Shivsoft 1

C# Notes
1. What is .NET?
It is a platform neutral framework.
It is a layer between the operating system and the programming language.
It supports many programming languages, including VB.NET, C# etc.
.NET provides a common set of class libraries, which can be accessed from any .NET based
programming language. There will not be separate set of classes and libraries for each language. If
you know any one .NET language, you can write code in any .NET language!!
In future versions of Windows, .NET will be freely distributed as part of operating system
and users will never have to install .NET separately.
2. What is Not?
.NET is not an operating system.
.NET is not a programming language.
3. .NET is a framework
Confused with this definition?
We cannot define .NET as a single thing.
It is a new, easy, and extensive programming platform.
It is not a programming language, but it supports several programming languages.
By default .NET comes with few programming languages including C# (C Sharp), VB.NET,
J# and managed C++.
.NET is a common platform for all the supported languages. It gives a common class
library, which can be called from any of the supported languages.
So, developers need not learn many libraries when they switch to a different language.
Only the syntax is different for each language.
When you write code in any language and compile, it will be converted to an Intermediate
Language (Microsoft Intermediate Language MSIL).
So, your compiled executable contains the IL and not really executable machine language.
When the .NET application runs, the .NET framework in the target computer take care of
the execution. (To run a .NET application, the target computer should have .NET framework
installed.)
The .NET framework converts the calls to .NET class libraries to the corresponding APIs of
the Operating system.
Whether you write code in C# or VB.NET, you are calling methods in the same .NET class
libraries.
The same .NET framework executes the C# and VB.NET applications.
So, there wont be any performance difference based on the language you write code.
3.1 Is it platform independent?

Many people ask this question Java is platform independent, what about .NET?.
The answer is Yes and No!
The code you write is platform independent, because whatever you write is getting
compiled into MSIL.
There is no native code, which depends on your operating system or CPU. But when you
execute the MSIL, the .NET framework in the target system will convert the MSIL into native
platform code.
So, if you run your .NET exe in a Windows machine, the .NET framework for Windows will
convert it into Windows native code and execute.
If you run your .NET application in Unix or Linux, the .NET framework for Unix/Linux will
convert your code into Unix/Linux native code and execute.
So, your code is purely platform independent and runs anywhere!
But wait, we said it wrong there is no .NET framework for UNIX or Linux available now.
Microsoft has written the .NET framework only for Windows.
If you or some one else write a .NET framework for other platforms in future, your code
will run there too. So, let us wait until someone write .NET framework for Linux before you run
your .NET code in Linux.
3.2 Major Issues before .NET

Registration of COM components.
Unloading COM components
Versioning Problem (DLL Hell)
The .NET Platform

The .Net platform is a set of technologies. Microsoft .NET platform simplify software development
(Windows or WEB) by building applications of XML Web services.
The .NET platform consists of the following core technologies which are refer as components of
.NET:
The .NET Framework
The .NET Enterprise Servers
Building block services
Visual Studio .NET
A programming model (.NET framework) enables developers to build Extensible Markup Language
(XML) Web Services and applications.
Developer Tools
.NET Framework
Application
Libraries
CLR
.NET
Enterprise
Servers
.NET
Building
Block Services
C#, Visual Basic .NET
Visual Studio .NET
Windows OS (Win 32)
The .NET Platform Architecture

3.3 Components of .NET Framework
The .Net Framework consists of:
Common Language Runtime
Class Libraries
Support for Multiple Programming Language

.NET Compliant Languages
(VC++, VB.NET, ASP.NET, C# and other third party languages)
Common Language Runtime
(Memory Management, Common Type System, Garbage Collector)
Windows Forms
Web Forms
Web Services
.NET Framework Base Class Library
(ADO.NET, XML, Threading, Diagnostics, IO, Security, etc.)
Components of .NET Framework
4. Application Development and Execution
.NET is a multilingual platform then any .NET based language can be chosen to develop
applications.
4.1 Choosing a Compiler
According to the language we can choose its run time aware compiler for .NET platform. Because it
is a multilingual execution environment, the runtime supports a wide variety of data types and
language features.
4.2 Compiling to MSIL
Source Code
Compiler
Class Libraries (IL & Metadata)
EXE/DLL (IL & Metadata)
Class loader
Security checks
Managed Native Code
Execution
JIT Compiler
Runtime Engine
Call to an uncompiled method
Trusted pre-JIT code only
Source code to native code and code execution

When compiling source code, the compiler translates it into an intermediate code represented in
MSIL. Before code can be run, MSIL code must be converted to CPU-specific code, usually by a
just-in-time (JIT) compiler. When a compiler produces MSIL, it also produces metadata. Metadata
includes following information:
Description of the types in your code, including the definition of each type.
The signatures of each types members,
The members that your code references.
Other data that the runtime uses at execution time.
The MSIL and metadata are contained in a portable executable (PE) file that is based on and
extends the published Microsoft PE and Common object file format (COFF) used historically for
executable content. The file format, which accommodates MSIL or native code as well as
metadata, enables the operating system to recognize common language runtime images.
4.3 Compiling MSIL to Native Code
Before you can run Microsoft intermediate language (MSIL), it must be compiled against the
common language runtime to native code for the target machine architecture. The .NET
Framework provides two ways to perform this conversion:
A .NET Framework just-in-time (JIT) compiler.
The .NET Framework Ngen.exe (Native Image Generator).
4.4 Compilation by the JIT Compiler
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7.
JIT compilation converts MSIL to native code on demand at application run time, when the
contents of an assembly are loaded and executed. Because the common language runtime supplies
a JIT compiler for each supported CPU architecture, developers can build a set of MSIL assemblies
that can be JIT-compiled and run on different computers with different machine architectures.
However, if your managed code calls platform-specific native APIs or a platform-specific
class library, it will run only on that operating system.
JIT compilation takes into account the possibility that some code might never be called during
execution. Instead of using time and memory to convert all the MSIL in a PE file to native code, it
converts the MSIL as needed during execution and stores the resulting native code in memory so
that it is accessible for subsequent calls in the context of that process. The loader creates and
attaches a stub to each method in a type when the type is loaded and initialized. When a method
is called for the first time, the stub passes control to the JIT compiler, which converts the MSIL for
that method into native code and modifies the stub to point directly to the generated native code.
Therefore, subsequent calls to the JIT-compiled method go directly to the native code.
Install-Time Code Generation Using NGen.exe
Because the JIT compiler converts an assemblys MSIL to native code when individual methods
defined in that assembly are called, it affects performance adversely at run time. In most cases,
that diminished performance is acceptable. More importantly, the code generated by the JIT
compiler is bound to the process that triggered the compilation. It cannot be shared across
multiple processes. To allow the generated code to be shared across multiple invocations of an
application or across multiple processes that share a set of assemblies, the common language
runtime supports an ahead-of-time compilation mode. This ahead-of-time compilation mode uses
the Ngen.exe(Native Image Generator) to convert MSIL assemblies to native code much like the
JIT compiler does. However, the operation of Ngen.exe differs from that of the JIT compiler in
three ways:
It performs the conversion from MSIL to native code before running the application instead of
while the application is running.
It compiles an entire assembly at a time, instead of one method at a time.
It persists the generated code in the Native Image Cache as a file on disk.
4.5 Summary of Managed Code Execution Process
The process of compiling and executing managed code is given below:
When you compile a program developed in a language that targets the CLR, instead of
compiling the source code into machine-level code, the compiler translates it into Microsoft
Intermediate Language (MSIL) or Intermediate language (IL). This ensures language
interoperability.
In addition to translating the code into IL, the compiler also produces metadata about the
program during the process of compilation. Metadata contains the description of the program, such
as classes and interfaces, the dependencies and the versions of the components used in the
program.
The IL and the metadata are linked in assembly.
The compiler creates the .EXE or .DLL file.
When you execute the .EXE or .DLL file, the code (converted to IL) and all the other
relevant information from the base class library is sent to the class loader. The class loader loads
the code in the memory.
Before the code can be executed, the .NET framework needs to convert the IL into native
or CPU-specific code. The Just-in-time (JIT) compiler translates the code from IL to managed
native code. The CLR supplies a JIT compiler for each supported CPU architecture. During the
process of compilation, the JIT compiler compiles only the code that is required during execution
instead of compiling the complete IL code. When an uncompiled method is invoked during
execution, the JIT compiler converts the IL for that method into native code. This process saves
the time and memory required to convert the complete IL into native code.
During JIT compilation, the code is also checked for type safety. Type safety ensures that
objects are always accessed in a compatible way. Therefore, if you try to pass an 8-byte value to a
method that accepts a 4-byte value as a parameter, the CLR will detect and trap such an attempt.
Type safety also ensures that objects are safely isolated from each other and are therefore safe
from any malicious corruption.
8.
9.
After translating the IL into native code, the converted code is sent to the .NET runtime
manager.
The .NET runtime manager executes the code. While executing the code, a security check
is performed to ensure that the code has the appropriate permissions for accessing the available
resources.
Common Language Infrastructure (CLI)
The Common Language Infrastructure (CLI) is an open specification developed by Microsoft that
describes the executable code and runtime environment that allows multiple high-level languages
to be used on different computer platforms without being rewritten for specific architectures.
The common language Infrastructure (CLI) is a theoretical model of a development platform that
provides a device and language independent way to express data and behavior of applications.
The CLI specification describes the following four aspects:
The Common Type System (CTS)
The language interoperability and .NET Class Framework are not possible without all the language
sharing the same data type. CTS is an important part of the runtime support for cross-language
integration. The CTS performs the following functions:
Establishes a framework that enables cross-language integration, type safety and high
performance code execution.
Provides an object-oriented model that supports the complete implementation of many
programming languages.
The CTS supports two general categories of types:

1. Value Types
Value types directly contain their data, and instances of value types are either allocated on the
stack or allocated inline in a structure. Value types can be built-in, user-defined or enumerations
types.
2. Reference Types
Reference types store a reference to the values memory address, and are allocated on the heap.
Reference types can be self-describing types, pointers type or interface types. The type of a
reference type can be determined from values of self-describing types. Self-describing types are
further split into arrays and class types are user-defined classes, boxed value types, and
delegates.
A set of data types and operations that are shared by all CTS-compliant programming languages.
Metadata
Information about program structure is language-agnostic, so that it can be referenced between

languages and tools, making it easy to work with code written in a language you are not using.
Common Language Specification (CLS)
A set of base rules to which any language targeting the CLI should conform in order to
interoperate with other CLS-compliant languages. The CLS rules define a subset of the Common
Type System.
Virtual Execution System (VES)
The VES loads and executes CLI-compatible programs, using the metadata to combine separately
generated pieces of code at runtime.
The Common Language Runtime
The CLR is one of the most essential components of the .NET framework. The CLR or the runtime
provides functionality such as exception handling, security, debugging, and versioning support to
any language that targets it. The CLR can execute programs written any language. You can use the
compilers to write the code that runs in the managed execution environment provided by the CLR.
The code that is developed with a language compiler that targets the CLR is managed code. On
the other hand, the code that is developed without considering the conventions and requirements
of the common language run time is called unmanaged code.
CLR activates objects, performs security checks, lays them out in memory, executes them and
garbage collects these objects as well.
The CLR is a runtime engine that loads required classes, performs just in time compilations, and
enforces security checks and a bunch of other runtime functions.
The CLR executables are either exe or DLL files that consist mostly of metadata and code. These
executables must adhere to a file format called the Portable Executable (PE) file format.
Features Provided by CLR
Some of the features provided by the CLR are as follows:
Automatic Memory Management: The CLR provides the garbage collection feature for
managing the lifetime of an object. This process relieves a programmer of the task of manual
memory management by deallocating the blocks of memory associated with objects that are no
longer being used. The objects whose lifetime is managed by the garbage collection process are
called managed data.
Standard Type System: The CLR implements a formal specification called Common Type
System (CTS). The CTS is an important part of the support provided by the CLR for cross-language
integration because it provides a type system that is common across all programming languages.
It also defines the rules that ensure that objects written in different languages can interact with
each other.
Language Interoperability: Language interoperability is the ability of an application to

interact with another application written in a different programming language. Language
interoperability helps maximize code reuse. For example, you can write a class in Visual Basic and
inherit it in a code written in Visual C++ or c#.
Platform Independence: When you compile a program developed in language that targets
the CLR, the compiler translates the code into an intermediate language. This language is CPUindependent. This means that the code can be executed from any platform that supports the .NET
CLR.
Security Management The traditional operating system security model provides

permissions to access resources, such as memory and data, based on user accounts. In .NET
platform security is achieved through the Code Access Security (CAS) model. The CAS model
specifies what the code can access instead of specifying who can access resources.
Type Safety: This feature ensures that objects are always accessed in compatible ways.
Therefore the CLR will prohibit a code from assigning a 10-byte value to an object that occupies 8
bytes.
Advantages of the .NET Framework

