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An executive summary for managers and

executive readers can be found at the end of


this article

A cross-national study
on childrens purchasing
behavior and parental
response

Introduction

Jayantha S. Wimalasiri

The author
Jayantha S. Wimalasiri is an Associate Professor in the
Department of Management and Public Administration,
The University of the South Pacific, Suva, Fiji.

Keywords
Influence, Consumer marketing, Consumer research

Abstract
Children use various influencing tactics to persuade the parents
to comply with their requests. Parents responses vary from
outright denial to total acceptance. A sample of 255 parents
selected from the Fiji Islands, Tonga and the Cook Islands were
interviewed using a structured questionnaire to measure the
effects of childrens influence on the parental decision making
process. This preliminary investigation suggests that the children
in the Pacific Islands have not moved from parent-centered
family environment to the modern, mostly Western, childcentered family environment. The second part of the research
was designed to identify the demonstrated influence tactics used
by the children in the island nations. The findings indicate that
the children are less demanding and more persuasive in their
attempt to obtain parental approval. Details of statistical
analysis of the study are given. The implications of the findings
for marketing management are also discussed in the paper.

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Journal of Consumer Marketing


Volume 21 Number 4 2004 pp. 274-284
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited ISSN 0736-3761
DOI 10.1108/07363760410542183

A variety of influences and experiences shape the


consumer habits of the young consumer all over
the world. Among others, family, peers, and media
appear to have the greatest impact on childrens
consumer decision-making skills and behavior.
The family has been identified as the most
influential factor that affects decisions concerning
such purchases as food, health care products and
household effects. On the other hand, peers and
the media play a vital role in influencing the
discretionary purchase of the young. In fact, the
media has been singled out as the most powerful
influencer in molding the consumer habits of the
young. In the 1940s and 1950s children were not
considered consumers in their own right but only
extensions to their parents purchasing power.
With the advent of television and other mass
media, children have come into their own right as
consumers and, consequently, they have become
an important target market for the business
(Pecora, 1995). Advertisers are the first to
recognize childrens value as consumers who are
capable of making decisions about spending.
(McNeal, 1969, 1987). Commercialism, that is,
communication aimed at increasing consumer
demand and commercial profit (Morton,
1994-1995) has exerted pressure on children to
continue consumption and acquisition at the
expense of informed consumer decision-making
and environmental sensitivity (Consumers Union
Education Services, 1990).
The phenomenal growth of the youth market
and its implications for marketing strategy has
been the subject of investigation in recent times.
For example, in the USA alone, the estimated
value of the kids market is about US$188 billion.
In less developed countries the trend appears to
follow the same pattern as in the developed world,
although the market size may be comparatively
small. Increasingly, children have become not
passive observers, but active participants in the
family purchase decisions. Not only do children
have their own money to spend on a variety of
products and services of their choice, they also
have extensive influence on how their parents buy
products and services. According to McNeal
(1992), American children spent over $132 billion
on 62 product categories and on average 17
This research was supported by a grant from the
University of the South Pacific, Suva, Fiji

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Journal of Consumer Marketing

Jayantha S. Wimalasiri

Volume 21 Number 4 2004 274-284

percent of family spending in selected categories of


products were influenced by children. In China,
kids are known as Little Emperors and they are
being showered with everything from candy to
computer games. With at least 300 million people
in China under the age of 15 a huge market is
emerging in China that caters to kiddy dynasty
(Zikmund and dAmico, 1998, p. 158). In
Australia, the teenage market is estimated to be
worth about $A3.9 million, and in New Zealand it
is about A$800,000.
The tremendous increase in the childinfluenced sales volume in most countries can be
attributed to several factors. First, most families
have fewer children, thereby increasing the
influence of each child; second, working couples
can afford to allow their children to make the
choice; third, due to constant exposure to media,
children learn a great deal about products/services
and are in a position to convince their parents as to
what is good and bad. Marketers use
television as the most powerful medium of
communication. Over the last three years the
spread of multi-channel television reception
around the world has led to an exponential growth
in the number of channels targeting children.
Finally, the single parents foster household
participation and self-reliance among their
children
Marketers in less developed countries such as
South Pacific Island nations, are just beginning to
experience the influence of children in family
purchases. Yet, there is hardly any empirical
investigation into the process and effects of
parental decision making on the selection of
childrens needs. Most of the empirical studies
have been conducted in the industrialized nations
(Ward and Wackman, 1972; Atkin, 1975, 1978;
Culley et al., 1976; Grossbart et al., 1991; Kate,
1992. Menasco and Curry, 1989; Corfman, 1989;
Boutilier, 1993), and the literature survey failed to
identify any comparable studies in the South
Pacific Islands. Therefore, this study could be
considered as a small step forward toward
understanding the nature of influence and effect of
children on parental purchase decisions in the Fiji
Islands.
The study focuses on two questions:
(1) What is the nature of parent-child interaction
(exchange process) in purchase decisions on
selected items?
(2) What kind of influence tactics do children in
Fiji use in persuading their parents to comply
with their requests?
Studies of this nature will have practical
implications for marketers when designing,
implementing and evaluating advertising and sales
promotion strategies.

