclimateandlonghistoryofinfluencesofitsmajor
maritimetradingpartnerslikeChinese,ArabsandEuropeans.

Contents
1 Origins
2 History
2.1 Prehistoricera
2.2 InfluenceofBuddhismandearlyTamillakamarchitecture
2.3 MigrantandDravidianinfluences
3 Compositionandstructure
3.1 Composition
3.2 Materials
4 Structure
4.1 Religiousarchitecture
4.1.1 Templearchitecture
4.1.1.1 ElementsandfeaturesofKeralaTemple
4.1.1.2 Phasesofevolution
4.1.2 Islamicarchitecture
4.1.3 Churcharchitecture
4.1.3.1 ElementsofKeralachurcharchitecture
4.1.3.2 Colonialinfluencesinchurcharchitecture
4.1.3.3 Moderntrendsinchurcharchitecture
4.1.4 Jewisharchitecture
4.2 Domesticarchitecture
4.2.1 Nalukettu
4.2.1.1 ElementsofNalukettu
4.2.1.2 Keyfeatures
4.2.1.3 TypesofNalukettu
4.2.1.3.1 Basedonstructure
4.2.1.3.2 Basedoncaste
4.3 Publicstructuresarchitecture
4.4 Environmentallyfriendlyarchitecture
5 References

5 References

Origins
ThecharacteristicregionalexpressionofKeralaarchitectureresultsfrom
thegeographical,climaticandhistoricfactors.GeographicallyKeralaisa
narrowstripoflandlyinginbetweenwesternseaboardofpeninsularIndia
andconfinedbetweenthetoweringWesternGhatsonitseastandthevast
Arabianseaonitswest.FavouredbyplentifulrainsduetoMonsoonand
brightsunshines,thislandislushgreenwithvegetationandrichinanimal
life.Intheuneventerrainofthisregionhumanhabitationisdistributed
thicklyinthefertilelowlandsandsparselytowardsthehostilehighlands.
Heavyrainshavebroughtinpresenceoflargewaterbodiesinformof
lakes,rivers,backwatersandlagoons.Theclimaticfactorsthusmadeits
significantcontributionsindevelopingthearchitecturestyle,tocounter
wettestclimaticconditionscoupledwithheavyhumidityandharshtropical
summers.

TheentranceofPoornathrayisa
templeinTripunithura.The
structureofthetemplewas
redesignedin1921bythegreat
architectLateSriEacharaWarrier

HistoryalsoplayeditsowncontributionstotheKeralaarchitecture.The
toweringWesternGhatsonitseast,hassuccessfullypreventedinfluencesofneighboringTamilcountriesinto
presentdayKeralainlatertimes.WhileWesternGhatsisolatedKeralatoagreaterextentfromIndianempires,
theexposureofArabianseaonitseastbroughtinclosecontactsbetweentheancientpeopleofKeralawith
majormaritimecivilizationslikeChinese,Egyptians,Romans,Arabsetc.TheKeralasrichspicecultivations
broughtitcenterofglobalmaritimetradeuntilmodernperiods,helpingseveralinternationalpowerstoactively
engagewithKeralaasatradingpartners.ThishelpedinbringininfluencesofthesecivilizationsintoKerala
architecture.[1]

History
Prehistoricera
ThelocationalfeatureofKeralahasinfluencedthesocialdevelopmentand
indirectlythestyleofconstruction.IntheancienttimestheArabianseaand
theGhatsformedimpenetrablebarriershelpingtheevolutionofanisolated
cultureofProtoDravidians,contemporarytotheHarappancivilization.
TripunithuraHillPalace,which
TheearliestvestigesofconstructionsinKeralabelongtothisperioddated
wastheadministrativeofficeof
between3000B.C.to300B.C.Theycanbegroupedintotwotypestomb
CochinRajas.
cellsandmegaliths.Therockcuttombcellsaregenerallylocatedinthe
lateritezonesofcentralKerala,forexampleatPorkalam,Thrissurdistrict.
Thetombsareroughlyoblonginplanwithsingleormultiplebedchambers
witharectangularcourtintheeastfromwherestepsrisetothegroundlevel.Anothertypeofburialchamberis
madeoffourslabsplacedonedgesandafifthonecoveringthemasacapstone.Oneormoresuchdolmensare
markedbyastonecircle.Amongthemegalithsaretheumbrellastones("kudakkal"),resemblinghandlesspalm
leafumbrellasusedforcoveringpitsenclosingburialurns.Twoothertypesofmegaliths,hatstones
("thoppikkal")andmenhirs("pulachikkal")howeverhavenoburialappendages.Theyappeartoberather
memorialstones.
Themegalithsarenotofmucharchitecturalsignificance,buttheyspeakofthecustomoftheprimitivetribes
erectingmemorialsatsitesofmortuaryrites.Theseplaceslaterbecametheannualmeetinggroundsofthe
tribesandgaverisetoocculttemplesofancestralworship.Whilethecustomoffatherworshipcanbeseenin
thesecases,theprotectingdeitiesofthevillageswerealwaysinfemaleform,whowereworshipedinopen
groves("kavu").Thesehypaethraltempleshadtrees,stonesymbolsofMotherGoddessesorothernaturalistic

oranimisticimageasobjectsofworship.Thecontinuityofthisearly
cultureisseeninthefolkarts,cultrituals,worshipoftrees,serpentsand
motherimagesinkavus.

InfluenceofBuddhismandearlyTamillakamarchitecture
ThenatureworshipoftheearlyinhabitantsofKeralahasitsparallelin
serpentworshipandBuddhism,inthetreeworshipowingtothe
associationofBuddha'sbirth,revelationandpreachingunderatree.
Thisroseinparalleltothedevelopmentsintheotherareasof
TamilakkamduringthelatterstagesoftheSangamperiod.Although
sculpturalrelicsofBuddhistimageshavebeenrecoveredfromafew
placesofsouthernKerala,thereare,however,noextantBuddhist
monumentsinthisregion.Butliteraryreferencessuchasthe3rd
centuryTamilepicManimekhalaiandMushikavamsa,aSanskritepic
oftheeleventhcenturysuggestthefactthatKeralahadimportant
Buddhistshrines.ThemostrenownedofthesewastheSreemulavasa
viharawithamagnificentimageofBodhisatwaLokanatha.Thisshrine
isbelievedtohavebeenwashedawaybycoastalerosion.Intheirdesign
featuressomeofthetemplessuchasSivatempleatThrissurandthe
BhagavathitempleatKodungallurarebelievedtobeBuddhistviharas
butthereisnoirrefutableproofforsuchbeliefs.
TheJainmonumentsaremorenumerousinKerala.Theyincluderock
sheltersatChitralJaincavenearNagercoil,arockcuttempleatKallil
nearPerumbavoor,andremainsofstructuraltemplesatAlathoornear
PalakkadandatSultanbathery.JainimeduJaintempleisa15thcentury
JaintemplelocatedatJainimedu,3kmfromthecentreofPalakkad.[2]
SculpturedKeralaJainaandDravidianfiguresofMahavira,Parswanatha
andotherthirthankarashavebeenrecoveredfromthesesites.This
remainedaJaintempleuntil1522CEbeforebeingconsecratedasaHindu
temple.[3]SultanbatheryalsohastheremainsofaJainabasti,knownas
Ganapativattam,beinganexampleofacloisteredtemplebuiltentirelyof
granite.
Inspiteoftheabsenceofarchitecturalmonumentsthereisconclusive
proofoftheinfluenceoftheBuddhistschoolonKeralaarchitectureoflater
periods.ThecirculartemplesbasicallyfollowtheshapesoftheBuddhist
stupas,thedomeshapedmounds.Theapsidaltemplesaremodelledinthe
patternofchaityahalls,theassemblyhallsofBuddhistmonks.Thechaitya
windowseenrepeatedinthedecorativemouldingofthethoranaaroundthe
templeshrineisclearlyaBuddhistmotifadoptedinHindustyle,according
toPercyBrown.Basicallythoranaisagatewayprovidedinthepalisade
seenintheverticalandhorizontalmembersofthevilakkumadam,whichis
afeatureseenonlyinKeralatemplesofthepostBuddhistperiod.Inits
mostprimitiveformthisconstructionisseeninthehypaethraltemples
enshriningtreesandlaterontheouterwallsoftheshrinesproper.Withthe
stylisticdevelopmentoftheHindutemplethisformofpalisadeisremoved
fromtheshrinestructure(srikovil)andtakenasaseparateedificebeyond
thetemplecloister(chuttambalam).