Consistent programming model
Multi-platform applications
Multi-Language integration
Automatic Resource Management
Ease of deployment
OOPS & C#
The skeleton of object oriented programming is of course the concepts of class. The C# on OOPS
explains classes and their importance in implementation of object oriented principles.
Any language can be called object oriented if it has data and method that use data encapsulated
in items named objects. An object oriented programming method has many advantages; some of
them are flexibility and code reusability.
Key Concepts of Object Orientation
Abstraction
Encapsulation
Inheritance
Polymorphism
Abstraction is the ability to generalize an object as a data type that has a specific set of
characteristics and is able to perform a set of actions.
Object-oriented languages provide abstraction via classes. Classes define the properties and
methods of an object type.
Examples:
You can create an abstraction of a dog with characteristics, such as color, height, and weight, and
actions such as run and bite. The characteristics are called properties, and the actions are called
methods.
A Recordset object is an abstract representation of a set of data.
Classes are blueprints for Object.
Objects are instance of classes.
Object References
When we work with an object we are using a reference to that object. On the other hand, when we
are working with simple data types such as Integer, we are working with the actual value rather
than a reference.
When we create a new object using the New keyword, we store a reference to that object in a
variable. For instance:
Draw MyDraw = new Draw;
This code creates a new instance of Draw. We gain access to this new object via the MyDraw
variable. This variable holds a reference to the object.
Now we have a second variable, which also has a reference to that same object. We can use either
variable interchangeably, since they both reference the exact same object. The thing we need to
remember is that the variable we have is not the object itself but, rather, is just a reference or
pointer to the object itself.
Early binding means that our code directly interacts with the object, by directly calling its
methods. Since the compiler knows the objects data type ahead of time, it can directly compile
code to invoke the methods on the object. Early binding also allows the IDE to use IntelliSense to
aid our development efforts; it allows the compiler to ensure that we are referencing methods that
do exist and that we are providing the proper parameter values.
Late binding means that our code interacts with an object dynamically at run-time. This provides
a great deal of flexibility since our code literally doesnt care what type of object it is interacting
with as long as the object supports the methods we want to call. Because the type of the object
isnt known by the IDE or compiler, neither IntelliSense nor compile-time syntax checking is
possible but we get unprecedented flexibility in exchange.
If we enable strict type checking by using Option Strict On at the top of our code modules, then
the IDE and compiler will enforce early binding behavior. By default, Option Strict is turned off and
so we have easy access to the use of late binding within our code.
Access Modifiers Access Modifiers are keywords used to specify the declared accessibility of a
member of a type.
Public is visible to everyone. A public member can be accessed using an instance of a class, by a
classs internal code, and by any descendants of a class.
Private is hidden and usable only by the class itself. No code using a class instance can access a
private member directly and neither can a descendant class.
Protected members are similar to private ones in that they are accessible only by the containing
class. However, protected members also may be used by a descendant class. So members that are
likely to be needed by a descendant class should be marked protected.
Internal/Friend is public to the entire application but private to any outside applications. Internal
is useful when you want to allow a class to be used by other applications but reserve special
functionality for the application that contains the class. Internal is used by C# and Friend by VB
.NET.
Protected Internal may be accessed only by a descendant class thats contained in the same
application as its base class. You use protected internal in situations where you want to deny
access to parts of a class functionality to any descendant classes found in other applications.
Composition of an OBJECT
We use an interface to get access to an objects data and behavior. The objects data and behaviors
are contained within the object, so a client application can treat the object like a black box
accessible only through its interface. This is a key object-oriented concept called Encapsulation.
The idea is that any programs that make use of this object wont have direct access to the
behaviors or data-but rather those programs must make use of our objects interface.
There are three main parts of Object:
1. Interface
2. Implementation or Behavior
3. Member or Instance variables
Interface
The interface is defined as a set of methods (Sub and Function routines), properties (Property
routines), events, and fields (variables or attributes) that are declared Public in scope.
Implementation or Behavior
The code inside of a method is called the implementation. Sometimes it is also called behavior
since it is this code that actually makes the object do useful work.
Client applications can use our object even if we change the implementation-as long as we dont
change the interface. As long as our method name and its parameter list and return data type
remain unchanged, we can change the implementation all we want.
So Method Signature depends on:
Method name
Data types of parameters
Either Parameter is passed ByVal or ByRef.
Return type of method
It is important to keep in mind that encapsulation is a syntactic tool-it allows our code to continue
to run without change. However, it is not semantic-meaning that, just because our code continues
to run, doesnt mean it continues to do what we actually wanted it to do.
Member or Instance Variables
The third key part of an object is its data, or state. Every instance of a class is absolutely identical
in terms of its interface and its implementation-the only thing that can vary at all is the data
contained within that particular object.
Member variables are those declared so that they are available to all code within our class.
Typically member variables are Private in scope-available only to the code in our class itself. They
are also sometimes referred to as instance variables or as attributes. The .NET Framework also
refers to them as fields.
We shouldnt confuse instance variables with properties. A Property is a type of method that is
geared around retrieving and setting values, while an instance variable is a variable within the
class that may hold the value exposed by a Property.
Interface looks like a class, but has no implementation.
The only thing it contains is definitions of events, indexers, methods and/or properties. The reason
interfaces only provide definitions is because they are inherited by classes and structs, which must
provide an implementation for each interface member defined.
Defining an Interface: MyInterface.cs
interface IMyInterface
{
void MethodToImplement();
}
Above listing shows defines an interface named IMyInterface.
All the methods of Interface are public by default and no access modifiers (like private, public) are
allowed with any method of Interface.
Using an Interface: InterfaceImplementer.cs
class InterfaceImplementer : IMyInterface
{
public void MethodToImplement()
{
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4.
Console.WriteLine(MethodToImplement() called.);
}
}
The InterfaceImplementer class in above listing implements the IMyInterface interface. Indicating
that a class inherits an interface is the same as inheriting a class. In this case, the following syntax
is used:
class InterfaceImplementer : IMyInterface
Note that this class inherits the IMyInterface interface; it must implement its all members. While
implementing interface methods all those needs to be declared public only. It does this by
implementing the MethodToImplement() method. Notice that this method implementation has the
exact same signature, parameters and method name, as defined in the IMyInterface interface. Any
difference will cause a compiler error.
Inheritance is the idea that one class, called a subclass, can be based on another class, called a
base class. Inheritance provides a mechanism for creating hierarchies of objects.
Inheritance is an important object-oriented concept. It allows you to build a hierarchy of related
classes, and to reuse functionality defined in existing classes.
Inheritance is the ability to apply another classs interface and code to your own class.
Normal base classes may be instantiated themselves, or inherited. Derived classes can inherit base
class members marked with protected or greater access. The derived class is specialized to provide
more functionality, in addition to what its base class provides. Inheriting base class members in
derived class is not mandatory.
C# supports two types of Inheritance mechanisms:
1) Implementation Inheritance
2) Interface Inheritance
What is Implementation Inheritance?
When a class (type) is derived from another class(type) such that it inherits all the members of
the base type it is Implementation Inheritance
What is Interface Inheritance?
When a type (class or a struct) inherits only the signatures of the functions from another type it
is Interface Inheritance
In general, Classes can be derived from another class, hence support Implementation inheritance
At the same time Classes can also be derived from one or more interfaces Hence they support
Interface inheritance Structs can derive from one more interface, hence support Interface
Inheritance Structs cannot be derived from another class they are always derived from
SystemValueType
Types of Inheritance
Single Inheritance
Multilevel Inheritance
Multiple Inheritance
(Implementation is possible through Interface)
Hierarchical Inheritance
Multilevel Inheritance
Class B
Class B
Single Inheritance
Class A
Class D
Class C
Class A
Hierarchical Inheritance
Class A
Class B
Class C
Class A
Class B
Class C
Multiple Inheritance
Example:
Single Inheritance:
Inheritance:
public class A
{ }
public class B : A
{ }
}
Multilevel Inheritance:
public class A
{ }
public class B : A
{ }
Hierarchical
public class A
{ }
public class B : A
{
public class C : B
public class
C:A
Multiple Inheritance:
{ }
{ }
public class A
public class
D:A
{ }
{ }
public class B
{ }
public class C : A, B
{ }
Polymorphism
Polymorphism is the ability to define a method or property in a set of derived classes with
matching method signatures but provide different implementations and then distinguish the
objects matching interface from one another at runtime when you call the method on the base
class.
It is a feature to use one name in many forms. It can be achieved in following ways:
Method Overloading
Method Overriding
Method Hiding
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2.
3.
Method overriding and hiding makes use of the following three method keywords
new
virtual
override
1. When a derived class inherits from a base class, it gains all the methods, fields, properties and
events of the base class. To change the data and behavior of a base class, you have two choices:
you can replace the base member with a new derived member, or you can override a virtual base
member.
Replacing a member of a base class with a new derived member requires the new keyword. If a
base class defines a method, field, or property, the new keyword is used to create a new definition
of that method, field, or property on a derived class. The new keyword is placed before the return
type of a class member that is being replaced. For example:
public class BaseClass
{
public void DoWork() { }
public int WorkField;
public int WorkProperty
{
get { return 0; }
}
}
public class DerivedClass : BaseClass
{
public new void DoWork() { }

public new int WorkField;
public new int WorkProperty
{
get { return 0; }
}
}
DerivedClass B = new DerivedClass();
B.DoWork(); // Calls the new method.
BaseClass A = (BaseClass)B;
A.DoWork(); // Calls the old method.
2,3. In order for an instance of a derived class to completely take over a class member from a
base class, the base class has to declare that member as virtual. This is accomplished by adding
the virtual keyword before the return type of the member. A derived class then has the option of
using the overridekeyword, instead of new, to replace the base class implementation with its own.
For example:
public class BaseClass
{
public virtual void DoWork() { }
public virtual int WorkProperty
{
get { return 0; }
}
}
public class DerivedClass : BaseClass
{
public override void DoWork() { }
public override int WorkProperty
{
get { return 0; }
}
}
DerivedClass B = new DerivedClass();
B.DoWork(); // Calls the new method.
BaseClass A = (BaseClass)B;
A.DoWork(); // Also calls the new method.
Remarks about Virtual
When a virtual method is invoked, the run-time type of the object is checked for an
overriding member. The overriding member in the most derived class is called, which might be the
original member, if no derived class has overridden the member.
By default, methods are non-virtual. You cannot override a non-virtual method.
You cannot use the virtual modifier with the static, abstract, private or override modifiers.
Virtual properties behave like abstract methods, except for the differences in declaration
and invocation syntax.
It is an error to use the virtual modifier on a static property.
A virtual inherited property can be overridden in a derived class by including a property
declaration that uses the override modifier.
Remarks about Override
The override modifier is required to extend or modify the abstract or virtual

implementation of an inherited method, property, indexer, or event.
An override method provides a new implementation of a member inherited from a base