Theoretical underpinning
The marketers have recognized childrens
influence on their parents purchase decisions
since the 1950s. Research into intergenerational
issues with focus on consumer behavior began
about three decades ago with Hill (1970) focusing
on levels of consumership that hold over more than
one generation. Miller (1975) asserts that parents
and children share continuity in terms of
unfulfilled plans and consumer behavior. Rusts
(1993) study observed parents and children
shopping together to find out how their in-store
behavior varied with the age of the child. MooreShay and Lutzs (1988) study examined the
relation between family communication patterns
and mothers marketplace motivations, attitudes
and behaviors. The results of this study suggest a
correlation between shopping tendencies and
family communication patterns. McArthurs
(1992) study revealed that, half of the teenagers
surveyed helped in the selection of some brands,
and 14 percent contributed to the decision for
most brands, and 13 percent had a say in the
choice of every brand. The most comprehensive
study on childrens purchasing power comes from
James McNeal (1969, 1987, 1992). According to
McNeal (1969, 1987, 1992), children get
experience in shopping and eating at the age of two
months, and when they are in first-grade they have
gained thousands of shopping experiences. He says
that todays kids in the USA have great influence
over what their parents buy and on average, kids in
supermarkets with a parent will make 15 requests
and about half of them will be fulfilled.
Carlson and Grossbart (1988) identify two
strategies that parents use to influence their
children: direct instrumental training and
modeling. The former occurs when a parent
specifically and directly attempts to bring about
certain responses through reasoning and
reinforcement. The latter occurs when a child
learns appropriate (or inappropriate) consumption
behaviors by observing parents (or others).

Influence and persuasion


The terms, influence and persuasion are used to
describe the interaction between parents and
children in this study. Influence occurs any time a
source (children) attempt to change a receivers
(parents) thoughts, feelings or behaviors. Inducing
a change in behavior is called compliance and
inducing a change in attitude is called persuasion.
Persuasion is a special case of influence, whereby
the source deliberately uses communication to try
and change a targets attitude. As Cialdini (1993,
p. 3) puts it:

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Childrens purchasing behavior and parental response

Journal of Consumer Marketing

Jayantha S. Wimalasiri

Volume 21 Number 4 2004 274-284

. . . persuasion attempts to win the heart and


mind of the target. Thus persuasion must induce
attitude, which entails affective (emotion-based)
change. Although persuasion is more difficult to
induce, its effects last longer because the target
actually accepts and internalizes the advocacy.

Both influence and persuasion are concerned with


deliberate change, but diverge because persuasion
requires communication (verbal and non-verbal
messages) and it seeks attitude change. By contrast
influence can proceed without communication
and may achieve behavior (external) change
without gaining attitude (internal) change (Fazio,
1990; Snyder, 1982). Ignoring the subtle
differences of these two terms, very often writers
use them interchangeably. Most of the time
children do not have direct control over their
parents but parents do have free choice to act as
they please. Therefore, children of all ages (and
cultures) use various tactics to influence their
parents and the main objective of this study is to
explore the demonstrated means of influence used
by the children in the Fiji Islands.

Exchange as a mechanism of need


satisfaction
Social relationships, as opposed to economic
relationships, occur when the social members
engage in symbolic transfer of both tangible and
intangible entities, and they involve various media
to influence such exchanges (Bagozzi, 1975, p. 70).
Human needs are satisfied by engaging in
exchange exchange of feelings, actions and
things. The process of communication plays a vital
role in facilitating the exchange process. The
media of exchange is the mechanism with which
people communicate to, and influence others in
the satisfaction of their needs. These mechanisms
include money, persuasion, punishment,
inducement, authority, and activation of
normative or ethical commitment (Parson, 1963a,
b; Emerson, 1962). In the absence of such
resources or powers children may resort to other
means of persuading their parents in fulfilling their
needs. The most common influence tactics used by
the children include: pressure tactics, upward
appeal, exchange tactics, coalition tactics,
ingratiating tactic, rational persuasion,
inspirational appeals, and consultative tactics
(Yukl and Falbe, 1990). In the context of exchange
theory, children receive tangible entities while
parents (the giver) receive intangibles such as
psychological and social values. The symbolic
exchange of both tangible and intangible entities
facilitates social harmony, tolerance and
interdependence among the family members.
It is in this context, that the current study was
undertaken to determine the nature of parent-

child interaction in the Fiji Islands, Tonga and the


Cook Islands. The study also looks at the various
types of influence strategies used by the children to
persuade their parents to comply with their
request.

