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VI

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Q U ANT U L U M C U NQ U E T E STI M ON I U M

P RE F A C E
HE

modest aim of this book i s to s e t forth

for the benet of the ge neral reade r facts
a l ready known to scholars concerning th e l ife of
t he C hur c h in the age O f persecution
Th e words facts and l ife are used advised l y
T he book i s written to i nterest the layman and
by t he l ayman I mean not t he unordained but the
non -specialist No w Engl i sh peop l e are not as a
rule much i nterested i n opinion s This is perhaps
a pit y but i t is so they are as G od made them
They are not therefore interested i n theology
especially if by theo l ogy is meant not t he bare
statements of the Creed but the e l aborate explana
tions o fsuch statements extracted from theo l ogians
under the pressure of the questionings and de n ials
o f the heretic
But they are interested in the
C hurch as a l iving and working society and i t is
t h e history o f the C hurch under this aspect that
1 ha v e attempted to write
After a ll the C hurch
has always been a way of l ife rather than a system
of thought I t i s a way of life it is true based
on certai n fundamenta l assumptions O f God and
man s re l ation to G od and i n conseque nce of
man s re l ation to man but it is a l ways thought
trans l ated into action a way o f l ife t ha t is i n v o l v
ing certain assumption s in thought but never a
.

'

vi

P reface

mere school o f philosophy I ha v e therefore

attempted to show what th e C hurch was like as a
living organization I ha v e tried to describe o n th e
cers their
o n e han d i t s life i ts organization its o f
duties an d the method o f their appoin tmen t its
sacrame nts services its social services and welfare
work its discipli ne as well as the mai n points o f
its teaching both moral and doctrinal ; and o n
the other its relation to the h e athen world its
persecution its unpopulari ty the rivalry o fpopular
religions like M ithraism an d th e vain attempts

at counter propaganda by em perors and phi lo

sophers
I nd after writing it with these obj ects in
view that the book seem s to be marked by three
special features
I
A far more considerable use i s made o f th e
s o -called C hurch Orders those early di sci plinary
manuals wh ich D r Frere D o m Conolly and
other scholars have done s o much to elucidate
than has been done by any existing C hurch history
so far as my k nowledge serve s
2
T he persecution s are al so described with
some particularity and detail I t i s i mpossible
to understand the condition s u nder which me n
and wome n professed C hristianity o r th e temper
o f their h eathe n contemporarie s o r th e re action
o n the C hri stian character unless we understand
the ferocity o f the persecutions wh ich we can
on l y do by reading the rs t-hand acco unt o f
o
r

them
the nearest we ca n get to rs t hand
W l t h a l l its horrors
O n e doesn t write about
.

vi i

P reface

horrors for pleasure but because they are a

prominent part of t he history
o f the quotations
The
number
and
length
3
This m ay be considered good o r bad I t was
adopted de l iberate l y as the obj ect is to give an
idea of C hurch life as it was and fo r this some
knowledge O f the original documents i s i n di s p e n
sable I t would have been possible to relegate
the quotations to notes but that expedient has
its drawbacks or they might have been published
i n a separate volume as was done by Professor
One friend advised this but added
G watk i n

with a ash of candour Of course no one wou l d

look at it
On the whole th e m ethod pursued
i s the on l y one likely to bring home to the average
reader what I w anted to bring home T he events
are so far away the detai l s s o few that o n e cannot
a fford to lose the least to u ch that helps to lend a
sense o f reality and there i s no doubt t hat a
quotation from a contemporary writer does he l p
to do this T o be told once more that th e ear l y
C hristians loved on e another o r were kind to
widows and orphans o r cared fo r the sick can
hardly hold th e most alert attention I f one
could truthfully write that the early Christian s
habitually beat their wives it would be di fferent
A reference in a footnote would be enough A
fact so new and startling would arrest attention
But as it is while the general statement that
C hristian s were ki nd t o orphans may be very at
and stale it seem s not unreasonable that the
precise directions in the words actually used or
,

viii
at l east a trans l ation O f them may appea l with
a certain fres hness an d rea l ity
T he labours of many scho l ars have l eft me in
their debt I must rst O f a l l acknow l edge th e
very great kindness of D r Darwe l l Stone Prin
who
has
ci al of the Pusey H ouse a t Oxford
p
read the proo f-sheets and made many valuab l e
corrections and suggestion s
As to p ub li shed
works I have used the ante -Nicene translation
o f the Fathers though I ha v e been at some pain s
to compare the trans l ation s with t he origi na l s as
pub l ished i n the M igne edition and in most cases
have given my o w n Bishop Lightfoot s great
work o n Tb e Ap o sto li c F at/to rs is a storehouse
o f l earning
and has been i nvaluable I have
however u sed Professor K Lake s text in the
Loeb edition but am myself responsible fo r the
translations Th e late D r Bigg s works o n
Ne op lato n i sm the C/z ri sti atz S cho o l of Alexan dri a
and th e Co u rt /9 5 Task un ae r tb e Ro m an E mp i re
have all been co nsulte d and never in vai n That
bri ll iant and sugge stive writer send s no on e away
e mpty The volume o f Essays on the E arly
Hi sto ry of tlz e Chu rch an d the M i n i stry origin
ally edited by th e late Dr Swete has been o f
great help principally because i t i ntrod uced me
to that body o f i nteresti ng literature kn own as
the C hurch Orders F o r further enlightenmen t
on them I am deeply i n debt to th e R e v W H
Frere C R and D o m R H Conolly
and to the translations of th e rst Church Or der
by th e Re v G H orner i n his S tatutes of the
,

ix

P reface

Ap o stle s, and that o f the Syriac version of the

The latest
D i das cali a, by Miss Margaret G ibson
e dition
o f Bishop
G ore s T/z e C/z u ro /i an d the
M i n i stry, revised by Mr C H Turner , appeared
.

after the chapter on the mini stry w as written but

not too late fo r me to benet by its learning and
i l lustration s F o r the chapter o n Mithraism I
am indebted to the monumenta l volumes o f
M Cumont I used Berwick s translation o f
P lz i lo stratus s Ap o llo n i us of Ty an a before 1 dis
covered Professor
S P hi ll i m o re s but I have
since made considerabl e use o f that scholar s
most learned and suggestive introduction Sir
Wi l liam Ramsay s works especially T/z e Church
i n tlz e R o m an E mp i re have been of great service
so have the Texts an d S tudi es edited by th e Dean
o f We l ls
F o r th e rest I have re l ied mainly
on my own studies o f the F athers and other
contemporary documents and drawn my o w n
conclusions
I shou l d like also to acknowledge t h e kindness
and att e nt i on of the Librarian of th e London
Library without which the book cou l d not have
been written Mr Gordo n Crosse has give n o n e
more token o f an o ld and valu e d friendship by
reading the book i n proof F inal l y I s hou l d l ike
to express my gratefu l thanks to Miss F lora H i ll
for h e r most valuab l e assistance i n preparing th e
volume fo r the press
C P S C LA R K E
DO NHE A S
AN RE W
,

All Sai n ts D ay ,

99
1

I N T R O DU CT I ON

H E C hristian

religion has been the great

constructive element in th e formation o f
Western civi l ization I t i s tru e t hat R oman law
and Greek letters have had an en ormou s i nuence
but the e ffect of R oman law and Greek letters
would ha v e been very much diminished without
th e humanizing and preservative forces of the
I f Christ had not been born l ife as we
Church
know it to day would have been very di fferent
less civi l ized less humane altogether rougher
and mor e barbarous though possibly in some
ways more e i ci e n t at any rate di fferen t Since
1 7 6 0 another force has c ome in to action
T he
discovery o f the uses to which steam might be
put and th e i nvention o f machinery have a l ready
produced a social and i ndustrial revolution and
seem not unlikely to produce a political re v o l u
tion as we ll This new force i n dustri ali sm to
give i t its ug l y but convenient l abel has reached
the East and i s domici l ed in I ndia and Japan
Without it the great European war cou l d not
have been fo u ght o n s o gigantic a sca l e for
armies are always limi ted by the power of nations
t o feed and munition them and it is only through
industria l ism that i t has been possib l e to feed and
equip mi ll ions at a ti me I n the eye s of t he
.

xi

xii

I n tro du cti o n

world it se ems to d ay to be even m o re important

i n its e ffect o n civilization than religion which
does i ts work for th e mo st part beneath th e
surface in com parative silence and obscurity
T he in uence O f re l igion m ust not however be
measured by its apparen t e ffect No w as always
unless it speaks through th e megaphone o f loud
and noisy advertisement i t receives little attention
I t may seem to have no more e ffect to day than it
had i n the reign o f M arcus Aurelius o r Philip
th e Arabian and i n R ussia i t i s persec u ted or
I
w as r e ce n tl y
as i n th e days o f Diocletian Yet
i n those days it was religion that h ad the last
word and so i t may be now B ut however we
may regard i ts presen t importance i t i s not u n
worthy o f the att e nt i on o f the inte l ligent person
with a proper scienti fic curiosity i n b e gi n n i n gs to
n
watch if o t the birth throes at least the i n fan cy
and growi ng pai ns o f the C hri stian C hurch wh ich
has had such a va st and preponderating in fluence
in th e pas t
I t has b e e n obj ected that C hurch history should
not be separated from secular h istory and that
all history is o n e Thi s i s at once a tr u ism and
T h A hb i h p
iv d th e f ll w i g
f Ca t b y
t l g am f m P l at
mb
M t p l i ta
f Od a D
,

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9
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fe r e n t y b e g Yo u r E m n e n c e to p ro te ct
e rtho do x
Ru ss an h u rch
T h e Re o u t o n ary
o e rn m e n t i s s u j e c t n g
i t to cru e t e s b y
e s de o f w h c h e p e rse cu t o n s o f e
hr st an s i n t he firs t t h re e c e n t u r e s p a e
M an y arch sho p s,
h u n dre ds o f p r e s t s ,
ave b ee n
T he
m arty re d an d sho t

c h u rch e s are
ro
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ed
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xiii

I n tro du cti o n

untrue H istory i s one but man s life is a big

theme and history i s forced to se l ect and dis
criminate and i t is convenient to write it i n parts
On e used to be told that the division between
ancient and modern history was articia l and
unreal for the same reason This also i s true ;
and Sir Wa l ter Raleigh anticipating this verdict
wrote a Hi sto ry of tire Wo rld begi n ning with the
F l ood ; but h e has had few imitators
Most
o f u s hav e to cabin
crib and c onn e ourse l ves
within a period and wi thin a subj ect One cannot
have even an adequate gen era l know l edge o f the
who l e unless o n e is i ntimate with at l e ast some
of the parts C hurch hi story after a ll i s only
the history of one o f the biggest if n o t the
biggest sing l e factor i n universa l h istory and
no o n e who wishes to ha v e a grasp of h ow
m odern condition s c ame i nto bei ng can a fford
to neglect i t
No w the history o f Christian religion at any rate
in the rst centuries after C hrist i s the history o f
the Church I t is true that some scholars hold
that Jesus did not intend to found a C hurch
But such views can only be regarded as the n u
accountable vagaries o f scholarship I f Jesus did
not found a society o r C hurch to carry o n H i s
work if He was mere l y a voice a message and a
witness i t would seem t hat e i th e r the evangelists
woeful l y misunderstood H i m or very much o f
what H e did was besid e the point I t was in that
case a misdirection O f energy to c on c e ntrate as
H e did on H i s discip l es i nstead of endeavouring

xiv

I n tro du cti o n

to let His m essage reach as wid e a Ci rcle as p o s

sible T h e preacher or messenger requires a large
audience H e desires a platform whether i t be
a rostrum i n the marke t place a pu l pit or th e
column s o f a daily paper by which h e can r e ach
as many m in ds as possib l e But th e founder o f
a society i s i ndi fferent to n umbers Everything
depends on starting on the right lines and with
th e right people Numbers can be left to the
future S O J esus was i ndi ffere nt to n umbers
H e concentrated more and more o n H i s i m me
diate fo l low e rs M uch O f H i s teaching bears on
the future problem s that th e society wi l l h ave to
face The power to bind and loose give n to
S Pete r was th e regu l ar J ewi sh expression fo r
making the rules or bye -l aws o f the synagog u e
i n other words for legi s l ation ; the prob l e m o f
the u nworthy member and O f discipline was
touched on i n the parabl e of the eld with wheat
a nd tares growing side by side and i n the parable
o f the draw -net
A u th ori ty to exercise e ffective
discipline was conferred whe n power was given
to the Church to forgive and re tain sins He
ordained also a formal sacrament o f admis sion to
H i s society and o n e o f union for thos e wh o were
already m embers U n l ess we tear fragments o u t
of the text to suit preconceived theories like the
Gnostics wh o were ever mending the Gospels
i t seem s mere l y perverse to accept C hri st and
deny th e C hurch as H i s c reat i on and bequ e st to
the world
We see the C hristia n society rst as a t i ny
.

xv

I n tro du cti o n

group o f men and women i n an obscure corner

o f the R oman Empire waiting for the i r Master
to reappear and a l most fev e rish l y eager to pro
claim H i m as the Saviour O f mankind before that
eve nt should happen and the world i n which they
l ived come to its appointed end
That hope
gradua ll y receded into the dim future but the
members of H i s C hurch were non e the l ess fired
with the desire to proc l aim their good news
throughout the world They did not arrive at
thi s stage i n a moment I t i s probable that the
Apostles remained twelve years in Jerusalem
after Pentecost that is u ntil A D 4 1 and S Paul s
first missionary j ourney did not take p l ace be fore
A D
6
C
But
by
the
ouncil
f
Jerusalem
O
4
A D 4 8 when the reports O f S Peter and S Pau l
were received and an agreement arrived at abo u t
the treatment o f Genti l e prose l ytes the genera l
po l icy o f the Church as a wor l d -wide and not a
nationa l movement was settled At first th e most
formidab l e opponents were n ot the heathe n but
thos e of the i r o w n household the Jews The
Roman authorities appear rath e r as th e protectors
than persecutors o f the Christian s Ga l lio drove
the J
ews o u t of his court and wou l d n o t l i sten to
the i r charges again st S Paul and S Paul himself
appealed to Caesar whe n accused by his own
nation As far as possible they held aloof from
what they regarded as the internal squabbles o f a
fanatical and disagreeable nation But th e Jews
b e came implacab l e adversaries when they once
real ized th e content o f th e C hristian m essage
,

xvi

I n tro ducti o n

name l y that the M essia h had com e already i n

the person o f the cruci fied Jesus and that sa l va
tion was to be through the C ross and no longer
by the law As soon however as the R o man
govern ment discovered the existence and vita l ity
i re
o f thi s new sect i t began to persecute w i th f
and sword w i th torture and all th e terrors
o f wild
beasts The persecutio n sometimes
more sometimes less e nergetically carri ed o n
lasted fo r one hundred and forty years I t i s
easy to exaggerate i ts ferocity Pliny an anxiou s
and over conscientious O ffi cial went to govern
Bithynia witho ut having informed him se l f
as to how C hri stian s were to b e treated if
brought before him fo r j udgement I t had n o t
occurred to hi m that their treatment migh t
be an important detail i n the administration
o f his
province
M oreover wh e n anonym ous
accusations were forbidden persecution lost its
chief terrors Th e rOIe o f a n accu s er i s not
popular Few people l i ke to com e forward to
denounce harmless and in o ffen sive neigh bours
and when C hristians grew i n numbers it i s p o s
sible that reprisal s were feared Still th e fa c t
remain s that C hristian s were outlaws
They
wer e never safe T he writings o f T ertul l ian
show plai nly that torture and d eath w e r e possible
contingencies that n o C hristian could safely leave
o u t o f hi s calculations
Th e persecution s o f Decius and Valerian were
altogether more serious a ffairs
They were
determined attempts engineered from head
,

xvii

I n tro ducti o n

quarters striking rst O f al l at t he heads of the

new re l igion to destroy i t altog e ther They
fai l ed to be rene wed on a more thorough scale
by D iocletian forty years later and with the same
result This was the most serious e ffort at
suppression t he C hurch e ve r had to face and
showed by its failure that no attempt in the
future was l ikely t o be mor e successful and
antici pated i n e ffect the words O f a l ater perse

c u to r
the apostate Ju l ian when h e exclaimed
Gal i l e e an thou hast conquered
Besides the o ffi cial power O f the State th e
I t was
C hurch had other fo e s to c on t e nd with
long unpopu l ar as being unsocia l since Chris
tians were c ut o ff from popular amusements
wh i c h centred i n the theatre and from most
social festivities as be i ng i nvolved i n pagan
observances I t was also attacked by the philo
sophers who were the self-appointed preachers
of their time a function i n som e measure dis
charged by j ournalists to -d ay
U nfortunate l y very little has survived except
the great attack o f Celsus preserved for u s by
Origen The e ffect o f these attacks must have
been conned to the few wheth e r heathen o r
C hristian ; they could have had no more e ffect
on the mu l titude than a leading article i n Tb e
The more
Ti m e s o r the Sp e ctato r would to day
ambitious attempt of P h i l o s tratu s to supplan t
C hrist by Apo l lonius of Tyana must ha v e be e n
eve n more ine ffective
F ar more formidab l e than t h e attacks o f
,

xviii

I n tro du cti o n

philosophers were th e attraction s o f popul ar

religions Besides conventional paganism there
was the appeal of I sis to the sen suous and the
senti menta l and that of M ithras to those o f
a more dour and sombre type T he attraction
o f both was real enough
F o r on e who deliber
ate l y rej ected the Gospel through th e arguments
o f F ronto o r C e l su s t her e mu st have been fty
who preferred th e worship o f I sis or th e cult o f
M ithras
M ithraism alon e was a far more
serious danger than al l th e philosophers with
whom the Apologists argue I t i s th erefore
rath er puzzling to nd hardly more than a few
i ncidental not ic e s o f M ithraism i n the works o f
the F athers
Attacks o n an e ffete paganism
abou nd Mockery of idol worshi p i s common
form But th e l iving and triumphant religion
of M ithraism i s left a l one Probably th e reason
was that most o f th e apologies were p l eas fo r
toleration addressed to the persecuting Govern
m ent whether emperor or proco n su l ; and th e

persecution was based o n the Chri stian atheism

o r rej ectio n of the o i ci al gods
C hri stian s were
n o t persecuted f
o r refusing t o adore M ithra b u t
for refusing to sacrice to the em peror and the
god s o f ancient R ome Other apologie s were
addressed to philosophers and the ph ilosophers s o
far as they were anyth ing were pagan s M ithra
i sm like Christianity was a popular religion ;
i t appealed to the common man and woman
I f it attracted a philosopher or ruler i t did so
by V irtue of i ts appea l to th e common human i t y
,

I n tro du cti o n

x x

i n th e m not to the i r e x tra portion o f brain or

cu l tivation I t wou l d have been waste of t i me for
Origen t o address e l aborate phi l osophica l treatises
to M ithraists ; they wou l d ne i ther have been
,

r e ad nor understood The peop l e for that work

were the plain m e n wh o talked to the ignorant
and rath e r avoid e d phi l osophers than otherwise
Th e rea l work of conversion was done then as it
always is un l ess as in t he Saracen invasions it is
e ffected by forceb y those who ta l ked t o l ittle
groups of people at street corners or t o labouring
me n at their work or even lowere d themselv e s
so far as to carry the good news to wom e n and
chi l dren The C hurch as a l iving society did
not troub l e itse l f specia ll y about philosophers
I t was more concerned w i th the conventional
and carna l person outside its gates who was
indi fferent and contemptuous to re l igion or i f
inc l ined to take religion serious l y was i n danger
of bei ng attracted by I sis or M ithra
That i s where the real gh t must always go
on The phi l osophers n o w as then have th e i r
work to do They are the s ta ffs of the contend
ing armies but the ghting o f wh i c h we hear
and read so litt l e i s not done by them but by
those who are i n t h e line the men and women
i n the home and the streets
The C hurch had other troubles I t had spiritua l
an d i nte ll ectual dangers as we ll as those threatened
by the secular arm The great foe o f this sort was

Gnosticism that know l edge fa l se l y s o ca ll ed of

which S Paul wrote Gnosticism seems to us
.

I n tro ducti o n

xx

wild enough considered e i ther as religion or phi l o

sophy but i t had an attraction for a certain type
o f the more i ntellectual and won over some who
were o r m i ght have been Ch ristian s Gnostics
may b e roughly divided i n to two kinds namely
th e pagan Gnostics w ho borrowed as m uch of the
C hristian theology as suited them and attacked
from outside and the C hristian Gnostics li ke
Marcion who tried to twist C hristianity i nto con
formity w i th Gn ostic ideas T hey probably stood
i n m uch th e same relation to the C hurch as
Theosophi sts and Spiritualists and the votaries o f
C hristian Science do to -day
Some were i n the
C hurch but most were outside an d nearly all were
rather superior and inclined to be contemptuous
and patronizing T he real dange r w as not that
any considerab l e n umber of C hristians or pagan s
i ncli ned to accept C hristianity should be led away
i nto Gnosticism but lest th e authoriti es o f the
C h urch should be deceived or bullied by the i n te l
lectual pretensions O f the Gnostics and alter th e
creed to suit the i r fancies
T he danger was averted and i n s pite of very
considerable intellectual pressure th e mai n d oc
t r i n e s o f the C hurch as imbedded i n its baptismal
creed were unaltered and remain unaltered to
th i s day
E xp l an ati o n s o f the doctri nes have
changed but n ot the doctrines themselves Th at
God created the world t hat Jesu s was God and
also Man that He was born of the Virgin
Mary was crucied rose again from the dead
ascended i nto heaven ; that H e will co m e to
,

xxi

I n tro du cti o n

j udge ; that the H o l y G host is also G od All

these doctri nes were he l d from the rst They
ar e found i n the Ne w Testament in th e R oman
baptisma l creed and i n the ear l iest Apo l ogy that
has surv i ved that of Aristides The e xp l ana
tion s came later I f Jesus w as God how and
P
M
an
in what way could H e be a l so
Many
exp l anations were evoked by G nostic and Arian
speculations before o n e was accepted 8 0 w i th
F rom the begin ning
t he doctrine o f the Trinity
the Church believed that the F ather was G od
a nd the Son G od an d the H oly G host G od yet

not three Gods but one G od ; but to u s e a word

somewha t overworked t o -day i t was long before
the Church found a satis factory formu l a in wh i c h
these apparent contradictions cou l d be reconciled
Neverth e less the C h u rc h tri umphed
I n spite
o f hti n s within and the fronta l atta c k o f the
g
g
R oman Empire the most perfect l y organized
instrumen t O f go v ernment on the grand scale
that the world has ever seen i t survived and
conquered and the head of the Empire as m u ch
perhaps o u t o f i nterest as conviction b e came th e
o ffi cial patron of the new religion so l ong despised
and persecuted The extent and numbers of the
Church when the last persecution broke out has
be e n the obj ect of a care ful and exhaustive
examination by Professor H arnack i n his Exp an si o n
o
i
a
h
t
i
C
r
i
s
for
wh
i
c
h
all
students
owe
him
n
y
f
t
a deep debt o f gratitude I t seems safe to say
that th e C hurch exte nded as far as the Empire
and sometimes further I t was weakest in Ger
.

xxii

I n tro du cti o n

many wher e we only know of one bishop t he

Bishop of C o l ogne I t was strongest i n Asia
M inor where perhaps near l y ha l f the popu l ation
was C hristian There the C h ur ch was not on l y
strong in the Greek speaking ci tie s o n the coast
and the great trade routes b ut was rmly estab
l i s he d i n the i nterior
F i rm i l i an w as Bishop o f
C aesarea i n C appadocia in the very heart o f what
i s now A siatic Turkey and exercised a w i de
in fluence By the midd l e of th e th i rd century
Di ony sius of Alexandria was able to write t ha t
M esopotamia tog e th e r with the provi nces O f
Syria Bithynia Arabia and Pontus was rej oicing
i n the brotherly love the n prevailing
I n the
West bi shops from every province i n Spain were
present a t the Co uncil of Elvira A D 3 0 5 whil e
th e North sent three bishops to represent the
B r i t i sh C h urch i n t he Synod o f Ar l es A D 3 1 4
Beyo nd the frontiers O f the Empire the kingdom
o f Arme nia h ad bee n converted by Gregory the
Ill um inator an d was t he rst nation to adopt
I n the South
C hristian ity as its o f cial r e ligion
the Ethio pian version O f the H i p p o ly t e an C hurch
Order points to the early spread o f C hristianity
i n that region I n the East Orige n tells u s that
S Thomas preached i n I nd i a and S Andrew
in Scythia which at least shows that there were
C hristians i n those countri es i n hi s ti me
S uch a marvellous growth i n the face o f per
has n o parallel i n history
Gibbon
s e cu t i o n
has attempted to account for i t in hi s fam ous
b i H E vii 5
E
A g t 1 91 9
,

us

u se

u s,

xxiii

In tro du cti o n
f
i fteenth

chapter and has enum e rated ve causes

,

ame l y
I The zeal O f the Jews
2
Th e doctrine of the immorta l ity o f the sou l
and the promised rewards and punishments of
heaven and he ll
r
Miraculous
powers
real
o
pretended
3
The
virtues
of
the
rst
hristians
C
4
o f the
Their
activity
in
the
government
5
C hurch
But i t is not very easy to see what the z e a l of
th e Jews had to do w i th it I t i s true that the
rst C hristians were J ews but there was soon a
preponderating maj ori ty of Gentile Chri stians in
t he C hurch and it is more natural to attr i bute
th e i r zeal to their religion than to Jewish i n fe c
t i on or her e d i ty As to the doctrine o f i m m o r
tality o f the sou l it i s true that philosophers
sco ffed at the resurrection of the body and
th e i r views on the immortality o f the sou l were
timid an d l ukewarm compared with the condent
a f rmation s o f the Church B u t Mithrai sm a l so
taught the resurrection of the body and the
immorta l ity o f the soul and Mithraism was
a far more serious enemy to the Church than
phi l osophy ever was As to the third cause
miraculous powers no doubt play no sma l l part
i n accrediting the rst preachers of the Gospel
but we hear very little o f them i n th e second and
third centuries when the C hurch was advancing
by l eaps an d bou nds The question o f organiza
tion was i mportant ; but organization by itself c an
n

xxiv

I n tro du cti o n

accomplish little
Four therefore o u t o f th e
v e causes amount to little and we mu st seek
further for the real grou nd and root of s o rapid
and overwhelming a success
I t will be wel l to begi n by reminding o u r
selve s that m e n and women change th ei r dress
their ways o f speech their weapon s o f war thei r
mean s o f tran sport from age to age but n o t their
e ssential humanity That i s why th e best litera
tur e never grows o l d
Take the picture o f
Ahab coveting th e vi neyard of Naboth and
com i ng ho me heavy and di spleased and refus
i ng to eat while Jezebel a far stronger character
regarded him w i th mi ngled pity an d contempt
?
How
I f he wants it why doe sn t h e take it
ever
and w i th contemptuous goo d nature
she underta k es to arrange th e m atter fo r hi m and
does s o w i th an e ffi ciency and ruthless ness wh ich
would do credit to a twentieth -ce ntur heroi ne
I t i s a wonder that a celebrated mo d
ern play
wright has n o t built a play roun d this exponent
favourite theme What co uld there be
o f his
m ore modern
Or take th e poignant farewell o f Andromache
and Hector in th e sixth book o f th e I li ad
There is rst th e appeal to Hector not to go

o ut
to m ee t Achilles but
to stay thy folk
beside the g-tree wh e r e best th e city may be
scaled
H e i s n o t so to speak urge d not to
j oi n up but to j oi n something comparatively
safe
H ector s reply would be impossible fo r
a tongue -tied self-conscious E nglishman but not
.