MigrantandDravidianinfluences

BritishResidencyinKollamItisa
splendidtwostoreyedPalacebuiltby
Col.JohnMunrobetween1811and
1819.ItisablendofEuropean
IndianTuscanarchitecturalstyles

MadhurTemple,Kasaragod,Kerala

TheChuttuambalamPavilionat
ChottanikkaraTemplebuiltin
classicalstyle

ThegrandgopuramsofKerala
templesatVazhappally

BuddhismwascoexistentwiththeindigenousDravidianculturaland
socialpracticesofKerala.EarlyTamilSangamliteraturesaysthatbythe
FirstcenturyA.D.theCherasallofpresentdayKerala,partsofTulunadu
andKodagu,andtheKongulands(presentSalemandCoimbatoreregion).
Ithadmultiplecapitalssimultaneouslyadministeredbydifferentlineages
oftheFamily,itsmaincapitalbeingVanchi,identifiedwiththe
ThiruvanchikulamnearKodungallur.Atthistime,thetwoextremitiesof
theKeralaregionwereadministeredbytwoVelirfamilies.The
southernmostpartadministeredbytheAychieftainsof
Thesinglestoreyedtemple
ThiruvananthapuramandthenorthernmostpartsbytheNannansof
complexatKottarakkarain
Ezhilmalai.TheNannanlinewasabranchoftheAyoriginatinginthe
Kollam
Thiruvananthapuramareaandbothwererepresentatives(orvassals)under
thesuzeraintyoftheCheras(andsometimesthePandyasorCholasor
Pallavas).BrahmanasappearedtohavesettledinKeralaandestablished
theirreligion.Theamalgamationofdifferentculturesandreligious
philosophieshelpedtoevolvethearchitecturalstylesofKeralatemples.
Thiswashighlyconduciveofarchitecturaldevelopmentandrenovationof
alargenumberoftemples.AfterthedeclineoftheCherasseveralsmall
principalitiesdevelopedalloverKerala.Byfifteenthcentury,Keralawas
broadlycoveredbythesuzeraintyoffourprincipalchieftainsVenad
rulersinthesouth,KochiMaharajasinthecentre,ZamorinsofKozhikode
Theornatemultistoreyed
inthenorthandKolathiriRajasintheextremenorth.Theywererulerswho
GopuramoftheDravidianKovil
patronizedarchitecturalactivities.Itwasthisperiod,KeralaArchitecture
ofPadmanabhaswamyTemplein
startedshapingitsowndistinctivestyle.Aregionalcharacterin
Thiruvananthapuram
constructionincorporatingtheDravidiancraftskills,uniqueformsof
Buddhistbuildings,designconceptsofvedictimesandcanonicaltheories
ofBrahmanicalAgamicpracticesinlocallyavailablematerialsandsuitedtotheclimaticconditionswasfinally
evolvedinKerala.Thetheoryandpracticeofarchitecturalconstructionwerealsocompiledduringthisperiod.
Theircompilationsremainasclassicaltextsofalivingtraditiontothisday.Fourimportantbooksinthisarea
are
Thantrasamuchayam(ChennasNarayananNamboodiri)andSilpiratnam(Sreekumara),covering
templearchitecture
Vastuvidya(anon.)andManushyalayaChandrika(ThirumangalathuSriNeelakandan),dealingwith
thedomesticarchitecture.AnumberofminorworksinSanskrit,ManipravalamandrefinedMalayalam,
allbasedontheabovetextshavefoundpopularityinKeralawiththecraftsmenandprofessionalsrelated
withthesubject.
KeralaisreferredasoneoftheborderkingdomsoftheMauryaempire.ItispossiblethatBuddhistsandJainas
werethefirstnorthIndiangroupstocrossthebordersofKeralaandestablishtheirmonasteries.Thesereligious
groupswereabletopractisetheirfaithandreceivepatronagefromthelocalkingstobuildshrinesandviharas.
FornearlyeightcenturiesBuddhismandJainismseemtohavecoexistedinKeralaasanimportantfaith,
contributinginitsownwaytothesocialandarchitecturaldevelopmentoftheregion.

Compositionandstructure
Keralaarchitecturecanbebroadlydividedinto2distinctiveareasbasedontheirfunctionality,eachguidedby
differentsetofprinciples
ReligiousArchitecture,primarilypatronizedbytemplesofKeralaaswellasseveraloldchurches,
mosquesetc.
DomesticArchitecture,primarilyseeninmostoftheresidentialhouses.Therearedistinctivelystylesin
thisarea,asPalacesandlargemansionsoffeudallordsdifferentfromhousesofcommonersandalso
markeddifferenceexistsbetweenreligiouscommunities.

Composition
Theprimaryelementsofallstructurestrendstoremain
same.Thebasemodelisnormallycircular,squareor
rectangularplainshapeswitharibbedroofevolvedfrom
functionalconsideration.Themostdistinctivevisualform
ofKeralaarchitectureisthelong,steepslopingroofbuiltto
protectthehouseswallsandtowithstandtheheavy
AfullviewofKanakakkunnuPalaceatTrivandrum
monsoon,normallylaidwithtilesorthatchedlabyrinthof
palmleaves,supportedonaroofframemadeofhardwood
andtimber.Structurallytheroofframewassupportedonthepillarson
wallserectedonaplinthraisedfromthegroundforprotectionagainst
dampnessandinsectsinthetropicalclimate.Oftenthewallswerealsoof
timbersabundantlyavailableinKerala.Gablewindowswereevolvedat
thetwoendstoprovideatticventilationwhenceilingwasincorporatedfor
theroomspaces.
ThescienceofVastuplaysaveryimportantroleindevelopingarchitecture
styles.Thebasicconceptunderlinesthat,everystructurebuiltonearthhas
itsownlife,withasoulandpersonalitywhichisshapedbyits
surroundings.ThemostimportantsciencewhichhasKeralahasdeveloped
purelyindigenouslyisThachuShastra(ScienceofCarpentry)astheeasily
availabilityoftimberanditsheavyuseofit.TheconceptofThachi
underlinesthatastimberisderivedfromalivingform,thewood,when
usedforconstruction,hasitsownlifewhichmustbesynthesizedin
harmonywithitssurroundingsandpeoplewhomdwellinsideit.

Thegabledroofandceilingworks
aretheprimefeatureofKerala
architecturalstyle

Materials
ThenaturalbuildingmaterialsavailableforconstructioninKeralaare
stones,timber,clayandpalmleaves.Graniteisastronganddurable
buildingstonehoweveritsavailabilityisrestrictedmostlytothehighlands
andonlymarginallytootherzones.Owingtothis,theskillinquarrying,
dressingandsculpturingofstoneisscarceinKerala.Lateriteontheother
handisthemostabundantstonefoundasoutcropsinmostzones.Soft
lateriteavailableatshallowdepthcanbeeasilycut,dressedandusedas
buildingblocks.Itisararelocalstonewhichgetsstrongeranddurable
withexposureatatmosphericair.Lateriteblocksmaybebondedinmortars
ofshelllime,whichhavebeentheclassicbindingmaterialusedin
traditionalbuildings.Limemortarcanbeimprovedinstrengthand
performancebyadmixturesofvegetablejuices.Suchenrichedmortars
wereusedforplasteringorforservingasthebaseformuralpaintingand
lowreliefwork.Timberistheprimestructuralmaterialabundantly
availableinmanyvarietiesinKeralafrombamboototeak.Perhapsthe
skilfulchoiceoftimber,accuratejoinery,artfulassemblyanddelicate
carvingofwoodworkforcolumns,wallsandroofsframesaretheunique
characteristicsofKeralaarchitecture.Claywasusedinmanyformsfor
walling,infillingthetimberfloorsandmakingbricksandtilesafter
puggingandtemperingwithadmixtures.Palmleaveswereusedeffectively
forthatchingtheroofsandformakingpartitionwalls.

Thecircularroofsoftemplesare
directlegacyofBuddhist
influencesinAncientKerala
Architecturalstyles

MostofKeralabuildingsappears
tolowheightvisually,dueto
overslopingofroofs,whichare
meanttoprotectwallsfromrains
anddirectsunshine

Fromthelimitationsofthematerials,amixedmodeofconstructionwasevolvedinKeralaarchitecture.The
stoneworkwasrestrictedtotheplintheveninimportantbuildingssuchastemples.Lateritewasusedforwalls.
Theroofstructureintimberwascoveredwithpalmleafthatchingformostbuildingsandrarelywithtilesfor
palacesortemples.Theexteriorofthelateritewallswereeitherleftassuchorplasteredwithlimemortarto

serveasthebaseformuralpainting.Thesculpturingofthestonewas
mainlymouldinginhorizontalbandsintheplinthportion(adhistans)
whereasthecarvingoftimbercoveredallelements_pillars,beams,
ceiling,raftersandthesupportingbrackets.TheKeralamuralsare
paintingswithvegetabledyesonwetwallsinsubduedshadesofbrown.
Theindigenousadoptionoftheavailablerawmaterialsandtheir
transformationasenduringmediaforarchitecturalexpressionthusbecame
thedominantfeatureoftheKeralastyle.

Structure
Thevariousareasofatypical
KeralaNalukettuHouse.Wood,
Laterite,TerracottaandGranite
playsanimportantroleinforming
atraditionalKeralahouse

Structurewise,therecanbetwomajorclassificationshavingitsown
specialities.

Religiousarchitecture
Templearchitecture
Thevarietyoftemples,numberingmorethan2000dottingtheKeralastate
hasnomatchwithanyotherregionsofIndia.ThetemplesofKeralahighly
developedinstrictaccordancetotwotempleconstructionthesis,Thantra
SamuchayamandSliparatnam.Whiletheformerdealsindeveloping
structuresthatregulatesenergyflowssothatpositiveenergyflowsin,
whilenegativeenergydonottrendtoremainretardedwithinthestructure
whereasthelatterdealsindevelopingstoneandtimberarchitectureinsuch
mannerthateachcarvedstructureimbibealifeandpersonalityofits
own.[4]

Thetypicalwoodcarvingsmade
onceilingsofSree
PadmanabhapuramPalace

ElementsandfeaturesofKeralaTemple

SriKovil
Theinnersanctumsanctorumwheretheidolofpresidingdeityis
installedandworshiped.Itshallbeanindependentstructure,
detachedfromotherbuildingswithnoconnectionsandhavingits
ownroofsharedwithnone.TheSrikovildoesnothaveany
windowsandhaveonlyonelargedooropeningmostlytowardseast
(sometimesithappenstowardswest,whereasafewtempleshave
northfacingdoorasitsspecialty,whilenotempleswillhavea
southfacingdoor).