Methodology
Study site and unit of analysis
Using a structured questionnaire, data for the
study were collected from 104 families in the Fiji
Islands, 101 families in the Cook Islands and 98
families in Tonga. Consistent with Atkins (1978)
flow chart (see Table I) the first part of the research
instrument was designed by the author to ascertain
the manners expressed by children towards their
parents. Consistent with Yukl and Falbe (1990)
the second part of the research instrument
contained 24 statements aimed at tapping
influence tactics of children in each of the three
nations.
The University of the South Pacific (USP) is a
regional university serving 12 nations in the South
Pacific. The main campus is located in Suva, Fiji
and each of the 12 member nations has a USP
centre to cater to the needs of the local students.
Faculty members of the main campus often visit
the USP centres to conduct lecturers, tutorials and
to consult with the students. It is this arrangement
Table I Scale definitions of influence tactics
Pressure tactics

The child makes demands, uses threats, or intimidation


to persuade you to comply with his/her request

Upward appeal

The child seeks to persuade you, saying that the request


was approved or supported by an older member of the
family, a teacher or even a family friend

Exchange tactics

The child makes an explicit or implicit promise to give


you some sort of service such as washing the car,
cleaning the house, or taking care of the baby, in return
for a favor

Coalition tactics

The child seeks the aid of others to persuade you to


comply with his/her request or uses the support of
others as an argument for you to agree with him/her

Ingratiating tactics

The child seeks to get you in a good mood or think


favorably of him or her before asking you to comply with
a request

Rational persuasion

The child uses logical arguments and factual evidence to


persuade you to agree with his/her request

Inspirational appeals

The child makes an emotional appeal or proposal that


arouses enthusiasm by appealing to your values and
ideals

Consultation tactics

The child seeks your involvement in making a decision

Source: Adapted from Yukl and Falbe (1990)

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Childrens purchasing behavior and parental response

Journal of Consumer Marketing

Jayantha S. Wimalasiri

Volume 21 Number 4 2004 274-284

that facilitated the data collection from three


different nations in the South Pacific.
A team of students who has completed a course
in research methodology was randomly selected as
research assistants. Having completed a pilot study
to familiarize researchers with the interview
method they were asked to interview families in
five different locations in each island. Although
researchers participated voluntarily in the research
project they were paid $3.00 per interview. Of the
500 questionnaires, 359 were returned
representing a response rate of 71 percent.

participants outnumber females by a small


percentage points, but in Cook Island 60 percent
of the respondents were female. In all three nations
Christianity (and its various denominations)
account for more than 80 percent of the
respondents and in Tonga the percentage is 98.
Most of the participants had some form of
employment and the non-working families
account for less than 3 percent of the total sample.
Approximately 50 percent of the respondents fall
into 30-40 age bracket. The family size, in terms of
number of children, was relatively large in the
South Pacific countries. In Fiji and Cook Islands,
40 percent of the respondents had two to three
children in each family and 28 percent had up to
five children. In Tonga 24 percent of the families
under investigation had up to seven children in
each family and 6 percent had above eight
children.
The household income of each of the three
nations is relatively low and the comparison of this
variable with that of the Western countries is not
warranted. Approximately 64 percent of the ethnic
Fijians, 28 percent of the Cook Islanders and 62
percent of the Tongan people earned less than
$9,600 per annum. Relatively Cook Islanders (46
percent) appear to be more affluent with an annual
household income of over $12,000 per annum.
In order to maintain the homogeneity of the
units of analysis we excluded non-indigenous
respondents from the analysis. For example, in Fiji
43 percent of the population consists of IndoFijians and 52 percent ethnic Fijians. In the Fijian
sample, only ethnic Fijians were considered for
further analysis.