xxv

I n tro ducti o n

for a F renchman and an Englishman wou l d feel

the s ame even if he cou l d not express his fee l ings
Sure l y I tak e thought fo r a ll these things my
wife ; but I have shame o f the Troj ans and the
Troj an women if l ike a coward I shrin k away
from battl e
Moreover mine own sou l for
biddeth m e seeing I have l earnt ever to be
valiant and ght in the forefront o f the Troj ans
S O spake glorious H ector and stre tched out his
arm to h i s b o y But th e child shrunk crying
to th e bosom of h i s nurse dismayed at his
father s aspect and i n dread at th e bronze and
horse -hair crest that he beheld nodding erce l y
from the helmet s top
Then h i s clear father
laughed aloud and h i s l ady moth e r ; forthwith
glorious H ector took the helmet from hi s head
and laid it all gleaming o n the earth then he
kissed his clear so n an d dandled him i n hi s arms

and spake i n prayer to Z eus and all the gods

I n hi s prayer h e asks that m e n may s ay o f hi s
son F ar greater i s h e than h i s father
The express ion like the arms i s di fferent but
the feeling has not changed in three thousand
years
The erce unreasoning enthusiasm o f the m o b
i n the great towns of th e ancient world for their
favourite charioteers their passionate interest i n
the victory of the wh i t e o r the red has its paral l el
i n the crowds at a modern footba l l match or the
even greater masse s who read the resu l ts i n the
evening pape rs A m o de rn boxing match i s tame
I l i ad vi
T a l at i
b y W L af
,

r ns

o n

xxvi

I n tro du cti o n

compared with the b l oody spectac l e o f th e Games

but it i s doubtful if these combats would be less
popular if th e y should b e come more dangerous
to tho se w h o tak e part i n th em I n spite of
civi l ization an d educatio n man retain s his strong
a ffections hi s erce desires passions and i n sti ncts
wh ich may be control l ed by p ublic opi nion by
l aw o r by religion but are not eliminated T h e
highl y educated may change at least o n the sur
face but h uman nature as a whole remains m u ch
the same S o that we shall not go far wrong i f
we assu me that the raw material w i th which
religion had to do i n th e seco nd century was not
so di fferent from that with which it deals i n th e
twentieth as we sometimes like to think T h e
conditions o f C hristian success have not altered
I f th e C hurch i s to wi n its way to day it can
only do s o by reason of its i nherent attractiveness
because i t can o ffer me n an d women something
that corre sponds to a vital need i n thei r nature
The C hurch had to draw men almo st i n spite o f
themselves What was there i n i t to attract
1
This is i n e ffect
The l ife of heli eb e rs
Gibbon s fourth cause Th e Apolo i s t s appeal
con dently to the superior morality o C hristian s
to their moral purity th eir ino ffen sivenes s th eir
spirit of broth erhoo d and mutual service They
relieved the widow and t he orphan th e y nursed
the sick ransomed the captive and buried th e
dead i n a manner n either pagan ism n o r any other
religion could rival The mass o f man ki n d then
as n o w l ed hard and su ffering lives and craved
,

xxvii

I n trodu cti o n

as they do stil l for sympathy and kindn e ss T he

C hurch gave it as no o t her re l igion did and i t
m ust be admitte d as i t has never done since I t
was i n fact part of i ts expression work
We
s e e i t i n the c l aim s of the Apo l ogi sts in the sneers
of Lucian i n the provisions of the C hur c h Orders
and i n the i nstances that h av e come down of the
practical care for widows orpha n s the sick the
prisoners and th e dead The present writer
re members being presen t at a me e ting i n the
East En d o f London of a number of working
men who were members o f the Ch urch of Eng
land Men s Soci e ty when the subj ect of the dis

?
What bri ngs men to C hurch
cu s s i o n was
No t a man present had been a professing C hurch
man from his youth up A ll had come i n from
outside some from other religious bodies but
most from nothing at a ll Every man present
gave his own personal experience Some said they
had been drawn by the kind O f religion taught
others by the kind o f worship practised No o n e
said he had come because C hur c h peop l e led better
lives than other fo l k and no one hinted that h e
had j oined because the C hur c h believed i n a life
after the grave Most gave as the i r motive some
act o f kindness that they o r their fami l ies had
received I t might be a visit during sickness
o r a f
riendly welcome in church or at a social
gathering o r attention to a sick child and i n one

case the only reason given was Your people

seemed so ki nd to o n e anoth e r
There w as no
question of bribery or com i ng to c hurch because
.

xxviii

I n tro du cti o n

it paid These were n o t rice -C hristians w ho

c ame fo r what they could get The acts O f ki nd
ness were i n most cases mere acts o f courtesy a nd
brotherhood that had n o expression in currency
This seem s to give a clue to the attractiveness o f
The
C hri stianity i n the rst centuries O f o u r era
h eart o f man craved fo r a religion o f sympathy
and brotherly love and h e found i t i n th e
C h urch

d
o
t
T
e
c
r
i
e
especially the doctrine o f a
2
h
n
G o d o f love that G o d so loved the world that
Thi s
H e became Man and died on the C ross
was anathema to the philosopher but appea l ed
to the weak the fal len th e poor i n spirit the
broke n i n heart and i n fact to al l t he wayfarers
who had to trudge on life s dusty h i gh road
though perhaps n o t to the few w ho by reason
o f birth or fortunes o r superior abilities were able
to make the j ourn ey i n greater comfort

Why d i d He do it
was th e exasperated
cry o f C elsus B ut the bereaved the s u fferers
the hu ngry and the wretched crave fo r that
divine sympathy O f w hi ch they can only be
assured by belief i n a su ffering God
d
o
Th
e di s ci li n e
Men
an
d
wom
en
who
3
p
n o t seriously feel the n e ed o f religion on l y as k
that whate v er religion c o n ve nt i on brings i n th eir
way should m ake little demand on them T he
serious seeker after God desires n o t o n l to
rece ive but also to give I t i s do u b tfu l i I sis
mad e a s u fficient moral demand o n the general
body o f her votaries to attract t h e mor e earnest
.

I n tro du cti o n

It i s certain that pagani sm di d not The Church

exacted a high mora l standard and though no
doubt when persecution s l ackened that standard
co u ld not always be preserved and the crop of
tares growing up w i th the wh e at was perilous l y
large t here seems l ittle doubt tha t th ere was
a rea l attempt t o e xc l ude insincere person s from
j oining the Church to remove those who fel l
back i nto heinous s i n and to spare no e ffort
to restore to penitence and com munion those
who had s o fa ll en
The seeker after Go d in East London to day
l ooks to see if those who profess to hav e found
H i m show by their l ives the greatness and rea l ity
of their di scovery H e asks fo r much and i s
ready to give much There i s n o reason to
suppose that such a man would ha v e been very
di fferent then and there i s certainly no comparison
between the demands made by I sis or M i thra o r
p aganism and those made by the fol l owers of
Jesus C hrist H e was o ffered th e pear l o f great
price but he had to pay the price and he va l ued
it accordingly
No doubt there were other reason s as well
The organ ization o f the C hurch wa s admirable
Each local C hurch under i ts bishop preserved
enough autonomy to give i t the spirit of energy
and initiative There was as yet no papa l ism
The idea o f Caesarism had not been transferred
from the Empire to the papacy But regular and
frequent commu nication w i th distan t C h urches
the gather i ngs of bishops the need for the loca l
.

'

xxx

I n tro du cti o n

C hurches to remai n i n communion with the rest

o f th e C atholic C hurch , and th e v a l u e attached
to the Apostolic Scriptures a n d r u l e o f faith were
su f cie nt to preserve the unity of th e whole NO
.

organization however would have h e l ped without

the antecedent causes of growth
Finally th e believer to day as then will believe
that though Apo l los may s o w and Paul may
water i t is G o d that g iv e t h the increase an d
that all t he e fforts o f the ear l y C hurch would
have b ee n barren but for the life -giving power
O f the H oly S pirit
,

C O NT E N T S
P AG E

REF A C E
I N T R O U C TI ON
T HE WO R L D F O R CH R I S T
T
P RE A R A TI ON
ND T HE BE I NN I N S O F T H E CHU R C H
R l i gi
P ER S E C U TIO N F R O M N
M A R C U S AURE L I U S
P

HE

o r

II

o n

T raj an ,

A D.
.

H adrai n ,
An to n

III

A. D

-1
8
9
1 1

Pi
Au l i

1
8
7
3

u s, A D

n us

o To

6
1
1
8
3

M arc u s
re u s, 1 6 1
1 80
G NO STI C S , M o NT A NI sT s

T he
n o st c s
T h e M o n t an st s

IV

O M E CH R I STI AN W R IT ER S FR O M C L E M EN T
T ER T U LL I AN
T e rt ll i a
T H CHUR C H ND T H E WO R L D
Fam i l y Li fe
B i
S

u s n e ss

Am

u se m e n t s

Ci t i z h i p
M i l i ta y S vi
S l av ry
C l i
T h W ay f Li g ht
T h Way f D a k
T H CHU R C H U N DER F O RE I N
ti
Sl a k i g f P
D 1 8 0 -1
C mm d
93

D
v
1
S
5
93
C a a all a D 1 1 2 1 7
T H C A T E C HE TI CAL S H
C l m t f Al a d i a
O ig
en s

ce

er

o n c us o n
e

r n e ss

r c

V II

u s, A

e ru s , A

e rse c u

c en n

20

en

o n

E M P E RO R s

ex n

o o L

en

X X X ]

o r

L E A N DR I A
X

To

V
xi

xxxii
V

III

Co n te n ts

P A AN A TT E M T S A T RE CON T RU C TI ON
Ap o ll
i f Ty a a
G

o n

IX

XI
XI I

us o

Ne o p l ato n i sm

R I VAL REL I G I o Ns
T he W o rsh p
M thra sm
T H E P S C TI ON
T H E RO M A N

Ii

5
I 60
I 6
9
I

s s

DE C I U S

o r

CHU R C H
L I FE I N T H E CHU R C H
B ap t i m
C m at i
T h E ha i t

AND

GE

i i
ER E U

V A L E R I AN

73
74
77

o n

o n

uc

r s

T h e Ag ap e

F a ti g
s

T he S

i k
c

M arri age

O rga i z at i o f C hari ty
Di i p l i
T H O FF I C E R S O F T H E CHUR C H
Th Bi h p
Th P
by t r
n

ne

sc

XI I I

re s

A ND

T H E I R DU T I F S

T h e De aco n
T h e M n o r O i c i al s

i
bd

T he Su
e aco n
Aco l y t e s
T h e W do w
T h e D e aco n e ss

V i rgi
M I N IST ER I AL AU T H O R IT
ND ITS
T H T RU C E
0
D
6 0
3 3
D i y i o f Al xa d i a
P a l f Sam at a
G g ry T ha m at g
G r g y t h I ll m i at r
ns

X IV

XV

Y A

re

R AN S M IS S I ON

o s

u r us

o r

M an e s

XVI

s us

o n

an d

M an i che e i sm

FI N AL ST RU G G L E A D 3 0 3 3 1 3
L IST o r CH I EF M O D E R N AU T H O R ITI E S CON S U LT E D
CH R ON O LO G I CAL T A B L E

T HE

3 3
1
3 5
317
335
3 37
1

C H U RC H

F ROM

H I ST O R Y

C O NS T A NT I NE

NE R O T O

I
TH E

P R EPA R ATI O N O F T H E WO RL D
C H R IST A ND THE BEG I NNI NGS
O F T H E CH U R C H

FOR

AI NT Paul says that when the fu l ln ess of

time was come C hrist was born When
the world was ready There has never been a
t i me when the world was more ready for the
com i ng of a Saviour and the founding of a
religion intended to embrace all the nations o f
the earth
F o r a l most the only t i me i n the world s history
ther e was peace The civilized world and a
considerable fringe that was not civi l ized owned
the R oman power Such wars as there were
were a ffairs of outposts
I nternationalism was
a fact There were no hard and fast barriers
between country and country
All were
parts o f the R oman Empire There does not
seem to have bee n any colour b ar
I t was

Church Hi sto ry

Ne ro

ro m

Co n stan ti n e

to

probably easier fo r S Paul to have go ne o n his

j ourn eys and at last get a hearing i n R ome whe n
h e did than it would b e to -day o r e v er has been
S i nce The mean s o f com mu nicati on whether
by trave l o r by letter were far better under
th e R oman Empire than they were up to the
middle o f the nineteenth century that I S I n a
region compri si ng what we mean to -day o r did
m ean till lately by I ta l y France Spain Austria
Western Germany Switzerland E ng l and t he
Balkan s Turkey i n E urope and i n Asia Egypt
and North Africa Over this c o untry there was
a net work of roads and s e a ways c on nect i ng
the chief town s an d made reasonably safe fo r
travel l ers O n them ther e was a constant tra ffi c
Of im perial O i ci al s merchants tour i sts actors
musicians athletes i tine rant professors o f rhe t or i c
or healing and teachers o f religion The scen e
m ust ha v e been somet hing like that presented
by the great Tru nk R oad i n I nd i a as pictured

in Ki m
D u ring Gale n s stay i n R ome ( A D
1 6 2
o r ophthalmia by
1 6 6 ) h e was consulted f
letters from Asia Ga u l Spain and Thrace
Every year h e received parcels o f med i c i nes
from fri ends i n Spain Syria Pa l estine Egypt
C appadocia
Pontus Macedon ia Gaul and
1
Mauretan ia

Day after day says Aristides

merchan t

shi ps and merchants sail both seas the M e di te r

ran e an
and the Atlantic and to B ritai n ; n o t
o nly O ffi cials and troops go but coun tless private
i 3 3
F i dl a d
R m a L ife a d M a
.

r e

e r,

n n e rs ,

The P rep arati o n

of

No r was

Wo rld fo r

the

Chri st

conned
the
o
t
p
Empire
Merchants ha v e l earned the S hortest
way and commerce has brought I nd i a near to
They got as far east as C hina and as
us
far south as Z anzibar 3
eo

l
e
p

tra i c

RE LI G I O N

I t i s sometimes thought that

C hristianity

foun d
its opportun ity in th e break-u p of paganism ; that
men had ceased t o be l ieve i n the O l d gods and
were r e ady to embrace a n ew re l igion This does
not seem to ha v e been the case The R oman
Empire was a very big con cern an d inc l uded a
vast number O fw ide ly varying ra c es an even more
misce l laneous co l l ection than t he British Empire
does to d ay G eneral isations are there fore t o be
made w i th caution What m i ht be true of North
Africa might not be true 0 Britain Sti l l the
evidence o n the whol e seems to show that the mass
of peop l e everywhere c l ung to their O l d gods
Unbe l ief there was O f course e special l y am ong
the e ducated as inscriptions and l iterature S how
The e l der P l iny w as a convinced materialist

Sou l s and bodies n o more have fee l ings and

consciousness after death than they had before
birth But h uman v an i ty i m ag i n e s a prolonga
tion of existence i nto the fu ture and i nvents a
l ife beyond t he grave
i t worships departed
spirits and mak e s them gods wh i c h have ceased
"
to be even men 4
F i dl a d R m a L if a d M a
i 3 6
Ibid 3 7
I b i d iii 8
Ib id 3 9
'

r e

e r,
.

n n ers ,

2.

o m Ne ro
r
f

Chu rch H i sto ry

Co n stan ti n e

to

Many inscription s though on l y a small p ro

portion o f the who l e have been foun d i n which
l ife after death i s dismissed as a delusion
After ha v i ng vindicated absurdities I l i e h ere
i n a sleep fro m wh i ch there is n o awaking

T here i s n o boat i n Hades no C haron n o

Aeacus who hold s the keys n o Cerberus All o f
u s whom d e ath has carried away are rotten bones
"
and ashes n oth i ng e l se
The followers o f Epicurus for th e most part
s hared thes e O pinion s but there i s nothing to
show that they were more common th e n than
no w
The elder Pliny may have bee n a sc e pt i c
but his n ephew built a temple and o f ciated as a
priest
Lucian was by b i rth a Syrian ; by education
tastes and i nterests a Greek w ho l ived d uring
th e l ast three quarters o f th e second century
H e was a teacher o f rh e tor i c and a public lec
turer by the ti me he was forty he retired having
amassed at l east a c o mpetence and then lived at
Athen s u nt i l near th e e nd o f h i s life H e w as
himself a sce ptic H e sco ffe d at th e tales o f
Greek mythology and at the gods and his sar
cas m s at the expense of C hri stiani ty have com e
do w n i n the S tory O f Peregrinus B u t h is dia
l o g u e s do not give the impression o f a widespread
unbelief R ather th e reverse I n the Lover o f
Falsehood h e satirises the credul ity o fthe learned
T y chi ade s a sceptic has gone to the hou se o f

a man of s i x ty with a full descending

E u crate s
F i dl a d R m a Li} a d M a
i ii 8 3 8 4
,

r e

e r,

n n e rs ,

The P rep arati o n

Wo rld fo r

o f the

Chri st

beard wh o has l ong rubbed shou l ders with

phi l osophy and there meets Cl e o d e m u s the
Ari stote l ian and D e i n o m achu s the Stoic and I o n
the Platonist The ta l k turns o n magical cures
and ghosts and Ty chi ade s is amused by the
a m azing tales w i th which they cap one another s
stories
T o me at l east i t O ften occurs t o b l ush
for the poets when t hey describe the muti l ation
of Saturn the fetters o f Prometheus the revolt
of the giants and all the tragic S cene s i n H ades
or again wh e n they te ll h o w l ove turned Z eus
i nto a swan or ho w this o r that woman was
changed i nto a b i rd o r a bear T hen there are
t he beings l ike Pegasus or the Ch imaera o r th e
Gorgon or the Cyclops n ot to mention others o f
t h e same kind
Yet i f any one nds these
t h i ngs ridiculous or d i s c red i ts their truth if h e

exposes them why such a man is thought at

on c e impious and sense l ess for throwing suspicion
on facts so we ll known
T h e Go lde n Ass of Apuleiu s also wr i tt e n i n
th e second century o f our era g ive s the same
impression
The h e ro Luciu s i s transformed
i nto an ass and in that guise meets w i th many
adventures unti l h e i s restored to human shape
by the intervention of the goddess I sis H e i s
then i n i t i ated i n to the myster i es of her cult and
we leave him her devout adherent I n th i s book
we nd that m agic and witchcraft m eet wi th
almost universa l be l ief I f men are not changed
into asses or murdered by magic people thin k
T a
b y H W i ll i am
,

r ns

Church H i sto ry

Ne ro to Co n stan ti n e

ro m

they are Thi s i s a warn ing given by a lady to

Luci us about his hostess : She i s a n otorious

sorceress and is believed to be a mi stress o f
every ki nd o f incantation H e r r ej ected l overs
s he either turns i n to stones
cattl e and ani mals
o f every ki nd or u tter l y annihilates them
God s there are o f al l sorts and ki nds and belief
i n th em i s general There were gods goddesses

daemon s gen i i b e n e ce n t and m ischievous

s piri ts o f every sort touch i ng th e l ife o f man at

every po i nt i n hi s home i n hi s t ra v e l s i n his

S hop hi s h unting h i s farming hi s h e a l th hi s
sickness and i n fact hi s whole life
Every
nation had i ts o w n co l lection s o to speak but
each was ready t o en rich i ts e l f by borrow i ng
from a neighbour Syncretism as this system
o f borrowing and
mixing d ivini ties is ca l led
was the prevailing tendency I t was the churlish
refusal of Ch ri stians to worship mo re than o n e
D espis
God which made the m so unpopular
i ng and tramp li ng under foot th e maj esty of
heaven instead o f the tru e religion she a ffected
to entertai n some fantastic and sacrilegious
notion o f a God wh om she declared to be th e
only o n e
was th e sarcastic com ment of Lucius
o n a woman reputed to be a C hristian
Lucian and Ap uleius are a h undred years l ater
tha n S Paul and n o doubt opinion e specia ll y
among the educated uctuates an d become s m ore
or les s sceptical B ut there c an hardly ha v e been
any very n otable revival o f popular re l i gi on i n
Ap l i
I
b
i
i
I 7O
d
l
ii
d
A
7
G
.

u e u s,

en

ss ,

The P rep arati o n

Wo rld fo r

the

Chri st

the h u ndred years after S Pau l Th e pagan

was not therefore disinc l ined to l isten to the
preachi n g of a new re l igion H e did not obj e ct
to C hristianity on re l igious grounds at rs t on l y
later on when he s aw t ha t it waged war o n a l l
oth e r re l igions he came to regard it as a k i nd of
atheism
But besides pagan s there wer e Jews and the
Jews were very di fferent They were intens e ly
patriotic and re l igious to the point of fanaticism
Besid e s t he J e ws in Jerusa l em there wer e Jews
scattered o v er the wor l d I n the Acts we read

of Jews out of every nation under heave n

h e aring the Apostles speak with tongues on the
D ay of Pentecost Parthians Medes E l am it e s
dw e llers in Mesopotamia Cappadocia Pontus
Asia Phrygia Pamphylia Egypt Cyrene R om e
Outside the R oman Empire
Crete and Arabia
the strongest Jewish e l e men t was in the region
where Baby l onia
we now ca l l M esopotamia
became the centre of Jewish l i fe and wher e
the i r numbers were reckoned by mi ll ions
Within the R oman Empire J e ws were m ost
numerous in A s i a M i nor Phoenicia and Syria
Phi l o says that there were a mi l lion i n Egypt o r
an eighth of the who l e population T h e syna
gogue at Al exandria w as so l arge that an o i ci al
had to wa v e a ag as a signa l for th e congrega
t i on to make the i r response s " Th e y were so
numerous i n R ome that Claudius ordered their
F i dl a d R m a L if a d M a
iii 7 4
I b id 7 6
.

r e

e r,
.

n n ers,

Chu rch H i s to ry

ro m

Ne ro

to

Co n stan ti n e

expu l sion but w i thout apparen tly being able to

carry i t out e ffectua l ly They were organ ized
there i n seve n synagogues ; they a l so had their
o w n synagogue at J erusalem
Th e J ews wer e t he n eve n to a greater degree
tha n they are to -d ay an i nternational force
Greater because as we have seen i nternationali sm
within the Empire was i n so me measure a fact
and because nationalism as we understand it was
a much weaker s e n t i me nt The J ew i n Greece
or I ta l y was less o f a Greek o r I talian and more
o f a
J ew than he would b e t o day At th e
same time local patriotis m is an i neradicable
human i nsti nct and the Jew was n o doubt
attached li ke S Paul to h i s native c i ty Pil
grimages to J erusalem as long as the T emple
s urvived ke pt the outlyi ng J ews i n touch w i th
the ce n tre
R eturni ng pilgrims must have
brough t the news o f the C ruci xio n an d the
alleged Resurrection o f One Who clai med to be
th e M es siah t o every ce ntre o f population in the
known world
Th e world then withi n and without the Empire
was con nected by live wires an d ready as never
before o r s i nc e fo r the speedy promul gatio n o f a
new teac hi ng The very l i st of nati on s o n th e
Day o f Pe ntecost given i n the Acts br i ngs hom e
to u s i nto ho w many d i stant parts o f th e world
th e ne ws o f the new sect must have pe netrated
No w the Jew believed that he belonged to a
chose n race that h e alo ne possessed the law and
was saved by keepi ng i t and that the M essiah
,

The P rep arati o n

the

Wo rld fo r

Chri s t

was to come and restore his nation to i ts rightful

p l ace an d prostrate a ll other nations under his
feet The coming o f the Messiah was the hope
of I srael The more the pious and patriotic Jew
w as humi l iated by the oppression o f the con
the
more
did
he
l
ook
forward
to
thi
s
u e ro r
q
event w i th a passionate expectation I t was to
be the great climax of the long history o f h i s
race
Th e speculation s as to the nature o f the Me s
siah and the manner o f H i s coming were many
and various But among t hem all i t had never
occurred to any o n e that H e might come and not
be recognized At the beginning therefore the
outstanding poi nt of di fference between th e Jews
who were followers of Jesus and the rest was
that the discip l es o f Jesus believed that H e was
the Messiah whi l e the bulk o f the nat i on so far
from recognizing H i m had procured H i s cruci
x i o n bu t that God had vindicated H i s c l aims
by H i s resurrection
At rst the C hristians were hated by the
rulers who had compassed the death of Jesus
but n o t by the mob I t was not unti l 8 Pau l
began to l ay stress o n salvation by the Cross
instead of the law and the conseque nt admission
and the loss by
o f the Genti l es on equa l ter m s
the Jew o f h is position o f privilege that the
hatr e d became general Moreover the Church
claimed to b e the real I srae l the legitimate

heirs of Abraham and of the promises

We

are the circumcision said S Paul and th i s

,

Chu rch H i sto ry

10

Ne ro

ro m

Co nstan ti n e

to

unchurch i ng o f the Jews roused their bitt e rest

host i l i ty Everywhere the Jew was the enemy

At Antioch i n Pisidia the J ews stirred up the

devout an d hon ourable women and th e chi e f me n
of the c i ty and raised persecu tion agai nst Pau l
and Barnabas and expelled the m ou t o f the i r