class. The method overridden by an override declaration is known as the overridden base method.
The overridden base method must have the same signature as the override method.
You cannot override a non-virtual or static method. The overridden base method must be
virtual, abstract, or override.
An override declaration cannot change the accessibility of the virtual method. Both the
override method and the virtual method must have the same access level modifier.
You cannot use the modifiers new, static, virtual, or abstract to modify an override
method.
An overriding property declaration must specify the exact same access modifier, type, and
name as the inherited property, and the overridden property must be virtual, abstract, or override.
Class and Objects
Classes
A class is a construct that enables you to create your own custom types by grouping together
variables of other types, methods and events. A class is like a blueprint. It defines the data and
behavior of a type. If the class is not declared as static, client code can use it by creating objects
or instances which are assigned to a variable. The variable remains in memory until all references
to it go out of scope. At that time, the CLR marks it as eligible for garbage collection. If the class is
declared as static, then only one copy exists in memory and client code can only access it through
the class itself, not an instance variable.
Declaring Class
public class Customer
{
//Fields, properties, methods and events go here
}
The class keyword is preceded by the access level. Because public is used in this case, anyone can
create objects from this class. The name of the class follows the class keyword.
Objects
An object is basically a block of memory that has been allocated and configured according to the
blueprint. A program may create many objects of the same class. Objects are also called
instances, and they can be stored in either a named variable or in an array or collection.
Creating Objects
A class and an object are different things. A class defines a type of object, but it is not an object
itself. An object is a concrete entity based on a class, and is sometimes referred to as an instance
of a class.
Objects can be created by using the new keyword followed by the name of the class that the
object will be based on, like this:
Customer object1 = new Customer();
When an instance of a class is created, a reference to the object is passed back to the
programmer. In the previous example, object1 is a reference to an object that is based on
Customer.
Class Modifiers
A class-declaration can optionally include a sequence of class modifiers:
class-modifiers:
class-modifier
class-modifiers class-modifier
class-modifier:
new, public, protected, internal, private, abstract, sealed
The new modifier is permitted on nested classes. The new modifier can be used to modify a
nested type if the nested type is hiding another type.
The public, protected, internal, and private modifiers control the accessibility of the class.
Depending on the context in which the class declaration occurs, some of these modifiers may not
be permitted
The abstract modifier is used to indicate that a class is incomplete and that it is intended to be
used only as a base class. An abstract class differs from a non-abstract class in the following ways:
An abstract class cannot be instantiated directly, and it is a compile-time error to use the
new operator on an abstract class. While it is possible to have variables and values whose compiletime types are abstract, such variables and values will necessarily either be null or contain
references to instances of non-abstract classes derived from the abstract types.
An abstract class is permitted (but not required) to contain abstract methods and
members.
An abstract class cannot be sealed.
Features of Abstract Methods:
An abstract method is implicitly a virtual method.
Abstract method declarations are only permitted in abstract classes.
Because an abstract method declaration provides no actual implementation, there is no
method body; the method declaration simply ends with a semicolon and there are no braces ({ })
following the signature. For example:
Copypublic abstract void MyMethod();
The implementation is provided by an overriding method, which is a member of a nonabstract class.
It is an error to use the static or virtual modifiers in an abstract method declaration.
Abstract properties behave like abstract methods, except for the differences in declaration and
invocation syntax.
It is an error to use the abstract modifier on a static property.
An abstract inherited property can be overridden in a derived class by including a property
declaration that uses the override modifier.
An abstract class must provide implementation for all interface members.
Example:
// abstract_keyword.cs
// Abstract Classes
using System;
abstract class MyBaseC // Abstract class
{
protected int x = 100;
protected int y = 150;
public abstract void MyMethod(); // Abstract method
public abstract int GetX // Abstract property
{
get;
}
public abstract int GetY // Abstract property
{
get;
}
}
class MyDerivedC: MyBaseC
{
public override void MyMethod()
{
x++;
y++;
}
public override int GetX // overriding property
{
get
{
return x+10;
}
}
public override int GetY // overriding property
{
get
{
return y+10;
}
}
public static void Main()
{
MyDerivedC mC = new MyDerivedC();
mC.MyMethod();
Console.WriteLine(x = {0}, y = {1}, mC.GetX, mC.GetY);
}
}
The sealed modifier is used to prevent derivation from a class. A compile-time error occurs if a
sealed class is specified as the base class of another class.
A sealed class cannot also be an abstract class.
The sealed modifier is primarily used to prevent unintended derivation, but it also enables certain
run-time optimizations. In particular, because a sealed class is known to never have any derived
classes, it is possible to transform virtual function member invocations on sealed class instances
into non-virtual invocations.
Example: use of Sealed modifier
// cs_sealed_keyword.cs
// Sealed classes
using System;
sealed class MyClass
{
public int x;
public int y;
}
class MainClass
{
{
MyClass mC = new MyClass();
mC.x = 110;
mC.y = 150;
Console.WriteLine(x = {0}, y = {1}, mC.x, mC.y);
}
}
Output: x=110, y=150
Constructors
Whenever a class or struct is created, its constructor is called. A class or struct may have multiple
constructors that take different arguments.
Constructors allow the programmer to set default values, limit instantiation, and write code that is
flexible and easy to read.
Constructor is used to initialize an object (instance) of a class.
Constructor is a like a method without any return type.
Constructor has same name as class name.
Constructor follows the access scope (Can be private, protected, public, Internal and
external).
Constructor can be overloaded.
Constructors generally following types:

Default Constructor
Parameterized constructor
Private Constructor
Static Constructor
Copy Constructor
Default Constructor
A constructor that takes no parameters is called a default constructor.
When a class is initiated default constructor is called which provides default values to different data
members of the class.
You need not to define default constructor it is implicitly defined.
Example:
class Program
{
class C1
{
int a, b;
public C1()
{
this.a = 10;
this.b = 20;
}
public void display()
{
Console.WriteLine(Value of a: {0}, a);
Console.WriteLine(Value of b: {0}, b);
}
}
static void Main(string[] args)
{
C1 ob1 = new C1();
ob1.display();
Console.ReadLine();
}
}
Output: Value of a: 10
Value of b: 20
Parameterized constructor
Constructor that accepts arguments is known as parameterized constructor. There may be
situations, where it is necessary to initialize various data members of different objects with
different values when they are created. Parameterized constructors help in doing that task.
class Program
{
class C1
{
int a, b;
public C1(int x, int y)
{
this.a = x;
this.b = y;
}
{
}
}
{ // Here when you create instance of the class
// parameterized constructor will be called
C1 ob1 = new C1(10,20);
ob1.display();
Console.ReadLine();
}
}
Output: Value of a: 10
Value of b: 20
Private Constructor
Private constructors are used to restrict the instantiation of object using new operator. A private
constructor is a special instance constructor. It is commonly used in classes that contain static
members only.
If you dont want the class to be inherited we declare its constructor private.
We cant initialize the class outside the class or the instance of class cant be created
outside if its constructor is declared private.
We have to take help of nested class (Inner Class) or static method to initialize a class
having private constructor.
Example:
class Program
{
class C1
{
int a, b;
public C1(int x, int y)
{
this.a = x;
this.b = y;
}
public static C1 create_instance()
{ return new C1(12, 20); }
{
int z = a + b;
Console.WriteLine(z);
}
}

{ // Here the class is initiated using a static method of the
class than only you can use private constructor

C1 ob1 = C1.create_instance();
ob1.display();
Console.ReadLine();
}
}
Static Constructors
C# supports two types of constructor, a class constructor static constructor and an instance
constructor (non-static constructor).
Static constructors might be convenient, but they are slow. The runtime is not smart enough to
optimize them in the same way it can optimize inline assignments. Non-static constructors are
inline and are faster.
Static constructors are used to initializing class static data members.
Point to be remembered while creating static constructor:
1. There can be only one static constructor in the class.
2. The static constructor should be without parameters.
3. It can only access the static members of the class.
4. There should be no access modifier in static constructor definition.
Static members are preloaded in the memory. While instance members are post loaded into
memory.
Static methods can only use static data members.
Example:
class Program
{
public class test
{
static string name;
static int age;
static test()
{
Console.WriteLine(Using static constructor to initialize
static data members);
name = John Sena;
age = 23;
}
public static void display()
{
Console.WriteLine(Using static function);
Console.WriteLine(name);
Console.WriteLine(age);
}
}
{
test.display();
Console.ReadLine();
}}
Output:
Using static constructor to initialize static data members
Using static function
John Sena
23
Copy Constructor
If you create a new object and want to copy the values from an existing object, you use copy
constructor.
This constructor takes a single argument: a reference to the object to be copied.
Example:
class Program
{
class c1
{
int a, b;
public c1(int x, int y)
{
this.a = x;
this.b = y;
}
// Copy construtor
public c1(c1 a)
{
this.a = a.a;
this.b = a.b;
}
{
int z = a + b;
Console.WriteLine(z);
}
}
{
c1 ob1 = new c1(10, 20);
ob1.display();
// Here we are using copy constructor. Copy constructor is
using the values already defined with ob1
c1 ob2 = new c1(ob1);
ob2.display();
Console.ReadLine();
}
}
Output:
30
30
Destructors
The .NET framework has an in built mechanism called Garbage Collection to de-allocate memory
occupied by the un-used objects. The destructor implements the statements to be executed during
the garbage collection process. A destructor is a function with the same name as the name of the
class but starting with the character ~.
Example:
class Complex
{
public Complex()
{
// constructor
}
~Complex()
{
// Destructor
}
}
Remember that a destructor cant have any modifiers like private, public etc. If we declare
a destructor with a modifier, the compiler will show an error.
Also destructor will come in only one form, without any arguments.
There is no parameterized destructor in C#.
Destructors are invoked automatically and cant be invoked explicitly. An object becomes eligible
for garbage collection, when it is no longer used by the active part of the program. Execution of
destructor may occur at any time after the instance or object becomes eligible for destruction.
Operator Overloading
Operator overloading permits user-defined operator implementations to be specified for operations
where one or both of the operands are of a user-defined class or struct type.
In another way, Operator overloading is a concept in which operator can define to work with the
user defined data types such as structs and classes in the same way as the pre-defined data types.
There are many operators which can not be overloaded, which are listed below:
Conditional Operator
&&, ||
Compound Assignment +=, -=, *=, /=, %=
Other Operators
[], ( ), =, ?:, ->, new, sizeof, typesof.
public class Item
{
public int i;
public Item(int j)
{ i = j; }
public static Item operator +(Item x, Item y)
{
Console.WriteLine(OPerator + + x.i + + y.i);
Item z = new Item(x.i + y.i);
return z;
}
}
class Program
{
{
Item a = new Item(10);
Item b = new Item(5);
Item c;
c = a + b;
Console.WriteLine(c.i);
Console.Read();
}
}
Output: Operator + 10 5
15
In C#, a special function called operator function is used for overloading purpose.
These special function or method must be public and static.
They can take only value arguments.
The ref and out parameters are not allowed as arguments to operator functions.
The general form of an operator function is as follows.

public static return_type operator op (argument list)
Where the op is the operator to be overloaded and operator is the required keyword.
Example: Overloading of Unary operator

class Complex
{
private int x;
private int y;
public Complex()
{}
public Complex(int i, int j)
{
x = i;
y = j;
}
public void ShowXY()
{
Console.WriteLine({0}\t{1},x,y);
}
public static Complex operator -(Complex c) //PASSING OBJECT
{
Complex temp = new Complex();
temp.x = -c.x;
temp.y = -c.y;
return temp;
}
}
class Program
{
{
Complex c1 = new Complex(10, 20);
c1.ShowXY(); // displays 10 & 20
Complex c2 = new Complex();
c2.ShowXY(); // displays 0 & 0
c2 = -c1; //overloading unary operator
c2.ShowXY(); // diapls -10 & -20
Console.Read();
}
}
Output:
10 20
0 0
-10 -20
Namespace:
Namespaces are C# program elements designed to help you organize your programs. They also
provide assistance in avoiding name clashes between two sets of code.
In Microsoft .Net, Namespace is like containers of objects. They may contain unions, classes,
structures, interfaces, enumerators and delegates. Main goal of using namespace in .Net is for
creating a hierarchical organization of program. In this case, you need not to worry about
the naming conflicts of classes, functions, variables etc., inside a project.
In Microsoft .Net, every program is created with a default namespace. This default namespace is
called as global namespace. But the program itself can declare any number of namespaces, each
of them with a unique name. The advantage is that every namespace can contain any number of
classes, functions, variables and also namespaces etc., whose names are unique only inside the
namespace. The members with the same name can be created in some other namespace without
any compiler complaints from Microsoft .Net.
To declare namespace C# .Net has a reserved keyword namespace. If a new project is created in
Visual Studio .NET it automatically adds some global namespaces. These namespaces can be
different in different projects. But each of them should be placed under the base namespace
System. The names space must be added and used through the using operator, if used in a
different project.
A namespace has the following properties:
They organize large code projects.
They are delimited with the . operator.
The using directive means you do not need to specify the name of the namespace for
every class.
The global namespace is the root namespace: global::system will always refer to the
.NET Framework namespace System.
Now have a look at the example of declaring some namespace:
namespace SampleNamespace
{
class SampleClass{}
interface SampleInterface{}
struct SampleStruct{}
enum SampleEnum{a,b}
delegate void SampleDelegate(int i);
namespace SampleNamespace.Nested
{
class SampleClass2{}
}
}
Within a namespace, you can declare one or more of the following types:
another namespace
class
interface
struct
enum
delegate
Namespaces implicitly have public access and this is not modifiable.
It is possible to define a namespace in two or more declarations. For example, the following
example defines two classes as part of the MyCompany namespace:
namespace MyCompany.Proj1
{
class MyClass
{
}
}
namespace MyCompany.Proj1
{
class MyClass1
{
}
}
Example: The following example shows how to call a static method in a nested
namespace:
using System;
namespace SomeNameSpace
{
public class MyClass
{
static void Main()
{
Nested.NestedNameSpaceClass.SayHello();
}
}
// a nested namespace
namespace Nested
{
public class NestedNameSpaceClass
{
public static void SayHello()
{
Console.WriteLine(Hello);
}
}
}
}
Output
Hello
Example: Calling Nested Namespace Members
// Namespace Declaration
using System;
namespace Ex_nestedNamespace
{
namespace tutorial
{
class example
{
public static void MyPrint1()
{
Console.WriteLine(First Example of calling another namespace member.);
}
}
}
namespace Ex_NameSpace
{
class Program
{
{
tutorial.example.MyPrint1();
tutorial.example1.MyPrint2();
Console.Read();
}
}
}
}
namespace Ex_nestedNamespace.tutorial
{
class example1
{
public static void MyPrint2()
{
Console.WriteLine(Second Example of calling another namespace member.);

}
}
}
Output:
First Example of calling another namespace member.
Second Example of calling another namespace member.
Interface
An Interface is a reference type and it contains only abstract members. Interfaces members can
be Events, Methods, Properties and Indexers. But the interface contains only declaration for its
members. Any implementation must be placed in class that realizes them. The interface can not
contain constants, data fields, constructors, destructors and static members. All the member
declarations inside interface are implicitly public and they cannot include any access modifiers.
An interface has the following properties:
An interface is like an abstract base class: any non-abstract type that implements the
interface must implement all its members.
An interface cannot be instantiated directly.
Interfaces can contain events, indexers, methods, and properties.
Interfaces contain no implementation of methods.
Classes and structs can implement more than one interface.
An interface itself can inherit from multiple interfaces.