ThestandardlayoutofKeralatemple.

TheSrikovilmaybebuiltindifferentplanshapessquare,rectangular,
circularorapsidal.Ofthesethesquareplanshowsanevendistribution
throughoutKeralastate.Thesquareshapeisbasicallytheformofthevedic
firealtarandstronglysuggestthevedicmooring.Itiscategorizedasthe
nagarastyleoftempleinthearchitecuturaltexts.Therectangularplanis
favouredfortheAnanthasaiVishnu(LordVishnuinrecliningposture)and
theSaptamatrikas(SevenMotherGoddesses).Thecircularplanandthe
apsidalplanarerareinotherpartsofIndiaandunknowneveninthecivil
ThecircularSreekovilstyleof
architectureofKerala,buttheyconstituteanimportantgroupoftemples.
Keralatemples
Thecircularplanshowsagreaterpreponderanceinthesouthernpartof
Kerala,inregionsonceundertheinfluenceofBuddhism.Theapsidalplan
isacombinationofthesemicircleandthesquareanditisseendistributed
sporadicallyalloverthecoastalregion.Thecirculartemplesbelongtothevasaracategory.Avariationof

circleelipseisalsoseenasanexceptionintheSivashrineatVaikkom.Polygonalshapesbelongingtothe
Dravidacategoryarealsoadoptedrarelyintempleplansbuttheyfinduseasafeatureofshikhara.Asperthe
Thantrasamuchayam,everySreekovilshouldbebuilteitherneutralorevensided.Fortheunitarytemples,the
overallheightistakenas13/7/to21/8ofthewidthoftheshrine,andcategorisedinto5classesasi.e.
santhika,purshtika,yayada,achudhaandsavakamikawithincreasingheightofthetempleform.Thetotal
heightisbasicallydividedintotwohalves.Thelowerhalfconsistsofthebasement,thepillarorthewall
(stambhaorbhithi)andtheentablature(prasthara)intheratio1:2:1,inheight.Similarlytheupperhalfis
dividedintotheneck(griva),therooftower(shikhara)andthefonial(Kalasham)inthesameratio.The
adisthanaorfoundationisgenerallyingranitebutthesuperstructureisbuiltinlaterite.Theroofingswillbeof
normallytallerthanothertemplestructures.Thestructuralroofoftheshrineisconstructedasthecorbelled
domeofmasonryhoweverinordertoprotectitfromthevagariesofclimateitwassuperposedbyafunctional
roof,madeoftimberframecoveredbyplanksandtiles.Thisslopingroofwithitsprojectingcavesgavethe
characteristicformtotheKeralatemple.ThefenialorKalasham,madeofcopper,providedthecrowningspire
denotingthefocusoftheshrinewhereintheidolwasinstalled.
NormallytheSrikovilisonaraisedplatformandhasaflightor3or5steps
tobe.ThestepsarecalledSopanapadiandonsidesoftheSopanapadi,two
largestatuesknownasDwarapalakas(DoorGuards)arecravedtoguard
thedeity.AsperKeralaritualsstyle,onlymainpriest(Thantri)andsecond
priest(Melshanti)onlyallowedtoenterintoSrikovil.
NamaskaraMandapam
Thenamaskaramandapaisasquareshapedpavilionwitharaisedplatform,
asetofpillarsandapyramidalroof.Thesizeofthemandapaisdecidedby
Theflagpostnormallyseeninall
thewidthoftheshrinecell.Thepavilioninitssimplestformhasfour
KeralaTemples
cornerpillarsbutlargerpavilionsareprovidedwithtwosetsofpillars
fourinsideandtwelveoutside.Pavilionsofcircular,ellipticaland
polygonalshapesarementionedinthetexts,buttheyarenotseeninKeralatemples.TheMandapamsareused
toconductingVedicThantricrites.
Nalambalam
Theshrineandthemandapabuildingareenclosedinarectangular
structurecalledthenalambalam.Functionallytherearandsidehallsofthe
nalambalamservesforvariousactivitiesrelatedtotheritualisticworship.
Thefronthallispiercedwiththeentry,dividingitintotwoparts.These
twohallsAgrasalaswhichusedforfeedingBrahmans,performingyagas
andwhileKoothuambalamareusedforstagingtempleartssuchaskoothu
andtemplemurals.Infewcases,Koothuambalamsareseparatedasan
individualstructureoutsideNalambalam.
Balithara

TheoutergroundsofTemple,
calledChuttuambalam

AttheentranceofNalambalam,asquareshapedraisedstonealtarcalledas
Balitharacanbeseen.Thisaltarisusedtomakeritualisticofferingsto
demigodsandotherspirits.InsidetheNalambalam,severalsmallstones,calledBalikallukalcanbeseen,
meantforsamepurpose.
Chuttuambalam

Theouterstructurewithinthetemplewalls,isknownasChuttuambalam.NormallyChuttuambalamhasmain
pavilionknownasMukhaMandapamorThalamandapam.TheMukhaMandapamwillhavethe
Dwajastambam(SacredFlagpost)incenterofitandhasseveralpillarssupportingmandapam.Thetempleis
nowfullyenclosedinamassivewall(KshetraMadillukal)piercedwithgatehousesorgopurams.Thegopuram
isusuallytwostoreyed,whichservedtwopurposes.Thegroundfloorwasanopenspacegenerallyusedasa

platformfortempledancessuchaskurathydanceorottanthullalduring
festivals.Theupperfloorwithwoodentrailscoveringthesidesfunctioned
asakottupura_(ahallfordrumsbeating).TheChuttuambalamwill
normallyhas4gatesfromoutsidetoentranceatallsides.Astonepaved
walkwaywillbeseenaroundtheChuttuambalamtoallowdevotees
circulatearoundthetemple,whichforsomelargetemplesarecoveredwith
roofsupportedwithmassivepillarsonbothsides.TheChuttuambalamwill
haveDwajavillakkuorgiantlamppostsinseveralplaces,mostlyin
Mukhamandapams.
AmbalaKulam
Everytemplewillhaveasacredtemplepondorwaterlakelocatedwithin
templecomplex.AsperVasturules,waterisconsideredassourceof
positiveenergyandsynthesisbalanceofallenergies.Henceatemplepond
orAmbalaKulamwillbemadeavailablewithinthetemplecomplex.The
templepondisnormallyusedonlybypriestsasholybathbeforestartof
ritualsaswellasforvarioussacredritualswithinthetemple.Infewcases,
aseparatepondwillbeconstructedtoallowdevoteestobathbefore
enteringintemple.TodayseveraltempleshaveManiKenarorHolyWell
withintheNalambalamcomplextogetsacredwatersforpurposesof
Abisekham.

TheDwajasthampamorflagpost
oftemple,locatedin
Chuttuambalam

Thevarapura
NormallywithinNalambalam,aseparatecomplexwillbeconstructedfor
cookingfoodsmeanttoserveforthedeityanddistributionamongdevotees
asholyprasadam.SuchcomplexesarecalledThevarapura,wheretheholy
fireorAgniisinvoked.
Phasesofevolution

TheGppuramorGatehousesof
temples

Initsstylisticdevelopment,thetemplearchitecturecanbedividedinto
threephases.
Thefirstphaseisthatofrockcuttemples.Thisearliestformis
contemporarytoBuddhistcavetemples.Rockcuttemplesaremainly
locatedinsouthernKeralaatVizhinjamandAyirurparanear
Tiruvananthapuram,KottukalnearKollamandKaviyoornearAlappuzha.
OfthesetheoneatKaviyooristhebestexample.TheKaviyoorcave
templededicatedtoSivacomprisesashrineroomandaspacious
ThetemplepondorAmbala
ardhamandapaarrangedaxiallyfacingthewest.Onthepillaredfacadeas
KulamatAmbalappuzhaSri
wellasonthewallsinsidetheardhamandapaaresculpturedreliefsofthe
KrishnaTemple
donor,abeardedrishi,aseatedfourarmedGaneshanddwarapalas.The
othercavetemplesalsohavethisgeneralpatternofashrineandanante
roomandtheyareassociatedwithSivaworship.Inthenorthsimilarrockcuttemplesofsaivacultareseenat
TrikkurandIrunilamkodeinTrissoordistrict.HistoricallythecavearchitectureinIndiabeginswithBuddhism
andthetechniqueofrockcutarchitectureinKeralaseemstobeacontinuationofsimilarworksinTamilNadu
underthePandyas.TherockcuttemplesarealldatedpriortotheeighthcenturyA.D.
Thestructuraltemplesappearinthesecondphasespanningtheeighthtotenthcenturies,andpatronisedbythe
Chera,AyandMushikachieftains.Theearliesttempleshadaunitaryshrineorasrikovil.Inrarecasesaporch
orardhamandapaisseenattachedtotheshrine.Adetachednamaskaramandapaisgenerallybuiltinfrontofthe