I n Iconi um
the unbe l ievi n g Jews
co as t s
stirred up the Gentiles and m ade their m i n d s
At L ystra
evil a ffected agai nst the brethren
when th e peop l e could hard l y be restrai ned from

sacrici ng to Paul and Barnabas

there cam e
th i th e r certain Jews from Antioch and I conium
w ho persuaded the people and having stoned
Paul dr e w hi m out of the ci ty supposing h e had
bee n dead 3 I n Thessalonica the Jews imi tate
t he loyalty o f the Jews at J erusalem who said
We ha v e no king but Caesar when th e y took
Jason an d certain brethre n t o th e ru l ers o f the
city and accused them o f a c t i ng co ntrary to the
decrees o f Caes ar saying that there i s another
The
K ing o n e Jesus 4 And so i t co nti nued
Jews of themselves could not do very much bu t
they could and d i d make trouble w i th the Gentile
mob and the Genti l e magistrates
The new I srae l then consisted as we have
seen o f th ose w ho accepted Jes us as the
M essiah But t his di d not necessarily make
them into a visible society a chur c h a body w i th
me mbers Dr I ng e and others have maintained
that the creation o f such a society was an after
I b id i
A t
iii 5
I bid i 1 9
I b i d vi i 7
.

c s x

x v

x v

The P rep arati o n

of

the

Wo rld fo r

Chri st

1 1

thought and no part o f the origina l p l an

There i s n o evidence tha t the hi storic Christ

e ver
intended to found a new in s titutiona l
re l igion H e was a prophet and l eft no schoo l
But the evidence i s a ll the other
o r church
way Jesus c l aimed to be the Messiah and a
King and to ha v e founded a kingdom
He
took enormous pains to train discip l es who
should be the l eaders i n th i s kingdom I n H i s
commi ssion to them after the R esurrection H e
gives them the po wer of binding and loosing a
pow e r which cou l d only be i nterpreted by those
fami l iar w i th the usages of t h e synagogue as
app l ying to a denite and visib l e so ci ety
Th e distinctive be l ief of this society di fferen
ti at i n g i t from th e rest o f the Jewish natio n was
as we ha v e seen its acc e ptance of Jesus as the
Messiah its recognition that H i s C rucixion was
part of G od s eternal purpose and t ha t the R esur
rection was the proof o f God s acceptance and
approval of H i s work and c l aims and that the
H oly Spirit was sen t by Jesus to H i s Church t o
strength e n cons e crat e and guide Admi ssion
into the soc i e t y was by baptism and m ember
sh i p i n i t was reali z ed ceremonia l ly by the
Eucharist origina ll y celebrated after a common
meal
At rst the members were known
i ndi fferent l y as the e l ect the brotherhood the
believers the disciples the sa i nts bu t th e C hurch
e ccle si abecame the most conve n ient ter m
I t was used to describe the whol e body of believers
O t
D I g i Q a t ly Q i a
8
9
.

r er

u nt

r
om
f

Chu rch H i sto ry

1 2

Ne ro

to

Co n stan ti n e

and also the bre thren belonging to a particular

place as the C hurch at R om e o r th e C hurch at
Ph i l ippi I ts mai n fu nction was to w i tn ess to its
I t had n o consciousnes s at rst o f
R i sen Lord
possessing a superior code of moral s or o f being
called upo n to impress its o w n i dea o f righteous
nes s on the world That was i ncide n tal and
forced upon it by the contrast between t h e life o f
th e world and the life that was i n C hrist W hat
the Apostle s an d thei r rst disciple s ha d to tell
the world and i n the rst place th e J
e ws was

The Jesus whom you crucie d God has ra i sed

,

up

T hey witnes sed at rst i n Jeru salem And

then when persecution began they were scattered
abroad as far as Phoenicia Cyprus and Antioch
and wherever they went they pr e ache d th e Word
A t Antioch a local C h urch the rst we h ear o f
outside Jerusalem soon came i nto be i ng T h e
Mother Church a t Jerusalem was carefu l to keep
i n touch w i th i t Wh e n the rumo u r comes that
a number o f Gree k proselyte s had t u rn e d to the
Lord Barnabas was sent forth by th e C hurch
which was at Jerusa l em
The term s o f h i s
com mission are n o t stated but presumably to
i nvestigate and e i ther b l e ss o r ban T o Antioch
Barnabas brough t Saul and from Antioch th e
two accompanied by Mark wen t forth o n th ei r
missionary o u rn e y th e rst expedition denitely
organized o r the purpose of witnessi ng to th e
Mes siah fo r which the spr i ng o f A D 4 6 may
be given as a likely date
.

'

The P rep arati o n

Wo rld fo r

the

I3

Chri st

known history of the C hur c h i s dur i ng th e

n e x t ten years t he history of S Paul s great m i s
campaigns
H
s i o n ar
e s e t h i mse l f to estab l ish
y
a strategic position i n as many R o m an provinc e s
as poss i b l e and succee d ed i n p l anti n g a stro n g
local Ch urch in Ga l atia ( D erbe Lystra and
Iconium ) i n Asia ( Ephesus) in Macedonia and
Achaia
Beside s this we know that th e C hurch was
estab l ished at R ome Th e actual date o f i ts estab
l i s h m e n t i s unknow n
But i t i s not unreasonab l e
to suppose that S Peter went to R o m e o n h is
escape from prison A D 4 2 44 H e m ust have
gone somewhere an d nowh e re cou l d he have
fou n d a bett e r hiding-p l ace than i n R ome M ore
o v er we know that there were a number o f Roman
Jews at Jer u sa l em as they were s u i ci e n tly
numerous to ha v e their own sy n agogu e the
synagogue of th e Libertines and converts from
among them could have given him commendatory
l etters to their friends i n R ome Neither S Peter
or the other Apost l es are lik e l y to have be e n
b l ind to S O great an opportunity I f S O h i s
visit would n o t b e i nconsistant with t h e very
ancient tradition that h e presided over the C hurch
in Rome as its rst Bishop for a period o f som e
years before h i s martyrdo m Thi s d oes not mean
o f course that h i s residen ce was continuous o r
his supervision uninterm ittent nor does it com
mit us to t he support of Vatican c l aims made
later But whoe v er rst preached i n R ome by
A t vi 9
The

c s

Church Hi s to ry

ro m

Ne ro

to

Co n stan ti n e

the t i me S Paul s Epistle to the R omans was

written about th e year 5 4 we may assume that
by th e n th e C hurch th e re was fairly strong
Th eir faith we are told i s spoken o f throughout
the whole wor l d and he had often meant to vi s i t
them but had not had the opportunity We
hear noth ing o f th e Ch urch at Alexandria but
co nsidering the num ber o f Greek -speaking Jews
wh o ocked to Jerusalem fo r th e great feasts
there i s no reason to doubt the statemen t o f
Eusebius wheth e r or no S M ark was the
founder that i n h i s l ifetim e the C hurch was
e stablished there
T h e Church spread through o i ci al and u n o i ci al
m issionaries The Apostles like Paul an d Bar
nabas and th e e v ange l i sts li ke Ph ilip the Deacon
w e n t with the express mis sion o f preachi ng C hrist
though no t all may ha v e b e en so ag re s s iv e a s
S Paul i n i ssu i ng h i s challenge rst 0 all i n the
synagogue itself B ut be s i des these o f cial and
recognized e v ang e l i sts no do ubt every C hristian
was a m issionary I n great ce n tres o f populatio n
like R ome and Alexandria C hr i st i an s were there
before the A postle cam e to organize and e stab l i sh
rather than to found

II

P E R SE C UTI O NF R O M NE R O TO
MA R CU S AU R ELI US
NT I L

the State ha d no o i ci al
know l edge o f the C hur c h Juda i sm was a
re li i o l i ci ta that i s a re l igion wh ich was to l erated
g
by the State and C hr i s ti an s were regarded as
a mere sect of J ews Of the existence of the
C hristian C hur c h as a non Jewi sh so c i e t y the
State had no know l e dge I n the A cts there are
two cas e s o f th e C h urch coming into co l lision
with pagans but i n each a pr iv ate person n o t
t h e Stat e is aggrieved the motiv e i n both cases
being threatened l oss of m oney
There w as

the s l ave gir l at Philippi when her masters

saw that the hO p e of their gains was gone
and
D emetrius the S i l versmith at Ephesus red the

mob with the cry This our craft i s i n danger

to b e set at nought
But u n o i ci ally the
C hr i st i an must ha ve foun d himse l f at issue
w i th h i s pagan ne i ghbours at every turn H e
could not go o u t to din ner or buy in the market
or attend a wedd i ng or take a wife or marry
his son or h i s daughter or give o r receive
hospita l ity w i thout comi ng i nto col lision with
some heathen c u stom or observance S Paul s
A D
.

64

Chu rch H i sto ry

Ne ro

ro m

Co n stan ti n e

to

advice on marriage by itse l f wou l d be e noug h to

rouse intense bitterness agai nst those who took i t
His counsel that i s of c e l i bacy as an idea l and
h is advice agai nst the marriage o f a C hristian
with a heathe n I n the apocryphal Acts of P au l
an d The cla
w hich Sir W R amsay attributes
the ear l y part o f the seco nd c en tury this
to
appears plainly Thecla attracted by the preach
i ng of S Paul breaks o ff her engage ment w i th
Thamyris H e questioning as to Paul s teach

i ng i s told that he deprives yo ung men o f

the i r wives and virgins of their husbands by

i nc ulcati ng celibacy Th amyris th e n resolves to
ge t rid o f Paul an d collects a large m o b and

carrie s him o ff to the governor

and all the
multitude cried ou t Away with th i s i mposter
for he has perverted th e mind s o f o u r wives an d
all the peo ple hearke n unto
We are
re minded o f the cry of the Japanese m ob when
8 Francis Xavier and the Jesuit missionaries rst
I
preached the Gospel t he re
T hese th i ngs would
n o t all happ en to o n e man i n o n e p l ac e bu t th e y
were happen ing to di fferent men wh erever C hris
t i an s had a foothold i n any town o f the E mpire
B ut fo r the m ost part the R oman o fficials appear
as the protectors not the persecutors o f the
C hurc h during the greater part o f the Ne w
T estament period
Th e antagonism betwee n
pagan and C hr i st i an ide al s was so great that
p ersecution was i nevitable H owever th e rst
t
w
l
l
i
i
d
h
a
t
i
k
v m
Th
t
h
w
h
t
m
g
Fa i Xai
w i f C l i dg
Li]"q
th a
.

n o ne

ere

en

er

e,

us

c e

r nc s

v er

o re

P e rse cu ti o n

F ro m

Ne ro

to

M arcu s Au reli u s

persecution was due to a cc i denta l circum stances

name l y the need Ne ro found for a scapegoat
and the genera l unpopu l arity of Christian s fo r
reason s a l ready stated
The re o f R ome occurred A D 6 4 Nero
whether j ust l y o r not was suspected o f being the
author o f the re According to Tacitus he
screened him se l f by putting th e b l ame on the
The infamy of that horrible trans
Christian s
action still adhered to him I n order if possible
to remove t he i mputat i on h e determined to
transfer the gui l t to others F o r th i s purpose he
punished with exquisite torture a race o f men
detested for their evi l pra c ti c es by a vu l gar
appe ll ation common l y known as C hristians The
name was der i v ed from C hr i st W ho i n th e reign
of Tiberius s u e re d under Pontius Pilate the
procurator o f J udaea By that e v ent the se c t
of wh ic h H e was the founder received a b l ow
which for a time checked the growth o f a danger
ous superstition (ex i ti ali s sup e rsti ti o ) ; but i t
revived soon after an d spread w i th recruited
vigour not only i n Judaea the soi l that gave it
b i rth but eve n i n the C i ty o f R ome the common
s i nk i n t o wh i c h everything evil and abominab l e
ows like a torrent from a l l quarters o f the
world Nero proceeded w i th h i s usua l artice
H e found a set o f p ro i g ate and abandoned
wretches w ho were induced to confess them selves
guilty and on the evidence of su c h men a
number of C hristians were convicted not s o
mu c h o f having set t he city o n re as o f hatred
,

Church Hi sto ry

ro m

Ne ro

to

Co n stan ti n e

the wh ole human race Some w e re covered

w i th the sk i ns o f wi l d beasts an d left t o be
devoured by dogs ; oth e rs were nailed to th e
cross ; n umbers were burnt alive ; and many
covered w i th i nammab l e matter were l igh ted
up when the day dec l ined to serve as torches
d uring the n i ght At l ength th e cruelty o f these
proceedings lled every br e ast w i th compassion
The manners o f the Christians were pernicious
T heir cr i mes called fo r punishme n t
Bu t it
was e vi d en t that they fe l l not fo r th e p u b l i c
good but to glut th e rage an d cruelty o f an
I
i ndividual
T here appear t o be tw o stages in th e p e rs e cu
tion F i rst C hr i st i an s are examined by torture
and some confess t o i ncendi arism and reveal th e
n ames o f oth er C hristians Secondly C hri stians
are pu nished for t he crim e o f being C hri stians
an d the hatred O f th e h uman race that th i s crime
im plied A great n umber o f people were co n
v i ct e d n o t s o m uch o n a charge o f i ncendiarism

as on th at o f hatred to the h uman race that

is presumably fo r b ei ng C hri stian s No law o r
e d i ct w as necessary fo r t heir pun i shment Th ey
would have come under the head o f sacrilegious
person s disturbers o f the peace an d practisers o f
magical arts and their pun ishmen t would have
bee n a matter o f po l i c e admi nistrati on

T ac , An n x v 44
2
e w t h at t he se co n d s tage w as n o t re ache d u n t l
F o r t he
e re gn o f V e sp as an , se e Ram say , The hurch i n the Ro m an
Empi re , p 2 4 3
.

th

vi


F ro m Ne ro
P e rse cu ti o n
C hristians

M arcus Au reli us

to

evident l y not persecuted for the

Name but only for acts of i ll ega l ity dur i ng the
t i me covered by the Epistles o f S Jame s and
S Pau l w i th the possible exception o f 2 Timothy
I n I 3 Peter and in the Apocalypse they are n o
less c l earl y punished fo r the Name
Among the victims of Nero s persecution w e r e
S Paul and p oss i b l y 8 Peter Caius of R o m e
a th i rd c entury writer i s quoted by E us e b i us as

having written
I can S how you the trophies o f
the Apostles F o r i f you wi ll go to the Vatican
or to the O s ti an Way you wi l l nd the tro h i e s
th i s
o f those who ha v e l a i d the foundation 0

church
The tradition i s that t hey perished
on the same day tho u g h t he re is a dii cu l ty I n
placing the date o f S Peter s First Epistle early
enough to a l low for this 8 Peter s martyrdo m
may have taken p l a c e A D 6 8 S Paul s being
D ionysius o f Corinth says that
xed A D 6 7

they su ffered about the same time which

wou ld cover an interval of two o r three years
but not longer
According to a very ear l y
tradition they su ffered on the same day though
not i n the sam e year Bishop Lightfoot has
shown that th i s tradition m ay have arisen from
the fact o f th e i r bodies having been tran sferred
o n
the same day from the c e metery i n th e
Appian Way to a temporary re sting place i n the
catacombs of S Sebastian p e nd i ng the erection
of permanent shr i ne s for S Peter a t the Vatican
S P t iv 1 5 1 6 ; R v i 9 i 7
E
b i H 8 ii 5
are

'

u se

u s,

Chu rch H i sto ry

20

r
om
N
e ro
f

Co n stan ti n e

to

and fo r S Pau l on the O s ti an Way

Th is
tran sference took p l ace 2 9J un e A D 2 5 8
Jerusa l em w as taken by Ti tus A D 7 0 after
a siege o f appal ling e rce n e s s and obst i nacy and
i ts i nhabi tants were pretty n e ar l y exterm inated
I t i s u nl ikely that Titus or Vespasian was favour
ably disposed to C hristian s after th i s as they m ust
ha v e regarded the m as having a close connectio n
w i th the Je ws
Sir William R am say quote s
S ulpici us Severus the biograp her o f S M artin a
writer o f t he fourth century as attributing to
Titus the advice at a C ounci l o f War to destroy

th e T e mple
in order that th e religi on o f the
J ews and the C hristian s might be more co m
l
f
e te l
exterminated
though
o r th e religion s
p
y
oppose d to each other had the same origi n T he
C hristians had ari se n from am ong th e Jew s ; and
when the root was torn up the stem wou l d e as il y
be destroyed
The im portance o f Sulpicius as
a writer i s d u e to h i s ha vi ng used Tacitu s freely
and here h e may be quoting fro m that wr i ter s
l ost Hi stories
I n any c ase there i s good ground fo r th i n k i ng
that the persecutio n begun by Nero did n o t cease
either before o r w i th his death though it w as
ce rtai nly relaxed Tacitus i n d e ed te ll s u s that
the p e rse c ut i on aro used gen eral compassion S o
we may assume t hat the persecution wen t o n
s pasmodically and t fu l ly but never ceasi ng
altogether u ntil the second great persec ution
under D omitian when i t broke out w i th renewed
fury There i s no reason to set aside th e unani
.

P e rse cu ti o n

F ro m Ne ro

M arcus Au re li us

to

2 1

mous tradition that there w as such a p e rsecution

i n th i s reign
I t is supported by the Apocal ypse
i f we may be a ll owed to tak e A D 95 as the

approximate da t e of that book which i s p l ainly

wr it ten in t he whit e heat o f persecution by one
who cou l d l ook ba c k o n a considerab l e period o f
i t and who saw no hope in reconciliation w i th
the Empire but on l y in its destruction
It
breathes the v ery spiri t of the persecuted I t
i s written by one who had been present in the
courts when Christians were tried and in the
p l ace o f pun ish ment where th e y were tortured
and executed I n th i s reign too the worsh i p
of the emperor became specia ll y prominent
D o mitian seems to have taken i t very seriously
and to have de l ighted i n the tit l e D o m i n us ct
H i s p e rs ec ut i on is marked by some
fDe us
names o f note According to Dion Cassius
F l avius Clemen s consu l A D 95 and hi s wife
D omiti ll a niece o f the emperor were tried o n
a charg e o f sacri l ege an d atheism The word
T hey were sa i d
Christian i s not mentioned
to hav e adopted Je w i sh customs Clemens was
executed and Domitilla banished Many other s
were put to death o r punished o n the same
charge among them Aci l ius Glabrio w ho had
been cons u l A D 91
Cl emens and Domitil l a
were a l most certainly Christians and D omitilla
was reverenced as a martyr Acilius Glabrio
was probably a C hr i st i a n a l so and was o n e of
.

H i st Ro m
Ram say ,
.

xv

ii

in

26 1

Church H i sto ry

22

many

Ne ro to Co n stan ti n e

ro m

citizen s who perished as C hristian s

A D
According
to
Dion
lemens
and
C
95
Acilius Glabrio were charged w i th sacrilege o r
atheism but according to Suetonius w i th treason
The explanation may be that the re l igious charg e
aroused D o m i ti an s s u sp i c i ons and h e suspected
them o f plotti n g aga i n st hi s life H is moti ves
were mo st li ke l y political
A C hristian w ho
refused to worsh ip the emperor was a traitor
and i ncurred punish men t as s u ch
Domitian was a ssassi nated A D 96 and was
succeeded by Ne rv a und e r whom there was a lull
i n the persecutio n
D ion s tates that Nerva
release d those who were waiti ng their tr i a l fo r
s acri l e e
He
also
allowed
the
bani
shed
to
g
return
.

R oman

T R AJA N A D 98 - 1 1 7
Ne rva s short reign cam e t o a n e nd A D 98
T raj an w ho succeeded reigned until A D I 1 7
T he famou s letter of P l iny about the C hr i st i an s
belongs to th i s r e i gn Toge ther wi th Traj an s
reply it throws a ood o f light o n the relations
b e twe e n th e C hurch and the civil power
Pli ny was the R oman procon sul i n Bithynia
I 1 2 and there came acro ss C hristian s fo r the
A D
rst tim e at any rate in an o ffi cial capacity H e
was puzzled as to h ow they ought to b e treated

I have never bee n prese nt at the resolutions

take n concern ing the C hri stians he exp l ai ned

there fore I know not fo r what cau se s o r ho w

H i t R m l vii i I
,

'

P e rs e cu ti o n

F ro m Ne ro to M arcus

Au re li us

23

far t hey may be obj ects of punishment or to

wha t degre e our comp l aints may be carried on
against them
Must th e y be punished for
the Name a l though otherwise innocen t ? Or is
the Name itse l f s o agi t i o u s as to be puni sh
able
Pliny was a distinguished lawyer and public
man H e had serve d in the Army as a m ili tary
tribune i n Syria ; h e had been quae stor tribune
and praetor under D omitian and cons u l under
Traj an Yet i t i s possib l e fo r h i m to allege
ignorance as to the authorized t reatme n t of the
I t may be assumed t hat the resolu
C hristians
tions at the tak i ng of wh i c h he had not been
present referred to som e new orders made by
Traj an But the letter s hows that persecution
at t hat d ate was a very minor matter i n the
eye of the State I n Rome the C hr i st i ans had
seemed s o unimportant that P l iny had n o t
though t i t worth while to i nform h i mse l f as
to the r i ght way o f dealing w i th them before he
went out to B ithynia to take up h i s governor
S hip I t was plain l y a surpr i se t o him to nd
how many ther e w e r e and that the hea then
temples were empty of worshippers i n con
sequence H i s procedure as given i n l ett e rs
to Traj an was as fo l lows :

I hav e asked them if they were C hristians

and to those who ha v e avowed the professio n
I hav e put the same question a second and
a third tim e and h ave enforced i t by t hreats of
punishment When they have persevered I
,

24

Chu rch H i sto ry

ro m

Ne ro

Co n stan ti n e

to

ha v e ordered them to execution F o r I did

not doubt that whatever the i r confession m ight
be their audacio us behaviour and i mmovable
obstinacy required punishment
Som e who
were i nfected w i th th e same ki nd o f madnes s
but were R oman citize n s have bee n reserved
by me to be s e nt to R ome
The procedure i s plain Those charged with
bei ng C hristian s were questioned and if obdurate
were put to d e ath R oman citizen s were sent to
R ome
B ut matters did not stop th ere

A n information without a name w as put

i nto my hands containing a list o f many per
son s w ho deny that they are o r ever were
C hristian s
Others also accused by an
i nformer adm itted that they were C hristians
o r rather h a d bee n C hristians but had e n t i re l y
renounced the error ; some three years som e
more some eve n above twenty All these
worshipped yo ur i mage and the i mages o f the
god s and th e y even vented i mprecations
aga i nst C hrist ; they a frmed that the sum
upon
o f their fault consisted i n assembling
a stated day before i t was light to sing alter
n ate l
among
th
e
mselves
hym
n
s
to
C
h
r
i
st
as
y
to G o d ; bi nding the mselves by oath n ot to
be guilty o f any wickedness not to steal o r to
ro b ;
not to com mit adultery nor to break
t he i r faith when plighted ; nor to deny the
deposits in their hands when cal l ed u pon to
restore them
These cere mo n ies perform ed t hey us u a ll y
.

P e rs ecu ti o n

F ro m Nero

M arcus Au rel i us

to

25

departed and came together again to take

a repast the meat o f which was i n noc e nt and
eaten promiscuously ; b u t they had desisted
from th i s custom since my edict wherein by
your commands I had prohibited all pub l ic
assemb l ies

From these circumstances I thought i t

necessary to t ry to gain the truth even by
torture from two slave girls who were called
deaconesses But I cou l d discover on l y an
obst i nate kind of superstition carried to great
excess
H e goes on
To m e an a ffair of this k i nd seems worthy
o f your
consideration from th e multitude
i nvolved in danger F o r many persons o f all
ag e s o f all degrees o f both sexes are a l ready
and will be constant l y brought into d anger by
these acc u sat i on s
No r i s this superstitiou s
contagion conned only to the cities ; it
spreads itself through the villages and the
coun try A s yet I th i n k it may be stopped
and corrected I t i s very certai n that t he
temples wh i ch were a l most deserted n o w begin
t o ll again ; and the sacred rites wh i ch have
been a long time neglected are agai n per
formed The victims wh i ch hitherto had
few purchasers are sold everywhere From
hence we may easi l y infer also that numbers
o f people m i ght be rec l aimed if there was a
proper allowance mad e for re p e n tan ce
L tt ofP li y 97
,

e rs

26

o m Ne ro
r
f

Chu rch H i s to ry

Co n stan ti n e

to

C ertain

i nfe rence s may legiti mately be drawn

There i s no specic law against C hristianity
Pliny a c t s under the gener al police powers given
to a R oman governor among whose most
i mportant fun ctions was that of regu l at i ng a ll
re l igiou s ma tters especia l ly those concerned
with the worship of t he e mperor I n doing s o
h e acted as the emperor s deputy and carried
o u t t he general orders issued from head -quarters
by h i s o w n o r a preceding em peror
I t i s qu ite plain that neither Traj an n o r Pli ny
makes any new departure in procedure C hr i s

t i an s were already l iable to death

for the

Name
Lax administration h a d left the m alone
Pli ny revived th e persecution an d Traj an
appro ved genera l ly but somewhat modied h i s

procedure
I f they are brought i nto your
pr e sence and co nvicted t hey m ust be punished ;
b ut w i th th i s reservation t ha t if any o n e O f the m
has de nied himself to be a C hristian a n d makes
h i s assertion man i fe st by an i nvo cation o f o u r
gods although h e may ha v e bee n suspected
before h i s repentance m ust entitl e h i m to a
ardon
But
anonym
ous
i
nformation
s
ought
p
n o t to have the least we i ght again st any cri me
whatever Th ey would n o t on l y be of dan
e ro u s conseq uence
but
are
absolutely
agai
n
st
g
the principle s o f my govern ment
C hri s tians ar e not t o be h unted out
Anony
mo us accusation s are no more to be received
against th e m than agai n st other people I f th ey
.