interface IPoint
{
int x
{ get; set; }
int y
{ get; set; }
}
namespace Ex_Interface
{
class MyPoint:IPoint
{
private int myX;
private int myY;
public MyPoint(int x, int y)
{
myX= x;
myY=y;
}
public int x
{
get
{
return myX;
}
set
{
myX=value;
}
}
public int y
{
get
{
return myY;
}
set
{
myY=value;
}
}
}
class Program
{
private static void PrintPoint(IPoint P)
{
Console.WriteLine(x={0}, y={1},P.x,P.y);
}
{
MyPoint P = new MyPoint(2, 3);
Console.Write(My Point::);
PrintPoint(P);
Console.Read();
}
}
}
Output:
My Point::x=2, y=3
Another Example of Interface by Casting Interface methods:
interface add
{ int sum();}
interface Multiply
{ int mul();}
class Calculate : add, Multiply
{
int a, b;
public Calculate(int x, int y)
{
a = x;
b = y;
}
public int sum()
{ return (a + b);}
public int mul()
{ return a * b; }
}
namespace Ex_MultipleInterface
{
class Program
{
{
Calculate cal = new Calculate(5, 10);

add A = (add)cal;
Console.WriteLine(Sum:: + A.sum());
Multiply M = (Multiply)cal;
Console.WriteLine(Multiplication:: + M.mul());
Console.Read();
}
}
}
Output:
Sum::15
Multiplication::50
Delegates
In .NET, you use delegates to call event procedure. Delegates are objects that you use to call the
methods of other objects. Delegates are said to be object-oriented function pointers since they
allow a function to be invoked indirectly by using a reference to the function.
However, unlike function pointers, the delegates in .NET are reference types, based on the class
System.Delegate. In addition, delegates in .NET can reference both shared and instance methods.
In another way, a delegate can be defined as a type safe function pointer. You use delegates to
call the methods of other objects. They are object-oriented function pointers since they allow a
function to be invoked indirectly by using a reference to the function.
Where are Delegates used?
The most common example of using delegates is in events.
You define a method that contains code for performing various tasks when an event (such as a
mouse click) takes place.
This method needs to be invoked by the runtime when the event occurs. Hence this method, that
you defined, is passed as a parameter to a delegate.
Starting Threads/Parallel Processing:
You defined several methods and you wish to execute them simultaneously and in parallel to
whatever else
the application is doing. This can be achieved by starting new threads. To start a new thread for
your method you pass your method details to a delegate.
Generic Classes: Delegates are also used for generic class libraries which have generic
functionality defined. However the generic class may need to call certain functions defined by the
end user implementing the generic class. This can be done by passing the user defined functions
to delegates.
Creating and Using Delegates:
Using delegates is a two step process.1) Define the delegate to be used
.2) Create one or more instances of the delegate
Syntax for defining a delegate:
delegate string reviewStatusofARegion();
to define a delegate we use a key word delegate followed by the method signature the delegate
represents. In the above example string reviewStatusofARegion(); represents any method that
returns a string and takes no parameters.
Syntax for creating an instance of the delegate:
reviewStatusofARegion = new reviewStatusofARegion(myClass.getEurope);
private string getEurope()
{
return Doing Great in Europe;
}
To create an instance of the delegate you call its constructor. The delegate constructor takes one
parameter which is the method name.
The method signature should exactly match the original definition of the delegate. If it does not
match the compiler would raise an Error.
C# provides support for Delegates through the class called Delegate in the System namespace.
Delegates are of two types.
Single-cast delegates
Multi-cast delegates
A Single-cast delegate is one that can refer to a single method whereas a Multi-cast delegate
can refer to and eventually fire off multiple methods that have the same signature.
The signature of a delegate type comprises are the following.
The name of the delegate
The arguments that the delegate would accept as parameters
The return type of the delegate
A delegate is either public or internal if no specifier is included in its signature. Further, you should
instantiate a delegate prior to using the same.
The following is an example of how a delegate is declared.
Listing 1: Declaring a delegate
public delegate void TestDelegate(string message);
The return type of the delegate shown in the above example is void and it accepts a string
argument. Note that the keyword delegate identifies the above declaration as a delegate to a
method. This delegate can refer to and eventually invoke a method that can accept a string
argument and has a return type of void, i.e., it does not return any value.
Listing 2: Instantiating a delegate
TestDelegate t = new TestDelegate(Display);
Implementing Delegates in C#
This section illustrates how we can implement and use delegates in C#.This section illustrate how
we can implement and use delegates in C#.
Example 1: Single Cast Delegate
namespace Ex_Delegate
{
delegate int Operation(int x, int y); //declaration
class Metaphor
{
public static int Add(int a, int b)
{ return a + b; }
public static int Sub(int a, int b)
{ return a b; }
public static int Mul(int a, int b)
{ return a * b; }
}
class Program
{
{ // Delegate instances
Operation opr1 = new Operation(Metaphor.Add);
Operation opr2 = new Operation(Metaphor.Sub);
Operation opr3 = new Operation(Metaphor.Mul);
//invoking of delegates
int ans1 = opr1(200, 100);
int ans2 = opr2(200, 100);
int ans3 = opr3(20, 10);
Console.WriteLine(\n Addition: + ans1);
Console.WriteLine(\n Subtract: + ans2);
Console.WriteLine(\n Multiplication: + ans3);
Console.Read();
} }}
Example 2: Single Cast Delegate

namespace Ex_SingleCastDelegate
{
//Declare the delegate
public delegate void TestDelegate(string message);
class Program
{
public static void Display(string message)
{Console.WriteLine(The string entered is : + message);}
{ //Initiate the delegate
TestDelegate t = new TestDelegate(Display);
Console.WriteLine(Please enter a string::);
string message = Console.ReadLine();
t(message);
Console.ReadLine();
}}}
Multicast Delegate
A multi-cast delegate is basically a list of delegates or a list of methods with the same signature. A
multi-cast delegate can call a collection of methods instead of only a single method.
Example: Multicast Delegate
namespace Ex_MulticastDelegate
{
public delegate void TestDelegate();
class Program
{
public static void Display1()
{
Console.WriteLine(This is first method);
}
public static void Display2()
{
Console.WriteLine(This is second method);
}
{
TestDelegate t1 = new TestDelegate(Display1);
TestDelegate t2 = new TestDelegate(Display2);
t1 = t1 + t2; // Make t1 a multi-cast delegate
t1(); //Invoke delegate
Console.Read();
}}}
In another way, You can also assign the references of multiple methods to a delegate and use it to
invoke multiple methods. Such a delegate is called a multi-cast delegate as multiple method
references are cast to it and then the delegate is used to invoke these methods.
What are Attributes?
An Attribute is a declarative tag which can be used to provide information to the compiler about
the behaviour of the C# elements such as classes and assemblies.
C# provides convenient technique that will handle tasks such as performing compile time
operations , changing the behaviour of a method at runtime or maybe even handle unmanaged
code.
C# Provides many Built-in Attributes.
Some Popular ones are
Obsolete
DllImport
Conditional
WebMethod
It is also possible to create new ones by extending the System.Attribute class.
For example:
using System;
[CLSCompliant(true)]
Public class myClass
{ // class code }
Web services also make use of attributes. The attribute [WebMethod] is used to specify that a
particular method is to be exposed as a web service.
Why Attributes ?
The reason attributes are necessary is because many of the services they provide would be very
difficult to accomplish with normal code. You see, attributes add what is called metadata to your
programs. When your C# program is compiled, it creates a file called an assembly, which is
normally an executable or DLL library. Assemblies are self-describing because they have metadata
written to them when they are compiled. Via a process known as reflection, a programs attributes
can be retrieved from its assembly metadata. Attributes are classes that can be written in C# and
used to decorate your code with declarative information. This is a very powerful concept because it
means that you can extend your language by creating customized declarative syntax with
attributes.
How it is used in C#?
Attributes are elements that allow you to add declarative information to your programs. This
declarative information is used for various purposes during runtime and can be used at design time
by application development tools. For example, there are attributes such as DllImportAttribute that
allow a program to communicate with the Win32 libraries. Another attribute, ObsoleteAttribute,
causes a compile-time warning to appear, letting the developer know that a method should no
longer be used. When building Windows forms applications, there are several attributes that allow
visual components to be drag-n-dropped onto a visual form builder and have their information
appear in the properties grid. Attributes are also used extensively in securing .NET assemblies,
forcing calling code to be evaluated against pre-defined security constraints. These are just a few
descriptions of how attributes are used in C# programs.
Predefined .NET Valid Targets
Attribute
Description
AttributeUsage
Class
Specifies the valid usage of another

attribute class.
CLSCompliant
All
Indicates whether a program

element is compliant with the
Common Language Specification
(CLS).
DllImport
Method
Specifies the DLL location that

contains the implementation of an
external method.
MTAThread
Method (Main)
Indicates that the default threading

model for an application is
multithreaded apartment (MTA).
NonSerialized
Field
Applies to fields of a class flagged

as Serializable; specifies that these
fields wont be serialized.
Obsolete
All except Assembly,

Marks an element obsoletein
Module, Parameter, and other words, it informs the user that
Return
the element will be removed in
future versions of the product.
ParamArray
Parameter
Allows a single parameter to be

implicitly treated as a params
(array) parameter.
Serializable
Class, struct, enum,

delegate
Specifies that all public and private

fields of this type can be serialized.
STAThread
Method (Main)
Indicates that the default threading

model for an application is STA.
ThreadStatic
Field (static)
Implements thread-local storage