srikovil.Aquadrangularbuilding,nalambalamthatenclosesthesrikovil,
thenamaskaramandapa,balikkal(altarstones)etc.becamepartofthis
basicplancompositionoftheKeralatemplestartedemerginginthisphase.
Themiddlephaseoftheevolutionofthetemplesischaracterisedbythe
emergenceofthesandharashrine.Intheunitaryshrineoftheearliertype,
Nirendhara(singlelevelofsrikovil),thereisacellwithasingledoorway
tothecell.Butinthesandharashrinethecellhastwinwellsleavinga
passageinbetweenthem.Alsothereareoftenfourfunctionaldoorsonall
thefourcardinaldirectionsandpiercedwindowstoprovidesubduedlight
inthepassage.Sometimesthefunctionaldooronthesidesandtherearare
replacedbypseudodoors.
Theconceptofthestoreyedtempleisalsoseeninthisphase.Thetowerof
theshrinerisestothesecondstoreywithaseparateupperroofforminga
dwitala(twostoreyed)temple.Thereisauniqueexampleofthrithala
(threestoreyedtemple)isatShivashrineatPeruvanamwithlowertwo
storeysofsquareplanandthethirdstoreyofoctagonalform.
Inthelastphase,(13001800A.D.)thestylisticdevelopmentreachedits
apogeewithgreatercomplexityinthetemplelayoutandelaborationof
detail.Thevilakkumadam,thepalisadestructurefixedwithrowsofoil
lampsisaddedbeyondthenalambalamasanouterring.TheAltarstoneis
alsohousedinapillaredstructure,theBalikkalmandapaminfrontofthe
agrasala(valiyambalam).Adeepastambhamanddwajasthambham(the
lamppostandflagmast)areaddedinfrontofthebalikkal
mandapam.
Withintheprakarabutbeyondthevilakkumadam,stoodthe
secondaryshrinesofparivaradevathas(subgods)intheirassigned
positions.Thesewereunitarycells,ingeneral,thoughinafew
caseseachbecameafullfledgedshrineasinthecaseofKrishna
shrineintheSivatempleatTali,Kozhikode.Thelastphase
culminatedintheconceptofthecompositeshrines.Hereintwoor
threeshrinesofequalimportanceareseencloisteredinsidea
commonnalambalam.Thetypicalexampleofthisisthe
VadakkumnathatempleatTrissoor,whereinthreeshrines
dedicatedtoSiva,RamaandSankaranarayanaarelocatedinside
thenalambalam.Theprakaramayalsocontaintempletanks,
vedapadhasalasanddininghalls.Paradoxicallysomeshrineshave
notasinglesecondaryshrine,theuniqueexamplebeingthe
BharathashrineatIrinjalakuda.

TheKoothuambalamsareprime
venuesforconductoftemple
dancesandotherartforms.The
heightofKoothuambalam'sroof
aremuchsimilartoPyramids,
makesitmoremajesticandgives
adistantfeelingfromtemple

TheNalukettucomplex

AMadappura(standaloneKovil)from
NorthKeralawhereTheyyamritualsare
performedseasonally.Notedforitsstand
alone,singular,tileroofedstructure.All
theMuthappanMadappura'sarestructured
insimilarstyle.Thesestructuresarefound
mainlyinNorthMalabarregionofKerala

Asignificantfeatureofbigtemplecomplexesisthepresenceofa
theatrehallknownasKoothambalam,meantfordance,musical
performanceandreligiousrecitals.ThisisauniqueedificeofKeralaarchitecture,distinctfromthenatyasabha
ornatyamandirseeninnorthIndiantemplesofthisperiod.Koothambalamisalargepillaredhallwithahigh
roof.InsidethehallisastagestructurecalledasRangamandapamfortheperformances.Thestageaswellas
thepillarsareornatelydecorated.Visualandacousticconsiderationsareincorporatedinthelayoutofthepillars
andconstructiondetailssothattheperformancescanbeenjoyedbythespectatorswithoutdiscomfortand
distortion.TheKoothambalamdesignseemstohavebeenbasedonthecanonsgivenintheNatyasastraof
BharataMuni.
InthesouthernmostKerala,thetemplearchitecturewasalsoinfluencedbythedevelopmentsinTamilNadu.At
SucheendramandTiruvananthapuramthisinfluenceisclearlyseen.Hereinloftyenclosures,sculptured
corridorsandornatemandapasallingranitestonepracticallyconcealtheviewoftheoriginalmainshrinein

typicalKeralastyle.Theentrancetower,Gopuramalsorisestoloftyheightsinastyledistinctfromthatofthe
humbletwostoreyedstructureseenelsewhere.
TechnicallythemostimportantfeatureofthetemplearchitectureofKeralaistheconstructiontechniqueusinga
dimensionalstandardisation.Thenucleusofthetempleplanistheshrinecontainingthegarbhagrhihacell.The
widthofthiscellisthebasicmoduleofthedimensionalsystem.Inplancomposition,thewidthoftheshrine,
theopenspacearoundit,thepositionandsizesofthesurroundingstructures,areallrelatedtothestandard
module.Inverticalcomposition,thisdimensionalcoordinationiscarriedrightuptotheminuteconstruction
detailssuchasthesizeofthepillars,wallplates,raftersetc.Thecanonicalrulesoftheproportionatesystemare
giveninthetreatisesandpreservedbytheskilledcraftsmen.Thisproportionatesystemhasensureduniformity
inarchitecturalstyleirrespectiveofthegeographicaldistributionandscaleofconstruction.
Templearchitectureisasynthesisofengineeringanddecorativearts.ThedecorativeelementsoftheKerala
templesareofthreetypesmouldings,sculpturesandpainting.Themouldingistypicallyseenintheplinth
whereinhorizontalhandsofcircularandrectangularprojectionsandrecessesinvaryingproportionshelpto
emphasizetheformoftheadisthana.Occasionallythisplinthisraisedoverasecondaryplatformupapeedam
withsimilartreatment.Mouldingsarealsoseeninthemandapam,thehandrailsofthesteps(sopanam)and
eveninthedrainchannel(pranala)ortheshrinecell.
Thesculpturalworkisoftwotypes.Onecategoryisthelowreliefdoneontheouterwallsoftheshrinewith
masonrysetinlimemortarandfinishedwithplasterandpainting.Thesecondisthesculpturingofthetimber
elementstherafterends,thebrackets,thetimbercolumnsandtheircapitals,doorframes,wallplatesand
beams.Decorativesculpturalworkisseenbestintheceilingpanelsofthemandapas.Exquisitelacquerworkin
brickredandblackcolourwasadoptedforturnedcolumnsoftimber.Metalcraftwasalsousedinsculpturing
idols,motifs,claddingandfenials.Allsculpturalworksweredonestrictlyaccordingtothecanonsof
proportions(ashtathala,navathalaanddasathalasystem)applicabletodifferentfiguresofmen,godsand
goddesses,prescribedintexts.
Thepaintingwasexecutedinorganicpigmentsonwallswhentheplasterwasstillwetinsoftsubdued
colours,makingthemintoaclassdesignatedasKeralamurals.Thethemeofthesepaintingsisinvariably
mythologicalandtheepicstoriesunfoldasonegoesaroundthetempleincircumambulations.Themoulding,
sculptureandpaintingarealsotakeninverticalcompositionstoemphasizethedifferentstoreyheights,
projectingdormerwindowswhichbreaktheslopingroofandthecrowningfenial.Butinallcasesthe
decorationissecondarytothestructuralform.Thesculpturedwallsareprotectedbytheprojectingcaveswhich
keeptheminshadeinsharpcontrastwiththebrightsunlitexterior.Thishelpstoimparttheoverallperceptual
experienceoflightandshaderevealingdetailsonlygraduallytoakeenobserver.
Islamicarchitecture
TheArabianPeninsula,thecradleofIslamalsohaddirecttradecontactwithKeralacoastfromveryearly
times,asfarasthetimeofMuhammadorevenbefore.AslocalMuslimlegendsandtraditiongoes,aChera
KingembracedIslamandmadeavoyagetoMecca.InhisreturntripaccompaniedbymanyIslamicreligious
leadersincludingMalikibnDinar,hefellsickanddied.Buthehadgivenintroductorylettersforthepartyto
proceedtoKodungallur.ThevisitorscametotheportandhandedoverthelettertothereigningKingwho
treatedtheguestswithallrespectandextendedfacilitiestoestablishtheirfaithintheland.Thekingarranged
fortheartisanstobuildthefirstmosqueatKodungallurneartheportandearmarkedtheareaarounditfortheir
settlement.Theoriginalmosquehasundergoneextensiverepairs,butthetracesoftheoriginalconstructionare
seenintheplinth,thecolumnsandtheroofwhichareintheoldtraditionalstylesofHindutemples.
UndoubtedlyIslamspreadinKeralathroughthemigrationofnewgroupsfromArabianPeninsulaandthe
gradualconversionofnativepopulationinthepermissiveandallaccommodatingIndianculturalethosand
socialsetupofKerala.BytwelfthcenturyADtherewereatleasttenmajorsettlementsofMuslimsdistributed
fromKollaminthesouthtoMangaloreinthenortheachcenteredonthemosque.Alsoabranchoftheruling
kingdomatArakkal,KannurwasconvertedtoIslam.Theprimacyintrade,thespreadofthefaithandthe

