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ABSTRACT
Depositional models of ancient lakes in thin-skinned retroarc foreland basins rarely benefit from
appropriate Quaternary analogues. To address this, we present new stratigraphic, sedimentological
and geochemical analyses of four radiocarbon-dated sediment cores from the Pozuelos Basin (PB;
northwest Argentina) that capture the evolution of this low-accommodation Puna basin over the past
ca. 43 cal kyr. Strata from the PB are interpreted as accumulations of a highly variable, underfilled
lake system represented by lake-plain/littoral, profundal, palustrine, saline lake and playa facies
associations. The vertical stacking of facies is asymmetric, with transgressive and thin organic-rich
highstand deposits underlying thicker, organic-poor regressive deposits. The major controls on
depositional architecture and basin palaeogeography are tectonics and climate. Accommodation
space was derived from piggyback basin-forming flexural subsidence and Miocene-Quaternary normal faulting associated with incorporation of the basin into the Andean hinterland. Sediment and
water supply was modulated by variability in the South American summer monsoon, and perennial
lake deposits correlate in time with several well-known late Pleistocene wet periods on the Altiplano/Puna plateau. Our results shed new light on lake expansioncontraction dynamics in the PB
in particular and provide a deeper understanding of Puna basin lakes in general.
INTRODUCTION
Modern lakes occur in a wide variety of tectonic settings,
and sediments recovered from such basins prove valuable
in geological and palaeoenvironmental research. Unlike
lakes formed by glacial or fluvial processes, tectonic lakes
typically persist on the landscape for 104 years, often
producing thick depositional sequences that can archive
climatic, biological, and surficial processes with high resolution (Olsen, 1990; Colman et al., 1995; GierlowskiKordesch & Park, 2004; McGlue et al., 2008). Despite
many decades of study, major gaps exist in our understanding of several types of modern tectonic lakes, particularly those associated with retroarc foreland basin
systems (DeCelles & Guiles, 1996). Lake formation is relatively well understood in thick-skinned forelands, and
data concerning ancient lakes exist in great abundance for
these basins (e.g. Eocene Green River Formation of western North America; Eugster & Hardie, 1975; Smith
et al., 2003). In this setting, lakes may form as erosionresistant basement blocks rising along steep reverse faults
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that cause loading, flexure, and sediment-starved depressions to develop (e.g. Carroll et al., 2006).
The formation of lakes in thin-skinned forelands, however, is more complicated. In these orogens, topographic
closure in the proximal foredeep is hindered by erosion of
the thrust belt, as high rates of sediment accumulation
( 10 1 mm year 1; Sinha & Friend, 1994) balance or
overwhelm available accommodation space. Accordingly,
lakes are scarce in these settings and usually exist only
when the watershed geology is carbonate-rich, thereby
favouring rivers with low ratios of bedload to dissolved
load (e.g. Drummond et al., 1996; Zaleha, 2006). In contrast, lake formation is more likely in the hinterland
regions of a thin-skinned foreland system, as these higher
and drier environments may lack the ability to transport
significant sediment loads. Climate is critical to topographic closure and lake type in these intracontinental settings, due to its effect on sediment and water supply,
which helps to govern interactions between lake level and
the basin sill (Carroll & Bohacs, 1999). This is especially
true along mountain fronts such as the Andes, where rising air masses lose much moisture at low elevations.
Indeed, lakes and wetlands are conspicuous components of high-altitude basins in the thin-skinned central
Andes, providing vital habitat for a wide range of endemic
species and a key resource base for local human populations (Caziani et al., 2001; N
un
~ez et al., 2002). Yet, from
(b)
BACKGROUND
The PB is an NNE-oriented, elongate (ca. 2750 km2) piggyback basin at ca. 22S, 66W. West-verging thrust
sheets carrying siliciclastic and volcanic Ordovician rocks
bound the flat-floored basin (Fig. 1a). Relief between the
basin floor (ca. 3663 m a.s.l.) and flanking ranges exceeds
450 m, but the basin spill point is <40 m above the modern playa-lake (Fig. 1b). Seismic stratigraphic analysis
and regional correlations suggest that PB formation and
synorogenic sedimentation began in the Oligocene, with
maximum subsidence occurring near the eastern-margin
thrust faults (Gangui, 1998). The basin is tectonically
complex and the most recent deformation is associated
with normal faulting and volcanism (Cladouhos et al.,
1994). Neogene ignimbrites are widespread along the
basins eastern flank, whereas small exposures of Cretaceous nonmarine sediments crop out near the southern
end of the basin. Miocene nonmarine carbonates, evaporites, and tuff (i.e. Cara Cara Formation; Cladouhos et al.,
1994) cropout along the eastern basin margin (Fig. 1a).