(TLS)in other words, the given
static field isnt shared across
multiple threads and each thread
has its own copy of the static field.
Predefined attributes
Example:
Pre-defined attributes are used to store external information into metadata. For example, consider
the following piece of code:
public class testAttribute {
[DllImport(sampleDLL.dll)]
public static extern sampleFunction(int sampleNo, string sampleString );
public static void Main( ) {
string strVar;
sampleFunction(10, Test Attribute);
}
}
Using the example code above, you can import a method
called sampleFunction from sampleDLL.dll and use it in your program as if its your own
method. This is achieved using the pre-defined attribute DllImport.
Multi-Threading
Multithreading forms a subset of multitasking. Instead of having switch between programs this
feature switches between different parts of the same program. For example when you are writing
words in Ms-word then spell checking is going on background.
Thread A thread (or thread of execution) is a sort of context in which code is running. Any one
thread follows program flow for wherever it is in the code, in the obvious way.
A thread is a unit of processing, and multitasking is the simultaneous execution of multiple
threads. Multitasking comes in two flavors: cooperative and preemptive. Very early versions of
Microsoft Windows supported cooperative multitasking, which meant that each thread was
responsible for relinquishing control to the processor so that it could process other threads.
However, Microsoft Windows NT-and, later, Windows 95, Windows 98, and Windows 2000-support
the same preemptive multitasking that OS/2 does. With preemptive multitasking, the processor is
responsible for giving each thread a certain amount of time in which to execute-a timeslice. The
processor then switches among the different threads, giving each its timeslice, and the
programmer doesnt have to worry about how and when to relinquish control so that other threads
can run. .NET will only work only on preemptive multitasking operating systems.
1. Starting Thread
Object thread is obtained from System.Threading namespace. With the use object of this class we
can create a new thread, delete, pause, and resume threads. Simple a new thread is created by
Thread class and started by Thread.Start().
eg. Thread th = new Thread (new ThreadStart (somedata));
th.Start();
2. Pausing Thread
Some time the requirement to pause a thread for certain time of interval; you can attain the same
by using Sleep (n) method. This method takes an integer value to determine how long a thread
should pause or Sleep.
eg. th.Sleep(2000);
Note:
To pause or sleep a thread for an in determine time, just call the sleep () method as: [make sure
you have added System.Threading namespace] Thread.Sleep(TimeOut.Infinite).
To Resume or interrupt this call : Thread.Interrupt () method.
3. Suspending Thread
Of course, there is a Suspend () method which suspends the thread. It is suspended until a
Resume () method called.
eg. if (th.ThreadState = = ThreadState.Running)
th.Suspended();
4. Resuming Thread
To Resume a suspended thread, there is a Resume () method, thread resumes if earlier suspended
if not so then there is no effect of Resume () method on the thread.
eg. if (th.ThreadState = = ThreadState.Suspended)
th.Resume();
5. Killing Thread
You can call Abort () method to kill a thread, before calling the same method, make sure thread is
alive.
eg. if (th.IsAlive)
th.Abort();
Suspend and Resume in Threading
It is similar to sleep and Interrupt. Suspend allows you to block a thread until another thread calls
Thread.Resume ().The difference between sleep and suspend is that the later does no immediately
place a thread in the wait state. The thread does not suspend until the .Net runtime determines
that it is in a safe place to suspend it. Sleep will immediately place a thread in a wait state.
Important:
You can change thread priority for that just supply : th.Priority = ThreadPriority.Highest. [th
Thread name]. Priority sets the sequence of thread in which they are running. You can set the
following priority to thread(s):
1. ThreadPriority.Highest
2. ThreadPriority.AboveNormal
3. ThreadPriority.Normal
4. ThreadPriority.BelowNormal
5. ThreadPriority.Lowest
Code Example of Multithreading
using System.Threading;
namespace Ex_ThreadExample
{
class SimpleThread
{
private Thread thread1;
private Thread thread2;
private void Method1()
{
for (int i =0; i<10;i++)
{
Console.WriteLine (i = +i);
Thread.Sleep (400); // 200 miliseconds pause
}
}
private void Method2()
{
for (int i =0;i<10;i++)
{
Console.WriteLine (i = + 100 * i);
Thread.Sleep (100); // 100 miliseconds pause
}
}
{
SimpleThread app = new SimpleThread ();
app.thread1 = new Thread (new ThreadStart (app.Method1)); // thread start Delegate
Method
app.thread2 = new Thread (new ThreadStart (app.Method2));
app.thread1.Start ();
app.thread2.Start ();
Console.WriteLine ();
Console.ReadLine();
}
}
}
-xxxxSocket Programming in C#
Network programming in windows is possible with sockets. A socket is like a handle to a file.
Socket programming resembles the file IO as does the Serial Communication. You can use sockets
programming to have two applications communicate with each other. The application are typically
on the different computers but they can be on same computer. For the two applications to talk to
each either on the same or different computers using sockets one application is generally a server
that keeps listening to the incoming requests and the other application acts as a client and makes
the connection to the server application.
The server application can either accept or reject the connection. If the server accepts the
connection, a dialog can begin with between the client and the server. Once the client is done with
whatever it needs to do it can close the connection with the server. Connections are expensive in
the sense that servers allow finite connections to occur. During the time client has an active
connection it can send the data to the server and/or receive the data.
Socket programming in .NET is made possible by Socket class present inside the System.Net.
Sockets namespace.
Socket class has several method and properties and a constructor.
The first step is to create an object of this class. Since there is only one constructor we
have no choice but to use it.
Here is how to create the socket:
m_socListener = new Socket(AddressFamily.InterNetwork,SocketType.Stream,ProtocolType.IP);
AddressFamily is an enum defined in Sockets namespace.
Next we need to specify socket type: and we would use reliable two way connection-based
sockets (stream) instead of un-reliable Connectionless sockets ( datagrams) . So we obviously
specify stream as the socket type and finally we are using TCP/IP so we would specify protocol
type as TCP.
Once we have created a Socket we need to make a connection to the server since we are
using connection-based communication.
To connect to the remote computer we need to know the IP Address and port at which to
connect.
In .NET there is a class under System.Net namespace called IPEndPoint which represents a
network computer as an IP address and a port number.
The IPEndPoint has two constructors one that takes a IP Address and Port number and
one that takes long and port number. Since we have computer IP address we would use the former
public IPEndPoint(System.Net.IPAddress address, int port);
As you can see the first parameter takes a IPAddress object. If you examine the IPAddress
class you will see that it has a static method called Parse that returns IPAddress given a string ( of
dot notation ) and second parameter will be the port number. Once we have endpoint ready we
can use Connect method of Socket class to connect to the end point ( remote server computer ).
Here is the code:
System.Net.IPAddress ipAdd = System.Net.IPAddress.Parse(10.10.101.200);
System.Net.IPEndPoint remoteEP = new IPEndPoint (ipAdd,8221);
m_socClient.Connect (remoteEP);
Description
These three lines of code will make a connection to the remote host running on computer with IP
10.10.101.200 and listening at port 8221. If the Server is running and started ( listening ), the
connection will succeed. If however the server is not running an exception called SocketException
will be thrown. If you catch the exception and check the Message property of the exception in this
case you see following text:
No connection could be made because the target machine actively refused it.
Similarly if you already have made a connection and the server somehow dies, you will get
following exception if you try to send data.
An existing connection was forcibly closed by the remote host
Assuming that the connection is made, you can send data to other side using the Send method of
the Socket class.
Send method has several overloads. All of them take a byte array. For example if you want to send
Hello There to host you can use following call:
try
{
String szData = Hello There;
byte[] byData = System.Text.Encoding.ASCII.GetBytes(szData);
m_socClient.Send(byData);
}
catch (SocketException se)
{
MessageBox.Show ( se.Message );
}
Note that the Send method is blocking. What it means the call will block till the data has been sent
or an exception has been thrown. There is a non-blocking version of the send which we will discuss
in the next part of this article.
Similar to send there is a Receive method on the Socket class. You can receive data using following
call:
byte [] buffer = new byte[1024];
int iRx = m_socClient.Receive (buffer);
The Receive method again is blocking. It means that if there is no data available the call will block
until some data arrives or an exception is thrown.
Non-blocking version of Receive method is more useful than the non-blocking version of Send
because if we opt for block Receive, we are effectively doing polling. There is no event about data
arrival. This model does not work well for serious applications. But all that is the subject of our
next part of this article. For now we will settle with the blocking version.
Server Side Code:
using System;
using System.Net.Sockets;
public class AsynchIOServer
{
{
TCPListener tcpListener = new TCPListener(10);
tcpListener.Start();
Socket socketForClient = tcpListener.Accept();
if (socketForClient.Connected)
{
Console.WriteLine(Client connected);
NetworkStream networkStream = new NetworkStream(socketForClient);
System.IO.StreamWriter streamWriter = new System.IO.StreamWriter(networkStream);
System.IO.StreamReader streamReader = new System.IO.StreamReader(networkStream);
string theString = Sending;
streamWriter.WriteLine(theString);
Console.WriteLine(theString);
streamWriter.Flush();
theString = streamReader.ReadLine();
Console.WriteLine(theString);
streamReader.Close();
networkStream.Close();
streamWriter.Close();
}
socketForClient.Close();
Console.WriteLine(Exiting);
}
}
Client Code:
using System;
using System.Net.Sockets;
public class Client
{
static public void Main( string[] Args )
{
TCPClient socketForServer;
try
{
socketForServer = new TCPClient(localHost, 10);
}
catch
{
Console.WriteLine(
Failed to connect to server at {0}:999, localhost);
return;
}
NetworkStream networkStream = socketForServer.GetStream();
System.IO.StreamReader streamReader = new System.IO.StreamReader(networkStream);
System.IO.StreamWriter streamWriter = new System.IO.StreamWriter(networkStream);
try
{
string outputString;
// read the data from the host and display it
{
outputString = streamReader.ReadLine();
Console.WriteLine(outputString);
streamWriter.WriteLine(Client Message);
Console.WriteLine(Client Message);
streamWriter.Flush();
}
}
catch
{
Console.WriteLine(Exception reading from Server);
}
// tidy up
networkStream.Close();
}
}
x-xx-x-xxError Handling
Overview of Exception Handling
Exceptions are error conditions that arise when the normal flow of a code path-that is, a series of
method calls on the call stack-is impractical. Exception handling is an in built mechanism in .NET
framework to detect and handle run time errors. The exceptions are anomalies that occur during
the execution of a program. They can be because of user, logic or system errors. If a user
(programmer) do not provide a mechanism to handle these anomalies, the .NET run time
environment provide a default mechanism, which terminates the program execution. C# provides
three keywords try, catch and finally to do exception handling. The try encloses the statements
that might throw an exception whereas catch handles an exception if one exists. The finally can be
used for doing any clean up process.
The general form try-catch-finally in C# is shown below:
try
{
// Statement which can cause an exception.
}
catch(Type x)
{
// Statements for handling the exception
}
finally
{
//Any cleanup code
}
If any exception occurs inside the try block, the control transfers to the appropriate catch block
and later to the finally block.
But in C#, both catch and finally blocks are optional. The try block can exist either with one or
more catch blocks or a finally block or with both catch and finally blocks.
If there is no exception occurred inside the try block, the control directly transfers to finally block.
We can say that the statements inside the finally block is executed always. Note that it is an error
to transfer control out of a finally block by using break, continue, return or goto.
In C#, exceptions are nothing but objects of the type Exception. The Exception is the ultimate
base class for any exceptions in C#. The C# itself provides couple of standard exceptions. Or even
the user can create their own exception classes, provided that this should inherit from either
Exception class or one of the standard derived classes of Exception class like
DivideByZeroExcpetion ot ArgumentException etc.
The modified form of the above program with exception handling mechanism is as follows:
//C#: Exception Handling
using System;
class MyClient
{
{
int x = 0; int div = 0;
try
{
div = 100/x;
Console.WriteLine(Not executed line);
}
catch(DivideByZeroException de)
{ Console.WriteLine(Exception occured); }
finally
{ Console.WriteLine(Finally Block); }
Console.WriteLine(Result is {0},div);
}
}
Multiple Catch Blocks
A try block can throw multiple exceptions, which can handle by using multiple catch blocks.
Remember that more specialized catch block should come before a generalized one. Otherwise the
compiler will show a compilation error.
//C#: Exception Handling: Multiple catch
using System;
class MyClient
{
{
int x = 0;
int div = 0;
try
{
div = 100/x;
}
catch(DivideByZeroException de)
{ Console.WriteLine(DivideByZeroException ); }
catch(Exception ee)
{ Console.WriteLine(Exception ); }
finally
{ Console.WriteLine(Finally Block); }
}
}
Catching All Exception
By providing a catch block without a brackets or arguments, we can catch all exceptions occurred
inside a try block. Even we can use a catch block with an Exception type parameter to catch all
exceptions happened inside the try block since in C#, all exceptions are directly or indirectly
inherited from the Exception class.
//C#: Exception Handling: Handling all exceptions
using System;
class MyClient
{
{
int x = 0;
int div = 0;
try
{
div = 100/x;
}
catch
{ Console.WriteLine(oException );}
}
}
The following program handles all exception with Exception object.
//C#: Exception Handling: Handling all exceptions
using System;
class MyClient
{
{
int x = 0;
int div = 0;
try
{
div = 100/x;
}
catch(Exception e)
{ Console.WriteLine(oException );}
}
}
Throwing an Exception
In C#, it is possible to throw an exception programmatically. The throw keyword is used for this
purpose. The general form of throwing an exception is as follows.
throw exception_obj;
For example the following statement throws an ArgumentException explicitly.
throw new ArgumentException(Exception);
Example
//C#: Exception Handling:
using System;
class MyClient
{
{
try
{
throw new DivideByZeroException(Invalid Division);}
catch(DivideByZeroException e)
{ Console.WriteLine(Exception ); }
Console.WriteLine(LAST STATEMENT);
}
}
Standard Exceptions
There are two types of exceptions: exceptions generated by an executing program and exceptions
generated by the common language runtime. System.Exception is the base class for all exceptions
in C#. Several exception classes inherit from this class including ApplicationException and
SystemException. These two classes form the basis for most other runtime exceptions. Other
exceptions that derive directly from System.Exception include IOException, WebException etc.
The common language runtime throws SystemException. The ApplicationException is thrown by a
user program rather than the runtime. The SystemException includes the
ExecutionEngineException, StaclOverFlowException etc. It is not recommended that we catch
SystemExceptions nor is it good programming practice to throw SystemExceptions in our

applications.
System.OutOfMemoryException
System.NullReferenceException
Syste.InvalidCastException
Syste.ArrayTypeMismatchException
System.IndexOutOfRangeException
System.ArithmeticException
System.DevideByZeroException
System.OverFlowException
User-Defined Exceptions
In C#, it is possible to create our own exception class. But Exception must be the ultimate base
class for all exceptions in C#. So the user-defined exception classes must inherit from either
Exception class or one of its standard derived classes.
//C#: Exception Handling: User defined exceptions
using System;
class MyException : Exception
{
public MyException(string str)
{
Console.WriteLine(User defined exception);}
}
class MyClient
{
{
try
{ throw new MyException(RAJESH); }
catch(Exception e)
{Console.WriteLine(Exception caught here + e.ToString()); }
Console.WriteLine(LAST STATEMENT);
}
}
x-xx-x
File Handling in C#
File handling is an unmanaged resource in your application system. It is outside your application
domain (unmanaged resource). It is not managed by CLR.
Data is stored in two ways, persistent and non-persistent manner.
When you open a file for reading or writing, it becomes stream.
Stream: Stream is a sequence of bytes traveling from a source to a destination over a
communication path.
The two basic streams are input and output streams. Input stream is used to read and output
stream is used to write.
The System.IO namespace includes various classes for file handling.
The parent class of file processing is stream. Stream is an abstract class, which is used as the
parent of the classes that actually implement the necessary operations.
The primary support of a file as an object is provided by a .NET Framework class called File. This
static class is equipped with various types of (static) methods to create, save, open, copy, move,
delete, or check the existence of a file.
Object
System.IO
System
MarshalByref
Object
System.IO
FileSystemInfo
System.IO
FileInfo
Directoryinfo
File
Path
Directory
DriveInfo
Diagram to represent file-handling class hierarchy
The following table describes some commonly used classes in the System.IOnamespace:
Class Name
Description
FileStream
It is used to read from and write to any location

within a file
BinaryReader
It is used to read primitive data types from a binary

stream
BinaryWriter
It is used to write primitive data types in binary

format
StreamReader
It is used to read characters from a byte Stream
StreamWriter
It is used to write characters to a stream
StringReader
It is used to read from a string buffer
StringWriter
It is used to write into a string buffer
DirectoryInfo
It is used to perform operations on directories
FileInfo
It is used to perform operations on files
Reading and Writing in the text file