experienceoftheseamadeMuslimsaprominentclassand
deartotherulers,especiallyoftheKozhikodeZamorins.
Consequently,byfifteenthcenturyIslamicconstructions
reachedconsiderableheights.
ThemosquearchitectureofKeralaexhibitsnoneofthe
featuresoftheArabicstylenorthoseoftheIndoIslamic
architecturesoftheimperialorprovincialschoolinnorth
India.Thereasonforthisisnotfartoseek.Theworkof
mosqueconstructionwasdonebythelocalHinduartisans
underinstructionsoftheMuslimreligiousheadswho
wantedtoerecttheplacesofworship.Themodelsfor
placesofworshipwereonlyHindutemplesorthetheatre
TheMithqalpalliinKozhikodeisaclassicexample
halls("koothambalam")andthesemodelsaretobeadapted
ofKerala'snativeMosquestylewithgabledroofs,
forthenewsituations.TheearlymosquesinKerala
slopedwoodenwindowpanelsandwithoutminarets
consequentlyresemblethetraditionalbuildingofthe
region.Arabicstyleofarchitecturewasintroducedtothe
MalabarareaofpresentdayKerala,duringtheperiodofoccupationby
HyderAliandlaterbyTipuSultanduringtheeighteenthcentury.Alarge
numberoftempleswereconvertedtomosquesduringthisperiodas
evidencedbythetraditionalKeralastyleofthesestructures.
Inplanthemosquecomprisesalargeprayerhallwithamihrabonthe
westernwall(sinceMeccaiswesttoKerala)andcoveredverandahall
around.Generallyithasatallbasementsimilartotheadhistanaofthe
Brahmanicaltempleandoftenthecolumnsaretreatedwithsquareand
octagonalsectionasinmandapapillars.Thewallsaremadeoflaterite
blocks.Thearchformisseenonlyinoneexceptionalcaseforthemosque
atPonnaniandnowhereelseintheearlytenmosquesoftheland.Wood
wasusedextensivelyinsuperstructurefortheconstructionofceilingand
roof.Theroofinmanycasesiscoveredwithsheetsofcopperincorporating
fenialsintheridge,completingtheformoftempleshikharawiththestupi.
AtTanurtheJamaMasjidevenhasagatebuiltinthemanneroftemple
gopuram,coveredwithcoppersheeting.Thismosqueitselfisathree
storeyedbuildingwithtiledroofcrownedbyfivefenials.

AnexampleoftraditionalKerala
styleofMosqueat
ThazhathangadyinKottayam

Thepulpitinthemosquepresentthebestexampleofwoodcarvings
associatedwithIslamicarchitectureofKerala.TheJamaMasjidat
BeyporeandMithqalMosqueatKozhikodehavethepulpit(mimbar)built
bytheshipmastersoftheArabvessels.
Allotherconstructionworkwasdonebythesamelocalcraftsmenwho
TheMuchundiMosquewith
werebuildingtheHindutemplesandresidences.TheArabictraditionof
classicKeralastyles
simplicityofplanhadperhapscombineditselfwiththeindigenous
constructiontechniquesgivingrisetotheuniquestyleofmosque
architecture,notfoundanywhereelseintheworld.IncontrasttheIndoIslamicarchitecturedrewitsinspiration
fromtheTurkishandPersiantraditionsandcreatedhighlyornamentalstyleinthenorthIndia.Thetypical
KeralamosquesareseenatKollampalli,nearKollam,PanthalayaninearKoyilandy,Kozhikode,Tanur,
PonnaniandKasargodeaswellasinmostoldMuslimsettlements.Theausterearchitecturalfeaturesoftheold
mosquesarehoweverintheprocessofbeingreplacedinrecenttimesbyIslamicarchitecture.Theuseof
arcuatedforms,domesandminarminaretsoftheimperialschoolofIndoIslamicarchitecturearebeing
projectedasthevisiblesymbolsofIslamicculture.TheJamaMasjidatPalayam,Thiruvananthapuramisthe
classicexampleofthisnewtrend.SimilarstructuresarecomingupalloverKeralainthemodificationofold
mosquesduringthelastdecades.

PerhapstheinfluenceofArabicstyleofKeralaconstructionisseenina
subtlemannerintheseculararchitectureofMuslims.Thebazarstreets
linedbybuildingsonbothsides,theupperfloorlivingroomswithview
windowstothestreets,thewoodenscreensusedtoprovideprivacyand
shadeintheverandahs(speciallyofupperfloors)etc.,areafewfeatures
superposedonthetraditionalconstruction.Thesebuiltformswouldhave
beenmodelledinthepatternofthehousesinArabcountries(suchas
Egypt,Basra(presentdayIraq)andIran)havingcontactwiththisregion.
ThistrendismostconspicuousinmarkettownssuchasKozhikode,
Thalassery,Kasaragodeetc.ButbasicallytheMuslimdomestic
architecturesatlargefollowthetraditionalHindustyles.Both"ekasalas"
and"nlukettus"areseenadoptedforthis.Thesebuildingswithextensive
alindamsandverandahsarealsoseengenerallysurroundingthemosquesin
Muslimsettlements.

TheMiskalMosquehasthree
storeyedgabledroofswith
windowswhichoffersan
alternativetominaretsin
traditionalKeralastyle

Churcharchitecture
TheevolutionofthechurcharchitectureofKeralaspringsfromtwo
sourcesthefirstfromtheworkofApostleSt.ThomasandtheSyrian
ChristiansandsecondfromthemissionaryworkofEuropeansettlers.The
traditionhasitthatSt.ThomaswholandedinMuzirisin52ADhadseven
churchesbuiltinKeralaatKodungallur,Chayil,Palur,Paravur
Kottakkavu,Kollam,NiranomandKothamangalam,butnoneofthese
Syrianchurchesarenowextant.Itispossiblethatsomeofthetemples
wereadaptedasSyrianchurchesforservicesbythepopulationwhogot
convertedintoSyriacChristianitybySt.Thomas.Forexample,thepresent
PalurSyrianchurchhaspreservedtheabhishekapatra(theletterof
intonation)andcertainshaivasymbolsastherelicsoftheoldchurchwhich
issaidtohavebeenaHindushrineadaptedforChristianworship.

TheCheramanMosque,whichis
World'ssecondandsub
continent'sfirstmosquewas
originallybuiltinKeralastyle,
whichwasrenovatedrecentlyto
giveArabictouch

HistoricalevidencessuggestthatthefirstwaveofChristianitycamefrom
Edessa,PersiainthefourthcenturyA.D.owingtothepersecutionof
SyrianChristiansinthePersianempire.Accordingtothenarrationof
ByzantinemonkCosmas,KeralahadmanychurchesbysixthcenturyA.D.
AccordingtotheinscriptionofthetimesofStanuRavibyninthcentury,
SyrianChristiancommunitiesenjoyedmanyrightsandprivileges.They
alsoplayedavitalroleintradeandcommerce.Thedomesticbuildingsof
theSyrianChristianswereakintothenativearchitecture.
ButoriginalSyrianswhohadmigratedtoKeralahadbroughtwiththem
someoftheWestAsianconventionsinchurcharchitecture.Consequently,
churcheswithregularchancelandnavebegantobebuiltandthereevolved
adistinctivestyleofchurcharchitecture.Thepeculiarfeatureofthisstyle
wastheornamentalgablefacadeatthenaveend,surmountedbyacross.
Anentryporch(shala)infrontofthenavewasanotherfeatureofthese
earlyshrines.Thebaptistrywasasmallchamberinsidethenavenearthe
entrance.Belfrieswerebuiltononesideofthenave,butinsmaller
churchesthebellwashunginanopeninginthenavegable.

TheKannurMosquesymbolizes
theslowtransitfromKeralastyle
toPersianstylewithadditionsof
Minaretsandotherclassical
Persianfeaturesintraditional
Keralastyle

ElementsofKeralachurcharchitecture

UnlikeKeralatemples,thereisnouniformorstandardlayoutforallchurchesofKerala.Rathermostof
churcheshavedifferentsettoarchitectureaccordingtovarioussectsandtheirtraditionsapartfrom
experimentationofnewdesigns.Stillmostofchurches,particularlySaintThomasChristianchurchesof
Kerala,doshareseveralcommonfeatures.