Sample
The three samples as shown in Table II, represent a
broad diversity of socio-economic status of the
responding families. In Fiji and in Tonga male
Table II Sample characteristics
Study site
Cook Islands
Tonga
(%)
(%)

Characteristics

Fiji
(%)

Age
18-29
30-40
41-53
54-above

12
59
26
3

37
49
12

22
40
23
1

25
52
19
1

Gender
Male
Female

57
43

40
60

52
48

48
52

Religion
Christianity
Hinduism
Buddhism
Islam
Other

83
7
2
2
6

82
1

12

98

88
3
1
1
7

Employment
Managerial
Supervisory
Clerical
Blue-collar
Self-employed
Non-working

7
26
39
14
18
2

13
20
32
5
27
3

21
12
11
18
38
3

13
19
26
11
17
3

Number of children
1
2/3
4/5
6/7
Above 8

21
40
27
11

20
41
28
7
2

15
27
27
24
6

19
37
28
13
3

Household income
$400-$600
$601-$800
$801-$1,000
$1,001-$1,500
$1,501-$2,000
$2,001+

36
28
20
11
3
2

16
12
16
17
18
21

45
17
14
5
3
6

35
19
17
11
8
10

Note: Totals may not add up to 100 due to rounding errors

Total sample
(%)

Research instrument
Consistent with prior studies, the research
instrument was designed by the author, pre-tested
and implemented through a team of research
assistants who volunteered to administer the
questionnaire. The first part of the questionnaire
follows Atkins (1978) flow chart of parent-child
interaction (see Table I) and was designed to
measure:
.
the party which initiate the selection of
childrens products (products include
chocolate, ice-cream, candy bars, soft drinks
and toys);
.
the opposite partys reaction (that is childs
reaction to parents choice and parents
reaction to childs choice;
.
if child selected the item, parents response
and if parent selected the item, childs
response;
.
the tone and mood of response; and
.
the final outcome of the transaction process.

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Childrens purchasing behavior and parental response

Journal of Consumer Marketing

Jayantha S. Wimalasiri

Volume 21 Number 4 2004 274-284

The second section of the questionnaire was designed


to identify the demonstrated influence tactics:
.
ingratiating tactics;
.
consultation;
.
rational persuasion;
.
upward appeal;
.
exchange tactics;
.
coalition tactics;
.
pressure tactics; and
.
inspirational appeal.
The measurement approach used in this study of
relative purchase influence of family members
(children) is based on a 24-item scale. The instrument
with eight sub-scales assesses the childrens influence
tactics. Each scale had three statements and parents
were asked to indicate how often the target subject
(child) used the influence tactics. The response
choices used in the questionnaire were never,
seldom, sometimes, frequently and always.
Typical statements include:
.
Does your child show unusual affection,
appear to be very helpful or help you out in
domestic work, before making a request to buy
something for him/her?.
.
My child shows me unusual affection before
making a request.
.
My child argues with me.
.
My child does not stop his/her demand until
it is given to him/her.
Cronbachs a for these scales ranged from 0.58 to
0.79. Scale definitions are shown in Figure 1.

Results
Who will make the first move in family purchase
decisions? As reported in Figure 1, in two-thirds of
the situations in Fiji (65 percent), and Tonga (71
percent) the child initiates the purchase decision
process. In the Cook Islands, the trend remains the
same, although the childs initiation will take the
form of requests or demands. Just over 50
percent of the time children in Fiji (55 percent)
and the Cook Islands (55 percent) made a polite
request, whereas in Tonga the number came down
to 43 percent of the situations. The data reveal that
the children in Tonga are more demanding (22
percent) compared to their counterparts in Fiji (16
percent) and the Cook Islands (12 percent).
What would be the parents response to
childrens requests and/or demands? If it was
a polite request, in 51 percent of the situations
parents in Fiji responded favourably, whereas in
Tonga, only 17 percent of the situations generated
a favourable response from the parents; in the
Cook Island it was 35 percent of the time. Even if it
was an aggressive demand the parents in Fiji and
the Cook Island were not unwilling to yield to their
childrens claims. The complete rejection was
evident only in 1 percent of the situations in Fiji, 8
percent in Tonga and 2 percent of the situations in
the Cook Islands.
In response to the parents invitation and/or
direction what sort of response did the children
give? In approximately 20 percent of the

Figure 1 Flow chart of parent-child interaction in purchase decisions

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Childrens purchasing behavior and parental response