StreamWriter Class
The StreamWriter class in inherited from the abstract class TextWriter. The TextWriter class
represents a writer, which can write a series of characters.
The following table describes some of the methods used by StreamWriter class:
Methods
Description
Close
Close the current StreamWriter object and underlying

stream
Flush
Clears all buffers for the current writer and causes any
buffered data to be written to the underlying stream.
Write
Writes to the Stream
WriteLine
Writes data specified by the overloaded parameters,

followed by end of line.
Program to write user input to a file using StreamWriter Class

using System;
using System.Text;
using System.IO;
namespace FileWriting_SW
{
class Program
{
class FileWrite
{
public void WriteData()
{
FileStream fs = new FileStream(c:\\test.txt, FileMode.Append, FileAccess.Write);
StreamWriter sw = new StreamWriter(fs);
Console.WriteLine(Enter the text which you want to write to the file);
string str = Console.ReadLine();
sw.WriteLine(str);
sw.Flush();
sw.Close();
fs.Close();
}
}
{
FileWrite wr = new FileWrite();
wr.WriteData();
}
}
}
StreamReader Class
The StreamReader class is inherited from the abstract class TextReader. The TextReader class
represents a reader, which can read series of characters.
The following table describes some methods of the StreamReader class:
Methods
Description
Close
Closes the object of StreamReader class and the underlying

stream, and release any system resources associated with the
reader
Peek
Returns the next available character but doesnt consume it
Read
Reads the next character or the next set of characters from the
stream
ReadLine
Reads a line of characters from the current stream and returns

data as a string
Seek
Allows the read/write position to be moved to any position with

the file
Program to read from a file using StreamReader Class

using System;
using System.IO;
namespace FileReading_SR
{
class Program
{
class FileRead
{
public void ReadData()
{
FileStream fs = new FileStream (c:\\test.txt, FileMode.Open, FileAccess.Read);
StreamReader sr = new StreamReader (fs);
Console.WriteLine(Program to show content of test file);
sr.BaseStream.Seek(0, SeekOrigin.Begin);
string str = sr.ReadLine();
while (str != null)
{
Console.WriteLine(str);
str = sr.ReadLine();
}
Console.ReadLine();
sr.Close();
fs.Close();
}
}
{
FileRead wr = new FileRead();
wr.ReadData();
}
}
}
Introduction to Web Services
A Web service exposes a number of methods that provide functionality that can be one or more
application, regardless of the programming languages, operating systems, and hardware platforms
used to develop them. The methods that provide such functionality are called Web Methods. The
functionality exposed by a Web service can be accessed by applications by using Internet
Standards, such as Simple Object Access Protocol (SOAP). SOAP is a protocol that uses extensible
Markup Language (XML) to describe data and HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) to transmit
application data. An application that uses a Web service is called a Web Service Client.
A Web service is similar to a component that provides a specific functionality. However,
components uses object model-specific protocols, such as Internet Inter-ORB Protocol (IIOP) and
Remote Method Invocation (RMI), for communicating with client applications. This communication
approach requires a similar infrastructure at both client and the server sides. This approach is
acceptable when the use of components is confined to controlled environments. Web services use
Internet Standards, such as HTTP and XML, to communicate with client applications. This
communication approach makes Web services independent of any language or platform. Any
computer that has access to the Internet can easily access a Web service.
Depending on the requirements of a business, different types of Web services can be created and
used in an application.
Enabling Technologies used in Web Services
A web service can be created using any programming language in the .NET suite. There are certain
requirements need to be fulfilled to enable applications to access the functionality provided by Web
services. The requirements are:
A common data representation format in order to ensure the interoperability of the data
exchanged by the client application and the Web service.
A standard method for sending messages from the client application to the Web service
and vice versa.
A standard format for describing the web service.
A mechanism to allow client applications to discover the Web services and their locations.
To cater these requirements, various standards such as XML, SOAP and Web Services Description
Language (WSDL) are used.
XML
A client passes arguments to a method exposed by a Web service. The method performs some
action on the arguments and returns the results to the client application. The data returned by the
Web service can be used by the client application, regardless of the hardware and software
platform used to develop the application. To enable this kind of data interchange, you require a
standard data representation format that can be understood by any platform. Since XML is a plaintext format that can be understood by any kind of device.
SOAP
To be able to communicate with each other, a Web service and a client application must agree
upon a common protocol. SOAP is a standard communication protocol for interchanging
information in a structured format in a distributed environment. The information exchanged
between the client application and the web service is called a message. When a client application
makes a request for a web method, a SOAP packet is created. This packet contains the name of
the Web method to be invoked and the parameters to be passed to the Web method in an XML
format. This information is used to invoke the Web method with the appropriate parameters. When
the SOAP packet arrives at the Web server on which the Web service resides, the Web method
name and its parameters are extracted from the SOAP packet and the appropriate Web method is
invoked.
WSDL
To be able to use a Web service, the developers of a client application need to know the methods
exposed by the Web service and the parameters to be passed to these methods. Therefore, you
need a standard method to describe the methods that are exposed by Web service. This
information should be readily accessible to the Web service clients during the design phase. This is
achieved by using an XML vocabulary called Web Service Description Language (WSDL).
WSDL is a markup language that describes a Web service.
A WSDL document contains the following information:
The web services available for a given Web site.
The purpose for which these services can be used.
The types of parameters that need to passed to a Web service.
The type of value that is returned by a Web service.
The format used to access these Web services.
The URL at which a Web service can be accessed.
UDDI (Universal Description Discovery and Integration)
UDDI provides a standard mechanism to register and discover a Web Service. When a Web service
provider wants to make a Web service available to client applications, the provider describes the
web service by using a WSDL document. Then, the provider registers the Web service in the UDDI
Directory. The UDDI directory contains pointers to the Web service and the WSDL document for
the Web service. Client applications can then discover the Web service by using the UDDI
Directory.
UDDI
Registry
WSDL
Document
Locates a Web
Service
Client
Application
Web
Service
Describes
Communication through
SOAP messages
Relation between Enabling Web Service Technologies
XML (eXtensible Markup Language)
XML is a text based markup language that enables you to store data in a structured format by
using meaningful tags. The term eXtensible implies that you can extend your ability to describe a
document by defining meaningful tags for your application.
XML is a cross-platform, hardware and software independent markup language. XML allows
computers to store data in a format that can be interpreted by any other computer system and
therefore. XML can be used to transfer structured data between heterogeneous systems. XML is
used as a common data interchange format in a number of applications.
Advantages of XML
Some of the advantages offered by XML are as follows:
It provides a way of creating domain-specific vocabulary.
It allows data interchange between different computer systems.
It enables smart searches.
It provides user-selected view of data.
It allows granular updates.
Structure of XML document

Before storing data in XML document, It need to organize. An XML document is composed of a
number of components that can be used for representing information in a hierarchical order. These
components are:
Processing Instruction
An XML document usually begins with the XML declaration statement also called the Processing
Instruction (PI). The PI provides information regarding the way in which the XML file should be
processed. The PI statement can be written as:
<? Xml version=1.0 encoding UTF-8?>
The PI is optional. The PI uses the encoding property to specify the information about the encoding
scheme that is used to create the XML file. The encoding scheme is the standard character set for
a language. UTF-8 is the standard character set that is used to create pages written in English.
This character set uses eight bits of information to represent each character.
Therefore, UTF-8 stands for an 8-bit character set.
Tag
Tags are used to specify a name for a given piece of information. It is a means of identifying data.
Data is marked-up using tags. A tag consists of an opening and a closing angular bracket (<>).
These brackets enclose the name of the tag. Tags usually occur in pairs.
 Nick Peter 
In this example, is a predefined HTML tag or mark-up. As XML allows you to create your own
tags, the same information can be stored in the following way:
<EMP_NAME> Nick Peter</EMP_NAME>
In this example, <EMP_NAME> is a new tag created using XML.
Elements
Elements are the basic units that are used to identify and describe data in XML. They are the
building blocks of an XML document. Elements are represented using tags.
XML allows you to provide meaningful names to elements, which helps improve the readability of
the code. For example:
<Authorname> Vivek </Authorname>
In the example, the Authorname element is used to store the names of authors. In this case, the
element name provides a description of the content within the tags.
An XML document must always have a root element. A root element contains all other elements in
the document.
Content
The information that is represented by the elements of an XML document is referred to as the
content of that element. For example,
<BOOKNAME> the painted Hose</BOOKNAME>
The name of the book The Painted House is the content of the BOOKNAME element. XML enables
to declare and use elements that can contain different kinds of information. An element can
contain any of the following types of content:
Character or data content
Element content
Combination or mixed content
Examples
Character content
<BOOKNAME> the painted Hose</BOOKNAME>
Element content
<Author>
<Fname> John </Fname>
<Lname> Smith </Lname>
</Author>
Mixed Content
<PRODUCTDESCRIPTION>
The product is available inn four colors.
<COLOR> RED
</COLOR>
<COLOR> BLUE
</COLOR>
<COLOR> GREEN </COLOR>
<COLOR> YELLOW </COLOR>
</PRODUCTDESCRIPTION>
Attributes
Attributes provide additional information about the elements for which they are declared. An
attribute consists of a name-value pair. Consider the following example:
<PRODUCTNAME PROID=P001> DOLL</PRODUCTNAME>
In this example, the element PRODUCTNAME has an attribute called PROID. The value of this
attribute is set to 001.
Elements can have one or more attributes. Attributes or attribute values can be either mandatory
or optional.
In general, an element is used to represent a definable unit. An attribute is used to represent data
that further qualifies the element. For example, an element called font could have an attribute
called color that is used to specify the color of the font.
Entity
An entity can be described as a shortcut to a set of information. It is name that is associated with
a block of data. This data can be a chunk of text or a reference to an external file that contains
textual or binary information.
<DISPLAY> The price of the this toy is < 20 <DISPLAY>
In the example, < internal entity is used to display a less than (<) symbol.
Comment
Comments are statements that are used to explain the code. They are also used to provide
documentation information about an XML file or even the application to which the file belongs.
When the code is executed, comment entries are ignored by the parser.
Comments are created using an opening angular bracket followed by an exclamation mark and two
hyphens (<!). This is followed by the text that comprises the comments. The comment entry can
be closed using two hyphens followed by a closing angular bracket (>).
Example:
<! Productdata is the root element >
Rules for Creating Well-formed XML document
Every start tag must have an end tag.
Empty tags must be closed using a forward slash (/).
All attribute values must be given in double quotation marks.
Tags must nest correctly.
XML tags are case-sensitive. They must match each other in every implementation.
Declaring Elements in a Document Type Definition

To represent data in a consistent format, it needs to be given a meaningful structure. A wellformed document in XML may not necessarily have a meaningful structure. By defining the role of
each element in a formal model, known as Document Type Definition (DTD), users of XML can
check that each component of the document appears in a valid place in the XML document.
Document Type Definition (DTD)
DTD defines the structure of the content of an XML document, thereby allowing to store data in a
consistent format. It specifies the elements that can be resent in the XML document, attributes of
these elements, and their arrangement with relation to each other.
Creating a DTD is similar to creating a table in a database. In DTDs you specify the structure of
data by declaring elements to denote the data. This is similar to creating columns in a table.
XML allows you to create your own DTDs for applications. This gives you complete control over the
process of checking the content and structure of XML documents is created for an application. This
checking process is called validation. XML document that conform to a DTD are considered valid
documents.
Declaring Elements in a DTD
In a DTD, elements are described using the following syntax:
<! ELEMENT elementname (content-type or content-model/)>
In the given syntax,
Elementname specifies the name of the element.
Content-type or content-model specifies whether the element contains textual data or

other element.
Rule for Naming Elements and Attribute in XML
A name consists of at least one letter: a to z, or A to Z.
An element name may start with an underscore (_).
One or more letters, digits, hyphens, underscores or full stops can follow the initial letter.
Spaces and tabs are not allowed in element names, and the only punctuation signs allowed.
An element can be empty, unrestricted, or a container element. The following table describes
each type of element:
Element Type
Description
Empty
Empty elements have no content and are marked up as

<empty-element/>
Unrestricted
The opposite of an empty element is an unrestricted

element, which can contain any element declared elsewhere
in the DTD.
Container
Elements can contain character data and other elements
Declaring Container Elements

Consider the following tag structure:
<BOOK>
<TITLE> If tomorrow comes </TITLE>
<AUTHOR> Sidney John </AUTHOR>