Thechurchhadagableroofextendingtothechancel,themost
sacredpartofthechurchandthesacristybyitsside.Thetower
overthechancelsoaredhigherthantheroofofthenavesimilarto
theshikharaoverthegarbhagrihainaHindutemple.Theresidence
ofthepriestandtheparishhallwerelocatedononesideofthe
churchandthecemeterywasontheotherside.
IntheirexternalfeatureSyrianchurchesretainedsomeofthe
indigenousfeaturesoftheHindustyle.Thechurchandthe
ancillarybuildingswereenclosedinamassivelateritewall.
Therewasanopencrossinfrontofthemainentranceonagranite
basementinthemodelofbalikkal,thealtarstone.Achurchalso
hadtheflagmast,(thedwajastambha)infront.IntheOrthodox
SyrianchurchatChengannur,PeterandPauloccupytheplaceof
dwarapalas,theguardingdeitiesofaHindushrine.Sometimesa
gatewaylikethetemplegopuramwithakottupuraormusicroom
ontheupperstoreywasalsoprovided.TheMarthMariamchurch
atKuravilangad,originallybuiltin345A.Dhadundergone
renovationsseveraltimes.Thechurchhasarichcollectionofold
relicsincludinganidolofVirginMaryandacrosscarvedin
granite.TheKnanayaValiapallyofKaduthuruthyisanotherold
churchwiththebiggestcrossformedinasinglegranitepiece.The
ValiapallyofPiravomisalsoanotheroldchurchwitholdPersian
writings.
Woodcarvingandmuralpaintings,thetwodecorativemediaof
templesareseentobeadoptedinancientchurchesalso.Afamous
pieceofwoodencarvingisalargepaneldepictingthelastsupperin
St.Thomaschurch,Mulanthuruthy.TheAllSaintschurchat
Udayamperurhasabeamrestingonwoodenmouldingsofheadsof
elephantsandrhinoceros.Floralfigures,angelsandapostlesarethe
usualmotifsofmuralpaintings.Thisformofdecorationhad
continuedinlaterchurchesaswell.InSt.Sebastian'schurchat
KanjooramuralevendepictsthefightbetweenBritishandTippu
Sultan.

TheKadamattomChurchnear
Muvattupuzha,isoneoftheoldest
churchesinKerala,builtinpureKerala
style.

Colonialinfluencesinchurcharchitecture

KadamattomChurchPallimedabuiltin
KeralaArchitecturalstyle
ThePortuguesewerethefirsttointroduceEuropeanstylesinthe
churcharchitectureofKerala,followedbyDutchandBritish.The
firstchurchofthistypeinIndiawasbuiltbytheFranciscan
missionariesin1510A.D.atFortKochi.Itisasmallunpretentious
buildingofthemedievalSpanishtype.WhenVascoDeGamadiedin
Kochiin1524hisbodywasinternedinthischurchandlaterremovedto
Lisbonin1538.ThechurchthuscametobeknownasVascoDeGama's
church.ItwaslaterseizedbytheDutchandwasusedforreformed
services.LaterwithBritishoccupationofKochiitbecameanAnglican
churchandpresentlyitbelongstochurchofsouthIndia.

ThePortuguesehadintroducedmanyinnovationsintheKeralachurches.
Forthefirsttime,thedominatingtowerabovethealtar,whichwasthe
adaptationfromtemplearchitecture,wasdiscarded.Insidethechurch,the
graniteimageswerenotfavouredowingtotheirassociationwiththeHindu
artinsteadimagesofSaintsmadeofwoodwereusedtoadorntheriches.

ASyroMalabarChurchwitha
mixtureofEastSyrianandKerala
architecture.

Generallypulpitswereerectedandaltarpieceswereornamentedinan
impressivemanner.Ceilingsandwallswerepaintedwithreligiousthemes
inthestyleofEuropeanmasters.Pointedandroundedarcheswere
introducedandstainedglasswindowswereinstalled.
ThesubsequentdevelopmentinchurcharchitectureintheBritishperiod
alsosawtheintroductionofanewchurchdesign.Inplaceofthe
rectangularBasilicanplanthecrossshapedplanbecameincreasingly
popularespeciallyinplaceswherelargecongregationhadtobe
accommodated.Apartfromtheobvioussymbolismofthecross,thisplanis
moresuitedforbettervisibilityofthealtarfromallpointsinthechurch.
Further,sufficientspacewasnowavailableatthetranseptsforadditional
altarsforservicesbyseveralpriestsonimportantoccasionslikeChristmas.
IntheexternalfeaturesthecentraltowerorrathertheRomandomenow
comesatthecentreofthetranseptimpartingaclassicformofEuropean
architecture.Alsooneithersideofthemainentranceinthefront,rose
towerstoserveasbelfries.Inthetreatmentoftheexterior,typicalfeatures
ofEuropeanchurcharchitecturewereintroducedtheGothicarches,the
pilastersandbuttresses,theroundedopenings,theclassicmouldingsand
stainedglasswindowsmakingthewholecompositioncompletelydifferent
fromthenativearchitecture.Dependingontheperiodofconstruction,one
canalsodistinguishbetweenthechurchesdoneinthesimplicityofGothic
styleasinthePalayamchurch,Tiruvananthapuram,andtheluxuryof
renaissancestyleasinthechurchofOurLadyofDolorousatTrissoor.
Moderntrendsinchurcharchitecture

Whilethecharacterofchurcharchitectureisgenerallyidentifiedwiththe
formevolvedinthemedievaltimes,themodernistictrendsinadaptingnew
planshapesandstructuralformsarevisibleintheKeralasceneaswell.
Thiscircularplanshapewithdomicalshellroofhasbeenadoptedinthe
ChristCollegechurchatIrinjalakkuda.TheCathedralchurchof
ArchbishopofVarapuzhaatErnakulamisasoaringhyperbolicparaboloid
inreinforcedconcretewithaboldexpressioninsharpcontrastwithall
traditionalforms.Perhapsexperimentationinreligiousarchitectureis
mostlymanifestedinchurcharchitectureascomparedtothatintemplesor
mosqueswhichmoreorlessadheretooldevolvedforms.
Jewisharchitecture

SyrianChristianshavemosttheir
churchesbuiltintraditional
Keralastyle,resemblingtemples
ofKerala.ThisSyrianOrthodox
churchinChengannurhasbeen
builtinKeralastylewithstone
lamps,andisatestimonyof
assimilationofKeralaChristianity
withnativearchitecture.

KottakkavuMarThomaSyro
MalabarPilgrimChurch,North
ParavurisamixtureofSyrian,
KeralaandEuropeanarchitecture

TheSyroMalabarArchbishop's
PalaceatChangasseryisbuilt
assimilatingDutcharchitecture
withKerala'snativestyles

ThearchitecturalsceneofKeralawasinfluencedbymanysociocultural
groupsandreligiousthoughtsfromforeignlands.Theseaboardhad
promotedtradecontactswithmaritimenationssuchasIsrael,Rome,
ArabiaandChinaevenpriortothedawnoftheChristianera.Thetrade
contactwouldhavepavedthewayofestablishingsettlementsneartheold
porttownsandgraduallyspreadingintheinterior.Duringthetimeofthe
secondCheraKingdom,theoldportcityofMakotai(Kodungallur)had
differentpartsoccupiedbythesegroups.Forexample,theculturalcontact
ofJewswithKeralapredatesthetimeofSolomenandbyfifteenthcentury
therewereJewishsettlementsinKodungallur,Kochiandothercoastal
TheassimilatedSyrianstylein
towns.ThemostimportantJewishsettlementisseenatKochinearthe
Keralaarchitecturalpatterns
Mattancherrypalace.TheirresidentialbuildingsresembletheKeralatype
intheirexternalappearanceneverthelesstheyareofadifferentplan
concept.Thegroundfloorroomsareusedasshopsorwarehousesandthelivingroomsareplannedonthefirst

floor.Thefrontageofthebuildingaboutthestreetsandthesidesarecontinuouswithadjoiningbuildingsinthe
patternoftherowhouses.AnimportanthistoricmonumentoftheJewtownistheSynagogue.Itisasimpletall
structurewithaslopingtileroofbutithasarichinteriorwithhandpaintedtilesfromCanton,Chinaand
ancientchandeliersfromEurope.ThisreligiousstructurebuiltforworshipaccordingtoJudaismstandsin
contrastwiththetemplesofHindus.JewishcommunityhoweverdidnotinfluencethearchitectureofKerala.