Lette rs

n ,
P
l
i
f
y

8
9


P e rse cu ti o n F ro m Ne ro to M arcus Au re li u s

27

are accused they may recant ; but if they o b s ti

e to do so they must die
refus
n ate l
y
The nam e s of two men of note are recorded
as having perished u n der Traj an
One was
Simeon sa i d by H e ge s i p p u s to hav e been t he
son of the Cl eophas who i s mentioned i n th e
Gospe l s and to have been the s econd Bi sh op

of Jerusa l em Being accused by heretics he

was torm e nted many days and died a martyr
w i th su c h rmness tha t a ll were amazed even
the president him self that a man o f one hun
dred and twen ty years o l d S hould bear su c h
tortures H e was at l ast ordered to be cruci
.

ed

The other was Ignatius Bishop of Antioch

According to E usebius he was t he second

bishop to carry o n the Petrine succession and

was s e nt from Syria presumably after being

condemned at Antioch to R ome and was th e re

c ast to t he beasts
On hi s j ourney through
A s i a he encouraged the di fferen t C hurch e s i n
the c i t ie s where h e stayed and wrote a number
o f l etters
H e wrote to the R omans to ask them
not to i nterfere on his beha l f and to desire
the i r prayers
On l y pray for me for strength
both outward and i nward that I may not only
speak but a l so have the wi ll that I may not
on l y be called a C hr i st i an but found to be o n e

Again
I am writing to a l l the C h u r c h e s
and I give inj unctions to all men that I am dying
wi ll ingly for G od s sak e i f you do not hinder i t
b i H 8 iii 3
E
I bid 36
.

u se

u s,

Chu rch H i sto ry

28

Nero

ro m

to

Co n stan ti n e

beseech y o u do me n o t a n unseasonable kind

nes s
Su ffer m e to b e eaten by the beasts
through who m I can attai n to G o d I am God s
wheat and I am ground by the teeth o f wild
beasts t hat I may b e found pure bread o f Christ
From Syria to R ome I am gh ting w i th
w i l d b e asts b y land and s e a by night and day
bound to ten leopards and they becom e worse
No w I becom e the more
fo r ki nd treatment
a disciple fo r their ill deeds but n o t by this am
I j u s t i e d
I long fo r the beasts that are pre
pare d fo r me and I pray that they may be fo und
promp t fo r me
Grant m e th i s favour I
know what i s expedient fo r m e ; n o w I am begi n
n i ng to b e a disciple May nothing o f things
seen o r un seen e n vy me my atta i n i ng to J esus
Let there come upon me re and cros s
C hrist
an d struggle s with wild beas ts cutt i ng and tear
ing asunde r rackings o fbones mangling of lim bs
crushing o f my whole bo d y cruel torture s o f
the devil i f I m ay but attain to Jesu s Christ
T hese are the words o f an heroic soul i mpa
tient and ambitious to drin k th e cup h i s Master
drank o f conscious perhaps o f h i s o wn weakne ss
and th e natural shrin king o f the e sh I t is n o t
t hat h e loves life l e ss but that he loves Je sus
m ore
I

H A D R I A N A D 1 1 7 -1 3 8
S o far as the Church was concerned the r eign
o f Hadrian was comparatively une v entfu l
He
see m s to have discouraged per s ecuti o n That
,


F ro m Ne ro
Te rse cu ti o n

M arcus Au rel i u s

to

at l e ast is the impression made by h i s rescript

t o M i n u ci u s F u n dan u s who was Procons u l O f
Asia about A D 1 2 4 tw e l v e years after Traj an
dispatched his famous rescript to P l iny Th e
e ffect of it was decided l y to restrain the ardour
of persecutors
be accused i n
C hristian s ma
the courts but it m ust be by a fiirm al accusation
made by a prosecutor not by a popu l ar outcry
by a mob I f the accuser pro v es that the accused
has done anything contrary to the l aw he i s to be
punished proportionab l y to his o ffence But if
the prosecution turns out to be unfounded and
malicious the prosecutor i s to be pun i sh e d
severe l y
We see by th i s that pro secutions are permitted
rather than encouraged That i n any prosecution
there has to be a denit e prosecutor who may be
p u n i sh e d if h i s cas e fai l s One clause is am
b ig u o u s perhaps deli berately
I f C hri stian s are
proved to ha ve done anyth i ng contrary to the
l aws they are to be punished but it i s not c l ear
whether being a C hr i s ti an i s i n itse l f an il l egal
act o r n o Probab l y it was left intentionally to
the d i s c ret i on o f the mag i strat e
,

A NT O N I N U S

P l u s,

A D
.

1 38 1 61

A nton i nus Pius seems to ha v e con ti nued the

po l icy o f H adrian E u s e b i u s records that he
wrote to the L ari s s ae an s Thessalonians At he
n i an s
and al l the Greeks forbidding any
I

E u se

bi

u s,

H 8
.

iv

26

Chu rch H i sto ry

0
3

r
om
f

Ne ro

Co n stan ti n e

to

disorderly proc e dure aga i nst the C hr i st i ans I n

spi te of the imperial po l ic y ou t breaks took
p l ace The martyrdom of Polycarp at Smyrna
1
i
s
a
con
spicuo
us
i
nstance
A D
55
Polycarp w as born about the year A D 7 0 and
was said by Irenaeus who saw him i n h i s youth

to have bee n e stab l i sh e d as Bishop o f Smyr n a

by the Apostles
Tertullian add s that the
Apos tle who established h im was 8 J oh n
Irenaeu s i s quoted by E useb i us as ha vi ng put
down h i s o w n you thful reco l lection o f h i m i n
a l ett e r wr i tte n to th e hereti c F l o ri n u s

I can even de scribe t he place where the

b l e ss e d Polycarp used t o sit and discourse hi s
general mode o f life a nd personal appearance
hi s di scourses to th e m u l t i t u de ho w he would
speak o f h i s familiar i ntercourse w i th J oh n an d
w ith the rest o f those w ho had see n the Lord
and ho w he would cal l their words to remem
.

b ran ce

He

visited R ome when Anicetus was bishop

t o co nfer with h im o n th e controversy respecting
the righ t day fo r keeping Easter A n i c e tus was
th e bishop wh o succeeded P i us the broth e r o f
Hermas T hey could n o t agree about Easter
b u t h e turned many h e ret ic s from their error

th e tr u e faith an d Anicetus conceded to

to
Po l ycarp the Eucharist by way o f showing hi m
re spec t by wh ic h phrase we are to understand
that Anicetu s permitted Po l ycarp to ce lebrate
the Eucharist i n h i s presence H i s martyrdom
bi H 8
E
.

u se

u s,

20

e rse cu ti o n

F ro m Ne ro

M arcus Au re l i us 3 I

to

was the l ast act of a persecutio n which took p l ac e

in the year A D 1 5 5 or A D 1 5 6 at Smyrna The
detai l s of h i s passion are given i n a l e tter from
the C hurch at Smyrna to the C hur c h at Phi l o

to al l the H oly Catho l ic C hurches

m e l i u m and
wr i tten immediate l y after the event from wh i c h
the a cc ount g iv en be l ow i s taken for the most
part i n a l i te ral trans l ation of the a c tual words
of t he S m y rn ae an s
Th e re ha d been severa l martyrs who had
withstood torm ents and the wi ld beasts includ
i ng G ermanicus a youth whom the procon sul
piti e d and tried to save On l y one apostatized

wh o had forced himself

Q u i ntus a Phrygian
and some others to come forward of their o w n
accord but whose heart fai l ed him wh e n he s aw

the beasts Th e crowd then cried o u t Away

w i th th e a t he i sts L e t Po l ycarp be searched fo r l

Polycarp when he heard it wished to remain

i n the c it y but the maj ority persuaded h i m t o o
away and he w e n t o u t q u i etl y to a farm not g
ar
distant and stayed with a few friends doing
nothing but pray n ight and day for a ll and for
the C hurches throughout the wor l d as was h i s
custom
The search persisted s o he moved to
another farm A s l ave under tortur e be t ray e d his
hiding p l ace Late in the evening th ey came to
the house H e migh t h av e escaped then but

would not saying The wil l of God be don e

H e went down and ta l ked w i th them and ord e red
food to be s e t before them and ask e d them t o
allow him one hour i n wh i ch he m i gh t pray
.

Chu rch H i sto ry

2
3

Ne ro to Co n s tan ti n e

ro m

T o th i s
undisturbed
i n th e words o f the

l etter o f the C hurch o f S m yrna they asse n t e d

a nd h e stood a nd prayed being s o lled w i th
the grace of God that fo r two hours h e could not
be silent and those who heard were as t on i shed
and many re pented that they had come against

s uch a ve nerable o l d man

No w when he had
at last n i shed h is prayer the letter go e s o n
havi ng remembered a l l whom he had ever me t
small and great h i gh and l o w and the whole

the
Catholic C hurch throughout the world
ho u r arrived fo r h i s de parture They s e t hi m
and led him i nto the c i ty i t b ei ng
o n an as s
a g reat Sabbath day
And there m et h im
H erod the head o f the police an d h i s fathe r
T hey placed h i m i n their carriage
Ni ce te s
a n d sitti ng by h im began to persuade h i m

say i ng What h arm i s ther e i n say i ng Lord

and o fferi ng sacrice and so forth an d
Caesar
saving yourself ? At rs t he did n o t an swer
them b u t wh en t hey persisted h e said I am
S o th e y
to d o what you advise
n o t going
gave u p try i ng to persuade him and began to
speak ercely to h i m and turne d him o u t w i th
s uch haste that i n getting o u t o f th e carriage
h e scraped hi s sh in ; and without turn i ng round
as though u nh urt he walked o n at once q u i ck l y
an d was brough t to the ar e na where th e uproar
was s o great that nothing could b e heard When
P olycarp entered the arena a voice was heard

from heaven saying Be strong Polycarp and

play the man 1 No o n e s aw t he speaker but
.

P e rse cu ti o

Fr m
n
o

Ne ro

to

M arcus Au re li us 3 3

our friends who were present heard the voice

When he was brought forward there was a great
uproar from those who h eard t hat Po l ycar p had
been arrested The proconsu l asked him if he
wer e Polycarp and when he admitted it he tri e d
to persuade h im to deny saying R espect your
ag e
and such l ike things as they are a cc us

to
say
Swear by the genius of Caesar
o
m
e
d
t

Thin k better of it
Say Away with the

athe ists
But Po l ycarp w i t h a stern co u n te n
an c e look e d on all the crowd of lawless heathen
and waving his hand at them groaned and
looking up to hea v en said Away with the
athei sts " T he proconsu l pressed h i m an d sa i d
Swear and I re l eas e you
C urse C hrist
Polycarp sa i d Eighty and s i x years have I
served H i m and H e never did me wrong H o w
c an I blaspheme my King Who saved me P

The proconsul tried threat s

I have W ild
beasts at hand and I wi ll cast you to them
unless you C hange your mind
H e an swered

Cal l them
The proconsul
I f you despise

the b e asts I will have you burnt

Po l ycarp :

You thr e aten re that burns for a moment

but you know nothing of the j udgement to
c ome and the re that burns for ever Bring
what you wi l l

And with these and many other words the

account continues
he was l led w i th courage
and j oy and h i s face was fu ll of gra c e s o that
n o t only did i t not fall in troub l e at th e things
said to him but that the proconsu l o n the o th er
.

o m Ne ro to
r
f

Chu rch Hi sto ry

34

Co n stan ti n e

h and was astounded and sen t his h erald i nto

the midst of th e are na to announce thre e times
Polycarp has con fessed that he is a C hristian
When th i s had been sa i d by the herald all th e
m ultitude o f h e athe n and Jews living i n Smyrna
cried o u t w i t h uncontro l lable wra t h an d a loud
shout This i s the teach er o f A s i a th e father
o f the
C hr i st i an s the destroyer o f our gods
fer sacri ce
wh o teache s m ultitudes n either to o f
nor to worship " A n d whe n they had said th i s
they cried o u t and asked Ph ilip th e Asiarch to
loose a lion o n Polycarp But h e said h e could
n o t leg al ly d o this since he had closed the games
Then they cr ie d o u t w i th o n e voice that he
sho u ld burn Polycarp alive ; fo r the vi s i on
which had appeared to him o n h i s pillow must
be fullled wh e n he s aw i t burning while h e
w as prayi ng ; and h e turn ed an d said p ro p he t i
cally to those o f the faithful who were with h i m
I m ust be b u rn t alive
T h e se th i ngs h appened m ore quic k ly than i t
takes to t e ll and the crow d gathered im mediately
an d go t ready wood and faggots from the work
shop s and bath s the Jews being extremely
zealous as i s their c ustom i n assi sting at th i s
When th e re was ready he put o ff h i s clothes
loose ned hi s girdle and tried to take o ff h is S hoe s
wh i ch h e had n o t been accustomed to do befo re
because the faith ful vied with o n e another i n
doing th i s fo r him S o great was th e r e s p e ct
he h ad been treated w i th even before h i s martyr
dom because o f h is noble life When abo ut to
,

'

P e rs e cu ti o n

ro m

Ne ro

to

M arcus Aureli us 3 5

be nai l ed to the stake he sa i d Leave me thus

for H e Who gives me power to endure t he re
wi ll grant m e to remain unmoved in the ame s
e ven w i thout the nails
When bound h e looked
up to heaven and said O Lord G od A l mighty
F ather of Thy be l oved and b l essed C hi l d Jesus
Christ through whom we ha ve received know
ledge of Thee the G od of angels and powers
and al l creatio n and o f the who l e fami l y o f th e
righteous who l ive i n T hy s i ght ; I bless Thee
that Thou hast grant e d me th i s day and hour
t hat I may share among the number of the
martyrs i n the cup of Thy C hrist for the resur
eterna l l ife of soul and bo d y i n the
re cti o n t o
immortal ity o f the H o l y S pirit A nd may I
be received among th e m before Thee as a r i ch
and acceptab l e sacrice as Thou th e G od Who
li es not an d art truth hast prepared beforehand
and S hown forth and fu l ll ed
Wherefore I
praise Thee for al l th i ngs I b l ess Thee I g l ori fy
T he e through th e eterna l and heaven l y H igh
P r i est Jesus C hrist T hy be l oved C hi l d through
whom b e gl ory to Thee with H i m and t he H o l y

Spirit now and throughout the ages Amen

The re th e n b l azed up but did not consume
h i m and he was dispatched w i th a dagger H i s
discip l es begged for h i s body but were refused
Ni ce te s at the request of the J
ews ask i ng the

governor not to give the body lest they l eave

the Cru ci e d and begin to worsh i p this man
The l etter remarks that th i s was impossib l e

F o r H i m we worship as the Son o f God but

,

Chu rch H i sto ry

6
3

Ne ro

ro m

Co n s tan ti n e

to

the martyrs we love as d i sc i p l e s and imitators o f

the Lord
T he body was burned but the bones were

gath ered up and hidde n wher e the Lord wil l

permit us to meet according to o u r ability i n
g l adnes s and j oy to celebrate the birthday o f h i s
martyrdom

M A RCU S A U R E L I U S

61
1 80

Antoni nus P i u s had adopted by the desire

o f H adrian
a youth o f seventeen already a
professe d Stoic ph ilosopher who succeeded h i m
I 6 1
and i s kn own to fame as Marcus
A D
H e i s th e clas sical i n stan c e o f a
Aurelius
philosopher on a throne
H i s virtue Gibbon s

says
was th e well earned harvest o f many a
learned co nference o f many a pat ie nt lec ture
and many a midnight l ucubration
I t might
i nde ed seem to ha v e been more congen ial to
the lecture
room than to the senate o r the cam p
an d he did in fact lecture publicly o n philosoph y
i n Greece in Asia and i n R ome Neverthe l e ss
he was a conscientiou s and pai nstaking emperor ;
a nd as a general fought se v era l by no means
i nglor i ous campaign s o n the Danube aga i n st
the Q uadi an d M arco m m an n i
H e wrote a book o f m editation s called a
D i s co u rse w i th hi m se lf which has becom e fam ou s
l tt f th e C h h f G d ab i di g i S m y a i
S
th
C h h f G d dw ll i g i P h i l m l i m -Bi h p
th
t
l iii p a t i i
L i g htf t Ap t l Fath
,

i.

ee

u rc

o o

u rc

er o
o

os o i c

e r s , vo

rn


F ro m Ne ro to M arcus Au re li us 3 7
P e rse cu ti o n

and i s s t i l l wide l y so l d
I t is perhap s n ot
beyond the mark to say that hard l y any book
has enj oyed so great a reputat i on among th o se
who ha v e not read it
Th e austere sta n dard of mor als which the
writer sets before him i n th i s book h e strenuous l y
endeavoured to c arry out and not u nsuccess
fu ll y H e has bee n canonized i f the use of t he
term may be perm itted by the general acc l aim
of historians and h e may sa fe l y be regarded as
the ne o w er o f pagan V irtue
H i s character is however v ery unlike that
of th e C hristian sa i nt The di fference consi sts
main l y i n the fa c t that the p ag an t e n ds more and
more to be centred i n himse l f ; the C hr i s ti an
m ak e s it his gr e at ai m to e scape from hi mself
Both e x er c i se a rigid se l f-di scip l ine but Marcus
that h e may be mast e r in hi s own house ; 8 Pau l
i f 8 Pau l may b e taken as a type of Ch r i st i an
sa i n tl i n e ssthat he may render h i s body an
obedient i nstrument to the Spirit ; I n other words
that not himse l f but C hrist may rule there
The author o f the m e ditation s records with
comp l acency a catalogue of h i s own vi rtues
S Pau l t hough on o n e occasion controversy led
hi m i nto the foo l i shness as he ca ll ed it o f doing
the same i s careful to exp l ain that he had n o
prid e i n these th i n gs but preferred to glory i n
h i s i n rm i t i e s because the strength of G od had
its opportunity in his own weakness O ne i s to
be saved by hi s own unassi sted e fforts The
other c r i e s out fo r de l i v e ran ce and nds I t i n
.

Chu rch H i sto ry

8
3

Ne ro to Co n stan ti n e

ro m

Jesus C hrist crucied On e nds his l i fe by

seeking i t with extraordi nary di l igence and reso
l u ti o n
th e other by an a l most reckless r e ad i ne ss
t o cast i t away

Gibbon nds i n th e mi l dness of Marcus

the only defe ctive part o f h i s chara c ter U n fo r
t u n at e l y fo r th e C hristians this m ildness though
it covered th e gallantries o f a n err i ng wi fe was
not extended to them
No r i s thi s surprising
He was a devo ut
adherent o f the anc ie nt gods and apparentl y a
serious believer i n the worshi p of th e emperors
A t his request h i s erring wife Faustina was
declared a go d d e ss by the senate and i t was
decreed that newly married couples should pay

their vows at her shrine

He was to o o f an
over conscientious n o t to say scrupulous and
worrying di sposition t o whom the a l most easy
goi ng tolerance O f h i s predecessors was im possib l e
Unlike them he could never have rested o n the
i l logical pos i t i on that though i t was criminal to
be a C hr i st i an no ste ps nee d be taken t o stamp
o u t the c r i m e
that the magistrate was to t urn a
bli nd eye unles s h i s atte ntion w e re cal l ed to it
C elsus speaks o f the m as bei n g sought out and
p u n i sh e d wi th death
Melito Bi sho p o f Sardi s wrote about A D 1 7 0
1 7 1
i n a remon strance t o the emperor

What i n d e e d never happe ned before the

race o f the p i ous i s n o w persecuted driven
Hi t R m l i 3 i
O i g Agai t Cel vi ii 6 9
.

en

xx

ns

su s,

P e rse cu ti o n

F ro m Ne ro

to

M arcus Au re li us 3 9

about in A s i a by new and strange decrees For

the shame l ess inform ers and coveters of other
men s goods tak i ng opportunity from th e edicts

o f the emperor open l y perpe t rate robbery

Athenagoras (A D 1 7 7 1 8 0 ) a l so remon strated

wi th the emperor Yo u allow us to be harassed

plundered persecuted for our nam e alone
No doubt the c hange was due directly or
indirect l y to the e mperor At the sam e time
the story o f the s o ca l led Thundering Legion
seems t o po i n t to a chang e of att i tude towards
the end o f the r e ign
The facts see m certa i n Marcus Aure l ius i n
one campaign probably A D 1 7 4 i n h i s German
wars was surrounded by his e ne mies and without
wat e r when a timely thunderstorm saved him
and h i s troops T he Twe l fth Legion F ulm inata
Thund
e rstruck
was
presen
t
and
th
i
s
legion
(
)
probably contai ned a l arge n umber o f Christian
soldiers as i t was recruited i n Asia Minor i n the
Me l itene district where C hristians are known to
ha ve been numerous The event was considered
miracu l ous a t th e time and by Christians was
att r i buted to the prayers o f the Christian so l dier s
Dion Cas s u i s records a rumour that the rain was the
work o f an Egyptian m agician Marcus A ure l i us
had a medal struck to commemorate the event o n
which i t is credited to Jupiter Pluvius Tertullian 3
insists that Marcus himse l f ( in a l etter to the
Senate ) gav e the prayers o f h i s C hr i st i an soldiers
b i H 8 iv 6
E
.

u se

u s,

P leafo r the

n
h
r
t
i
s
s
a
i
,
C

Ap

0
4

Chu rch H i sto ry

Ne ro

ro m

to

Co n stan ti n e

credit for th i s d e l iverance and that in consequenc e

the execution o f the persecuting l aws was relaxed
and unj us t a cc users were se v ere l y punished
Tertul l ian was we can hard l y doubt wr i t i ng i n
good faith as he was addressing h i s Apology to
the Senate who must ha v e k nown what had
happen ed
I t wo uld hav e been a singularly
use l ess lie fo r hi m to have called the i r attention
to a le tter which M arcus had written to the m i f
they knew perfe ctly well tha t h e ha d done nothi ng
o f the ki nd
H e may hav e be e n mistaken though
he wro te only twenty -three year s after the event
I f he is c orre c t there m ust have been a relaxation
o f persecution for wh ic h we ha v e n o other e vi
de nce M ean t ime p e n d i ng further evidence it
i s b e st to suspend j udgem ent
The best-known vi ct i m o f th e persecution w as
J usti n M artyr who with s i x companion s perished
at R ome early i n the reign when R ust icus was
Prefect o f R o me wh i ch o ffi ce he assumed at the
end of the year A D I 6 3 and held u ntil A D 1 6 7
T o h i m R usticus said What trai ning and educa
tion have y o u had

I have endeavoured to acquaint my self

Justi n
w i th a l l system s o f philosophy an d ev ery branch
But at last I attached mysel f to
o f l e arning

C hristianity

Are y o u pleased w i th that philo

R usti cu s

sophy P

Justi n
Ye s
R usti cus
What i s th ei r teaching

T he tr u e teaching that all C hri stians

Justi n
,

P e rsecu ti o n F ro m Ne ro

M arcu s Au re li us 4 1

to

ho l d i s that we believe there i s o n e G od Maker

and Creator of a ll things vi sible and i nvisible
and the Lord Jesus C hr i s t we confe ss to be the

f
Son o G od announced be forehand by the pro

t
s
Who
is
come
to
j
udge
the
human
race
h
e
p
The prefect then asked where they met

Justi n
We me e t wherever we can The
G od of the C hr i st i an s is not conned by p l ace
b u t being i n v i s i b l e H e ll s earth and heaven
and H e i s adored and H i s glory praised by th e
faithful everywhere

C om e tel l me where you and your

R usti cus
discip l es meet

Justi n
Up to now I have stayed near th e
house of o n e Martin by the T o m o ti an i an baths
To a ll who have come to me to l earn about
Christianity I have taught th e true doctrine
R usti cu s
Are you a Christian

Justi n
I ndeed I am
The s ame question was asked o f h i s ve com
panions C hariton C hari tan a E v e l p i s to a Cappa
do ci an H i e rax a P hryg i an from Iconium and
Pa e on and the same answer given
T he n the prefect turned to Justi n and said

You are reputed to be eloquent and thin k

you ho l d the tr u e teaching ; if you are beaten
to death do you be l ieve you wi l l ascend i nto
heaven

Justi n
I hope i f ] su ffer the punishment y o u
speak of that I shal l ha ve what they ha ve who
keep the commands o f C hrist

R usti cus
D o you th i nk that in the future
,

,
,

2
4

Church H i sto ry

Ne ro

om
r
f

to

Co n stan ti n e

you wil l ascend the s ky and receive some

9
reward

I do n ot thi n k ; I k now I hold i t

Jus ti n
so certai n that I have no doubt
T h e prefect then urged them to sacrice bu t
they all re fused
U nle s s you obey my command s
R usti cus
o u shal l be punished withou t m ercy
y
For the sake o f o u r Lord Je su s C hrist
Justi n
we pray that we may e nd ure punish men t and be
saved
They were t hen l ed away scourged and after
wards dispatched with the axe Their remains
w e re col l ected by t he i r friends and b u r ie d secret l y
Th e pri ncipa l scenes o f martyrdom so far as i s
known were Lyon s and Vien ne i n Gau l There
the C hri stians were rst boycotted so that we
should n o t only be excluded from houses and
bath s and mark ets but everything belonging to
us was prohibited fro m a ppearing i n any place
whatever and then mobbed when we r e a d that

they nobly bore all th e evils that were h eaped

upon them by t he populace clamours an d b l ows
plunderi ng and robberies ston ings and im prison

me nts everything that a savage people could

delight to inict upon e nemies

T hey were
t h e n brought b efore the governor w ho asked i f
they were C hristians and those that confe ssed
were condem n ed to torture and death
O ne o f the brethr e n Vi tti as E p ag at h u s n ot
hi m self c harged as ked to be heard i n defe nce o f
.

ro

Ru i n art , Acta M arty ru rn Si n ce ra

P e rse cu ti o n

F ro m Ne ro

to

M arcus Au re li us

43

the accused H e was asked if h e was a Christian

h e confessed an d was condemned O f the rst
martyrs ten we are to l d fel l a way though most
of them afterwards seem to have w i thdrawn their
denial and su ffered according l y The res t were
steadfast throughout
A reign o f terror s e ems now to ha v e set in
fresh arrests be i ng made daily unti l a ll the zealous
members o f the t wo C hurche s wer e i n pri son
Popu l ar frenzy was even further aroused by the
confessions o f some h eathen s l aves belonging to
the brethren who under fear o f torture accused
their masters of i nfanticid e i ncest and other
horr i b l e crimes After this we are to l d the
martyrs endured torture s beyond description
One of the mar t yrs a S lave named Blandina
was conspicuou s fo r her courage and th e heroism
w i th wh i c h s h e deed her tormentors and e n co u r
aged her brethren
Whi l e we were al l tremb l ing
and her earthly mistress who was herself one of
the contendi ng martyrs was afraid l e st through
the weakness o f h er esh she should not be ab l e
to profess her fa i th w i t h bo l dness Blandina was
lled with such power that her i ngenious tormen
tors who re l ieved and succeeded ea c h other all
day confe ssed that they were beaten
But
this b l essed sa i nt as a nob l e wrestler repeated
1 am a C hristian ; no wickedness i s committed
by us
Sanctus a deacon of the Church of Lyon s
rep l ied to every question as to his name city
E
bi H 8 v
.