Total precipitation in the PB is ca. 320 mm year 1 and
monthly mean air temperatures range between 3 and
13C (Legates & Willmott, 1990a, b). Rainfall, derived
almost entirely from eastern sources, is strongly seasonal,
with about 70% of the yearly total occurring during the
austral summer. Climate in the region is governed by the
(c)
Fig. 1. (a) Simplified geological map and cross-section of the Pozuelos Basin (PB). Cross-section location is marked by a dashed line.
Extensional lineaments (dotted lines) are from Caffe et al. (2002). LP, Laguna de los Pozuelos. SR, Sierra de Rinconada. SC, Sierra de
Cochinoca. SQ, Sierra de Quichagua. T, Tertiary. M, Miocene. O, Ordovician. K, Cretaceous. Q, Quaternary. GP, Group. (b) Shuttle
Radar Topography Mission digital elevation model of the PB illustrating the elongate basin shape and its spill-point, located ca. 35 m
above the basin floor. (c) Approximate location of the sediment cores discussed in the text, referenced to a recent shoreline of LP. Inset
map shows the position of the basin in South America.
2013 The Authors
Basin Research 2013 John Wiley & Sons Ltd, European Association of Geoscientists & Engineers and International Association of Sedimentologists
639
METHODS
Sediment cores were collected from the PB using a modified split-spoon sampler attached to a gasoline-powered
hammering device (Fig. 1c and Table S1). PVC liners
allowed incremental core sections to be collected by repeat
drives into the open borehole. Recovery per drive varied
(30100%), most likely in response to vertical changes in
water content and sediment density. Individual core sections were sealed in the field, then shipped to LacCore
(University of Minnesota) and subsequently analysed for
physical properties using a GEOTEK multi-sensor scanner. Magnetic susceptibility, gamma-ray attenuation,
lithostratigraphic markers, and radiocarbon data were
used to: (1) differentiate between intact stratigraphy and
sediments collapsed from the sides of the borehole; (2)
vertically correlate the intact stratigraphy; and (3) create
composite stratigraphic logs for each borehole.
Facies analysis was conducted on freshly split core surfaces. Particle sizes were estimated using a grain size card,
and sedimentary components were assessed using a combination of smear slides, ca. 125-lm sieved residues, and
powder X-ray diffraction. Shortly after core splitting, discrete sediment samples (23 cm3) were collected every ca.
1215 cm and freezedried prior to further analysis. Elemental and stable isotopic analyses of sedimentary organic
matter (OM) were conducted at the University of Arizona
(UA) to provide insights into biomass production, preser-
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Fig. 2. Age models with error envelopes (light gray) for cores 2A, 3A, 4A and 6A. Organic matter dates used in the interpolation
appear as black diamonds, whereas excluded dates appear as white diamonds. Ruppia dates appear as gray diamonds. Inset maps show
the location of cores with respect to a recent shoreline of Laguna de los Pozuelos. Note slower sedimentation rates between ca. 19 and
3 cal ka BP, interpreted as evidence of maximum lowstand conditions.
RESULTS
Radiocarbon geochronology
A seed collected from a living Ruppia plant in 2006
returned a post-bomb age, which calibrated to 19591961
or 19831986 CE (Table S2). These dates constrain reservoir effects within modern LP to <50 years, because
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Facies analysis
Thirteen facies types were recognized in the analysis
(Fig. 3 and Table S3). These facies were laterally continuous and could be identified in all of the cores across the
nearly 5-km span of the study site, except where noted.
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(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
(k)
Fig. 3. Sediment core photographs from the Pozuelos Basin, illustrating the major facies encountered in the study area. Cores are ca.
3.5 cm wide and tops are to the right. (a) Massive red clay (Facies A) and weakly stratified clayey sand (Facies B) of the playa facies
association (Unit I). Facies B bedding, most likely produced by sheetfloods, has been disrupted by the coring process. (b) Massive
oxide-rich tan clay (Facies C) of the saline lake facies association (top Unit II), with arrows marking the location of tilted and flat laminae. This facies is interpreted as the maximum lowstand in the stratigraphic framework. (c) Massive black pyrite-rich mud (Facies D)
of the saline lake facies association (basal Unit II), with arrow marking a burrow-like oxidation feature. (d) Massive green silty clay
(Facies E) of the palustrine facies association (Unit III), with arrow marking the location of dispersed pebbles. (e) Laminated diatom
ooze (Facies F1), showing an example of the sharp contact with underlying transgressive deposits. (F) Laminated diatom ooze (Facies
F2). Arrow marks thick laminations comprised of calcified Chara debris and ostracodes. (g) Laminated to thinly bedded OM-rich silty
clay (Facies G), a sublittoral deposit from core 2A. These sediments are coeval to Facies F, suggesting shoaling in the direction of the
core site. (h) Mottled clays (Facies H), with crudely laminated and disrupted beds of macrophyte debris marked by an arrow.