Journal of Consumer Marketing

Jayantha S. Wimalasiri

Volume 21 Number 4 2004 274-284

situations, children in Fiji and Tonga, and 33


percent of the children in the Cook Islands,
responded favourably, by selecting what they
fancied. The rate of rejection of the invitation
was very low. Up to 8 percent of the situations,
children of the three nations agreed with the
directive parents and in less than 4 percent of the
situations the children declined to follow the
direction.
The rate of positive versus negative parental
response in the request situation is higher than
in the demand situation. When the Fijian
children requested the product, 51 percent of the
situations parents agreed with their request. On
the other hand, in the demand situation, only 10
percent of the Fijian parents yielded to their
childrens demands.

widely used tactics; the children in Fiji ranked


consultation, exchange and inspirational appeal as
their preferred tactics; and Tongans preferred
consultation, ingratiation and upward appeal in
that order.
The least preferred tactic among all children in
the three nations was pressure tactic upward
appeal and coalition tactics were also not very
popular among children in two of the three
nations. In terms of the relative use of the influence
tactics, the most frequently used ones were
ingratiation, consultation, rational persuasion and
upward appeal. The least often used tactics were
found to be the inspirational appeal, followed by
pressure tactics and coalition tactics. It seems that
the children in Fiji Islands have not moved from
parent-centered family environment to the
modern, mostly Western, child-centered family
environment.

... The South Pacific Islanders do not seem to have


the guilt feeling towards their children
probably because of their strong commitment to
the childrens well-being...

In this study, most of the parent-initiated


sequences involved an invitation for the child to
select the product. In the majority of cases, the
child chose a product and the parent agreed to the
selection. Interestingly, the data indicate that there
were very little differences between the parents of
the two studies.

Influence tactics
The second part of the study dealt with influencing
tactics used by the children in getting their parents
to purchase what they fancied. As reported in
Table III, the children in the Cook Islands ranked
ingratiation, exchange and persuasion as the most
Table III Rank order of influence strategies used by the children in each of the three
nations
Tactics
Consultation
Inspirational appeal
Exchange tactics
Upward appeal
Ingratiation
Coalition tactics
Rational persuasion
Pressure tactics

Cook Islandsa
Mean
Rank
4.3
3.6
5.5
3.8
5.7
4.5
4.8
3.5

5
6
2
7
1
4
3
8

Fiji Islandsb
Mean
Rank
5.8
4.8
4.9
4.1
4.6
4.2
4.4
3.0

1
3
2
7
4
6
5
8

Tongac
Mean
Rank
5.3
4.6
4.3
5.0
5.1
4.2
3.8
3.5

1
4
5
3
2
6
7
8

Notes: a Kendalls coefficient of concordance, W, 0.120, X2 = 84.29, df. 7, p . 0.000;


b
Kendalls coefficient of concordance, W, 0.115, X2 = 63.54, df. 7, p . 0.000;
c
Kendalls coefficient of concordance, W, 0.075, X2 = 39.93, df. 7, p . 0.000

Discussion
The purpose of this study was to determine the
parent-child interaction process in making
purchase decisions, and to assess the extent of
influence tactics used by children to fulfill their
wants.
Parents have always perceived their children as
influencers or even nagging influencers, on a wide
variety of products and services (McNeal, 1969,
1987, 1992). When the initiation comes from the
child and when it is a polite request, most parents
in the three nations tend to oblige (Fiji, 51 percent;
Cook Islands, 35 percent; and Tonga, 17
percent)). Even if it was a demand, (which was
relatively infrequent) the rate of rejection was
minimal (Fiji, 1 percent; Tonga, 8 percent; Cook
Island, 2 percent). The South Pacific Islanders do
not seem to have the guilt feeling towards their
children probably because of their strong
commitment to the childrens well-being. Yet,
parents do expect due respect from their children
and exercise authority over them wherever
necessary.
A major predictor of conflict and unhappiness is
the negative response of one party to the other
partys initiative. Cases where parent denied the
childs initiative were substantially less in the
Pacific Islands. As shown in Figure 1, only a small
minority of parent-child interaction sequences
resulted in either conflict or unhappiness on the
part of the child.
With reference to influence tactics, the most
preferred tactics were consultation, exchange,
inspirational appeal and ingratiation. These
appear to be relevant and meaningful influence
tactics that help to bridge the gap between power

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Journal of Consumer Marketing

Jayantha S. Wimalasiri

Volume 21 Number 4 2004 274-284

and leadership. Children acknowledge the power


and authority of their parents and they learn
through experience or trial and error that certain
tactics can and will persuade their parents to
comply with their requests.
Consultation was the first choice of the children
in Fiji and Tonga while ingratiation emerged as the
preferred tactic among the Cook Islanders. The
children who use these tactics seem to be smart in
assessing the mood of the parents and/or bringing
them to a desirable psychological state of mind,
before making a request.
Yukl and Falbe (1990) contend that,
consultation [was] used more frequently in
downward influence attempts than in upward
ones. . . In the organizational context, because of
the nature of the authority exercised by the
superiors, it is customary for the subordinate to be
obedient to his/her superiors (Vroom and Yetton,
1972). In family situations, when mutual trust and
respect for each other and cooperation among
family members exist, the consultation process
takes precedence over dictatorial commands.
According a recent study (Wimalasiri, 2000) older
male children use consultation more often than
younger, female children.