u se

u s,

44

C hu rch H i sto ry fro m Ne ro

to

Co n stan ti n e

n at i on an d statu s
I am a Christian and when
every other torture had been tried red -hot p l ates
were xed to the mo st sensitive part s o f his body
but h e remained un shaken
P oth i n u s the aged Bishop o f Lyon s though
o ver n inety was brought before the tribunal an d
died tw o days later i n prison from th e e ffect o f
the vio l ence w i th which h e had been treated
Whe n th e game s began th e C h r i st i an s were
exhibited i n place o f gladiators Blandina bound
and suspe nded to a stake and exposed as food to
the w i ld beasts had the appearance o f bein g
crucied and by her example and prayers e n co u r

F o r as they
aged greatly the other martyrs
s aw her their s i s t er they contemplated H im that
was cru ci e d fo r th e m to persuade those that
believe i n Him tha t every o n e who su ffers fo r
C hrist will for ever enj oy com m u nion w i th the

living G o d
But as none o f the beast s would
to uc h her S he was taken back to prison
The governor who had condemned Attalu s to
th e beasts had respited h i m o n learn ing that h e
was a R oman citize n u nti l he cou l d ge t i n s tru c
tion s from R om e but i n re spon se t o the clamours
o f the m o b sent hi m t o th e arena the n e x t day
together w i th a Ph rygian physician named Alex
ande r who had declared h i m s e l f by standing at
th e tri bunal and encouraging the accused Attal us
was roasted o n a n iron c hair O n th e last day
B l andina was bro u gh t forth with P o n ti cu s a
youth o f ft een w ho encouraged by her bore

t h e worst torture s and gave u p h i s l i fe

But
,


F ro m Ne ro
P e rs e cu ti o n

M arcus A u re l i u s

to

45

the b l essed Blandina l ast of a l l a s a nob l e mother

that had animat e d he r chi l dren an d s e nt them on
befor e her a s victors to the great K ing herself
retracing the ground o f al l the conicts her
chi l dren had endured hastened at last to them
w it h j oy and exu l tation at the i ssue a s if she were
invited to a marriage feast an d n o t to be cast to
wi l d beasts And thus after scourging after
exposure to the b e asts after roasti n g s h e was
nall y thrown i nto a net and cast before a bul l
and was t ossed by him and then dispatched
Th e su fferings of B l andina as o f oth e r martyrs
seems a l most beyond t h e poss i b ili ty o f h uman
endurance A be l ief seems to ha v e been curren t
i n t he Ear l y C hurch that some measure o f
un c onsc i ousness was e r m i tt e d them Eusebiu s
says t hat B l andina a ff
er a certain point had no
l onger any consciousness of what was done o n

a ccount of her pious hope condence faith

and fe ll owship w i th C hrist
I t i s noteworthy that their per s ecut o rs took
great pains to destroy the bodies G uard was
kept so that the mang l ed remains shou l d neither
be buried nor carried away and i n the end those
that were n o t eaten by the wi l d beas t s were burnt
and the ashes c ast i nto the R hone
No w we s hal l
see whether they will r i se aga i n and whether the i r
G od i s ab l e to he l p them an d rescue them out of
our hands
Another taunt was Where is the i r
G od and what good has their re l igion b ee n to
them wh i c h th ey preferred to their own l ife
E
bi H 8 v I
,

u se

u s,

III

G NOS T I C S

THE

M O NTA NI STS
G N O S T I CS

E S I DE S persecution th e C hurc h had to fac e

other and more i ns i d i ous dangers T here
were per i l s o f the i n te ll e ct an d o f t he sp i r i t as
well as of t h e esh The rst wer e due pri nci

pally to thos e keen an d s ubt l e inte l lects fo r t h e

most part outside the C hurch wh o scorned the

simplicity of the Gospel dismissed th e statements
o f th e C ree d as ch i l d i sh fables to be i nterpreted
i n a n o n -natural sen se and produced e l aborate
system s o f their o w n wh i c h are mean i n g l es s
to u s but seem to ha ve made a strong appeal
T h e se were
to the i nte ll ectuals of that day
the Gnostics I n contrast to th e m ther e arose
ho t headed zealots w i t h i n the fold who de
m an d e d a stricter discipline and more sen sible
fr u i ts o f the Spirit than th e C hurch o f their
day could S how a nd threatened disruption i f
th ei r demands were n o t granted They were
the fo l lowers o f M ontanus afterward s kn own
as Montanists
Gnosticism was n ot so m uch a religion as
a philosophy wh i ch attempted to answer the
.

6
4

Gn o sti cs, M o n tan i sts

47

question Why does evi l exist

The G n o s
tics he l d v ar i ous O pinions but o n one point
they a ll seem to ha v e been agreed name l y
tha t matter was essential l y evi l and that if I
evi l did not originate i n matter i t was i n e x tri c- i
abl y invo l ved i n it T he materia l world was
therefore an evil t h i ng and the Supreme B e ing
must be disconnected from it as far as possible
T h i s was done by i nterposing a who l e series
or aeon s between the Supreme
o f emanations
Being and the C reator Who was ge nerally
r e garded as a mor e or le ss m al e ce n t de i ty
and frequent l y identied with t he G od o f the
O l d Testament
Simon Magus the Samaritan sorcerer as h e i s
described i n th e A cts who was baptized by
S Phi l ip the deacon but was afterwards rej ected
and c ursed by S P eter was l ooked upon by
Catho l ic wr i ters as the F ather of G nostics
He
gures l arge l y i n the ecc l esiastica l romances o f
the ear l y Ch urch but e x c ep t fo r this brief appear
ance in the Acts he remain s for u s a personage
o f romanc e rather than of hi story M enander
another Samaritan his d i s c i p l e sa i d that the
Supreme B e i ng was unknown and that he him
self was the Saviour
C e ri n th u s i s one o f the ear l iest o f whom w e
have any real k n o w l e d e H e lived i n As i a and
was a contemporary o fS John Po l ycarp used

to re l ate that John the d isciple o f the Lord

went into a bath at Ephesus and seeing Ce ri n thu s
within ran o u t wi thout bath i ng and exclai med
,

Chu rch H i sto ry

8
4

Ne ro

ro m

Co n stan ti n e

to

Le t us ee l e s t th e bath should fa ll in while

Ce ri n t hu s that e nemy o f truth i s
H e taught t hat Jesus was born of Joseph and
M ary i n th e ordinary course o f h uman gen era
tion and that after H i s baptism the C hr i st
descended upon H i m i n the for m o f a clove from
the S upre me R uler and th at H e the n proclaimed
th e Father and worked miracles W he n Jesus
s u ffered C hr i st left Him being pure spirit and
i ncapable O f su ffering
S at u rn i n u s was a native o f the Syrian Antioch
He taught that th e Saviour was without bir th
body o r gure but had the appearance only o f
a man and came to destroy the G o d o f th e
Jews Some at least o f h i s fo ll owers practis e d an
e x tre me asceticism absta i n e d from animal food
an d taugh t that marriage and generation are
from Satan
The Nicolaitanes according to Irenaeus were
th e followers o f Nicolas th e proselyte o f Antioch
T hey w e re sa i d by
w ho was o n e o f th e s eve n
I renaeus to have l ed l ive s o f unrestrained i n du l
gence a charge repeate d by Tertullian They
appear to have b ee n anoth e r ear l y Gnostic sect
and are condem ned i n th e A ) o caly p s e
Tat i an once the di scip l e o fJ ustin se e ms after
wards to ha ve belonged to the school o f the
E ncratite s and preached against marr i age and
the use o f animal food
B as i l i d e s taught at A l exandria i n the reign o f
E
b i H E i ii 8
I a Agai t H e i i 6

u se

re n

us ,

e u s,

ns

e r s es,

Gn o sti cs, M o n tan i sts

H adrian

49

Besides t he usua l categories of aeons

he maintained tha t C hr i s t was a man on l y in
appearance tha t C hrist did not su ffer on the
Cross but Simon of Cyrene i n H i s l iken ess
while J e sus asc e nded u nseen to the F ath e r
Car p o crat e s was another founder of a school
H i s fo ll owers are accused of practising magical
arts and l eading l ic ent i ous l iv e s and so bri n ging
dishonour on th e C hur c h T he heathen s e eing
the things they practise speak evi l o f us a l l who
have i n fa c t no fe ll owship w i th them either i n
doctrine or morals
Marc i on perhap s the most formidab l e o f al l
the G nost i c s i s said to hav e bee n the s o n o f
a Christian b i shop and to have been brought up
as a C hristian H i s system i s perverted C hr i s
t i an i ty rather than heathen i sm with Christian
H e was a na ti v e of Pontus and
additions
Tertul lian who wrote a t r e at i se against h i m in
ve books i ndu l ges in many sarcasm s at the
e xpense of the c l imate of Pon tus
the manners
t he morals the hab i t s and the civi l ization o f it s

i nhabitants and conc l udes t ha t

nothi n g i n
Pontus i s so barbarous and s ad as the fact that
Marcion was born there
H e a l so ca ll s him
a sh i p -master but tha t i s possib l y o n l y a term of
abuse H e tel l s us that Marcion came to R ome
i n the time of E l e u t he ru s as a C hristian w i th
a l arge sum o f money as a present for the R oman
C hur c h that w i th V a l en t i nus he w as more than
on c e expe ll ed on account o f the i r ever rest l ess
I a Agai t H i e i 5
.

re n

e u s,

ns

e res

s,

Chu rch Hi sto ry

Ne ro

ro m

Co n stan ti n e

to

cur i os i ty with wh ich they in fected th e br e thren

and they were na ll y permanently e x co m m u n i
I
cate d Marcion s m on ey being re t u rn e d
They
the n S pread the i r do c tr i ne s abroad
T e rt u ll i an s d ates are poss i b l y wrong an d i t
i s more probable that M arcion taugh t at R ome
un der Anicetus
According to Tertullian h e
taught that th e G o d of the Old Testament

th e author o f e vi l s de l ighted i n war was

i nrm o f purpose and co ntradicted H imsel f
T hat Jesus came from the P ro p ato r o r rs t
aeo n an d was manifested i n the for m o f a man
and t ha t the body was incapable o f sa l vation
H e m utilated th e Scripture s to make them
t his theories Of th e Gospels h e only recog
n iz e d S
Luke s and that in a m utilated form
Li ke som e later wr i ters he rej ected the rst

two chapt e rs entirely beginning t hu s

I n the
fteenth year of Tiberi us Caesar God descended
H e treated
i nto Capernaum a ci t y o f Ga l ilee
th e r e s t o f the books o f th e Ne w T e sta
m e nt i n the same w ay hi s obj ect throughout
being to S how t ha t h i s Christ was not only an
i mproved version o f the Catholic C hrist but had
come fr om a previously u nknown Go d ha vi ng n o
connection w i t h the Creator the Go d o f the Old
T estament
Marcion has laid down the position that C hr i st
W h o i n the days of Ti ber i us was reveal ed fo r th e
salvation of a ll n at i on s by a previously unknown
ferent Being from Hi m W ho was
Go d i s a di f
,

,
.

T e rt

Ag ai n st M arci o n , i v 3
.

I
5

Gn o sti cs, M o n tan i sts

ordained by G od the C reator for the restoration

of the Jewish State To show h i s c r i t ic a l m e thod

one instance may be given The words a sp i r i t

hath not bones as ye see M e have are changed
i nto a spirit su c h as ye see Me to be ha t h not
Marcion a l so forbade marriage as
bones
b e i ng impure ; and ordained t hat no one migh t
be admitted to baptism unless l iving i n a state
of ce l ibacy H i s fo ll owers were v ery much in
earnest and there were martyrs among them
One o f th e m Asclepius was burned ali v e at
Caesarea i n the persecution of D ioc l etian
Valentinus c ame from Egypt to R ome an d
according to Tertu ll ian expected to b e made
a bishop because he was an able man both i n
genius and e l oquence But being passed over for
a confessor he broke w i th th e C hur c h 3
Irenaeus 4 has g i v en a pretty fu ll a c count of
the Va l entinian tenets which were he l d in Gau l
in his day They cal l ed t h e i r dei ties a e ons and
bel ieved i n a Pleroma or fullness o f th i r t y aeons
al l apparent l y deriving the i r descent from one
pre-existent and eternal aeon T he last of the
aeons who was call ed Sophia o r Achamoth fe ll
a prey to passion and at l ast gav e birth to the
Demiurge who c reat e d the v i s i b l e world and
i s the F ather and G od of e verything outside the
P l eroma H e i s the G od o f the O l d Testament
.

3
4

r
n
v
n
t
a
o
i
c
a
i
s
i
M
A
,
,
43
g
b u s, M arty rs of P alesti n e , x
ns
n
n
a
t
a
l
e
t
i
i
s
t
h
V
A
n
a
i
e
,
g
1
re n ae u s, A ai n s t H e re s i es ,
g

T e rt
E u se
T e rt

Church H i sto ry

Ne ro

ro m

Co n stan ti n e

to

The Pleroma i s separated from the rest o f the

universe by H orus or S tau ro s The D emiurge
created the materia l part O f man but h i s mother
i n fused her spiritual ess e n c e into him unknown
t o th e Demiurge
M e n were divided i nto t hr ee classes
F irst the ani mal man wh o was i ncapable o f
salvation seco nd l y th e natural man w ho can be

sa ve d by working
We o f th e C hurch are s u ch
persons
Th irdly spiritual men who can not
be lost Li ke gold which h owever m u ch s u b
merged i i i lth retai ns i ts nature uncorrupted
so n o conduct can i nj ure their sp i r i tua l substance
T hey must however be per fected by know

ledge I renaeus asserts that the m ost perfect

am o ng them made n o scruple o f taki ng part i n
idolatrous festivals and do not eve n ke e p away
from gladiatorial shows
that blood spectacle
hatefu l both to God and man
hat others
gave th e m se l ve s up to th e lust s of the esh
ma i n t a i n i ng that carnal th i ngs shou l d be allowed
to the carnal nature and spiri tual things to the
spiritual C hrist was the Son o f the Demiurge
and passed through Mary as water through a
t ube but th e Saviour W ho was the creation o f
the united Pleroma descended o n H i m at Hi s
baptism and left H i m when He appeare d before
Pi l ate
Th is briefand i mperfect sketch doe s not per haps
represen t so m uch th e t e a c h i ng of Va len tinus as
that o f the Valentinians known to I renaeus i n
I bid
I r a Agai nst He e i i 6
.

en

e u s,

r t cs
,

Gn o sti cs, M o n tan i sts

53

G au l T here were many other sects and schools o f

G nostics Ophites who paid honour to s e rp e nts ;
Sethites who had
Cainites who venerated C a i n
a devotion for Seth ; and others
There i s
a fami ly l ikeness among a ll their beliefs
The C hurch l ike the G nostics had to face the
prob l em of evil Un l ike them i t o ffered n o
sol ution but he l d out the hope that evil m i gh t
be overcome by pr e senting a new r e ve l ation o f
the character of God as shown i n the I ncarnation
t he Passion and the R esurrection Like C elsus
and Porphyry and the pagan philosophers the
G nostics found th i s way o f meeting the di f cu l ty
too simple and chi l dish They were the ration
al i s ts and i nte ll e c tua l s o f their day and tried to
work out a s c heme that wou l d meet a l l di i cu l ti e s
S imp l e
Christians were branded by them as the

peop l e
T hey taught sa l vation by know l edge
rather than by th e Cross o r even by works
Some of them o f whom Marcion was one
perhaps made an honest attempt to restate the
G ospe l i n the l igh t of the inte ll ectual n e e d s and
perplexities o f the i r day
But most G nostics
approach e d the C hristian F aith from outside
and were philosophers seeking an e x p l anat i on of
the prob l ems o f life and using as mu c h o f the
G ospe l as would serve their purpose
heresy
which i s e v er mending the Gospe l as Tertullian
put i t
T he C h u rch defeated them not so much by
argument as by relying o n the p l ai n facts o f
our Lord s life as related i n th e G ospe l s and
.

Church H i sto rv

54

Ne ro

om

Co n stan ti n e

to

its doctri ne o f salvation by t he Cross

The
C atho l ic teachers s aw that to rob the I ncarnation
of reality was for th e p l ai n man to evacuate it
of m e an i ng
F o r if H e did not tru l y su ffer n o thanks to
H i m s i nce there was no su ffering at all ; and
whe n we s ha l l begin to su ffer H e will seem to be
leading us astray by exhorting us t o endure
bu ffeti n g an d to turn th e other cheek if H e did
not Hi m self i n reali ty su ffer th e same and as H e
mi s led those w ho saw H i m by seeming to them
t o b e what He was n ot s o doe s H e a l so m islead
us by exhorti ng us to e ndure what H e did not
e n d u re H imself W e shall be even above the
Master bec ause we su ffer and su stain what o u r

Mast e r never bore or e n du re d

.

M O NT A N I ST S

THE

Monta nus was a P h rygian and the M ontanists

appear as a sect about th e middle o f th e second
century He began whe n a recen t convert by
b ei ng wrough t up i nto a certain k i n d of frenzy
and irregular ecstasy ravi ng and speaking and
u tt e r i ng strange th i ngs and proclaiming what
was co n trary to the tradition and teaching that
had prevailed i n the Church
T h i s state
ment however i s from a hostile pen that o f
T he P h ry
Ap o ll i n ari u s Bishop of H ierapolis
gian m i nd was congenial and Montan u s soon
I r a Agai t He e i iii 1 8
E
bi H 8 v 1 6
,

en

u se

e u s,

u s,

r s es,

ns

Gn o sti cs , M o n tan i sts

found

55

fo ll owers among them two wom e n

in a
M ax i m i ll a and Prisci ll a who prophesied
k i nd of e c s t at i c frenzy out o f a l l reason i n

I t w as in the
a manner strange and nov e l
beg i nn i ng a movement l ike ma n y Protestan t
r e vival s i n the C hurch I t has much in com
mon both with t he ear l y h i story o f the Society
of F riends and with the begi nnings o f M ethod
The fo l lowing account might a l most have
ism
been written of M o n tan i s m z

The new Society was a co ll ective protes t

against t he presbyterian ( subst it ut e episcopa l )
system as i n e i ci e n t for p urposes of eva n ge l iza
tion F ox s earliest recorded convert w as a

e
midd l ag e d widow at Nottingham E l izabeth
H orton who became th e rst woman preacher o f
the Society H i s ad herents were soon number e d
by thousands
ranters shakers seekers and
v i s i onar i es of a l l sorts who brought with them
an exuberant emotiona l piety
and a mar
vel l o n s unres t ra i n t o f speech T he community
e xh i b i ted th e signs menta l and physica l o f strong
religious enthusiasm
R eaders o f D r Bigg s Un i ty i n D i ve rs i ty wi l l
remember h i s contrast between Mys t ica l Chris
t i an i t as exemp l ie d by S P au l and D iscip l inary
y
Christianity as taught and practised by S P eter
Both e l ements must e x i s t side by side i n the
Church i f it is to be hea l thy
Man has to be
sober and vigi l ant as we ll as making melody i n
bi H E v 6
E
,

u se

Art

u s,

o n

G e o rge F o x ,

N B
.

Chu rch Hi sto ry

6
5

o m Ne r o
r
f

Co n stan ti n e

to

his heart There m ust be th e be l ief i n the living

power o f the Spiri t but its manifestation s must
be discip l ined and kept within the bounds o f
Excess i n either directio n i s
C atholic order
bound t o provoke reaction I t is possib l e that
w i th the disappearance o f the ear l y C hristian
prophets the C hur c h re l ied too m uch on i ts
regu l ar m i n i st e rs i ts sacraments its traditional
teaching and i ts apostolic Scripture s and to o
li t t l e o n th e direct inspiration o f th e Spirit
H ence th e opening for Montani sm
The movement spread i n Asia and from A s i a
to Thrace and the R hone val l ey I n A D 1 7 7 th e
confessors o f Lyon s and Vi enne sent Irenaeus
with a letter against Montanis m to E l e u the ru s
Bishop o f R ome M ontanism probably reached
A fr i ca about the same time as Perpetua and h er
companion s (A D 2 0 3 ) were probably Montanists
an d Tertullian certainly was by that ti me T hey
were di f cu l t peop l e to contend w i t h a s the i r
pecu l iar tenets were supported by the i nfallible
pro nouncements of i nspired prophets M a x i
milla is quoted by an op ) o n e n t as exclaiming

I am chased like a wo l ffrom the ock

I
am no wolf
I am utterance s piri t and p o w e r
I f th i s is at all characteristic they must have bee n
extravagant to s ay the l e ast Tertullian i t i s
true den ies t hat the prophecies contain anyth i ng
out of harmony w i th aposto l ic trad i t i on bu t it i s
doubtful i f th i s safeguard co u nted for m uch i n
pract i ce
E
bi H E
6
.

u se

u s,

Gn o sti cs , M o n tan i sts

57

The three main ways i n wh i ch they di ffered

from Catholic usage were ( 1 ) in adding to the
fasts o f the C hurch and i nventing a new form of

abstinence called z e ro p hag y an abst i nen c e from

all except dry foods ; ( 2 ) i n di scountenancing
marriage and absolutely forbidding se c ond mar
and
in
disa
l
lowing
abso
l
ution
for
ri a e s ;
g
(3)
morta l sin after baptism
I t i s on this account
that the new prophecies are rej ected ; not that
Montan us and Prisci ll a and M ax i m i ll a preach
another G o d nor that they separate Jesus Christ
from God nor that they overturn an y particular
rule o f fa i th o r hope but that they p l ainly teach
more frequent fast i ng than marrying
T h ey
c harg e u s w i th keeping fasts of o u r own ; w i th
prolonging o u r stations into the evening ; w i th
keeping our food unmoistened by any esh and
by any j uiciness o f an k i nd of succulen t fruit
i
al so w i th abstinence fi 0 m the bath suitable to
o u r dry diet
Second marriage i s a kind of adultery I n any
case celibacy i s preferable to the married state

Let us see how di fferent a man feels himself

when he chances to be deprived of his wife H e
savours o f the Spirit I f he i s praying h e i s near
heaven I f he is studyi ng the Scriptures h e i s
who l ly i n them I f he i s singing a psal m he
rej oices i n it I f he i s exorcising a demon he is
condent i n himse l f
Marriage however was
not forbidden
We do not rej e ct marriage but
.

2
2

T e rt
T e rt

Fasti ng i

ou

E x ho rtati on to

Cha ti ty
s

Chu rch H i sto ry

8
5

ro m

Ne ro to Co n stan ti n e

S imply refrai n from i t No r do we prescribe

ce li ba c y as the ru l e but o nly recommend i t
observi ng i t as a good yea eve n as the better
state
T he most ser i ous po i n t of di fference was w i th
regard to discipli ne Th e C hurch was inc l ined to
adopt the teaching of H ermas and a l low one
penance followed by absolution fo r post -baptis
mal s i n T he M ontani sts would admit n one
This i s n ot to say that th e door of hO p e was to
be shut o n the S i n ner but that he was to be
left to the mercies o f God and n o t to b e restored
to com munion The C h urch should no t take the
fo r o ffe n ces
responsibility o f ab s o lv i n man
which are to be re served o r God by who m th e
o ffences have bee n conde m ned withou t di scharge
wh ic h not eve n Apostles o r mar tyrs have j udged
condonab l e
Tertullian wou l d appare n t l y conne the powers
o fab s o l u ti o n to the M o ntanists
I t i s to sp i ri tual
men that th i s power w i ll appertain e i t her to an
Apostle o r else to a prophet
The Chu rch
will forg iv e s i n s but it will b e t he C hurch o f the
S p i r i t by means of a s piritual m an n o t th e
C hurch which c ons i sts of a number o f bishops 2
B ut t he C hurch will n ot use i ts power by
direction o f the Spirit As T er t u ll i an expresses
it
But you say t he C hurch has th e power
o f forgiving
sin s
T h i s I acknow l edge who
have the Parac l ete H i mse l f in t he person s of t h e

n e w prophets saying
The C h u rch has the power
T t O M d ty
Ib id i
.

er

es

22

xx

Gn o sti cs, M o n tan i s ts

59

to forgive si n s ; but I wi ll not do it l est they

commit others withal
I t did not fo ll ow that those who became Mon
t an i sts broke o ff comm union w i th the Church
On the contrary it is p l ain that Perpetua and her
companions are i n fu ll com munion T h e y are
ministered to by a deacon and have vision s o f
their bi shop O p tatu s There seems to ha v e
been no breach o f communion when Tertu ll ian
wrote hi s treat i se On the Vei li ng of Vi rg i n s
After Tertullian they se e m to have disappeared
i n the W e st Cyprian ca l ls Tertu l lian the Master
which h e wou l d hardly have done i f h e ha d left
beh i nd an abiding schism I n the East M on
tanist baptism s were disal lowed by the Co u nci l s
of Laodicea ci rca A D 3 6 7 and Constantinop l e
A D
I
n
Phrygia
th
e
y
seem
have
b
ee
n
8
1
o
t
3
nally crushed by Justinian when the last r e m
nants gathered themselves w i th th ei r w iv es and
children i nto the church set re to the buildings
and so peri shed
I t is d i i cu l t to e st i mat e th e ultimate i nuence
and e ffect of the Montanists Professor Gw atki n
would trace the decline o f p r e ach i ng after th e
ft h century to i ts being discredited through
their failure T h i s seem s to g i v e to o long an
i nter v a l between cause an d e ffect Montan i sm
had passed i ts z e n i th by A D 2 5 0 As late as
A D
which
i
s
the
earliest
possib
l
e
date
f
r
o
375
the Apostolic Constitutions w e nd the sermon
,

T e rt , O n M odesty , x i
E arly
hu rch H i sto ry ,
.

ii

94

60

Chu rch Hi sto ry

Ne ro

ro m

to

Co n stan ti n e

occupying a recogniz e d and i mportant place i n

the S unday Euchari st There i s i n fact l ittle
i f any evidence to show what the e ffect o f
M ontanism was We may however be fair l y
sur e that its tendency was to screw up the ascetic
discipline o f the C h urch an d give a great i m
e tu s
to
a
moveme
n
t
a
l
ready
begun
i
n
the
p
direction of celibacy an d more stringent fasting
.