(i) Thinly interbedded green sand and clay (Facies I2; marked by arrow), most likely produced by sheetfloods. (j) Normally graded and
massive sands from core 3A. (k) Normally graded, matrix-supported gravel and coarse sand (Facies M) overlying Facies L from core
3A.
sure and desiccation of the basin floor (Plummer & Gostin, 1981; Smoot, 1983; Demicco & GierlowskiKordesch, 1986). Silt laminae were comprised of rounded
quartz and highly refractory micas that suggest eolian
processes helped to shape this environment (e.g. Keen &
Shane, 1990; Rosen, 1994). The paucity of fine sedimentary structures, massive bedding, and jagged-edged silt
pods are interpreted as evidence that bioturbation has
altered primary depositional textures. This type of
reworking, primarily accomplished by waterbirds, is
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(b)
Fig. 4. (a) Stratigraphy of core 2A. (b) Stratigraphy of core 6A. 14C, radiocarbon age, presented as median calendar year before present. C, clay. Si, silt. Sa, sand. G, gravel. TIC, total inorganic carbon. BiSi, biogenic silica. TOC, total organic carbon.
647
(b)
Fig. 5. (a) Stratigraphy of core 3A. (b) Stratigraphy of core 4A. 14C, radiocarbon age, presented as median calendar year before present. C, clay. Si, silt. Sa, sand. G, gravel. TIC, total inorganic carbon. BiSi, biogenic silica. TOC, total organic carbon.
648
presence of well-preserved Ruppia seeds and pyrite suggests a shallow subaqueous depositional environment.
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(a)
(b)
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(c)
Fig. 6. Bulk organic matter (OM) geochemistry from the Pozuelos Basin. (a) Total organic carbon (TOC) total organic nitrogen (TON) crossplot. Note elevated TOC concentrations of
profundal Facies F. (b) Carbon to nitrogen ratio (C/N) carbon
isotope (d13COM) crossplot. Note broad C/N and enriched
d13COM values, interpreted as reflecting destructive processes
due to shallow bathymetry in all palaeolake environments. Note
that symbols are the same for panel A. (c) Rock Eval modified
van Krevelen diagram. HI, hydrogen index. OI, oxygen index.
Poor preservation of OM supports the interpretation of basin
underfilling in the late Quaternary.
tinct cloud on the left side of the C/N d13COM crossplot, mostly likely signifying high diatom productivity in
the wetland environment (Fig. 6b). In the saline lake and
playa facies associations, accumulations of OM are generally low (Fig. 6a) and production appears to be dominated
by macrophytes, which are known to be isotopically
enriched in the PB (Fig. 6b; McGlue et al., 2012a).
Destruction refers to removal of OM prior to or during
sedimentation, typically by inorganic oxidation,
DISCUSSION
Depositional history and palaeogeography
Several lines of evidence suggest that during the past ca.
43 cal kyr, water levels in the PB remained below the
spill-point elevation, resulting in basin underfilling
(Fig. 7). Underfilled lake basins form where rates of
accommodation continually exceed the rate of sediment
plus water fill (Carroll & Bohacs, 1999). The cyclic strata
of the Wilkins Peak Formation (Green River Basin; Pietras & Carroll, 2006), which represent lake expansioncontraction dynamics, are perhaps the best studied
underfilled lake deposits. Quaternary PB strata share a
number of similarities with these Wilkins Peak cycles,
including (1) asymmetric facies stacking patterns, with
thin transgressive facies overlain by thicker regressive
intervals (Pietras et al., 2003); (2) scale, with cycles up to
ca. 56 m thick (Pietras & Carroll, 2006); (3) abundant
sedimentary evidence of evaporation and desiccation
(Carroll & Bohacs, 1999); (4) low overall TOC, with peak
Climate
Today, the landscape of the Puna plateau is marked by
internally drained basins, dry valleys, ephemeral playalakes, and salt flats, which reflect the arid climate. Precipitation at the PB falls in the austral summer, and due to its
latitude, Amazonian sources should play a key role in the
moisture balance (Garreaud et al., 2009). Our palaeogeographical reconstruction posits that palaeolakes larger
than modern LP occupied the basin during the late Pleistocene (Fig. 7). To sustain large lakes, most researchers
have suggested that large swings in P-E are necessary
(Hastenrath & Kutzbach, 1985). Others favour variability
in air temperature and glacial meltwater controls on lake
levels, which modelling has shown may be valid in certain
locales on the southern Altiplano (e.g. Blodgett et al.,
1997).