Another popular influence tactic is rational


persuasion. In this situation, children try to justify
their requests by citing some sort of factual
evidence such as television and radio
advertisements. It is asserted that by the age of five
or six a childs wants and needs may have grown
beyond the parents ability or willingness to pay
and therefore, children learn to bring in real data
in support of their claim. It is more likely that the
older children resort to rational persuasion than
their younger counterparts.
Upward appeal is an attempt to invoke
authority, power and wisdom of someone who is
considered to be influential such as grandparents,
schoolteachers and church leaders. The child in
effect, telling his/her parents that he/she is
consistent with the wishes of a higher authority,
threatening to defy the parents or directly asking
the elders to help him/her to persuade the parents.
Parents, unwilling to challenge the authority of
such persons (grandparents, teachers, etc.) tend to
yield to their childrens requests not out of pity or
conviction but to avoid unfavorable relationships.
When children lack such resources as expert
power, legitimate power or coercive power they
tend to seek aid of others such as older siblings,
friends or older relatives to persuade parents to
comply with their requests. In an organizational
context, this tactic is widely used by employees to
persuade their superiors to change company
policies, introduce new products/services, and
enter new markets. As the study indicates, this
tactic is not very popular among most of the
children.
As Yukl and Falbe (1990) point out, pressure
tactics are used most often in downward influence
and least often in upward attempts. In our study,
pressure tactic was the least preferred one among
the children in the three nations. However,
children of low-income level used this tactic more
often than their counterparts in the higher income
level. Also male children were more prone to use
pressure tactic.

... When children lack such resources as expert


power, legitimate power or coercive power they
tend to seek aid of others such as older siblings,
friends or older relatives to persuade parents to
comply with their requests...

The concept of exchange implies that there is


something of value to be traded. Children usually
do not have material resources of their own to
exchange for favors. However, there arise
situations wherein the parent need the childs help
in such menial tasks as minding the baby, cleaning
the house, doing the dishes, washing clothes and so
on. With parents, the potential for exchange
depends on the extent of task interdependence
between them and their control over
complementary resources. The potential for using
exchange tactics is considered when parents and
children depend on each other for assistance and
approval (Cohen and Bradford, 1989; Kaplan,
1984). With reference to demographic variables, in
Wimalasiri (2000) study, he found that male
children used this tactic more often than their
female counterparts and understandably older
children resorted to this tactic more often than
their younger counterparts. Also we found a
significant difference between the lower class and
upper class children as regards the use of exchange
tactics.

Related issues
The main purpose of this paper was to investigate
the influence tactics used by the children in specific
situations. It leaves out much of the discussion
pertaining to parental influence on children. Yet, it
is recognized that behavioral concepts such as
leadership style, use of power and cultural values
are relevant areas in explaining the behavior of
parents towards their children.
Authoritarian parents, for example, are likely to
determine unilaterally what is good for their
children, set standards, decide tasks, and assign
work. They do not reveal standards of praise or
criticism (Donaghy, 1975). In the directive style,

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Childrens purchasing behavior and parental response

Journal of Consumer Marketing

Jayantha S. Wimalasiri

Volume 21 Number 4 2004 274-284

parents assume the role of authority over the


children and commands obedience without giving
any explanation.
Democratic parents, on the other hand,
encourage exchange of ideas, and seek consensus
through discussion. They may bring the problem
out in the open with all parties concerned and then
analyze the problem in light with available
information. Persuasive leadership appeals to
children to obey some recommended directives
which persuade, not commands, children to heed
their advice, but leaves the decision in the hands of
the children. In this situation, the parents force the
children to recognize their obligation to them, and
strongly imply that the children owe parents some
debt and should follow the recommended advice
as a part of paying back the obligation.
In conjunction with the many leadership styles,
parents use a variety of powers or influence means
to influence childrens behavior. The intentional
use of power may take the form of force,
manipulation, authority or persuasion and each of
these power forms is used to obtain compliance
from the children.
Cultural values too play a crucial role in childparent relationship. Cultural traits vary according
to ethnic, religious and national groups and
therefore culture of the Fiji islands can be
considered as one of the factors that has a bearing
on parental reaction to childrens influencing
tactics. Some of the enduring characteristics of the
Pacific Island nations and other Asian cultures are:
group preference, conflict avoidance, respect for
authority and seniority, paternalism, collectivism
and extended family orientation (Lassere and
Schutte, 1995; Adler, 1987).