Domesticarchitecture
TheevolutionofdomesticarchitectureofKeralafollowedcloselythe
trendofdevelopmentintemplearchitecture.Theprimitivemodelswere
hutsmadeofbambooframethatchedwithleavesincircular,squareor
rectangularplainshapes.Therectangularshapewithahippedroof
appearstohavebeenfinallyevolvedfromfunctionalconsideration.
Structurallytheroofframewassupportedonthepillarsonwallserected
onaplinthraisedfromthegroundforprotectionagainstdampnessand
insectsinthetropicalclimate.Oftenthewallswerealsooftimbers
abundantlyavailableintheland.Theroofframeconsistedofthe
Intricatewoodcarvings&chuttu
bressumerorwallplatewhichsupportedlowerendsoftherafters,the
verandahinKeralaarchitecture
upperendsbeingconnectedtotheridge.Theweightoftheraftersand
theroofcoveringcreatedasageintheridgewhentheridge
piecewasmadeofflexiblematerialslikebamboo.This
sagehoweverremainedasthehallmarkofroof
constructionevenwhenstrongtimberwasusedfortheroof
frame.Furthergablewindowswereevolvedatthetwoends
toprovideatticventilationwhenceilingwasincorporated
fortheroomspaces.Thisensuredaircirculationand
thermalcontrolfortheroof.Thelowerendsoftherafters
projectedmuchbeyondthewallstoshadethewallsfrom
thesunanddrivingrain.TheclosedformoftheKerala
houseswasthusgraduallyevolvedfromtechnical
considerations.Onecanseethestrikingsimilarityofthis
formwiththetemplestructure.Theplinth,thelowermost
TheSreePadmanabhapuramPalacerepresentsthe
partisstillcalledadisthana,thoughitisplainorlessornate.
mostclassicKeraladomesticarchitecture.Itisalso
Thesthambasorpillarsandbhithisorwallsareagainof
theworld'slargestwoodenpalacemadeonsloping
simpleshapewithnoprojectionorrecesses.Themaindoor
roofs,graniteandrosewoodteakwoodwork
facesonlyinonecardinaldirectionandthewindowsare
combinations
smallandaremadelikepiercedscreensofwood.The
rectangularplanisusuallydividedintotwoorthreeactivity
roomswithaccessfromafrontpassage.Theprojecting
cavescoveraverandahallround.Bytenthcentury,thetheoryandpracticeofdomesticarchitecturewere
codifiedinbookssuchasManushyalayaChandrikaandVastuvidya.Thisattemptstandardizedthehouse
constructionsuitedtodifferentsocioeconomicgroupsandstrengthenstheconstructiontraditionamongthe
craftsmen.Thetraditionalcraftsman,speciallycarpenters,preservedtheknowledgebyrigidlyfollowingthe
canonicalrulesofproportionsofdifferentelementsaswellastheconstructiondetailstothisday.
BasicallythedomesticarchitectureofKeralafollowsthestyleofdetachedbuildingrowhousesseeninother
partsofIndiaareneithermentionedinKeralatextsnorputupinpracticeexceptinsettlements(sanketam)
occupiedbyTamilorKonkiniBrahmans.InitsmostdevelopedformthetypicalKeralahouseisacourtyard
typenalukettu.Thecentralcourtyardisanoutdoorlivingspacewhichmayhousesomeobjectofcultworship
suchasaraisedbedfortulssiorjasmine(mullathara).Thefourhallsenclosingthecourtyard,identicaltothe
nalambalamofthetemple,maybedividedintoseveralroomsfordifferentactivitiessuchascooking,dining,
sleeping,studying,storageofgrainsetc.Dependingonthesizeandimportanceofthehouseholdthebuilding
mayhaveoneortwoupperstoreys(malika)orfurtherenclosedcourtyardbyrepetitionofthenalukettutoform
ettukettu(eighthalledbuilding)oraclusterofsuchcourtyards.

Nalukettu
NlukettuisthetraditionalhomesteadofTharavaduwheremany
generationsofamatrilinealfamilylived.Thesetypesofbuildingsare
typicallyfoundintheIndianstateofKerala.Thetraditionalarchitectureis
typicallyarectangularstructurewherefourblocksarejoinedtogetherwith
acentralcourtyardopentothesky.Thefourhallsonthesidesarenamed
Vadakkini(northernblock),Padinjattini(westernblock),Kizhakkini
(easternblock)andThekkini(southernblock).Thearchitecturewas
especiallycateredtolargefamiliesofthetraditionaltharavadu,tolive
underoneroofandenjoythecommonlyownedfacilitiesofthe
marumakkathayamhomestead.[5]

Theclassicroofdecorsmadein
KeralaPalaces

ElementsofNalukettu

Padippura
ItisastructurecontainingadoorformingpartofCompoundwallforthe
housewithatiledroofontop.Itistheformalentrytothecompoundwith
thehouse.Atpresentthedoorisnotthereascarwillhavetoenterthe
housethroughtheentry.Stilltiledroofisprovidedpreferablywitha
traditionaltypelampbelowtheroof.Insteadofdoorofentry,wenowhave
theGate

AClassicNalukettuofKerala
builtinKeralaarchitecture

Poomukham
Itistheprimeporticosoonafterstepstothehouse.Traditionallyithasaslopetiledroofwithpillarssupporting
roof.Sidesareopen.Intheearlierdays,theheadofthefamilycalledKaranavarusedtosithereinareclining
chairwiththuppalkolambi(Spittoon)bythesideofchair.Thischairwillhavelongrailsoneithersidewhere
theKaranavarwillkeephislegsraisedforcomfortablerest
Chuttuverandah
FromthePoomukham,averandahtoeithersideinfrontofthehouse
throughopenpassagecalledChuttuVerandah.Chuttuverandahwillhave
hanginglightsinequaldistancehangingfromitssloperoof.
Charupady
BythesideofChuttuverandahandPoomukham,woodenbencheswith
carveddecorativerestingwoodenpiecesforrestingthebackareprovided.
ThisiscalledCharupady.Traditionallythefamilymembersorvisitorsused
tositonthesecharupadytotalk

Thewoodengabbledwindowsof
KrishnapuramPalace

AmbalKulam(Pond)
AttheendofChuttuverandahthereusedtobeasmallpondbuiltwith
rubbleonsideswherelotusorAmbalusedtobeplanted.Thewaterbodies
aremaintainedtosynthesizedenergyflowinside.
Nadumuttom
TraditionallyNadumuttomorcentralopencourtyardistheprimecenterthe
Nalukettu.Thereisanopenareausuallysquareshapedintheexactmiddle
ofthehousedividingthehouseinitsfoursides.Duetothisfourside

Thetypicalwoodenwindowsand
charupadyofKerala

divisionofthehousebyhavingaNadumuttom.SimilarlytherewasEttu
kettuandPathinarukettuwhicharequiterarewithtwoandfour
Nadumuttomrespectively
Nadumuttomwillbenormallyopentosky,allowingsunshineandrainsto
pourin.Thisistoallownaturalenergiestocirculatewithinthehouseand
allowpositivevibrancewithin.Athulsiortreewillbenormallyplantedin
centerofNadumuttom,whichisusedtoworship.Architecturallythelogic
isallowtreetoactasanaturalairpurifier.
PoojaRoom
PoojaroomshouldpreferablybeintheNorthEastcornerofthehouse.
Idolscanbeplacedfacingeastorwestandthepersonprayingcanface
westoreastrespectively.Atpresent,wooddenpanelingisdoneonPooja
roomwallsandthereisastandarddesignforPoojaroomwhichcanbe
giventoclientsinterestedinhavingtraditionalPoojaroom

AlmosteveryNalukettuhasits
ownKulamorPondforbathing
ofitsmembers.

Keyfeatures

Thewholebeingprotectedwithacompoundwallorfence.Anentrance
structure(padippura)mayalsobeconstructedlikethegopuramofa
temple.Thismaycontainoneortworoomsforguestsoroccasional
visitorswhoarenotentertainedinthemainhouse.Thepositionandsizes
ofvariousbuildings,includingthelocationoftreesandpathswithinthe
compoundwallweretobedecidedfromtheanalysisofthesiteaccording
totheprescriptionsintheclassictexts.Thisanalysisinvolvedtheconcept
ofvastupurushamandalawhereinthesite(vastu)wasdividedintoa
numberofgrids(padam)occupiedbydifferentdeities(devatha)and
appropriategridswerechosentohousethesuspiciousstructures.Thesite
planningandbuildingdesignwasdonebylearnedvishwakarmasthapathis
(masterbuilders)whosynthesizedthetechnicalmatterswithastrological
andmysticalsciences.
Therearenumerousbuildingsofthenalukettutypeindifferentpartsof
Kerala,thoughmanyofthemareinapoorstateofmaintenance.Changing
socioeconomicconditionshavesplitupthejointfamilysystemcentered
onthelargenalukettu.TheKailasamandiramatKottakkalbelongingtothe
AryaVaidyasalaisastandingexampleofathreestoreyednalukettu
complex.OfthebestpreservedexamplesofthistypeareMattancherry
palaceatKochiandthetaikottaramofthePadmanabhapurampalacenear
Kanyakumari.

AtypicalNadumuttomofKerala
Nalukettu

AclassicNadumuttomwithholy
thulsiincenterofit

Nalukettutypebuildingsarealsoseeninmanyvillagesandtowns,
occupiedbyprominentpeople.Thehumblerbuildingsofthepopulation
arehoweversmallerandsimplerinformbutbasicallyderivedfromthe
TheexteriorofKanakakkunnu
nalukettu.Nalukettuisacombinationoffourhallsalongfourcardinal
PalacebuiltinKeralastylewith
directions,centeredonthecourtyardoranganamonemaybuildanyoneof
Dutchinfluences
thefourhalls(Ekasala),acombinationoftwo(Dwisala)oracomplexof
three(Thrisala)dependingontheneeds.Themostcommonlyfoundtypein
KeralaistheEkasalafacingeastornorth.Beinglocatedonthewesternandsouthernsidesoftheanganamthey
arereferredaswesternhall(padinjattini)andsouthernhall(thekkini)respectively.