IV
SO M E C H R I STIA N W R ITE R S F R O M
CLE ME NT TO TE RTULLIA N
F the Chri stian writi ngs outside the Canon
o f the Ne w Testament wh i ch belong to the
rst c entury we have th e F i rst Ep i stle of Clem en t
a letter addres s ed to the C hur c h at Corinth prob
ab l y between A D 95 and A D 1 0 0 There had
been troub l e i n the Corin thian C hurch certain
presbyters had been d epos e d and the Church o f

R ome s e n t th i s l etter to prote st against

the

abo minable and un holy sedition

C lement s
name is not mentioned but tradition has imputed
the authorship to h im Th e early episcopal li sts
make h i m out to have been Bishop of R ome at
the end o f the rst century so the ascr i p t i on o f
authorship i s probably well fou nded T h e letter
i s Paul ine i n style and devout in tone
T h e Di dach o r Teaching o f the Twelve
Apostles was only discovered i n 1 8 7 5 th ough
there are several reference s to i t (o r some simi l ar
work) in early Christian literature
I t consists o f two parts

T he Two Ways
a manual o f the pr i n
I
taught
o
ci l e s of C hristian behaviour to be
t
p
catechumens
,

Chu rch H i sto ry

62

om

Ne ro

to

Co n stan ti n e

A series o f i nstructions on worshi p Baptism

fasti ng the Eucharist the treatm e n t of prop hets
Apost l es and iti nerant Chri stia ns gen erally
I ts date i s u nc e rta i n i t may ve ry we l l b e a
l ater compilation from earlier documents The

eth i c a l part the Two Ways i s found a l so i n

the Ep i stle of B arn ahas an d e l sewhere and i s prob
ably derived origi nally from Jewish sources Th e

fDi dache i s probably the earliest o f the num erous

C h u rch Orders as they are cal led o r manuals
wh i ch have c om e d own
o f worship and morals
and of wh ich some account will be given later
Th e Ep i stle of E arn ahas as it i s called though
like the Epist l e o f Cl em ent anonym ous may
probably be attributed to the e nd o f the rst o r
th e beginning o f the second century I ts aim
i s to S how that th e O l d Testamen t Scriptures
are t o be understood i n an al l egorical se n se
For i n stance th e command not t o eat pork is
real ly a command no t t o consort w i th m en w ho
are like swine
Law and prophets al ike not
only are fullled i n C hr i st but apparently were
never meant to ha v e any literal fu l lment except
so far as they are l iteral l y ful lled i n H im
T h e writer evidently w i shed t o combat t he
argument that the ex Jewi sh ceremonial law i s
literally bi nding o n C hristian s The book co n

Two Ways very much a s i n

e ludes with the

the D i dache I t had great authority i n t he early

C hurch and was fo r som e time at any rate in

some circles accounted canonical Cleme nt o f

Alexandria recko ned i t s o O r i gen referred to
2

'

S o m e Chri sti an w ri te rs fro m Cl e m en t

Te rtu lli an 6 3

to

i t as a C atho l ic Epistle , and i t i s included in the

among the books of the Ne w

Co dex S i n ai ti cus

Testament
Papias Bishop o fH i erapo l i s a contemporary o f
Ignatius was reported by I renaeus to ha v e been
t he author o f a work i n ve books o f which on l y
a few fragments remain Eusebiu s says h e was

very limited i n h i s comprehensio n as i s evi

de nt from his discourses but i f not a companion
o f the Apost l es he took troubl e to l earn from
those who had been

I f I m e t w i th any o n e who had been a

follo wer of the e l ders an y w h e re l made i t a
po i n t to i n q u i re what w e re the d ec l arat i ons o f
the e l ders ? What was said by Andrew Peter
and Phi l ip
Wha t by Thomas James John
Matthew or any other of the disciples o f o u r
P
L o rd
What was sa i d by Ari s ti o n a nd the

9
e
pr sbyter J ohn discip l es o f the Lord
What would we not give now for the col l e e
tio ns of this unva l ued Boswe ll I Eusebius notes
here tha t there are two John s mentioned by

Papias the Apostle and the Presbyter

So t ha t
i t i s proved tha t the statement of those i s true
wh o assert that there were two of the same name
i n Asia and that there were two tombs i n
Ephesus and tha t both are cal l ed J ohn s even
F rom wh ic h he conc l udes that
to t h i s day
t he R eve l ation i f no t written by the Apost l e was
wr i tt e n by John t he P re sby t e r H e s e ems to have
been a mil l ennarian be l ieving there would be a
E
b i H E iii 3 9
.

'

u se

u s,

64

Chu rch Hi sto ry

ro m

Ne ro

Co n stan ti n e

to

m illen nium after the R esurrectio n wh e n Chri st

wo u ld reign o n earth ; and E usebius says th i s

was the cause why most o f the eccle siastica l

writers were carried away by a similar opi nion

Papias records on the authori ty o f John the
Presbyter that S Mark was the interpre ter o f

8 P et e r and
whatsoever he recorded h e wrote
w i th great accuracy but not i n the order i n wh i ch
i t was spoken o r done by our Lord for he n ei ther
heard nor followed the Lord ; but as before sa i d
he was in company with P eter who gave hi m s u ch
i nstruction as was necessary but n ot t o give o u r
Lord s d i s c ourses arranged systematical l y
Of
S Matthew s Gospel he wrote
M atthew wrote
his di s c o u rs e s in the H ebrew dialect and every
o n e translated it as he was ab l e
H e quoted th e
First Epist l e of S Joh n and that of Pete r
Ignati us the Bishop o f A n ti och who was
martyr e d during the reign o f Traj an w as the
author o f several letters the n u mb e r and gen
u in en e ss
has been m uch disputed
o f wh i ch
Eusebius says that he wrote seve n while travel
ling from A ntioch to R ome ; four from Smyrn a
to th e E phesians M ag n e s i an s Tra l lians and
R omans and three from T roas to the Phila
d e l p hi an s S m y rn ae an s and Polycarp
B ut in
the Western C hurch from the rst half o f
the n i nth century wh e n a L at i n ve rs i on rst
appeared the accepted edition contained s i x
additio nal l etters Archbi shop Ussher di scovered
the Greek manuscripts o f an edition con ta i n i ng
E
b i H 8 iii 3 1
,

u se

u s,

S o m e Chri sti an w ri te rs fro m Cl em e n t

to

Te rtu lli an 6 5

only th e seven mentioned by Eusebius H e was

able t o prove that the S ix additiona l l etters were
forgeries and that the forger had also mad e
considerable additions to the seven gen uin e
l e tt e rs
Ther e the matter rested unti l 1 8 44
when Canon Cureton publis hed a Syriac edition
containing three o f the seven letters only and
these i n an abbreviated form Bis hop Lightfoot
has however shown to the satisfaction of the
maj ority o f c r i t ic s that the midd l e re s ce n s i o n
of Archbishop U ssher and n o t the abbreviated
edition o f Canon Cureton i s correct and that
the add i t i ons of the l ong re s ce n s i o n were th e
work o f a fourth -c entury fo rge r
Of these l etters those to the E ph e s i an s
the M ag n e s i an s the Tra l lians and the Phi l a
d e l p hi an s were wri tten to acknow l edge deputa
tions consisting of the bishop and a deacon from
each of those Churches which had visited h i m
and brough t h i m messages o f comfort and greet
ing The l etter to the C hurch o f Smyrna i s an
acknowledgemen t of h i s stay ther e and so is
the letter to Polycarp
Through all certai n preoccupations run l ike
threads o f a pattern
I The n e ed o f unity Unity depends o n
each Church cleaving to i ts bishop surrounded
by his pr e sbyters and deacons No other un i ty
is possible

Therefore i t i s neces sary that you should do

Th q
ti
i di
d at l g th b y B i h p Li gh tf t
.

A o o stoli c

u es

o n

Fathe rs

vo

en

scu sse

t
p

o o

Church Hi sto ry

66

Ne ro to Co n stan ti n e

om

othing w i th o u t the bishop but be a l so i n s u b

es o f
as
to
the
Apostl
e cti o n to the presbytery
j
Je sus C hr i st o u r hope
Likewi se let all
respect the deaco n s as Je su s C hrist even as th e
b i shop is also a type o f the Father and the
presbyters as the council o f Go d and the college
p f Apostles
W ithout these there i s n o t even the na m e o f
n

C h u rch

Warnings against Docetists These h e r e t i cs

taught that the su fferi ngs and in some cases
the life o f J esus C hrist were u nr e a l and only
an appear ance

Be deaf therefore whe n any on e speaks

Who was o f
to y o u apart from J esus C hr i st
the family o f David and o f M ary Wh o w as
tr uly born both ate and drank was truly per
s ce n ted under Pontius Pilate was truly cruci ed
an d died i n th e s i ght of those i n hea v e n an d on
earth and u n d er the earth W ho al so was truly
raised from the dead wh en His Father rai sed
H i m up as i n the sam e manner H is F ather shall
raise up i n J esus C hr i st us w ho believ e i n H i m
without w hom we h ave n o tr u e li fe But i f as
some a ffi rm who are without Go dthat i s are

un believers H i s su fferings were o nly a sem

b l ance ( but it i s they who ar e merely a sem
blance ) why am I a prisoner an d why d o I long
?
to ght w i th wild beasts
I n that case I am
dyi ng i n v a i n Then indee d am I lying con

c e rn i ng the Lord
iii 3
T alli a
2

n s,

S o m e Cit ri sti an w ri te r:

Cle m e n t

om

to

Te rtulli an 6 7

He

also protests agai nst J udaizing tenden

cies which he may have associated with the
D ocetists
H
mphasizes
throughout
our
Lord
s
e
3
divinity
F o r instance in h is l etter to the
Ephesian s he wrote

There is one Physician o f a nature at once

human and divine both born and wi thout birth
God in man true l ife in death both o f Mary and
of God rst passib l e and then impassib l e Jesu s
1
C hrist our Lord
f
o r the fate of h is own
H
is
concerned
e
4
C h urch at Antioch and asks fo r the prayers o f
the Church to whom he wri te s requesting that
i
deputation s may be sent to encourage and
strengthen them
The outstanding feature o f C hristian literature
And
from Traj an t o Severus w as the apology
for an obvious reason D uri ng the rs t part o f
the period heresy did n ot attract very m uch
attention It may be there had n o t been much
time for i t to deve l op or perhaps the Church
was too ful l y occupied with dangers from with
out On the other hand the Empire was ruled
by a succession o f able emperors who had the
appearance at l east of relaxing the laws against
C hristianity
They were men it was worth ?
whi l e to win and whom there was some hope
of winning I t was no u s e to addre ss apologie s i
to Ne ro or D omitian
Lat er on at the end of the second century
Ep h i a vii
,

es

ns

C/z u rc/z H i sto ry

68

Ne ro

ro m

Co n stan ti n e

to

th e apologies were addressed n o t s o m uch to

the emperor as to the heathen wor l d i n general
Among the earliest apologists o f whom we
have any knowledge are Aristides and Q uadratus
They both wrote i n Greek T he Apology of
Ari stides h as only been discovered in compara
He i s said by Eusebiu s
t i v e l y rece nt times
to have addr e ssed hi s work to H adrian P ro
fe s s o r R endel H arris w ho di scovered a Syriac
version o f the Apology gives reasons fo r th in k
i ng that i t was presented to Antoni nus Pius
during an unrecorded visit of that emperor to
Smyrna and early i n his reign n o t m uch after
I n the Apology Aristides i s ca l led
I 38
A D
a philosopher Th ere are said to be four races
Greeks Jews Christians
o f men Barbarians
Th e errors o f the rst three are descri bed and
the usual arguments brought forward agai n st
ido l atry and agai n st the heath en gods o n account
H e is particularly sarcastic
o f their immorality
at the expense o f the Egyptians I n hi s state
ment o f the C hristian Faith the rudiments o f
a creed can be di scovered

They know and believe i n Go d the Maker

o f heaven and earth
A n d i n Jesus C hrist Who is named the S o n
o f G o d W h o came down from heave n and from
a H ebrew Virgin clad Himse l f in esh
H e w as pierced by the J ews
H e died and was buried

After three days H e rose an d ascended to

heaven
.

S o m e Chri sti an w ri te rs fro m Cl e m e n t

He

to

Te rtu l li an 6 9

is about to come to j udge

We live i n expectation of the wor l d to

come
The C hristians are said to reckon the beginning
of their re l igion from Jesus Christ W h o i s
named the Son o f G o d Most H igh ; th e Jews
from Abraham
It is more than possib l e that Celsus had read
this Apo l ogy when h e made his attack on Christi
.

an i ty

1
.

Q uadratus

is quoted by Eusebius as havi ng

stated that some o f those upon whom o u r Lord

worked mirac l es remained l iving a long tim e

not on l y wh ilst our Lord was on earth but
l ikewise when H e had l eft th e earth S o that
some of them also l ived to o u r own times
But except the fragment i n Eusebius the work
has perished
Justin Martyr wrote his Apologie s about A D
1 0
b
H
was
a
P
l
atonist
philosopher
who
e
e
5
came a C hristian moved by their fortitude under

persecution
F o r whilst I too was delighted
with the doctrines o f Plato and heard the C hris
tians calumniated but at the same time saw them
intrepid at the prospect o f death and other
terrors I reected that it was impossib l e they
shou l d l ive devoted to vice and vo l uptuousness
F o r what l over o f pleasure o r l ibertine who
reckons the indu l gence of th e esh as the
suprem e good wou l d embrace death in order
S
T t a d St di
Ed
A m i t ag R b i
l i
H 8 iv 3
,

ee

ex s

e s, vo

n so n

Clz urelz H i sto ry

o
7

ro m

Ne ro

Co n stan ti n e

to

to be deprived o f the obj ects of his o wn

9
1
desires
H i s pr i nc i pal extant works are
Th e F i rst Ap o logy addressed to the Emperor
Antoni nus
The S eco n d p o logy apparently addres sed to
Antoni nus and Marcus Aure l i us
T he D i alogue w i t/z Tryp lz o n t/z e Je w
According to Eusebius h e was prosecuted
after his Second Apology at the i nstigation o f
Crescens the cynic philosopher whom he had
attacked Thi s attack was anticipated by J u s ti n

i n his Second Apology :

I also expect to b e
waylaid by some o n e o f tho se wh o I have named
or to be put to th e rack even by Crescen s
himself that unphilosop hical and vainglorious
"
O ppo nent
H i s martyrdom took place i n the reign o f
Marcus Aureli us
Athenagoras before his conversion an Athenian
philosopher addressed an apology to Marcus
Aurelius in the year A D 1 7 7 H e i s said by
Phili p o f Side to have been converted through
re adi ng the Scriptures with a view to their refuta
tion He also wrote a treatise o n the R esurrection
Theophil us who becam e Bishop of Antioch in
A D
I 68
wrote a Defe nce o f C hristiani ty to a
heathe n acquaintance named Autolycus appar
ently as the result o f a conversation i n which
Theophilus had tried to exp l ain the C hristian
religi o n
Afterwards he followed up his oral
ii
I b i d iii
S
d

e con

S o m e Chri sti an w ri te rs fro m Cl e m e n t

Te rtul l i an 7 1

to

explanations with the written Apo l ogy which

has survived H e also wrote anti heretica l and
other wor k s which have perished
Melito Bishop of Sardis wro te many works
of which on l y fragments have come down to u s
and among them an Apology addresse d to Marcus
Aure l ius H e i s described after h is death by
Pol ycrates of Ephesus as o n e of the great lights

i n Asia whose l ife was altogether under the

inue n ce o f the H o l y S p i rl t who now rests at
awaiting the episcopate from heaven
S ard i s

when he shal l rise from t he dead

Among t he Apologi e s t he Octav i us of M i n u ci u s
Felix must be mention e d L actan t i u s makes the
following allusion to its author

And i f by chance any o f the learned have

made a special study o f Christian truth they
have been unequal to i ts defence o f it Of those
with wh o se writings I am acquainted M i n u ci u s
F elix was a distinguished lawyer
H i s book
ca ll ed Octav i us s hows that he might have been a
competent defender of the truth i f he had con
ce n trat e d him self on the subj ect
Jerome also
al l udes to him as an advocate and a man of
learning H e was a Latin possibly an African
Latin wh o practised at Rome H i s Apo l ogy takes
the form o f a dialogue between two friends o n e
a C hristian the other a h e athen while M i n u ci u s
himself acts as umpire I t is C iceronian in style
l
and fu ll of classica l al l usions composed by a
l
scholar for scho l ars This may account fo r the
E
bi H 8 v
I t Di
v
.

u se

u s,

ns

Clz u rc/z H i sto ry

2
7

Ne ro

om

to

Co n stan ti n e

line the argument takes I t does not mention

C hrist hardly quotes from the Scriptures and
leave s on o n e side the more characteristic C hris
tian doctrines
I t meets the ed u cated heathen
points o u t the weakne ss o f
o n h is o w n ground
hi s o s i ti o n and shows that C hristianity has o n
the fce o f i t a clai m to the serious c o nsideration
o f righ t thinking men
I ts date i s u ncertain I t has poi nts o f re s e m b
lance with the Apology o f Tertullian writte n
1
and
the
question
is
D
id
T
ert
llian
A D
u
97
borrow from M i n u ci u s o r M i n u ci u s from T er
?
t ullian I t seem s unli kely that T ertullian shoul d
have been a borrower i n a case like this and
pendi ng further evide nce it seems best to date i t
betwee n the accession of Caracalla A D 2 1 7 and
.

A D
.

24

9
.

Among writers who were n o t Apologists

H ermas wrote an ap o cal y p se called
Skep
Th e
lt e rd n o t later than the year A D 1 4 8
M uratorian fragment contests its claim to be
canonical Scripture which some had asserted

and states that it w as written quite rece ntly

i n our ti me i n th e city o f R ome while h is brother
P ius was sitting o n the stool o f the ch urc h o f th e
C ity o f R ome
P ius was Pope A D 1 4 5 s o that
presumably l e Slz ep lz erd was written i n R om e
about that time though some think it w as
wri tte n at i ntervals during th e twenty o r thirty
years before I re naeus reckons it as Scripture
but Tertullian state s that the C hurch had d e
n i te l
decided
again
st
i
ts
c
no
nicity
a
y
s

S o m e Chri sti an w ri te rs fro m Cl e m en t

Te rtulli an 7 3

to

Th e book consists of three parts

I Vi sions
I I Mandates
I l I Simi l itudes or Parables
The obj ect of the book i s to show that
contrary to an opinion common l y he l d re
was
possib
l
e
for
sin
committed
after
e n tan ce
p

baptism though on l y once

A ll the sins
which they have former l y comm itted and a ll
the si ns o f the saints which they hav e com
m i tt e d against the day sha ll be forgiven them
if they repent whole -heartedly and p u t aside
duplicity from their heart
But if they sha ll
sti ll s i n after this day has been xed they sha l l
"
nd no s al v ati o n
The Mandates are instructions on C hristian
ethics and are i nteresting as showing the idea l
o f the C hristian life as held in the second century
The Simi l itudes or Parab l es are sermons given in
an a l legorica l form
Among other writers whose works have
perished o r of which only a few fragments
remain pr e served by Eusebius
H e g e s i pp u s
must be mentioned H e wrote v e books of

Hyp o m n em ata or Notes con taining

the p l ain
tradition of the Aposto l ic doctrine apparent l y
H e lived i n
directed against th e G nostics
Palestine but came to R om e when Anicetus
was bishop H i s i nterest i s due to the impor
tance he attaches to the succession o f bishops in
each Church as a guarante e again st heresy for
i ii
H 8 iv
.

v s

22

Church H i sto ty

74

Ne ro

ro m

Co n stan ti n e

to

ai ado che, o r

which he rst employs the term

succe ssion H e wrote about A D I 7 5
I re naeu s w as a native o f Asia and as a young
man was a disciple o f Polycarp ; he w as born
therefore probably n o t later than A D I 3 5 H e
left Smy rna at P o ly carp s death and i s n ext
heard o f at Lyons as a presbyter i n the C hurch
there at th e tim e o f the great ) e rs e cu ti o n A D
Later o n h e apolog ize s f
I 77
t " the com pa ra
tive rustici ty o f his style o n the grou nd that

I am resident among the Ce l tae and accus

t o m e d fo r the most part to use a barbarou s
dialect
At Lyons he w as a presbyter u nder
Pothinus who died in A D 1 7 7 at th e age o f
ni nety and was th us lin ked with th e Apostles
I re naeus succeeded and seem s to have died i n
peace twen ty years later Jerome says he was
martyred bu t neither Eusebius nor Tertullian
make mention of any martyrdom
Hi s great
work was his R efu tati o n of Kn o w ledge false ly so
cal le d com monly cited as Ag ai n st He re si e s wh ich
was directed agai n st the Valentinian school o f
Gnostici sm and i s o n e o f th e pri ncipal sources
o f o u r knowledge o f their tenets
One o f h is arguments has a s pecial i nterest
T he Gnostics maintained that the
t o day
Apostles had a secre t doctrine which was n o t

delivered to the C hurch of which they the

Gnostics
were the depositaries
I r enaeus
retorts with an argumen t drawn from the
succession o f th e bishops
I f the Apost l es
he says had this secret doctrin e they would

S o m e Chri sti an w ri te rs fro m Cle m en t

Te rtulli an 7 5

to

have imparted it to th ose

whom they were
l eaving behind as their successors de l ivering
up their own p l ace of governmen t to those to
whom they were committi n g the care of the
C hurches and they in turn wou l d have handed

H e takes
it on to others
the very great
the very ancient and universal ly known C hurch
of R ome for an example I t had been founded
by the Apost l es S Peter and S Pau l and com
m i tte d to the care of Lin us
after Linus Anan
c l et u s and so o n down to hi s own day
,

T E RT U L L I A N
The greatest o f the ante -Nicene wri ters was
perhaps Q uintus S e pti m i u s Florens T e r t u ll i an u s
commonly known as Tertu l lian w h o is thus
described by Jerome in hi s work D e Vi ri s

i ll ustri hus :
Tertu l lian a presbyter the rst
Latin writer after Victor and Apo ll oni us was
a native of the province o f Africa and city of
Carthage the son o f a proconsular centurion
H e was a man of sharp an d vehemen t temper
ourished under Severus and Antoninus Cara
calla (A D I 1 3
and wrote n umerous works
I saw at C oncordia in I tal y an o l d man
named Pau l us H e said that when young he
had met with an aged amanuensis o f the blessed
Cyprian
to l d him that Cyprian never
w ho
passed a day without reading some portion o f
T e rtu ll i an s works and used frequently to say
Give me my master
meaning Tertu ll ian
,

6
7

Chu rch H i s to ry

Ne ro

ro m

Co n s tan ti n e

to

After remai ni ng a presbyter o f the C hurch un ti l

h e had attained middle life Tertu l lian was drive n
by the envy and co n tume l ious treatmen t o f th e
R oman clergy to embrace the opinion s o f M o n
tanus whic h h e has mentioned i n several o f h i s
works under the title o f The Ne w Prophecy
H e i s re ported to have lived to a very
advanced age and to h ave composed many other

work s which are not extan t

H e was born
probab l y not later than A D I 5 5 and was brough t
up as a heathe n and ed ucated as a lawyer in

which professio n h e acquired an accurate know

ledge o f Roman law noteworthy among th e
e mi nen t me n i n R ome
He may have been
the great lawyer T e rt u l l i an u s mentioned i n t he
Co tgo us but this i s only a guess
The date o f his conversion i s un known b u t
it was probably about A D I 95 Afterwards h e
became a presbyter Some time before A D 2 0 7
the date o f the late st form o f hi s treatise again st
Marcion he became a Montanist an d s u b s e
quently seceded from the C h urch T h ere i s n o
record that he was ever a martyr
H e h ad a ery and passionate te mperame n t
an a l most unequalled command o f i nvective an d
sarcasm and a wonderful talent o f putti ng hi s
oppon e nt s case with an air of reali ty and the n
covering i t with opprobrium and ridicu l e What
ever made h i m turn to Christiani ty sen t h i m over
with considerable i mpetus He recoi l ed from
S
I t d t i t T t ll i a A N C L
E
b i H 8 ii
,

ee

u se

ro

u s,

uc
.

er u

o n

n,

S o m e Chri sti an w ri te rs fro m Cl e m e n t

to

Te rtu ll i an 7 7

heathenism with a bound H i s active mind took

in the doctrines of C hristianity but without
imbibing very deep l y the spirit of Christ H i s
hot African temperame n t cou l d not brook ha l f
m easures H e had no gent l eness cou l d n o t
make a ll owanc e for weakne ss and was as hard
on the fai l ings o f the sinner as o n the arguments
of an O pponent I n private l ife he may have
been the most amiable o f m en but in his writings
he has no charity Of thi s weakn ess he seem s
to have been aware himself I n his treatise on
Patience he apo l ogize s for having dared to co m
pose a treatise on Patien ce for practising which
he i s quite unt
So I most m iserab l e ever
sick with the heats o f im patience must o f n e ce s
sit
sigh
after
and
pray
and
persistently
p
l
ead
y

for that hea l th of patience which I possess n o t

I n controversy his tone was o ffensive i n more
senses than one H e was aggressive an d p ro
vocative and did n o t disdain the coarsest person
This is ho w he begin s his polemic against
al i t i e s
Marcion

The Euxine Sea as it i s called i s self

contradictory in i ts nature and deceptive in i ts
name As you would not account it hos i tab l e
from its situation s o it has separated i t s e l from
o u r more civilized waters by a certai n shame at
its o w n barbarou s character Th e ercest nation s
inhabit it if it can b e ca l led habitation where life
is passed i n waggon s They have n o xed abode
their l ife is coarse their l ust promiscuous an d
O P ati
i
.

en ce ,

Chu rch H i sto ry

8
7

Ne ro

r
om
f

to

Co n stan ti n e

shameless They kill an d eat th eir paren ts at

their feasts Those who have n o t died s o as to
becom e food fo r others are thought to have died
a n accursed death Their women carry battle
axes and prefer warfare to marriage Their
climate i s always bad The day i s never clear
the s u n never cheerful the sky i s always cloudy ;
the whole year i s wi ntry the only wind that blows
i s th e north All things are torpid and sti ff with
cold Noth ing has the g l ow o f l ife Nothing
however i n P ontu s i s s o barbaro u s and s ad as
t he fact that Marcion was born there fouler than
any Scythian
He addressed a vigorous apology (A D 1 97 )
the R oman Senate protesting again st the
to
i nj ustice that u nlike other o ffenders C hri stians
were punished not fo r crime s but for their nam e
H e sco ffs at the rule that Chri stians are n o t to be
hunted o u t but m ust be condemned if arrested
I f y o u do n o t i nquire why do y o u not absolve
Military posts are di strib uted through all the
provi nces fo r tracking robbers Th e C hri stian
alone m ust n o t be tracked bu t m ay be charged
Hi s tone throughout i s deant and provocative
Li ke other apologists he pours scorn o n the
i mm oralities o f the pagan gods but goes further
and threaten s hi s persecutors with the res o f the
Day o f Judgement and h urls at th em pro phecies
Persecution i s
o f th e triumph o f the C hurch
u seless
We conquer i n dying ; we g o forth
victorious at the momen t we are s ubdued Call
Ap l ii
.