Several decades of research suggest that during the late
Pleistocene, a series of palaeolakes existed on the Altiplano (<250 km northwest of the PB; Fig. S2). The existence of palaeolakes Tauca (ca. 1814 cal ka BP) and
Coipasa (ca. 1311 cal ka BP) is almost universally agreed
upon, as data for these lakes exist in both drill core stratigraphy (Baker et al., 2001a, b) and shoreline records (Placzek et al., 2006). The presence, extent and timing of other
palaeolakes are the topic of ongoing debate. Placzek et al.
(2006) argued for a deep paleolake, Ouki, from ca.
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(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
Fig. 7. Palaeogeographical sketch maps of the Pozuelos Basin (PB) from ca. 43 ka present illustrating pervasive basin underfilling.
Lakes appear blue (darker hues signify greater relative water depths), and the basin landscape appears green (positive P-E) or brown
(negative P-E). (a) A shallow playa-lake with intermittent axial streams and fringing mudflat environments has existed since ca.
3 cal ka BP. Note that the Ro Santa Catalina forms a fine-grained terminal splay near the northern end of the playa-lake. (b) A dry
mudflat, formed by subaerial exposure and eolian deflation of lake beds, likely during the early-middle Holocene. If Tauca and Coipasa
aged palaeolakes existed in the PB, evidence of them is missing. (c) A saline lake occupied the PB from ca. 26 to 19 cal ka BP, which
broadly correlates with the Sajsi lake cycle (Placzek et al., 2006; Blard et al., 2011). (d) From ca. 37 to 23 cal ka BP, a shallow paleolake
occupied the basin and produced thick regressive deposits in our cores. (e) A deeper paleolake existed in the PB from ca. 43 to
37 cal ka BP. Based on the present age model, maximum lake expansion correlates in time with the Minchin highstand and Heinrich
event 4, identified in other records from the Altiplano (Baker et al., 2001b; Fritz et al., 2004; Kanner et al., 2012). (f) Stacked coarse
siliciclastic units indicate the presence of a delta in the PB prior to ca. 43 cal ka BP. The mineralogy of deltaic deposits suggests palaeoflow from the east.
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lake known as Minchin, which is believed to have occupied the Uyuni Basin from ca. 46 to 36 cal ka BP (Baker
et al., 2001b; Fritz et al., 2004; Chepstow-Lusty et al.,
2005). The Sajsi palaeolake is not typically differentiated
in drill core strata and the age assigned to the Tauca palaeolake spans ca. 2615 cal ka BP, whereas evidence of the
large Ouki palaeolake and indeed, large lakes in general
are absent prior to ca. 50 cal ka BP (Fritz et al., 2004,
2012).
and relevant to the PB seems to be associated with an insolation minimum from ca. 8.0 to 4.0 cal ka BP (Mayle &
Power, 2008). The impacts of reduced insolation and a
northerly Intertropical Convergence Zone position on
monsoon precipitation were widely felt in tropical South
America, and expressed in proxy records from Amazonia,
the Pantanal, the Altiplano and mountain glaciers (Mayle
& Power, 2008; Burns, 2011; McGlue et al., 2012b).
Tectonics
Two modes of tectonic deformation are important for
lacustrine deposition in the PB. First, the formation of
the PB by thrust faulting and flexural subsidence controls
general aspects of basin geometry and the initial amount
of accommodation space. The parallel bounding faults
that make up the flanks of the PB constrain the size, depth
and hydrology of potential lake systems. The spacing
between the west-verging thrusts of the PB (<30 km)
indicates that palaeolakes most likely exhibited a low
width-to-depth ratio. These limnological conditions may
have helped to promote water column stratification and
preservation of both fine laminations and OM during
lake-level highstands (Katz, 1995). For the PB, the NNE
trend of boundary thrusts also limits the influence of easterly winds on the basin floor, reducing the fetch of any
large palaeolake. Facies data suggest that the deepest palaeolake in the PB (ca. 4337 cal ka BP; Fig. 7) may have
been seasonally stratified, but placing constraints on the
surface elevation of this lake remains a challenge. If recent
tectonic movements have not altered the basin margins,
then ca. 35 m of accommodation space is available to hold
a hydrologically closed lake in the PB, given its present
day morphology (Fig. 1b). When hydroclimatic conditions allow this depth threshold to be crossed, spillover to
the northeast will occur and an open hydrologic system
will form. We hypothesize that the observed asymmetric
stratigraphy dominated by regressive deposits resulted
from lake levels remaining below the spill point elevation.