service as perceived by both the parent and the


child.
In their attempt to reach the rapidly expanding
childrens market, marketers need to move beyond
the traditional predictable techniques that worked
for generations. The role of parent as the sole
decision-maker in household decision making has
changed. Three distinct persons can play the roles
of decision making: the decision-maker, the buyer
and the user. The same person could play all three
roles, or the roles could be played by any
combination of people. The buying process
becomes more complex when a fourth role, the
role of influencer, is added to the sequence.
In about two-thirds of the situations under
study, children became the initiator of the buying
process of selected products, and in the other onethird, parents initiated the process. Therefore,
marketers must decide who in the household plays
which role before they can attempt to affect the
household decision process. The one who has the
real say in the buying process needs to be
identified and target marketing strategies
appropriately.
Despite the important and definite role that
children play in the individual and family buying
process, corporations in the developing countries
have not yet realized the value of this customer
group. Unlike in the West, there are no play
corners and non-smoking areas for the kids in
their restaurants; no kids menus on the dining
table. Goods are not displayed at child-level in
most shops and attractive displays are always
aimed at the adult buyer. Advertisements are too
general and not focused on any specific target
group. Therefore, international marketers who
collaborate with the locals (in whatever form) to
promote their products/services must recognize
the childrens influence in purchase decisions.
They should not be regarded as peripheral to the
consumer market or merely as a conduit to
parental purchasing power (Pecora, 1995).

Implications for marketing


Whether it is in the Western industrialized societies
or in less developed Pacific Island nations, the
child seems to play an important role in family
purchase decisions on selected items, which in
turn are moderated by the role of media. The
degree of a childs influence on family decision
making process varies, among other things, with
the childs age, sex and social class, and education.
Similarly, parents response towards their
childrens initiation varies between cultures.
Marketers should take these observations into
consideration when designing and implementing
global sales promotion and advertising strategies.
It is postulated that the child-initiated purchase
decisions are made on the basis of the potential
immediate or near-term gratification and the
parent-initiated purchase decisions are made on
the basis of the potential long-term benefits and
well being of the child. Therefore, marketers need
to carefully evaluate the value of a product or

Limitations
The small sample size does not warrant
generalizations across the Pacific Islands, although
most islanders share the same or similar cultural
heritage. The paper leaves out much of discussion
on such behavioral concepts as, leadership, power,
culture and the environment. Any discussion of
parental influence on childrens behavior was
ignored. While the household unit is central to the
decision making process, media is an important
means by which children (and parents) learn
consumption related behaviors and attitudes (Hite
and Eck, 1987). It is hypothesized that those who
are repeatedly exposed to media have different
influencing strategies as compared to those who

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Childrens purchasing behavior and parental response

Journal of Consumer Marketing

Jayantha S. Wimalasiri

Volume 21 Number 4 2004 274-284

have lesser or very limited exposure to media. Also


future research should examine the relative
effectiveness of different influence strategies for
different products/services in varying settings.

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Further reading
McNeal, J.U. (1990), Children as customers, American
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Rensel, J. (1991), Housing and social relationships on Rotuma,
in Fatiaki, A. (Ed.), Rotuma: Hanua Pumue (Precious Land),

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Journal of Consumer Marketing

Jayantha S. Wimalasiri

Volume 21 Number 4 2004 274-284

[Monograph], Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the


South Pacific, Fiji, pp. 185-202.
Schneider, A.E., Donaghy, W.C. and Newman, P.J. (1975),
Organizational Communication, Ch. 6, McGraw-Hill, New
York, NY.
Ward, S. and Wackman, D. (1977), How Children Learn to Buy,
Sage Publishers, Beverly Hills, CA.

Executive summary and implications for


managers and executives
This summary has been provided to allow managers
and executives a rapid appreciation of the content of
this article. Those with a particular interest in the topic
covered may then read the article in toto to take
advantage of the more comprehensive description of the
research undertaken and its results to get the full benefit
of the material present.