S o m e Chri sti an w ri te rs fro m Cle m e n t

to

Te rtul li an 7 9

if you l ike S arm e n ti cii and S e m ax i i because

bound to a half-axle stake we are burn ed i n
a circle of faggots This is the attitude in which
we conquer ; i t i s for us a robe o f victory and
tri umpha l car
The oftener we are thrown
down by you the more in number we grow the
b l ood of the C hristian i s seed
I n his atti tude to C hristianity he i s a P uritan
i f we dene a Puritan as the man who carries to
extremes the princip l e of renunciation R enu n
ci at i o n i s an essential principle of C hristianity
The Christian has to renounce sin and the
occasions o f s i n but he has also to live i n the
body and in a wor l d in which good and evil are
a l mos t inextricably ming l ed We cannot avoid
all possible occasion s o f s i n as S Paul saw unless
we go out o f the world altogether Th e Puritan
is th e man who at the dictates o f logic or a
scrupulous conscience o r a morose temper
carries th e renunciation o f the occasions o f sin
to extreme length s and sometimes at the expense
o f charity and human ity
The Puritan of the
seventeenth century banned music dancing and
the most harmless amusements because they
sometimes l ed to si n Tertu ll ian wou l d separate
the C hristian as far as possib l e from al l con
tact with idolatry and from a l l secu l ar pleasures
and amusements and r e duce eating and drinking
to the barest minimum necessary to support
life H e sometimes reminds us o f Macaulay s
P u ri tan w ho obj ected to bear -baiting n o t because
Ap l i i 5
u s,

0.

Chu rch Hi sto ry

80

Ne ro

ro m

to

Co n stan ti n e

it gave pai n t o the bear but because it gave

p l easure to the spectators The ascetic renounces
the pleasure s o f li fe for himself because h e fe e ls
God has called him to this kind of life The
Puritan would deprive others as wel l by maki ng
i t a rule for a l l The attraction Tertullian found
i n M ontanism lay perhaps not s o much i n i ts do c
tri nes o f the Ne w Proph e cy as i n its Puritanism
For Tertu l lian l ife in the world is at best an
evil I n his letter to the confessors i n pri son h e
congratulates them o n their i ncarceration
You

have gon e o u t of a p ri son rather than in to o n e

Y o u have no occasio n to look o n strange gods ;
o u do not run agains t their i mage s ;
o u have
y
y
no part i n heathe n holidays even by bodily
mingl i ng i n the m ; you are not annoye d by
t he foul fume s o f idolatrous solem nities ; y o u
are n o t pai ned by the noi se o f the public shows
n o r by the atrocity o r mad ness o r i m modesty o f
their celebrants yo ur eyes do n o t fall o n
brothels ; y o u are free from causes o f o ffence

from temptations from un holy reminiscences

T he ruthlessness o f hi s logic recalls Law s
C hristian s may at any moment be
S e ri o us Call
called to face the prison and th e torture chamber
therefore their whole life i s to be a course o f
train i ng for martyrdom This i s o n e o f hi s argu
m ents for fasting

That a C hristian may e n ter prison i n like

condition as if he had j ust come o u t o f it ; to
s u ffer there not penalty but discip l ine and n o t
T th M a ty e ii
,

r s,

S o m e Chri st i an w ri te rs fro m Cle m e n t

to

Te rtu lli an 8 I

the world s tortures but his o wn habitual o b s e rv

a u ces ; and to go forth out of custody to the
conict with a ll the more condence havi ng
nothing o f the esh about h im s o that the
tortures may not have even material to work o n
si nce he i s cuirassed i n a mere dry skin and cased
i n hor n to meet the claws the succulence of his
blood already sent on before him the advance

luggage so to speak of hi s soul the soul itse l f

now hastening after i t havi ng a l ready by frequent
fasting gained a most intimate knowle dge o f

d e at h

H e w as

very sensitive o n the subj ect o f women s

dress and wrote a treatise about it as he disliked
i ntensely any unnecessary adorn ment It w as
probably to warn the frivo l ous o f th e awful
realitie s they might have to face at any moment
that he argued against such adornment o n the
ground that it u n tte d the wearer for martyrdom
Whether that be s o o r not it helps us to under
stand the grim background o f the stage on which
the Christian life was set and to sympathize with
the i mpatience of s o ery a writer Th i s is what
he says

I know not wheth er the w rl s t that h as been

wont to be surrounded with the palm -leaf like a
bracelet will e ndure ti l l it grow into the n u m b
hard ness of i t s own chain I know n o t whether
the l eg that has rej oiced in the anklet will su ffer
itself to be squeezed i nto the gyve I fear the
neck beset with ropes o f pearl and emera l d will

On

Fasti ng

xii

Chu rch Hi sto ry

82

Nero

ro m

Co n stan ti n e

to

give n o roo m to the broadsword Wherefore

blessed sisters let us meditate o n hardship s
and we shall not feel them Let us abandon
pleasures and we shall n o t regret them Let
us stand ready to endure every violence h aving
nothing which we m ay fear to lose Th ese
are the drags o n o u r hope Let u s cast away
earthly ornament ; we desire heavenly Love
n o t gold
But C hristia n s always and n o w more
than ever pass their time n o t in gold but i n
iron ; th e stoles o f m artyrdom are n o w prepar
ing ; the angels who are to carry u s o n high are
ready D o y o u go forth to mee t th em a l ready
arrayed i n the cosmetic s and ornaments o f p ro
h
e ts and Apostles drawing your whiteness ( ro m
p
simplicity your ruddy h ue from modesty pai nt
i ng your eyes with bashfuln ess and your mouth
wi th silence i mplanting in your ears th e Word
o f G o d tting o n your neck the yoke o f C hrist
Submit your head to your h usband and y o u will
be e nough adorned B usy your hands with spi n
ning keep your feet at hom e and you will ple ase
bette r than by carrying your silver an d gold
Clothe yo urselves with the silk o f uprightness
the n e l inen o f h oliness the purple o f modesty

T h u s painted y o u will have G o d as yo ur l o v e r

Though h i m self married he disliked marriage
as a state fo r C hristian s and second m arriage s
were to h i m anathema
H is attitude to mi l itary service and public o f ce
has been dealt with elsewhere He wrote a tract
D e
iii
O W me
,

,
.

n s

r ss, x

S o m e Chri sti an w ri te rs fro m Clem e n t

to

Tertulli an 8 3

to prove that ight in time o f persecution w as

unlawful for a C hristian Persecution i s the sift
ing and j udging o f God Therefore we must
abide i t With the Montanists h e would a ll ow
n o reconciliation for those who committed morta l
si n after baptism On o n e point h e is il l ogical
Laymen may baptize
for what i s equa ll y
received may be equal l y given
But women
may not
Tertullian is perhaps the only ante Nicene
C hristian writer who can be read with j l easure
for h is own sake waiving a l l questions o fe di ca
tion o r historic i nterest He i s the rst great
Puritan writer and is the precursor of M ilton
John Bunyan and William Law if the great non
j uror may be ca l led a Puritan H i s Latinity i s
anything but c l assical but h e i s a great writer o f
prose though not perhaps o f Latin prose
.

C H U R C H A ND

TH E

TH E W O R LD

H EY ( the early C hri stians ) are regard e d

rightly as en emies o f th e h uman race I f
i t i s po ss ible to endorse any j udgement o f th e
past we may endorse th is o n e o f the authoritie s

o f the R oman E m pire

Th is i s a strong statement I t i s worth while
Were the C hri stian s o f
t o examine its tru th
the rst days really the enem ie s o f society s o
that society was j ustied i n trying to rid itse l f o f
them o r are we rather to blame a corrupt socie ty
wh ich refused t o admi t the regenerating i nuence
as long as it could
T o many o f the usages o f society the C hurch
was u ndoubtedly hostile
I ts attitude toward s
marriage towards e ntertai nments and most social
and convivial custo ms was bound to bring it
i nto conict with society as has already been
explai n ed Bu t that was to break down i n order
to rebuild o n surer foundations I t obj ected to
marriage with a pagan because i t felt that in such
union th e ideals o f a C hristian marriage w o uld be
unobtai nabl e
H usband and wife wou l d n o t
devote th em selves t o the C hri stian trai ning o f
F C C y b a m m t f Ea ly Ch i ti a i ty p 8 7
.

o n

e re ,

on u

en s o

84

r s

an d the

The Chu rch

Wo rld

85

their chi l dr e n or the organizi ng of th eir hous e

ho l d o n C hristian l ines There could b e n o true
happiness So with entertainmen ts and convivi
al i t i e s which wer e intermixed with idolatry
What we want to kno w i s not D i d the
C h urch encourage Christian young women to
break their engagements with young pagans and
C hristians in genera l t o stop away from heathen
?
festivities bu t D i d the C hurch forbid C hris
tians to marry to take part in socia l festivities as
such to earn their dai l y bread to obey the l aws
and if necessary help execute them to serv e
when re u i re d as so l diers or magistrates t o be
good a e cti o n ate fathers mothers h us bands
wives sisters brothers 3 Were they in a word
anti -social
,

F A M I LY L I F E
What was their attitude to wards marriage and
?
T o quote again from M r C ony
fami l y ties

beare
There was rst that rej ection of fami l y
ties and re l ationships which accompanied the
belief that th e world w as speedily and any day
coming to an end
Young men and maiden s
were taught not to marry husbands wives not to
cohabit and beget any more chi l dren Eunuch
ism because o f the kingdom of heaven w as even
tolerated by the very founder o f the re l igion
We nd l itt l e support for thi s view i n the
Ne w Testament
D ivorce i s forbidden marriage
is regarded as a God made union Ce l ibacy fo r
tho s e w ho can re ce i v e i t is regarded as the idea l if
.

Chu rch H i sto ry

86

Ne ro

ro m

Co n stan ti n e

to

purs ued for the sake of the kingdom o f o u r

Lord B ut S Paul wrote

I f y o u marry y o u
have n o t si nned
The Apostles have power to
lead about wives The presbyter b i s ho p s and the
deacon s are each to be the husband o f on e wife
Th e younger wom en are ordered to marry and
bear children And at the e nd o f th e Apostolic
period as though feari ng that certain passages i n
the Gospel s might be in terpreted as unduly
exalting celibacy the author o f the fourth Gospel
makes the miracle at the wedding i n Cana o f
Galilee o u r Lord s b egi n n i ng of s ig n s which could
hardly have been uni n tentional on the part o f
the writer
Po l ycarp tells the Philippians to te ach t he i r w ives
to walk i n the faith given to th em and in l ove and
purity an d te nderly to love their o w n h usban ds
Again I gnatiu s i n his letter to Polyc arp has a
passage o n the dutie s o f husband s and wives
Speak to my sisters that th ey love th e Lor d
and be conten t wi th their husbands both in the
esh and i n the spirit
I n l ike mann er also
exhort my breth ren i n the Name of J esus C hrist
that they love their wive s even as the Lord th e
I f any o n e can contin u e in a state o f
C hurch
puri ty to the ho nour o f H i m Who is Lord o f
the esh let h i m so remain without boasting I f
he boas t he is l ost
.

It is

no n

assu m

t h at

Pa l

m o u s t e rm s, an d t he

y
y
c as
t h e se o f
to P o ly carp ,

il

iv

u se s

am e

re s

by t

an d

bi

ho p
e r- sho
t
e rs
ef
r
y
p

re s

er

bi

as
to

The Chu rch

an d the

Wo rld

87

H
e rm as,
f

perhaps the most popu l ar

homiletic work i n t he C hurch during t he second
and third centuries has a disquisition o n the
As els e where there are stri ct
C ommandments
warnings again st adultery and impurity of a ll
kinds and the r e m arriage of divorced person s
i s forbidden A second marriage after the death

of husband or wife is a l lowed

There is no
s in
i n marrying again but i f they remai n u n
married they gai n greater honour and glory
with t he Lord ; but if they marry they do
n ot sin
J ustin Martyr condem ned the heathen practice
of exposi n g i n fants and though he extols th e
virtue of complete chastity has not a word to say
agains t marriage
But if we marr ) it is only
that we may bring u p chi l dren o r i f we declin e
"
marriage we live continent l y
Athenagoras wrote to the same e ffect
Each of u s reckons her hi s wife whom he
has m arried according to the l aws laid down by
us and that on l y for the purpose o f havi n g
chi l dren Nay y o u woul d nd many among u s
both men and women growing o l d unmarried i n
the hope o f l iving i n closer communion with
God 3
Like J usti n he regarded the remarriage o f
d ivorced persons as adultery and go e s s o far
as to cond e mn al l second marriages regarding

a widower who marries again as a cloaked

adu l terer
i ii
Ap l
Bk ii
Fi t Ap l i
The P asto r

rs

xx x

xxx

Chu rch H i sto ry

88

ro m

Ne ro

to

Co n stan ti n e

I t may be obj ected that th e early C hurch was

mistaken i n its i d e a l o r at least over -emphasiz e d
it and was th us a weakness to the State when the
State bad l y n e eded children
B ut it m u st be remembered that i n such a
time o f licen se the m oral force o f the examp l e of
the me n and wo men living absolute l y chaste lives
was needed m ore than a nything e l se Licentious
ness and self i ndulgence deprived the State o f
ch i l dren n o t th e celibacy of a few m en T er
tullian l aid down the lawfu l ness o f marriage
I t is good though celibacy i s better I t is true
that h e says Why shou l d we be eager t o bear
childre n
but he i s writing a treatise t o persuade
his wife n o t to marry again o n hi s death and he
i s probably biassed
The C hurch fro m the rs t took the stronge st
li ne agai n st the existing practices o f exposi ng
infants and o f procuring abortion
Th e most touch ing proof t hat t he m artyrs
were not erce fanatics wh o hated their o w n
esh an d despised human ties i s found in th e
record o f the martyrdom o f S Perpetua S Per
petua was the mother of a babe from wh ich
s he was separated when put i n pri son
Whe n

the babe was restored she says

the prison

became a palace to me
M ixed marriages were di scouraged by S Paul
and afterwards T ertullian has s hown i ii wh at
a di i c u l t position such marriages p l aced th e
wife
I f a station is to be kept the h usband mak e s
,

The Chu rch

Wo rld

an d the

89

an appointment with his wi fe to meet him at the

baths ; if there are fasts to be observed the
husband that same day gives a din ner ; i f a
procession has to be made never is family bu si
fer hi s
ness more urgent
F o r who wou l d su f
wife for the sake o f resisting the h e athen to
en s
o
round
from
street
to
street
to
other
m
g
?
houses and i nde e d to a l l the poorer cottages
Who wi ll without suspicion dismiss her to
attend the Lord s Supper which they al l defam e ?
Who wi l l su ffe r her to creep into prison to kiss
?
the martyrs bonds
To bring water to wash
?
the feet of the holy ones
To save something
?
for them from her food or h e r c up
If a
brother arrives from abroad what hospital ity i s
there for h i m ? I f bounty is to be distributed
the store room s are c l osed
Shal l you e scape
?
notice whe n you sign your bed or your body
When every night you rise to pray will he
?
n o t think you are working some magic
Wi ll
not your husband kno w what it i s wh ich y o u
secretly taste before taking any food ? and if
he knows it to be bread wi l l he not believe it i s
that which i t i s said to b e

The handmaid o f God dwel l s i n an a l ie n

atmosphere an d on a ll the festivals o f demons o f
ki ngs at the beginni ng of the year and month
s he
will be disturbed by t he sme ll of incense
She wi ll have to l eave her hous e by a gate
wreathed with l aure l and hung with lanterns in
order to sit with h er husband at c l ub meetings
and taverns and s he who was once accustome d
,

,
.

Chu rch H i sto ry

Ne ro

ro m

to

Co n stan ti n e

to minis ter to her husband i n good th ings will

n o w d o so i n evil things
1

B U S I N ESS
Again what was the attitude of C hristian s
?
towards the work o f the world
I s there any
fou ndation for the picture that i s sometimes
pain ted o f th e C hurch as a comm unistic society
and those who j oined i t handed over to the co n
trol o f i ts o f cers whatever private means they
?
2
possessed
I t seem s to have been so at J eru
sal e m but e ven t here only partia ll y Ananias
was plainly a free agent But the example o f
J e ru s ale m was n o t apparently en couraging S Paul
is urgent against th e si n of cove tousness The rich
are urged to distri bute alms an d the idle to work

I f a man will n o t work neither let him eat

Every sentence i n the patri stic writin gs t o the
e ffect that Ch ristians have n o private property
need not be taken l iterally They are rather
rhe torical expressions showing the extreme c l aim s
T e rtul l ian
w hich the love o f neighbours created

wrote i n hi s Apology
All things are co mm on
among u s except o u r w i ves
but i n hi s letter to
hi s wife al l udes to th e ma k i ng of wills as commo n
a mong C hristians and i mplied that h e had m ade

o n e h imself
We who formerly valued above
all things o u r wealth and possession s n o w bring
what we have i nto a comm on stock and co m
T t lli a t hi l l if i i 4- 6
,

er u

e,

F C C o n y b e are , M o n u m en ts (y 8 arly
.

Chri sti an i ty

85

Wo rld

an d the

The Chu rch

9
I

Simi l ar expres
to every one in ne e d
sions abound in Justin s works but they do not
prevent him from praising the honesty with
which C hristians transacted b usi ness
I ndeed
he c l aims that many pagans were won over to

by the extraordinary forbearance

C hristianity
they have observed i n their fel l ow trave ll ers
wh e n defrauded and by the honesty of those
with whom they have transacted business
Thi s certainly points to the fact that C hristians
carried on business l ike other fo l k even thou gh

more honestly
The wealthy among us help

the needy
The frequent exhortation s to alms
giving we meet with and the warnings against
covetousness are proof enough if proof were
needed that C hri stians he l d property and
engaged i n business l ike other peop l e I n The
Tasto r of H e r mas the rich and the poor are said

to be necessary for o n e another

The rich
man has much wea l th but i s poor in matters
re l ating to the Lord because he i s distracted
about his riches ; and he o ffers very few co n fe s
sion s and intercessions to the Lord and those
wh ich he does o ffer are small and weak But
when the rich man refreshes th e poor and assists
hi m in his necessities then the rich man helps
the poor and the poor man being he l ped of the
rich i ntercedes fo r him giving thanks to Go d for
hi m who has be stowed gifts upon him Both
accordingly accomplish their work Th e poor
man makes intercession and the rich man bestows
I
b
i
6
i
F
t
i
t
i
d
1
J
m u n i cat e

us

rs

x v

Chu rch Hi sto ry

Ne ro

ro m

to

Co n stan ti n e

upon th e poor man the riches which he h as

received from the Lord
Blessed are they
wh o have riches and who understand that they
are from the Lord
I t is true that part o f the busine ss of li fe was
forbidden to the C hristians as being concern ed
with idol s M any converts to the F aith were
makers o f idols o r their adj uncts I t was appar

e nt l y clai med that s u ch m ight be admitted

I
make but I worship n o t
Th e claim is utterly
rej ected by Tertul l ian H e will n o t admit the

H e argue s rst o f all

plea We m ust live

that faith fears n o t famine

Further that
th ose w ho make idols o r pai n t and gild them
r
o
furn
ish
paint
gold
leaf o r build temples
r
o
can divert their la b o ur to si milar arts harmlessly

H o w much more easily does h e

em ployed
?
w ho deli neate s a statue overlay a sideboard
H o w much sooner does h e who carves a M ars

out o f a l ime -tree fast e n together a chest "

I ndeed Tertullian labo urs at some length to
s how the many ways in which Christia n s mi ht
earn a l i v i n g
T he only trades absol utely E
sr
bidden to C hristian converts are those de nitely
bound up with i mm orality idolatry the games and
s hows o f the circus and the theat re and necro
mancy
T ertullian i n a well-known passage
claimed that Chri stian s share the busin ess o f life

We are n o t I ndian Brah min s o r Gy m n o

sophists who dwell i n woods and exile them selve s
from ordi nary human life we are careful to gi ve
.

,
.

On I doh try

an d the

The Chu rch

Wo rld

93

thanks to God our Creator and we rej ect n o

creation of H i s hands though we e xercise a
restraint upon o urse l ves l est o f any gift of H i s
we make an immoderate or sinfu l use S o we
l ive with you i n the wor l d abj uring neither forum
nor shamb l es nor bath nor booth nor workshop
nor i nn nor weekl y market n o r any other p l ace s
We sai l with you o r ght with
o f commerce
you and ti ll the ground with you trade with
you H o w it is we seem use l ess in your ordinary
business l iving with you and by you I am not
able to understand
,

A M U SE M E N TS
The attitude o f the C h urch to th e stage the
games and the g l adiatorial shows was at once its
glory and a cause o f o ffence to the h eathen
T ertu ll ian wh o was a Puritan it is true obj ects
Th ou art t o o dainty
to all secular pleasures
C hristian if thou wouldst have pleasure in this
l ife as wel l as i n the next
Can we n o t

live without pleasure who with pleasure die ?

But Tertul l ian wou l d not be s o vehem ent if
the natura l human and i n nocent love o f pleasure
had not remained even i n the converted heart
and i f for want of innocent pleasures some
were n o t in danger o f being drawn away to the
corrupt enj oyments of the heathen The o i ci al
attitude o f the Church was u nyielding in its

detestation o f the G ames

But we de eming
Ap ] l ii
,

94

Chu rch H i sto ry

ro m

Ne ro

to

Co n stan ti n e

that t o see a man p ut to death i s much the same

as ki l ling him have abj ured such spectac l es

T ertullian condescends to argue : For th e faith

of some either too simp l e or too scrupulous
demands direct authority from Scripture for
giving up the Games an d holds that th e matter
is a doubtful one because such absti nence i s n o t

clearly and in words i mposed on God s servants

H e make s th e general obj ection that C hri stians

should not mi n gle in heathe n assemb l ies Ble ssed

is th e man who has n o t gone i nto the assembly o f
th e i mpiou s n o r stood in the way of sinners n o r

s at i n the seat o f the scorner

H ere speaks the
P uritan and perhap s he was right He also
shows the i ntimate connection between the stage
and idolatry
Th e s i n of idolatry cli ngs to the
shows i n respect o f their origins their tri e s their

equipments their place of celebration their arts

I n particular he insi sts that the stage i s h opeless l y
lewd and im moral and the shows cruel an d blood

stained
He w ho looks with h orror o n the
corpse o f o n e w ho has died under the common
law o f nature i n the theatre gazes down with
m ost patien t eyes o n bodies mangled and tor n
and sme ared with blood
Fina l ly he i nsi sts
ro m the Game s as a part o f th e
o n abstention f

Apply to the heathe n the m

C hristian witness
selves Let them tell u s whether it i s right i n
W hy th e
C hristian s t o freque nt the shows
rej ection o f these shows i s the chief sign t o them
that a man has adop ted the Christian Faith
T
d
t
S
i
At h ag a P l a th Ch i ti a
35
p

en

o r s,

r s

n s,

er

ec

an d the

The Chu rch

Wo rld

95

The dress o f C hristians did not di ffer from that

o f pagans except that luxury o r disp l ay was from
th e rst discouraged by the bishops I n spite
of persecutio n and the fact that every Christian
carried his lifeo r her l ife i n hi s hands the
i nvectives of Cl ement o f A l exandria Tertu l lian
and Cyprian seem to show that the C hristian
young women of their day took an interest in
their ap p earance Tertul l ian did not advocate
squa l or or sloven l iness o r an e ntire l y uncouth
and wild appearance but inveighs against those

who rub th e ir skin with l otions rouge their

cheeks dye their hair with sa ffron and s pend time
curl ing i t and dressing it o r adding fal se hair
.

CI T I Z E N S H I P
C elsus

appealed to Christians to support the

State by undertaking civi l o f ce and serving i n
the Army and implied that they were backward
i n fullli n g the duties o f citizenship H e urges

them to help the king with all our might to

labour for h im in the maintenance of j ustice to
ght for him ; and if he require s it to ght
under h im and to lead an army along with him
T o take o ffi c e in the gov e rnmen t of the country
i f that i s required for the maintenance of the
l aw s and the support of re l igion
Were C hristians then bad citizen s
The C hurch enj oined the duty of civil o b e
di e n ce except when it conicted with the divine
O i g Ag ai t C l viii 7 5
,

en

ns

e sus,

Chu rch H i sto ry

6
9

ro m

Ne ro

Co n stan ti n e

to

R ender unto Caesar th e t hings that

command

are Caesar s
The powers that be are ordai ned

o f God
H onour the ki ng
Th e ruler i s
God s instrument These ideas are familiar to
us from the Ne w Testament and the Fathers

carry on the tradition

Tho u sha l t be s u bj ect to
the Lord an d to masters as the image o f God
Justi n M artyr claims that taugh t o f C hrist
C hristians were more ready to pay taxes than
he athe n
Tertullian claim s that Christia n s were
better subj ects than the heathen and insists o n
the reverence with which the C hurch regards his

o i ce
B ut why dwe ll on the reverence and
respect o f C hristian s to the emperor w hom we
cannot but l ook upo n as called by our Lord to
his o i ce
So that I might have good grounds
for saying that Caesar is more ours than yo u rs

for o u r God has appoi nted h im 3

C h ristians are charged with having con tributed
to the down fall o f the Roman Empire by refusing
to serve in the ad ministration o f the E mpire I t
wo uld be fairer to s ay that i t was the State wh ich
refused to avail itself o f th e services o f C hri stians
fo r it wo uld have bee n di ffi cu l t if n o t impossible
for C h ri stians to have been high R oman o f cials
on accoun t o f the close con nection o f State cere
mon ial with idolatrous O bservances No doubt
th e Puri tan type of C hristian l ike Tertullian w ho
laid special stress o n t he re nunciation i nvolved i n
the Christian profe ssion wo uld in any case have
T t ll i a Ap l 4
S
al
8p f B a aha 1 9
.