</BOOK>
For the given XML document to be valid, you need to create a DTD that contains declaration for
three elements: BOOK, TITLE and AUTHOR. The DTD would look as follows:
<! ELEMENT BOOK (TITLE, AUTHOR)>
<! ELEMENT TITLE (#PCDATA)>
<! ELEMENT AUTHOR (#PCDATA)>
PCDATA stands for Parsable Character Data and is used to represent character content.
Declaring Attributes
In addition to declaring elements, attributes too can be declared in a DTD. These declarations are
used during the process of validation. The syntax for declaring attributes in a DTD is:
<! ATTLIST elementname attributename valuetype [attributetype] [default]>
You can assign values to attributes. The following table discusses the different value types that can
be specified:
Value Type
Description
PCDATA
Used to represent plain text values
ID
Used to assign a unique value to each element in the

document. The ID must begin with an alphabetic character.
(enumerated)
Used to assign a specific range of values. These values are

specified within parenthesis
In addition to specifying the value type of an attribute, you also need to specify whether the
attribute is optional or mandatory. Look at the following table for attribute types:
Attribute Type Description
REQUIRED
If the attributes of an element is specified as #REQUIRED,

then the value for that attribute must be specified each time
the element is used in the XML document.
FIXED
If the attribute of an element is specified as #FIXED, then

the value of the attribute can not be changed in XML
document.
IMPLIED
If the attribute of an element is specified as #IMPLIED, then

the attribute is optional. An IMPLIED attribute can take text
strings as their values.
Method to validate the structure of data

To validate the structure of data stored in an XML document against the DTD, you need to use
parsers. Parsers are software programs that check the syntax used in an XML file. There are two
types of parsers. They are:
Non-validating parsers
Validating parsers
Non-validating parsers
A non-validating parser checks if a document follows the XML syntax rules. It builds a tree
structure from the tags used in an XML document and returns an error only when there is a
problem with the syntax of the document. Non-validating parsers process a document faster
because they do not have to check every element against a DTD. The Expat parser is an example
of a non-validating parser.
Validating parsers
A validating parser checks the syntax, builds the tree structure, and compares the structure of the
XML document with the structure specified in the DTD associated with the document. Microsoft
MSXML parser is an example of a validating parser.
XML Tags Examples
para
The para tag works like or in html to structure the text into paragraphs. It can be used
to break a line of continuous text, or to wrap a segment of text into a paragraph.
<para/> or <para></para>
/// The <c>para</c> tag works like <![CDATA[ or ]]> in html to
/// structure the text into paragraphs.<para/>It can be used to break a line
/// of continuous text, <para>or to wrap a segment of text into a paragraph.</para>
param
The param tag is used to describe the parameters of the method. Parameter tags are automatically
inserted into the header template if parameters are in the syntax. The name of the parameter is
automatically inserted into the parameter tag. The parameter description should be brief.
<param name=></param>
/// <param name=_value>
///
Used to demonstrate the usage of <c>param</c>
/// </param>
see
Assigns a hyperlink to the specified text.
<see href|cref|langword=/> or <see href=></see>
/// See <see cref=T:System.Enum>enumeration</see
/// See <see cref=M:TutorialXmlDocumentationTags.code>code</see
/// See <see href=http://www.microsoft.com>Microsoft</see>
///<see langword=null/>
seealso
Adds a link to the See Also section.
<seealso href|cref=/> or <seealso href=></seealso>
/// <seealso cref=T:TutorialXmlDocumentationTags/>
/// <seealso href=http://microsoft.com/>
/// <seealso href=http://www.codeplex.com/Sandcastle>Sandcastle on CodePlex</seealso>
Unsafe Mode
When you use the new keyword to create a new instance of a reference type, you are asking the
CLR to set aside enough memory to use for the variable. The CLR allocates enough memory for the
variable and associates the memory with your variable. Under normal conditions, your code is
unaware of the actual location of that memory, as far as a memory address is concerned. After the
new operation succeeds, your code is free to use the allocated memory without knowing or caring
where the memory is actually located on your system.
Occasionally, however, you need to work with a specific memory address in your C# code. Your
code may need that extra ounce of performance, or your C# code may need to work with legacy
code that requires that you provide the address of a specific piece of memory. The C# language
supports a special mode, called unsafe mode, which enables you to work directly with memory
from within your C# code.
This special C# construct is called unsafe mode because your code is no longer safe from the
memory-management protection offered by the CLR. In unsafe mode, your C# code is allowed to
access memory directly, and it can suffer from the same class of memory-related bugs found in C
and C++ code if youre not extremely careful with the way you manage memory.
Generally, When we write any program in C#, we create managed code. Managed code is executed
under the control of CLR. CLR causes that programmer do not need to manage memory and take
care about memorys allocation and deallocation. CLR also allows you to write what is
called unsafe code.
The CLR knows how to manipulate three kinds of pointers:
Managed pointers: These pointers can point to data contained in the object heap managed
by the garbage collector. These pointers are not used explicitly by the C# code. They are thus used
implicitly by the C# compiler when it compiles methods with out and ref arguments.
Unmanaged function pointers: The pointers are conceptually close to the notion of
delegate.
Unmanaged pointers: These pointers can point to any data contained in the user
addressing space of the process. The C# language allows to use this type of pointers in zones of
code considered unsafe.
Compilation options to allow unsafe code
Unsafe code must be used on purpose and you must also provide the /unsafeoption to
the csc.exe compiler to tell it that you are aware that the code you wish to compile contains zones
which will be seen as unverifiable by the JIT compiler. Visual Studio offers the Build Allow unsafe
code project property to indicate that you wish to use this compiler option.
Declaring unsafe code in C#
In C#, the unsafe keyword lets the compiler know when you will use unsafe code. It can be used
in three situations:
Before the declaration of a class or structure. In this case, all the methods of the type can use
pointers.
Before the declaration of a method. In this case, the pointers can be used within the body of this
method and in its signature.
Within the body of a method (static or not). In this case, pointers are only allowed within the
marked block of code. For example:
unsafe
{
}
Using pointers in C#
Each object, whether it is a value or reference type instance, has a memory address at which it is
physically located in the process. This address is not necessarily constant during the lifetime of the
object as the garbage collector can physically move objects store in the heap.
To create a pointer you can use the following declaration:
Type* variable_name;
As a type may be used each type that is not a reference-type field. It can be only: sbyte, byte,
short, ushort, int, uint, long, ulong, char, float, double etc.
Following examples show different pointers declarations:
int* pi; // declaration a pointer to integer variable
float* pf, pq // two pointers to float variables
char* pz // pointer to char
Advantages of UNSAFE in C#
Performance and flexibility, by using pointer you can access data and manipulate it in the
most efficient way possible.
Compatibility, in most cases we still need to use old windows APIs, which use pointers
extensively, or third parties may supply DLLs that some of its functions need pointer parameters.
Although this can be done by writing the DLLImport declaration in a way that avoids pointers, but
in some cases its just much simpler to use pointer.
Memory Addresses, there is no way to know the memory address of some data without
using pointers.
Disadvantages of UNSAFE in C#
Complex syntax, to use pointers you need to go through more complex syntax than we
used to experience in C#.
Harder to use, you need be more careful and logical while using pointers, miss-using
pointers might lead to the following:
Overwrite other variables
Stack Overflow
Access areas of memory that doesnt contain any data as they do.
Overwrite some information of the code for the .net runtime, which will suerly lead your
application to crash.
Your code will be harder to debug. A simple mistake in using pointers might lead your
application to crash randomly and unpredictably.
Type-safety, using pointers will cause the code to fail in the .net type-safety checks, and of
course if your security police dont allow non type-safety code, then the .net framework will refuse
to execute your application.
Distributed Application in C#
Introduction
Distributed computing is an integral part of almost every software development. Before .Net
Remoting, DCOM was the most used method of developing distributed application on Microsoft
platform. Because of object oriented architecture, .NET Remoting replaces DCOM as .Net
framework replaces COM.
Remoting is a framework built into Common Language Runtime (CLR) in order to provide
developers classes to build distributed applications and wide range of network services. Remoting
provides various features such as Object Passing, Proxy Objects, Activation, Stateless and Stateful
Object, Lease Based LifeTime and Hosting of Objects in IIS.
Benefits of Distributed Application Development:
Fault Tolerance: Fault tolerance means that a system should be resilient when failures within the
system occur.
Scalability: Scalability is the ability of a system to handle increased load with only an incremental
change in performance.
Administration: Managing the system from one place.
In brief, .NET remoting is an architecture which enables communication between different
application domains or processes using different transportation protocols, serialization formats,
object lifetime schemes, and modes of object creation. Remote means any object which executes
outside the application domain. The two processes can exist on the same computer or on two
computers connected by a LAN or the Internet. This is called marshalling (This is the process of
passing parameters from one context to another.), and there are two basic ways to marshal an
object:
Marshal by value: the server creates a copy of the object passes the copy to the client.
Marshal by reference: the client creates a proxy for the object and then uses the proxy to
access the object.
Comparison between .NET Remoting and Web services:
S.No
ASP.NET WebService
.NET Remoting
Easy to develop and deploy
Involves complex programming
Gives extensibility by allowing us Highly extensible by allowing us to

to intercept the SOAP messages customize the different components
during the serialization and
of the .NET remoting framework.
deserialization stages.
Accessed only over HTTP
Webservices support only the

By Using binary communication,
data types defined in the XSD
.NET Remoting can provide support
type system, their by limiting the for rich type system
number of objects that can be
serialized.
Can be accessed over any of the

protocol like HTTP, SMPT, TCP etc.
Architecture:
Remote objects are accessed through channels. Channels are Transport protocols for passing the
messages between Remote objects. A channel is an object that makes communication between a
client and a remote object, across app domain boundaries. The .NET Framework implements two
default channel classes, as follows:
HttpChannel: Implements a channel that uses the HTTP protocol.
TcpChannel: Implements a channel that uses the TCP protocol (Transmission Control
Protocol).
Channel take stream of data and creates package for a transport protocol and sends to other
machine. A simple architecture of .NET remoting is as in below Figure.
Server Object
Remoting System
Client Object
Remoting
System
Proxy
Server Application Domain
Client Application Domain
Channel
Figure shows, Remoting system creates a proxy for the server object and a reference to the proxy
will be returned to the client. When client calls a method, Remoting system sends request thro the
channel to the server. Then client receives the response sent by the server process thro the proxy.
Example:
Let us see a simple example which demonstrates .Net Remoting. In This example the Remoting
object will send us the maximum of the two integer numbers sent.
Creating Remote Server and the Service classes on Machine 1:
Please note for Remoting support your service (Remote object) should be derived from
MarshalByRefObject.
using System;
using System.Runtime.Remoting.Channels; //To support and handle Channel and channel sinks
using System.Runtime.Remoting;
using System.Runtime.Remoting.Channels.Http; //For HTTP channel
using System.IO;
namespace ServerApp
{
public class RemotingServer
{
public RemotingServer()
{
//
// TODO: Add constructor logic here
//
}
}
//Service class
public class Service: MarshalByRefObject
{
public void WriteMessage (int num1,int num2)
{
Console.WriteLine (Math.Max(num1,num2));
}
}
//Server Class
public class Server
{
public static void Main ()
{
HttpChannel channel = new HttpChannel(8001);
//Create a new channel
ChannelServices.RegisterChannel (channel);
//Register channel
RemotingConfiguration.RegisterWellKnownServiceType(typeof
Service),Service,WellKnownObjectMode.Singleton);
Console.WriteLine (Server ON at port number:8001);
Console.WriteLine (Please press enter to stop the server.);

Console.ReadLine ();
}
}
}
Save the above file as ServerApp.cs. Create an executable by using Visual Studio.Net command
prompt by,
csc /r:system.runtime.remoting.dll /r:system.dll ServerApp.cs
A ServerApp.Exe will be generated in the Class folder.
Run the ServerApp.Exe will give below message on the console
Server ON at port number:8001
Please press enter to stop the server.
In order to check whether the HTTP channel is binded to the port, type
http://localhost:8001/Service?WSDL in the browser.
You should see a XML file describing the Service class.
Please note before running above URL on the browser your server (ServerApp.Exe should be
running) should be ON.
Creating Proxy and the Client application on Machine 2
SoapSuds.exe is a utility which can be used for creating a proxy dll.
Type below command on Visual studio.Net command prompt.
soapsuds -url:http://< Machine Name where service is running>:8001/Service?WSDL
-oa:Server.dll
This will generates a proxy dll by name Server.dll. This will be used to access remote object.
Client Code:
using System;
using System.Runtime.Remoting.Channels; //To support and handle Channel and channel sinks
using System.Runtime.Remoting;
using System.Runtime.Remoting.Channels.Http; //For HTTP channel
using System.IO;
using ServerApp;
namespace RemotingApp
{
public class ClientApp
{
public ClientApp()
{
}
public static void Main (string[] args)
{
HttpChannel channel = new HttpChannel (8002); //Create a new channel
ChannelServices.RegisterChannel (channel); //Register the channel
//Create Service class object
Service svc = (Service) Activator.GetObject (typeof (Service),http://<Machinename where Service
running>:8001/Service); //Localhost can be replaced by
//Pass Message
svc.WriteMessage (10,20);
}
}
}
Save the above file as ClientApp.cs. Create an executable by using Visual Studio.Net command
prompt by,
csc /r:system.runtime.remoting.dll /r:system.dll ClientrApp.cs
A ClientApp.Exe will be generated in the Class folder. Run ClientApp.Exe , we can see the result on
Running ServerApp.EXE command prompt.
1.
2.
3.
4.
In the same way we can implement it for TCP channel also.