Take care with advertising to children


Children dont you just loveem! Pestering us for
the latest game. Badgering us for sweets and treats.
Insisting on a specific brand of cereal. We do not
know whether we are coming or going. We try to be
firm but that quivering lip, the stamped foot, but
Marys Mum bought her one and so did Joshs
Dad. We give in and tell ourselves that a little
indulgence, a bit of spoiling wont cause any harm.
For parents the bombardment of pleading and
cajoling for goodies is a great challenge even a
headache. But to make matters worse the wicked
marketers are in collusion with the kids. It is their
advertising that is driving all the demands and
turning the children into materialistic little
monsters. On those moments when we sit and
watch some childrens TV channel, we are aghast
at the parade of injunctions to buy toys, snacks,
fizzy drinks, sweets everything a child might
desire! What hope is there for us?
This may seem a light-hearted picture but it
resembles the truth or a least the truth as
portrayed in the popular media. For marketers
there are two important matters of concern do
we understand the ways in which children
influence their parents purchases (and, of course,
spend what money they have complete control
over) and is the way in which we direct
communications to children ethical?
Wimalasiri, by looking at the pestering of
parents by children in less wealthy nations (Fiji,
Tonga and the Cook Islands) provides a little more
insight into the ways in which children influence
their parents decision-making. We can make the
observation that the fact of children pestering their
parents is pretty universal and not a function of the
materialist, consumer society. However, what

children pester their parents for is related to the


relative wealth of the given society.
How to get your Mum and Dad to do what you want
Wimalasiri concludes that, regardless of level of
economic development, . . .the child seems to play
an important role in family purchase decisions on
selected items, which in turn are moderated by the
role of the media. It does not seem unreasonable
to say that children will ask for things they want or
like (please Mum, can I have some cabbage isnt
something youre likely to hear) and the media
presents selected examples of these nice things in
the form of brand advertising. The child no longer
demands a sweet drink but asks for Coca-Cola.
In understanding how advertising makes a child
select a brand rather than a product category, we
should also appreciate the ways in which children
seek to force the hand of their Mum or Dad. These
tactics vary from the blunt (Ill scream my head
off till I get what I want) to more rational
approaches (If you get me what I want, Ill mow
the lawn or getting me that shirt will make me fit
in with the other kids better). Included in these
tactics is ingratiation (I love you Mum, can I have
a chocolate bar) and ganging up on the parent
with brothers and sisters.
What becomes apparent is that the selection of
tactics changes as children get older. As youngsters
grow up they rely less on the pressure tactics
employed by toddlers and become subtler in their
appeals (which can still apply a great deal of
pressure to the parents). And, as we see here from
the South Pacific, parental response tactics vary as
well. Dealing with children pestering is an
important element of child-rearing and not some
evil foisted on parents by advertising and the
consumer society.
Should we be selling to children?
There are those particularly in the most extreme
corners of the consumerist lobby who would
stop us promoting products to children (although
how we might achieve such a ban defeats me). At
the other extreme are advocates of absolute
commercial free speech who argue that restricting
advertising in any way is a violation of fundamental
rights (as, for example, encapsulated in the first
amendment to the US Constitution).
Most people would fall somewhere between
these extremes accepting that children, for all
their exposure to advertising, remain immature
consumers. We do not doubt that children are
more vulnerable to exploitation and this is
reflected in the legal codes of most nations. As
ever, the debate is around where between the two
extremes we draw the line? At what point does the
advertiser cross the ethical boundary?

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Volume 21 Number 4 2004 274-284

What Wimalasiri demonstrates is that we should


be concerned with the fact of advertising to
children (what products, what time, etc.) and the
manner in which these advertisements are
structured (the nature of the message, the call to
action, etc.). Since children will pester their
parents and will employ a range to tactics to do so,
advertisers may support these actions even where
there is no overt encouragement for the child to
pester.
Since children will use the advertising both to
prompt the request to Mum or Dad and also to
provide supporting evidence in their appeal. The
ad is more than a piece of information to the child,
it can be a stick to beat the parent. Advertisers
need to act with circumspection in the design of
advertising recognizing the immaturity of the

young people being targeted and that the cost of


purchase falls (in most cases) on the parent.
Advertising to young people becomes unethical
when it sets out to wantonly encourage children to
pester their parents. And the use of
communication tricks that fall short of direct
encouragement to pester can be seen as equally
unethical. Children have considerable power over
family decision-making and marketers must be
careful in the way they follow the natural tendency
of children to, in one way or another, pester their
Mum and Dad.
(A precis of the article A cross-national study on
childrens purchasing behavior and parental response.
Supplied by Marketing Consultants for Emerald.)

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