ThecoreunitofEkasalaconsistsofgenerallythreeroomsconnectedtoafrontpassage.Thecentralroomis
usedasprayerroomandgrainstoreandthetwosideroomsareusedaslivingrooms.Thecoreunitmaybe
raisedtoanupperstoreywithasteepstairlocatedinthefrontpassage.Thebuildingmayalsobeextended
horizontallyonallthefoursidesaddingalindamsorsideroomsforactivitiessuchascooking,dining,
additionalsleepingrooms,fronthallforreceivingguestsetc.TheChappamattamTharavaduatChirakkadavuis
aclassicalexampleofextendedEkasala.IfneededEkasalamayalsobeprovidedwithancillarybuildingsfor
cattlekeeping,barn,bathingroomsneartanks,outhouseforguests,gatehouseetc.Bysuchextensionthe
buildingmaybecomemuchlargerthanaNalukettuinspace,butitisstillcategorizedasEkasalawithreference
toitscoreunit.
Vastuvidyatextsprescribethedimensionsofdifferenthousetypessuitablefordifferentclasses.Theyalsogive
theproportionalsystemofmeasurementsfordifferentpartsofthebuildingallbasedontheperimeter(chuttu)
ofthecoreunit.Thescientificbasisofthisdimensionalsystemisyettobeenquiredbymodernstudies
howeverthesystemappearstobewellfoundedontraditionalcomputationalmethodsandrigidilyadheredtoall
sizesofbuildings.AlloverKeralaandspeciallyinvillageswherethebuildingactivityisstillcarriedoutunder
thecontroloftraditionalstapathis,thesystemisstillalivingpractice,thoughithasstarteddisappearingunder
theimpactof'modernarchitecture'.
TypesofNalukettu

Nalukettuscanbedifferentiatedbasedonstructurekindaswellasbasedoncasteofitsoccupants.
Basedonstructure

Nalukettusareprimarilydifferentiatedbasedontheirstructure.
TraditionallyNalukettuhasonecourtyardwith4blocks/halls
constructedarounditincardinaldirections.HoweversomeNalukettus
have2courtyards,whichareknownasEttukettu(8Blockedstructure)
astheyhavealtogether8blocksincardinaldirections.Somesuper
structureshave4courtyards,whichthenareknownasPatinarukettu(16
blockedstructure).
WhileNalukettusandEttukettusaremorecommon,Pathinarukettuare
extremelyrare,duetoitsenormoussize.

Koreanvisitorslookingatan
EttukettuArchitectureinMattanur

LikewiseNalukettuscanbedifferentiatedbasedontheirheightand
numberoffloors.SomeNalukettusaresinglestoreyedandmadewith
woodcompletely.OtherNalukettusaretwostoreyedorsometimeseventhreestoreyedandhavelateriteand
claymixtureaswalls.
Basedoncaste

TheactualtermusedforNalukettusdifferbasedoncasteandsocialstatusofitsoccupants.
ForNairsandotherFeudallords,mostoftheNalukettusarereferredasTharavadu
ForUpperEzhavaandThiyyaclasses,theirNalukettusarereferredasMadom,MedaandTharavadu
ForKshatriya,theirresidencesarereferredasKovilakomsandKottarams
ForSyrianChristians,theirresidencesarereferredasMedasandVeedus
ForNampoothiricommunities,theirresidencesarereferredasIllams

Publicstructuresarchitecture
UnlikeotherpartsofIndiaaswellasoutside,mostoftheadministrativefunctionsundermonarchicaldays
wereconductedwithinpremisesofpalacecomplexes.Hencetheconceptofindependentsecularpublic
structuresanditsarchitectureevolvedtowardslaterpartofthe17thcentury,particularlyduetothe

contributionsmadebycolonialpowersinKerala.
Portuguesewerethefirst,tointroduceindependentofficecomplexes
whichstandawayfromresidentialquarters.Thiswasoutofnecessityto
makewarehousesanditsrelatedofficesawayfromresidentialapartas
safetyprecautions.ThepublicarchitecturaldevelopmentinKeralawas
highlyinfluencedbytheEuropeanstyleduringseventeenthto
nineteenthcentury.TheinfluenceofthePortugueseandDutchwasmost
predominantintheinitialstages.APortuguesearchitectThomas
Fernandeziscreditedwiththeconstructionofforts,warehousesand
KavannayiltharavaaduThelakkad.
bungalowsatKochi,KozhikodeandKannur.Theprojectingbalconies,
Perinthalmanna,MalappuramDt,
Gothicarchesandcastironwindowgrillworkareafewofthefeatures
Kerala,India.
passedontoKeralaarchitecturebythePortugueseconstruction.
Portuguesehavecommissionedmorethan2000officeandwarehouse
complexesinFortCochinarea,apartfromseveralEuropeanstyledcastlesandprivateresidentialvillas.
ByeighteenthcenturyBritishstylewasbeingpopularisedinthelandasaresultofalargenumberofmodern
constructionsdirectlycarriedoutbytheBritishrulersontheonehandandthefashionforthingsWesternbythe
princelyclassandtherichontheother.Thearchitecturalworkwasguidedbytheofficersandengineerswhose
knowledgeofthearchitecturalstylewasessentiallyrestrictedtotheclassicbooksonrenaissancearchitects
Vitruvious,Alberti&Palladioandexecutedbyindigenousknowledgeoftraditionalmasonsandcarpenters
recruitedforthework.Inasenseitwasacompromiseofantiquecraftandneoclassicalconstructionneeds.
AnotablefeatureoftheearlyEuropeanworkinIndiawasatendencytodemonstratemilitary,politicaland
culturalsuperiorityofthewest.TheGreekandRomanantiquitywasconsideredastherichestheritageofthe
westandthesamewasemphasisedintheclassicordersofpillarswithtriangularpediments,archesanddomes
forpublicbuildings,townhalls,hospitals,railwaystations,collegesetc.Expressionofdominancewasinbuilt
inDoricandIoniancolumnsoflargedimension.AtthesametimethepurityofclassicWesternstylegaveway
totheeffectofstylebymixingdifferenttypesofcolumnsinallsortsofbuildings.Forexample,Corinthian
columnswereusedmixedwithDoricorderinpublicbuildingsaswellasresidences.
ThistrendwashowevermoderatedverymuchinKeralaowingtothelimitationsofmaterialsandclimate.
ForthemasonryworkthemediaofIndoEuropeanworkremainedthelateriteandlimeplastering.The
potentialityofexposedlateritewasexploredinmanycasesfromrailwayquarterstogovernmentoffices(e.g.
oldHuzurofficeCollectorate,Kozhikode).Limeplasteringandfinishingwastransferredfromtheinterior
wallsofplacestotheexteriorofbuildingsalsotocreatethesuperwhitebuildingsofmarblecult.Theoldpan
tileswerereplacedbyMangalorepatterntilesandflattiles.Theroofframeoftraditionaltypewaschangedto
trussedroofusingKingpostandQueenposttrusses,makingitpossibletospanlargeareas.
PerhapstheadaptationsofEuropeanstyletotheclimaticneedsandthesynthesiswithtraditionalstylearebest
seeninthebungalowarchitecture.ThecomfortrequirementinthehothumidclimatepromptedtheEuropean
settlerstogoinforbuildingswithlargeroomswithhighceilingwithverandahallaround.Forupperfloor
roomsbalconieswereadoptedasanecessaryfeature,originatingfromthePortugueseconstruction.The
portico,theshadedspotforpassagefromonebuildingtoanotherwasadded.Thesolidwoodenshutterofdoors
andwindowsunderwentchangetoribbedelementsVenetianbladespermittingaircirculationandproviding
privacysimultaneously.By1800glazedpanelscameintovogueandsemicircularfanlightoverdoorsand
windowsbecamefashionablefeaturesofdomesticbuildings.Brickarches,terracotapiecesandexposedbrick
workinvariousbondingpatternsbecamepopular.Withlargernumberandbiggersizeofwindows,pediments
orprojectionssupportedbyornamentalbracketsandcolumndecorationforprotectingthewindowopening
fromrainandsunalsowereintroduced.Castironfences,stairbalustradesandirongrills,madeinEngland,
wereusedtocompletethebungalowarchitecture.
ExcellentexamplesofthissynthesisareseenintheNapiermuseumatTiruvananthapuram,andmany
governmentbungalows.Infactmanyofthesefeaturesweresmoothlyadoptedbythenativebuilderstothe
extentthattheyareconsideredbymostastraditionalelements.TheworksofPublicWorksDepartmentshave

helpedtospreadthistypeofconstructionalloverKerala.Furthertheintroductionofengineeringeducation
withemphasistothewesternpracticeofconstructionhavepromotedthistrendpracticallydisplacingtraditional
designmethods.

Environmentallyfriendlyarchitecture
BritishArchitectLaurieBakerhascontributedtotheModernArchitectureerainKeralabyintroducingablend
ofBritishBrickbasedandVernacularArchitecturestyletoinfluencethecontemporaryArchitects.Kerala
boastsofmanybeautifulbuildingscreatedbyArchitectslikeLauriebaker,andArchitects,whowereinfluenced
byhim.BanasuraHillResortisanotherinnovativeArchitecturaldesignwherethetraditionalcosteffective
principlesofIndianArchitecturewereusedinanexemplaryway.

References
WikimediaCommonshas
mediarelatedtoTemple
architectureinKerala.
WikimediaCommonshas
mediarelatedtoDravidian
architecture.

1.http://nitc.academia.edu/BPhilip/Papers/374480/TRADITIONAL_KERALA_ARCHITECTURE
2."15thcenturyJaintempleinKeralatobereopenedTimesOfIndia".Articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com.201305
12.Retrieved20130720.
3.B.S.Baliga.(1995)MadrasDistrictGazetteers:KanniyakumariDistrict.Superintendent,Govt.Press.
4.http://www.keralahistory.ac.in/keralaarchitecture.htm
5."Archivedcopy".Archivedfromtheoriginalon20111013.Retrieved20110528.

{(ChurchArchitecturecf.www.indianchristianity.com)}
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