ADO.NET
ADO.NET is a model used by .NET applications to communicate with a database for retrieving,
accessing and updating data.
Features of ADO.NET
Some of the features of ADO.NET are given below:
Disconnected data architecture ADO.NET uses the disconnected data architecture.
Applications connect to the database only while retrieving and updating data. After data is
retrieved, the connection with the databse is closed. When the database needs to be updated, the
connection is re-established. Working with applications that do not follow a disconnected
architecure leads to a wastage of valuable system resources, since the application connects to the
database and keeps the connection open until it stops running, but does not actually interact with
the database except while retrieving and updating data.
Data Cahed in datasets A dataset is the most common method of accessing data since it
implements a disconnected architecture. Since ADO.NET is based on a disconnected data
structure, it is not possible for the application to interact with the database for processing each
record. Therefore, the data is retrieved and store in datasets. A dataset is a chached set of
database records.You can work with the records stored in a dataset as you work with real data;
the only difference being that the dataset is independent of data source and you remain
disconnected from the data source.
Data transfer in XML format XML is the fundamental format for data transfer in ADO.NET.
Data is transferred from a databse into a dataset and from the dataset to another component by
using XML. You can use XML file as a data source and store data from it in a dataset. Using XML as
the data transfer language is beneficial as XML is an industry standard for exchanging information
between types of applications.
Interaction with the database is done through data commands All operations on the
database are performed by using data commands. A data command can be a SQL statement or a
stored procedure. You can retrieve, insert, delete or modify data from a database by executing
data commands.
The ADO.NET Object Model
ADO.NET uses a structured process flow containing components. The structured process flow or
the object model is shown in following figure:
Connection
Data Reader
Command
Data Adapter
.NET Application
DataSet
Database
Data Provider
Accessing
Retrieved data
Accessing retrieved data
Filling dataset with data
Establish connection
Executes a command to retrieve data
Transfer data to the dataset and reflects the changes in dataset
Retrieve data in a read-only, forwarded only
ADO.NET Object Model
Data Access in ADO.NET relies on two components: DataSet and Data Provider.
DataSet
The dataset is a disconnected, in-memory representation of data. It can be considered as a local
copy of the relevant portions of the database. The DataSet is persisted in memory and the data in
it can be manipulated and updated independent of the database. When the use of this DataSet is
finished, changes can be made back to the central database for updating. The data in DataSet can
be loaded from any valid data source like Microsoft SQL server database, an Oracle database or
from a Microsoft Access database.
Data Provider
The Data Provider is responsible for providing and maintaining the connection to the database. A
DataProvider is a set of related components that work together to provide data in an efficient and
performance driven manner.
The .NET Framework currently comes with two DataProviders: the SQL Data Provider which is
designed only to work with Microsofts SQL Server 7.0 or later and the OleDb DataProvider which
allows us to connect to other types of databases like Access and Oracle. Each DataProvider
consists of the following component classes:
The Connection object which provides a connection to the database
The Command object which is used to execute a command
The DataReader object which provides a forward-only, read only, connected recordset
The DataAdapter object which populates a disconnected DataSet with data and performs
update
Component classes that make up the Data Providers
The Connection Object
The Connection object creates the connection to the database. Microsoft Visual Studio .NET
provides two types of Connection classes: the SqlConnection object, which is designed specifically
to connect to Microsoft SQL Server 7.0 or later, and the OleDbConnection object, which can
provide connections to a wide range of database types like Microsoft Access and Oracle. The
Connection object contains all of the information required to open a connection to the database.
The Command Object
The Command object is represented by two corresponding classes: SqlCommand and
OleDbCommand. Command objects are used to execute commands to a database across a data
connection. The Command objects can be used to execute stored procedures on the database, SQL
commands, or return complete tables directly. Command objects provide three methods that are
used to execute commands on the database:
ExecuteNonQuery: Executes commands that have no return values such as INSERT,
UPDATE or DELETE
ExecuteScalar: Returns a single value from a database query
ExecuteReader: Returns a result set by way of a DataReader object
The DataReader Object
The DataReader object provides a forward-only, read-only, connected stream recordset from a
database. Unlike other components of the Data Provider, DataReader objects cannot be directly
instantiated. Rather, the DataReader is returned as the result of the Command objects
ExecuteReader method. The SqlCommand.ExecuteReader method returns a SqlDataReader object,
and the OleDbCommand.ExecuteReader method returns an OleDbDataReader object. The
DataReader can provide rows of data directly to application logic when you do not need to keep
the data cached in memory. Because only one row is in memory at a time, the DataReader
provides the lowest overhead in terms of system performance but requires the exclusive use of an
open Connection object for the lifetime of the DataReader.
The DataAdapter Object

The DataAdapter is the class at the core of ADO .NETs disconnected data access. It is essentially
the middleman facilitating all communication between the database and a DataSet. The
DataAdapter is used either to fill a DataTable or DataSet with data from the database with
its Fill method. After the memory-resident data has been manipulated, the DataAdapter can
commit the changes to the database by calling the Update method. The DataAdapter provides four
properties that represent database commands:
SelectCommand
InsertCommand
DeleteCommand
UpdateCommand
When the Update method is called, changes in the DataSet are copied back to the database and
the appropriate InsertCommand, DeleteCommand, or UpdateCommand is executed.
ADO.NET Archtecture
The following diagram illustrates the relationship between a .NET Framework data provider and a
DataSet
Heap & Stack
Introduction
This video explains the
concept of boxing and
What goes inside when you declare a variable?
unboxing and it also
Stack and Heap
shows the performance
Value types and reference types
implications caused by the
So which data types are ref type and value type?
same.
Boxing and Unboxing
Performance implication of Boxing and unboxing
Source code
Introduction
This article will explain 6 important concepts Stack , heap , value types , reference types , boxing
and unboxing. This article starts first explaining what happens internally when you declare a
variable and then it moves ahead to explain 2 important concepts stack and heap. Article then
talks about reference types and value types and clarifies some of the important fundamentals
around them.
Finally the article concludes by demonstrating how performance is hampered due to boxing and
unboxing with a sample code.
Watch my 500 videos on various topics like design patterns,WCF, WWF , WPF, LINQ
,Silverlight,UML, Sharepoint ,Azure,VSTS and lot more click here , you can also catch me on my
trainings @ click here.
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What goes inside when you declare a variable?
When you declare a variable in a .Net application, it allocates some chunk of memory in to the
RAM. This memory has 3 things first the name of the variable, second data type of the variable
and finally the value of the variable.
That was a simple explanation of what happens in the memory, but depending on what kind of
data type your variable is allocated on that type of memory. There are two types of memory
allocation stack memory and heap memory. In the coming sections we will try to understand these
two types of memory in more details.
Stack and Heap
In order to understand stack and heap, lets understand what actually happens in the below code
internally.
Collapse
public void Method1()
{
// Line 1
int i=4;
// Line 2
int y=2;
//Line 3
class1 cls1 = new class1();
}
Its a 3 line code so lets understand line by line how things execute internally.
Line 1:- When this line is executed compiler allocates a small amount of memory in to memory
type called as stack. Stack is responsible of keeping track of running memory needed in your
application.
Line 2:- Now the execution moves to the next step. As the name says stack it stacks this memory
allocation on the top of the first memory allocation. You can think about stack as series of
compartment or boxes put on top of each other.
Memory allocation and de-allocation is done using LIFO (Last in first out) logic. In other words
memory is allocated and de-allocated at only one end of the memory i.e. top of the stack.
Line 3:- In line 3 we have a created an object. When this line is executed it creates a pointer on
the stack and the actual object is stored in a different type of memory location called as Heap.
Heap does not track running memory its just pile of objects which can reached at any moment of
time. Heap is used for dynamic memory allocation.
One more important point to note here is reference pointers are allocated on stack. The statement,
Class1 cls1; does not allocate memory for an instance of Class1, it only allocates a stack variable
cls1 (and sets it to null). The time it hits the new keyword it allocates on HEAP.
Exiting the method (The fun):- Now finally the execution control starts exiting the method.
When it passes the end control it clears all the memory variables which are assigned on stack. In
other words all variables which are related to int data type are de-allocated in LIFO fashion from
the stack.
The BIG catch It did not de-allocate the heap memory. This memory will be later de-allocated by
GARBAGE COLLECTOR.
Now many of our developer friends must be wondering why two types of memory, cant we just
allocate everything on just one memory type and we are done.
If you look closely primitive data types are not complex, they hold single values like int i = 0.
Object data types are complex, they reference other objects or other primitive data types. In other
words they hold reference to other multiple values and each one of them must be stored in
memory. Object types need dynamic memory while primitive needs static type memory. If the
requirement is of dynamic memory its allocated on a heap or else it goes on a stack.
Image taken from http://michaelbungartz.wordpress.com/
Value types and reference types
Now that we have understood the concept of Stack and Heap its time to understand the concept
of value types and reference types.
Value types are types which hold both data and the memory on the same location. While a
reference type has a pointer which points to the memory location.
Below is a simple integer data type with name i whose value is assigned to an other integer data
type with name j. Both these memory values are allocated on the stack.
When we assign the int value to the other int value it creates a complete different copy. In other
word if you change either of them the other does not change. These kinds of data types are called
as Value types.
When we create an object and when we assign one object to the other object, they both point to
the same memory location as show in the below code snippet. So when we assign obj to obj1
they both point to the same memory location.
In other words if we change one of them the other object is also affected this is termed as
Reference types.
So which data types are ref type and value type?

In .NET depending on data types the variable is either assigned on the stack or on the heap.
String and Objects are reference types and any other .NET primitive data types are assigned on
the stack. Below figure explains the same in a more detail manner.
Boxing and Unboxing
WOW, you have given so much knowledge, so whats the use of it in actual programming. One of
the biggest implications is to understand the performance hit which is incurred due to data moving
from stack to heap and vice versa.
Consider the below code snippet. When we move a value type to reference type the data is moved
from the stack to the heap. When we move reference type to a value type the data is moved from
the heap to the stack.
This movement of data from the heap to stack and vice-versa creates a performance hit.
When the data moves from value types to reference types its termed as Boxing and the vice
versa is termed as UnBoxing.
If you compile the above code and see the same in ILDASM you can see in the IL code how
boxing and unboxing looks, below figure demonstrates the same.
Performance implication of Boxing and unboxing
In order to see how the performance is impacted we ran the below two functions 10,000 times.
One function has boxing and the other function is simple. We used a stop watch object to monitor
the time taken.
The boxing function was executed in 3542 MS while without boxing the code was executed in 2477
MS. In other words try to avoid boxing and unboxing. In project you always need boxing and
unboxing , use it when its absolutely necessary.
With the same article the sample code is attached which demonstrates this performance
implication.
Currently I have not put a source code for unboxing but the same hold true for the same. You can
write the same and experiment it by using stopwatch class.

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C# Notes

It is a layer between the operating system and the programming language.

It supports many programming languages, including VB.NET, C# etc.

3.1 Is it platform independent?

So, your code is purely platform independent and runs anywhere!

3.2 Major Issues before .NET

The .NET Platform

The .NET Platform Architecture

Support for Multiple Programming Language

Source code to native code and code execution

The CTS supports two general categories of types:

Information about program structure is language-agnostic, so that it can be referenced between

Language Interoperability: Language interoperability is the ability of an application to

Security Management The traditional operating system security model provides

Advantages of the .NET Framework

public new void DoWork() { }

By default, methods are non-virtual. You cannot override a non-virtual method.

The override modifier is required to extend or modify the abstract or virtual

An override method provides a new implementation of a member inherited from a base

Constructors generally following types:

static void Main(string[] args)

class than only you can use private constructor

The general form of an operator function is as follows.

Example: Overloading of Unary operator

Console.WriteLine(Second Example of calling another namespace member.);

An interface cannot be instantiated directly.

Interfaces can contain events, indexers, methods, and properties.

Interfaces contain no implementation of methods.

Classes and structs can implement more than one interface.

An interface itself can inherit from multiple interfaces.

Calculate cal = new Calculate(5, 10);

Example 2: Single Cast Delegate

Specifies the valid usage of another

Indicates whether a program

Specifies the DLL location that

Indicates that the default threading

Applies to fields of a class flagged

All except Assembly,

Allows a single parameter to be

Class, struct, enum,

Specifies that all public and private

Indicates that the default threading

Implements thread-local storage

SystemExceptions nor is it good programming practice to throw SystemExceptions in our

It is used to read from and write to any location

It is used to read primitive data types from a binary

It is used to write primitive data types in binary

It is used to read characters from a byte Stream

It is used to write characters to a stream

It is used to read from a string buffer

It is used to write into a string buffer

It is used to perform operations on directories

It is used to perform operations on files

Reading and Writing in the text file

Close the current StreamWriter object and underlying

Writes to the Stream

Writes data specified by the overloaded parameters,

Program to write user input to a file using StreamWriter Class

Closes the object of StreamReader class and the underlying

Returns the next available character but doesnt consume it

Reads a line of characters from the current stream and returns

Allows the read/write position to be moved to any position with

Program to read from a file using StreamReader Class