A prominent shoreline would be expected at a level near
the PB spill elevation, if palaeolakes had been persistently
open (e.g. Placzek et al., 2009). Although lower elevation
palaeo-shorelines exist in the basin, such features have
not been discovered near ca. 3695 m a.s.l.
In the broadest sense, the Andes form a barrier to eastern moisture sources, which has important implications
for the sediment plus water availability for all basins on
the orogen. Very few natural lakes exist in the wedgetop
basins and valleys of the Andean foothills (elevations
1500 m), where precipitation is relatively high and
dense Yungas evergreen forests are the norm. This is
because excess sediment plus water usually overwhelms
available accommodation space in these settings, leading
to at most the development of small ( 1 km2), shallow,
freshwater ponds or diffuse wetlands that accumulate thin
sapropels and clays. By contrast, large lake development
is possible in basins high atop the arid orogen, due to the
preservation of accommodation space from sediment
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to follow eclogite root foundering in Cordilleran orogenic systems (DeCelles et al., 2009).
CONCLUSIONS
(1) Five lithostratigraphic units (VI; lake-plain/littoral,
profundal, palustrine, saline lake, and playa facies
associations respectively) identified in radiocarbondated sediment cores record sedimentation in the PB
over the past ca. 43 cal kyr. Pozuelos Basin facies are
characterized by an asymmetric vertical stacking pattern, where thick regressive facies overlie relatively
thin transgressive and highstand facies. The stratigraphy reflects the expansion and contraction of palaeolakes in an underfilled basin. Long-term (104 years)
sedimentation rates are relatively consistent among
the PB cores, whereas short-term (102104 years)
rates are highly variable, which imply an incomplete
stratigraphic record that is compatible with facies
observations.
(2) Average TOC concentrations are highest in the profundal facies association (Unit IV), which suggests
that the production and preservation of OM were
greatest during maximum lake expansion and P-E.
Type II (mixed algal and macrophyte OM) kerogen
prevails throughout the late Quaternary PB record,
most likely a consequence of low accommodation
space and shallow bathymetry that characterized each
of the palaeolake environments. Siliciclastic dilution
was minimal, but organic facies development may
have been impacted by oxidation during prolonged
regressive phases.
(3) Late Quaternary lake dynamics and PB underfilling
were controlled by both tectonics and climate. Climate, through its effect on P-E and sediment supply, influenced the development of lakes of varying
character and water chemistry, some of which correlate in time with well-known Pleistocene palaeolakes in other basins on the Altiplano. The
structural configuration of the PB constrains the
morphology and fetch of highstand lakes, potentially promoting water column stratification and
development of laminated, organic-rich sediments
during highstands. Accommodation space maintained from piggyback basin-forming flexural subsidence and new space created as the PB evolved in
the Andean hinterland (principally through normal
faulting) likewise impacted lake hydrology and
bathymetry.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research was supported by the National Science
Foundation (Award 0542993), American Chemical Society (PRF grant 45910-AC8), ExxonMobil and small
SUPPORTING INFORMATION
Additional Supporting Information may be found in the
online version of this article:
Figure S1. Crossplot of sedimentation rate
(mm year 1) versus log time (years). Recent sedimentation rate data derived from radioisotopes are from
McGlue et al. (2012a). Long-term sedimentation rates
were calculated using basal 14C ages and a constant rate of
accumulation over the length of the dated interval (i.e.
not including coarse-grained basal units that lack direct
age control). Compaction is assumed to be negligible.
Average lacustrine sedimentation rate adapted from Cohen (2003). Late Quaternary rates suggest a punctuated
stratal record, which is compatible with facies observations in Unit II.
Figure S2. Shuttle Radar Topography Mission digital
elevation model of tropical and sub tropical South America, illustrating the locations of several palaeolake basins
mentioned in the text. 1, Salar de Hombre Muerto,
Argentina. 2, Salar de Atacama, Chile. 3, Pozuelos Basin,
Argentina. 4, Oligocene wedge-top basins, Bolivia (Horton, 1998). 5, Salar de Uyuni, Bolivia. 6, Rio Desaguadero
valley, Bolivia. 7, Lake Titicaca, Peru/Bolivia.
Table S1. Summary of core locations, lengths, and age
ranges used in this study.
Table S2. Radiocarbon geochronology of cores collected from the Pozuelos Basin.
Table S3. Lithofacies encountered in Cores 2A, 3A,
4A and 6A. Note that elemental data for Facies B (marked
by *) includes values previously published in McGlue
et al. (2012a).
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