Ap ol

33

rn

s,

ee

so

er u

The Chu rch

an d the

Wo rld

97

advised abstention from any high p l ace

In
maintaining the s uperior modesty of C hristians he

asserts : Th e C hristian does not aspire to the

aedi l eship
I n thi s he i s probab l y correct or we
shou l d have had a ery exhortation warning against
such ambitions H e al l owed the l awfu l ness i n
princip l e of o i ce for a Christian but i nsists that
i n practice it is too much i nvolved in ido l atry the
games and the shedding of b l ood to be perm itted
But what sh al l be l ieving slaves or chi l dren
?
do
O ffi cials likewis e when attending o n the
?
lords o r patrons or superiors when sacricing
I f any man hands wine to a s acri ce r or
sha ll help him by any word necessary to the
sacri ce he wi ll be he l d to be a minister o f
ido l atry But mi ndful of the rule we can render
service even to magistrates and powers after the
example o f the patriarchs and the fathers w ho
obeyed ido l atrous kings to the verge o f ido l atry
There arose l ately a dispute whether a servant
of God should take the administration of any
dignity o r power if he be ab l e to keep him se l f

untouched by any tai nt of ido l atry

Well
is it possibl e for any one to ho l d an o ffi ce if he
can do s o wi thout either sacricing o r lending
his authority to sacrice ; without farming out
victims o r as s i g n i n g to others the care of temp l es
without looking a fter their tributes and without
giving spectacles at h is own o r the public charge
and presiding over them ; without making pro
cl am at i o n s of any ido l atrous solemnity
without
.

,
.

Ap ol

0
3

8
9

Chu rch Hi sto ry

ro m

Ne ro

Co n stan ti n e

to

sitting i n j u dg e m e n t on any one s l ife o r character

o u m ight bear h i s j udging about money bi nd ing
y
no one i m p ri s o m n g no one tortur i ng no o n e
I f it is credib l e that this i s possib l e then i t may
be done
Tertu l lian we must again remind
ourselves was an extremist b u t the only poi nt
here where he would come directly into conict
with the modern con science is hi s refusal to perm it
the magistrates to j udge life I t m ust h owever
be remember e d that torture was part o fthe normal
procedure o f crim i na l law A magistrate had to
torture it was part of th e normal procedur e
The a uthor o f the s o
ca l led Egyp ti an Church
Orde r probab l y Hippolytus included among those
who m ust not be baptized unless they renounce
their pro fession a magistrate with the sword or
a chief o f prefects and h im w ho is clad i n purple
But Hippolytus like Tertullian was a rigorist
At any rate this rule was n o t strictly observed
We certai nly nd that by the time of the perse
cu t i o n o f Diocle tian a considerable number of

C hri stian s were holdi ng o i ce

h igh and l o w
As ear l y as the persecution o f D eci u s ( A D 2 4 9
)
a specia l c l a u se was directed again st the Cae s ari an i
an inferior order o f i mperial o ffi cials By A D 3 0 3

Eusebi us i s able to re fer to the clem ency o f the

emperors towards o u r brethren to whom they
even entrusted th e o v e rn m e n t o f provi nces
relievi ng the m from I anxiety about sacricing
The man who tore down Dioc l etian s edict
of persecution i s described by Eusebius as highl y
H 8 vii i I
D Id l 1 7

The Chu rch

an d the

Wo rld

99

esteemed for his temporal dign ities

Among

the Egyptian martyrs w as P h i l o ro m u s

who
he l d high o f c e in the imperia l di strict o f
A l exandria and who according to hi s rank and
R oman dignity w as attended by a military
guard when admi nistering j ustice every day
A dan e t u s who was martyred i n Phrygia about
is
described
a
s being of R oman dignity
A D 30
5
of a noble I talian family a man that had been
advanced thro u gh every grade of dignity by th e
emperors and had l led with credit the o ffi ces
of ch ief revenue o f cial an d prime minister
which o i ce he held at the time o f hi s martyr
It i s p l ain that the numbers of Christians
do m
in the higher ranks o f the imperial service was
increasing due partly to the growing number
of Chri stian s and partly to the fact that th e
conditions of o fce were made less i ntol erable
O n the evidence the
t o a be l ieving C hristian
Christian s can hardly be found gui l ty of shirking
their duties as citizens o f t his wor l d however
i ncomparably more important they regarded th e
duties incumbent on them as citizens of another

M I L I T A R Y S E RV I C E
C oncerning mi l itary service there was some
i

There
d e re n ce of opinion , as there is to day
were , no doubt , some who were frank l y p aci ci s t,
'

and re l uctance to serve i n the Army w as a ch arge

against Christians T e rtu ll ian wrote a treatise
H E viii 9
.

1 00

Chu rch H i sto ry

ro m

Ne ro

to

Co n s tan ti n e

to com mend a s oldier

De

had
C
through religious scruples refused to wear a
chaplet of owers and was denounced as a

C hri stian and thrown i nto prison

One o f
them was conspicuous more a so l dier o f G o d
more stead fast than the rest o f hi s brethren
wh o imagined they could serve two masters his
h ead alone uncovered his crown i n his hand
a nd already by that peculiar ity revealed as a
H i s arguments against m ilitary
C hri s t i an
ser vice are partly based o n its c on nection wi th
idolatry H e regarded the crown s as idolatrou s
and a C hristian soldier might have to guard
temples o r venerate idolatrou s e mblem s o n the
stan dard s ; but main l y because contrary to th e

Scriptures
C hrist i n disarm i ng P e ter had
unbelted e very soldier

Shall it be he l d l awful to make an occupation

of the sword when the Lord proc l aim s that he
who uses the sword shall perish by the sword
H e also argue s that a man can not be a soldier o r
C hrist and a soldier of the emperor
Origen h eld th e V iew that as heathen priests
were exempted from military service i n order
that they migh t o ffer sacrice Christian s sh ou l d
be exempted in order to pray fo r those who were

gh ting
None ght better fo r the king than
we do We do not gh t under h im th ough he
require i t ; but we ght o n his behalf forming

a special army an army o f piety b y o ffering

3
o u r prayers to God
iii 7 3
Agai t C l
I bid
D C
o ro n a

w ho

or

1
0
,

ns

e sus , v

The Chu rch

Wo rld

an d the

1 01

took t he ground that ki ll in was

I t wi ll be neith e r l
a l ways un l awfu l
l l for
a j ust man to engage in warfare n or to accuse
any o n e of a capita l charge because it makes no
di fference whether you put a man to death by
word o r by the sword since i t is t h e act o f
putting to death which is prohibited
It is
a l ways un l awfu l to put to death a man whom
G od wi ll ed to be a sacred animal
I n the Church Orde rs there i s reected th e
unc e rtainty and disagreement that existed in
th e C hurch The Ethiopian text of the E gyptian

A catechumen o r
Chu rch Orde r l ays down
be l iever if they wish to b e so l diers sha l l be
r ej ected because they are far from G o d
But
in the Arabi c text the so l dier is accepted H e

must be taugh t not to oppress or accuse false l y

and he sha ll b e content with h is pay I f he i s
pleased to be so l et him be brought i n
I n the
S ai di c text i n one p l ace so l diers are to be rej ected

in another we read A sol dier wh o is i n authority

cause him not to ki ll men ; if he shou l d be co m
m an d e d to do i t cause him not to hasten to the
work
The same contradiction i s to be found
in the s o ca l led Canon s of H ippo l ytus
Whatever may h ave been the attitude o f m en
l ike Tertul l ian and Origen it does not seem to
have preven ted l arge numbers o f C hristians from
serving i n the ranks They crop up continua ll y
Tertul lian wou l d hard l y have written hi s

a
o
n
treatise D e Co ro n for the benet of n
existent
I ti t vi

L actan t i u s

ns

20

o m Ne ro
r
f

Chu rch H i sto ry

1 02

to

Co n stan ti n e

C hristian

so l diers The se ntence One more

a soldier of God more steadfast than the rest of
his brethren
i mp l ies that there were many
others B as i l i de s an o ffi cer i n th e Army wh o
was i n charge o f the soldi ers on d uty at
the marty rdom o f P o tam i ae n a at Al exandria
afterwards becam e a C hristian but di d n o t
renounce hi s profession o n that accoun t
It
was on l y whe n afterwards urged to swear

tha t he refused say ing I am a C hri s t i an

Dionysi us records that i n the persecution at

A l exandria under Decius there was a den se

body o f so l diers standing before t he tribunal
wh o encouraged a wavering C hristian to stand
rm
I n J usti n Martyr s supposed l etter o f
Marcu s Aure l ius to the Se nate about the

Thundering Legion we read

I sum moned
those w ho g o by the name o f C hristian s and
di scovered a great n um ber and vast host o f
them
Even i f Marcus Aurelius i s innocen t
o f the letter it i s u nlikely that the writer w h o

fathered it on hi m wou l d have i nvented the

great n umber and vast h ost
o f
C hristian
soldiers if there were n o C hri stian soldiers
I n the reign o f Gallien us Marinus a C hri stia n
soldier was t o have bee n promoted to the rank
Another soldier cha l lenged his pro
o fcen turion
motion o n th e ground tha t he was a Christian and
would n o t sacrice to th e em peror Ad m itting
th is h e was given three h ours i n wh ich to make
up his mind whether h e wo uld sacrice or n o t O n
E
I bid 4 1
b i H 8 vi 5
.

u se

u s,

The Chu rch

an d the

Wo rld

I0

refusing he was beheaded This incident points

to the presence of C hri stian o f cers as w e ll as
privates i n the Army and that th e ir re l igion w as
connived at as l ong as i t did not attract o f cial
notice E us e bius d e l are d that the persecution of
D ioc l etian began with thos e brethren that were

H e a d ds that great numbers

in t he Army
of so l diers l e ft the Army in cons e qu e nce and
returned to civi l ian life rather than r e nounc e their
religion The martyrdom of t he forty soldiers
of S e baste i s another proof that the C hristian
soldier was no i so l ated phenomenon
The evidence shows that t hough i ndividua l
C hri stians then as since r e garded the profe ssion of
a Christian as inconsistent with mi l itary service
the C hurch did not commit its e l f to this view
and l arge numbers of C hristians were to be found
in the Army That there were not more was
due not so much to the p aci ci s t views of
C hurchmen as to the di ffi cu l ties put i n the
way of C hri stian so l di e rs by the Army itself
which at best connived at th e ir presence and at
worst carried on an active p e rsecution against
them Our Army in I ndia wou l d b e badly o ff for
recruits if Mohammedans and H indoos were
treated as were Christians in the Ro m an Army
.

S L AV E R Y
As to slavery the Church accepted i t as a
matter o f course I t introduc e d no new system
H E viii
,

1 04

Chu rch Hi sto ry

ro m

Ne ro

to

Co n stan ti n e

f econom ics

or social order as such but its doc

trine of brotherh ood and o f love to n eighbours
o f the equa l ity o f all i n the sight o f God
were
bo und i n t i me to destroy the who l e system o f
D uring the p e riod under review i t
slavery
con te nted itse l f with directing masters to be
h umane in their tre atmen t o f their slaves

Tho u shalt not i ss ue orders with bitterness

thy maid servan t o r thy man -servant w ho
to
trust in the same G o d l e st thou shou l dst n o t
r e verence that G o d Who i s above both ; fo r
H e came t o call men n o t according to th e ir
outw ard appearan ce but according as the Spirit
had prepared t he m
C hristian slaves were
regarded as brethren and share d i n all the
privileges and righ ts o f th e C hurch
They
could be ordained
Call i s t u s the Bishop o f
M artyred slaves were
R ome had been a slave
honoured i n the same way a s though free
Blan dina a slave girl i s a notable exam ple
Slave s apparently accordi ng to the Chu rch
Orde rs were n o t to be received as catech ume n s
without the con sen t o f their masters

CO NC L U S I O N

T he Ep i stle to D i og n e tus a ffords an i nteresting

glim pse o f th e C hurch i n its relation to socie ty
as i t appeared to o n e o f its members perhap s
about A D I 5 O

For the C hristian s are distingui shed from

b l w p I 07
T h T w W ay
,

s,

se e

e o

The Chu rch

an d the

Wo rld

1 05

other men neither by country nor l anguag e

nor the custom s which they observe F o r th e y
neither i nhabit cities o f their o w n nor employ
a peculiar form of speech nor l e ad a l ife which
is marked b y an y singu l arity
But inhabit
ing G reek as we ll as barbarian cities and fo ll ow
i ng the customs of the nativ e s in respect of food
clothing and the rest of their ordinary conduct
they display to us their wonderful and con
fe s s e dly paradoxica l method of l ife
They dwel l
in their own countries but simply as soj our n ers
As citizens they share i n a ll thin s with others
and yet endur e a ll things as ffne i g n e rs
They marry they beget chi l dren ; but they do
not destroy their o ffspring
They obey
the prescribed l aws and at the same time s u r
pass the laws by their l ives They love all men
and are persecuted by a ll
We are not to suppose that C hristians always
lived up to their profession but in times of
persecution it i s un l ike l y that many j oined the
C hurch without intending to carry out its way
o f l ife ;
and the apo l ogists wou l d hardly l ay
c l aim s o hastily to a particular kind of l ife as
exhibited by Christians if their description would
be u nrecognized by thos e who knew the facts

But among us you wi ll nd uneducated

p e rsons working men and old women if th e y
are unable in words to prove the truth o f their
doctrine s yet by th eir deeds they show the good
o f their be l ief ; they do n o t rehearse speeches
v
.

Chu rch H i sto ry

1 06

Ne ro

ro m

to

Co n stan ti n e

but exhibit good works ; when struck they do

not strike again when robbed they do not go to
law ; they give to those who as k of them love
their neighbours as them selves
There does n o t seem much j ustication fo r
the o i ci al view that C hristian s were the enemi es
o f mankind ; but n o doubt they were sometimes
aggressive
The martyrs were not al l as meek

as their Master
With what face asks T er

t u l l ian will a C hristian incense -seller if h e shall

pass through temples with what face will he
spit upon the s m o k i n a l tars for which h e hi m
self made provisio n
But the aggressive
ness of Tert u llian was a l ien from th e C hristian
spirit and there is n o evidence to show that
C hristians as a whole were i ntentionally provo
cative The truth was that their very exi stence
their doctri ne th eir words their attitude to the

business a ffairs the e veryday life and amuse

me nts were a c hallenge and a provocation to

heathe n me n and women
The ideal o f the C hristian life as i t was com
m o nl
o
h
eld
i
n
th
e
rst
three
centuries
is
t
be
y

fo und i n the teaching o n the Tw o Ways

the
Way of Light and the Way o f Darkness Thi s
teaching origi nally derived from Jewish source s
i s foun d i n the D i dache the 8p i stle of B arn ahas
an d e l sewh ere ; i t was u sed fo r the i nstruction
o f catechumen s an d was n o doubt a popular guide
or handbook to right Christia n living and a manua l
o f ethics for the young i n the F aith

,
.

Athe n ago ras

xi

2
.

On I dolatry

The Chu rch

an d the

W AY

Wo rld

10
7

LI GH T
The Way of Light i s as foll ows
Thou sha l t
l ove H i m that created thee : thou sha l t g l orify
H i m that redeemed thee from deat h
Thou
sha l t be simp l e i n heart and rich in spirit
Thou sha l t not j oin thyse l f to those who
wa l k i n the way of death Thou shalt hate
doing what is unp l easing to G od thou sha l t
hate a ll hypocrisy Thou shal t not forsake
the commandments of the Lord Thou sha l t
not exa l t thyse l f but sha l t be of a l o wl y
mind Thou sha l t not take g l ory to thyse l f
Thou sha l t not take evi l cou nse l against thy
neighbour Thou sha l t not a l low over -bol dness
to enter thy sou l Thou sha l t not commit for
n i cati o n ; thou sha l t not commi t adu l tery ; thou
sha l t not be a corrupter of youth Thou sha l t
not l et the Word of G od issue from thy l ips if
they are de l e d with any kind of impurity
Thou shalt not accept praises when thou re p ro v e s t
any one for transgressions Thou sha l t be meek ;
thou shalt be p eaceab l e Thou shalt not be
mindful o f evil against thy brother Thou shal t
not take the Name of the Lord i n vain Thou
sha l t l ove thy neighbour as thine own sou l
Thou sha l t n o t s l ay the chi l d by procuring
abortion ; nor again sha l t thou destroy it after
it i s born Th ou sha l t not withdraw thy hand
from thy s o n or thy daughter bu t from their
infancy thou sha l t t e ach them the fear of the
TH E

OF

F ro m

t he

Ep i stle

h
r
n
as
B
a
a
f

Chu rch H i s to ry

1 08

ro m

Ne ro

to

Co n stan ti n e

Lord Thou shalt n o t covet what i s thy neigh

bour s n o r shalt thou be avaricious
Th ou
sha l t n o t be j oin ed i n soul with the haughty
b u t thou shalt be reckoned with th e righteous
hourly R ecei ve thou as good thi ngs th e tri al s
that com e upon y o u Thou sha l t n o t be of
a double mind o r of a double tongue Th ou
sha l t be subj ect to the Lord o r to masters i n
the i mage of God with mode sty an d fear Th ou
sha l t not issue orders with bitterness to thy
maid servant o r thy man servan t w ho trust i n
the sam e Go d lest thou shouldst n o t reverence
that God Wh o i s above both for H e cam e to
call men not according to their outward appear
ance b ut according as th e Spirit had prepared
them Thou sha l t com municate in a ll thi ngs
with thy ne ighbour ; tho u shalt not call thi ngs
thine o w n fo r if y o u are partakers i n comm on
o f things in corruptible h o w m uch m ore o f things
corruptib l e Thou sha l t not be hasty with thy
tongue fo r the mouth i s a snare o f d eath As
far a s possib l e thou sha l t be pure i n thy soul
D o not be ready to stretch forth thy hands to
take while thou s hu t te s t them wh en th ou
sh ou l dst give Thou shalt love as the apple
o f thine eye every o n e that
speaketh to thee
t he Word o f the Lord Thou sha l t remember
the day o f j udgeme nt nigh t and day Thou
shalt not h esitate t o give o r m urmur w he n t ho u

give st
Give to every o n e that asketh thee
Thou shalt learn who i s the good recom pen ser o t
the reward Thou shalt preserve what thou hast
.

'

The Chu rch

an d the

Wo rld

10

received i n trust neither adding to it nor taking

from it Thou sha l t j udge righteous l y Thou
sha l t not make a schism but thou shalt pacify
the m that contend by bringing th em together
Thou sha l t confes s thy sins Thou sha l t not go
to prayer with an evi l conscience This i s the

Way o f Life
,

TH E

W AY

OF

D A R K N E SS

But the way o f darkness i s crooked and fu l l

of cunning for it is the way of eternal death with
puni shment i n which way are t he things that
destroy the soul ; that is ido l atry over-co n
dence the arrogance of power hypocri sy double
heartedn ess adu l tery murder rapine haughtiness
deceit ma l ice se l f su ffi ciency poisoning magic
avarice wan t o f the fear o f God I n this way
are those who persecute the good those who
hat e truth those w ho l ove falsehood those wh o
know n ot the reward o f righteousness those
who c l eave not to that which i s good those who
attend n o t with j ust j udgement to the widow
and orphan those wh o watch n o t the fear of
G od from whom meekness and patience are far
f persons who love vanity fo ll ow after reward
o f
pity not the needy l abour not in aid of h im w ho
is overcome with toi l ; who are prone to e vi l
speaking who are m urderers of chi l dren de
stroyers o f the workmanship of G od wh o turn
away hi m that is i n want who oppress the
al i cte d w ho are advocates of the rich who are
,

Chu rch H i sto ry

1 10

ro m

Ne ro

to

Co n stan ti n e

unj ust j udges of the poor and who are i n every

respect transgressors
The Way o f Light far from being o ffensive
seem s wi nning and attractive
I ndeed it n o t
only seem s so n o w but did even then o r why
did C hristian s increase s o rapidly during the
?
o
f
age s
persecution
I t seems certain that
as C hristian s became m ore numerous and better
kn own they were hated less and th e p e rs e cu
tio n became more polit ical an d le ss popu l ar
The following passage from the Book O f
Wisdom may perhaps explain the real motive s
indu l ging such hatred as there was

Let us lie i n wait for the righteous because

he i s n o t fo r o u r turn and i s clean contrary to
our doings h e upbraideth us with o u r o ffending
H o p ro fe s s e t h to have the knowledge
the law
of God a nd he calleth hi mself the ch i l d of the
Lord H e was made to reprove our thoughts
H e i s grievous u nto u s even to beho l d fo r hi s
l ife i s n o t l ike other men s hi s ways are of
another fashion We are esteemed o f him as
coun terfeits
H e p ro n o u n ce t h the end o f the
j us t to be blessed and maketh his boast that
Let us s e e i f hi s words be
G o d i s his Father
true : and l et u s prove what shall happen i n
the end o f him
Let us exam ine h i m with
despitefulness and torture that we may k now
h i s mee kness and prove his patience L e t us
condem n him with a shamefu l death : fo r by
hi s own saying he sha ll be respected
,

VI
U ND E R
E MPE R O R S

CH U R C H

TH E

S LACK E N I N G

F O R EIG N

P E RSE CU T I O N

OF

HE

death o f Marcus Aureliu s marked the

close of a denite era in the history of
persecution Under Nero and Domitian perse
had been instinctive and spontaneous
cu t i o n
Moreover
C hristianity was new and u npopu l ar
Nero wanted a scapegoat whi l e Domitian was
a bloodthirsty and s u s i ci o u s tyrant But the
four great emperors ff
Traj an to Marcus
o m
Aure l ius were men o f a di fferent stamp We
may not go as far as Gibbon when he declares

that during their reign s the vast extent of the

R oman Empire was governed by abso l ute power
o r
under the guidance of wisdom and virtue

agree that if a man were called to x the period

in the history of the wor l d during which the
c o ndition o f th e human race was most happy and
prosperous he would without hesitation name
that which e l apsed from the death of D omitian
but whatever
to t he accession of Commodus
we think of their genera l po l icy we fee l sure that
h iii
I b id
D li
a d Fall
.

ec ne

1 1 1

Church H i sto ry

1 1 2

ro m

Ne ro

Co n stan ti n e

to

each of them had a policy towards the C hurch

and was strong enough to carry that policy
i nto e ffect That pol icy was i n general o n e o f
persecution though from Traj an to Pius the
rigour o f persecution was mitigated by th e
dislike o f th ese emperors to anonymous an d
tum ultuar y accusationsan d Christian s generally
were accused ano nymously o r by a mob and
further by t heir natural l y tolerant dispositi ons
Th ey started with a prej udice i n favour o f tolera
ti on l ess marked however in Traj an than i n
his two immediate successors They had three
principal motives for persecution
First from th e side of the law Th e R oman
E mpire always refused very j ealously to admi t
the right o f a ny corporation to exist except by
its o wn sanction
B ut the C hurch based its
right to exi st o n divi n e sanction and regarded
itself as i nde pendent o f the State and eve n
refused to take part i n the State religion
It
came i n the end to be regarded m uch as a
gigantic Sin n Fei n o r T rade U nion organiza
tion m ight be as an i ndependent and possibly
h ostile state with i n the State an i mp e ri u m i n
i mp e ri o
Secon dly i t was the policy o f th e State
to press the worshi p o f the emperor as the
u niversal religio n Other religions were as far
as possible tolerated but this was to be practised
everywhere I t w as t o be the strong reli o u s
bon d betwee n the scattered provi nces o the
E mpire Th is worship the C hurch regarded as
blasphemous and idolatrous and did n o t hesitate
,

"

The Chu rch

u n de r

I I3

F o re ig n E mp e ro rs

to s ay s o Third l y the new re l ig i on w as u n

sett l ing No prud e n t e mperor with an eye to
the end l ess possibi l ities of troub l e in his vast
dominio n s cou l d fai l to be apprehensive o f
a nyth i n g which seemed l ike l y to cause unsett l e
ment and unr e st A n d the mor e t he emp e ror
be l on g e d to the o l d R oman co nservative type
t h e more wou l d he resent chang e s and i nnova
tions i n re l igion
C ommodus and t he for e ign emperors who s u c
ce e d e d were men of another typ e
C ommodus
though not him self a foreigner was a disso l ute
boy when he b e came emperor giv e n over to th e
gross e st form s of dissipation not su f cient l y
interested i n pub l ic a ffairs to have a po l icy or
strong enough if he did have one to carry it
into e ffect H i s foreign successors had no fee l
ing against C hristianity any mor e than they had
any devotion to t he gods of ancient R ome
C hristianity was to them o n e among many
re l igions and th e arrogance of C hristian s in
refusing to worship the anci e n t gods was not
o ffensive to th e m as it was to R omans Their
one quarre l with t he Ch urch o n the ground
of r e l igion w as i t s r e fusa l to a ll ow t h e worship
of the emperor F urther they w e r e for e igners
and wou l d n o t have had the R oman l ega l
sensitiveness to the statu s of the C hurch as
an un l icensed corporation While exc e pt for
Severus and possibly M ax i m i n u s and Severus

M
x
a i m i n u s wer e
and
both persecutors they
were not strong m e n and it was beginning
,

1 1

h
rc
o
i
u
h
H
s
t
r
C
4
y

Ne ro

ro m

to

Co n stan ti n e

to need a strong m an to wi thstand the owing

tide o f C hristian numbers a nd i n ue nce No r
had they t he R oman sense o f respon sibi l ity
They were not l ikely to persecute o u t o f anxiety
fo r the supposed interests o f the State
.

CO M M O D U S,

A D
.

93

80

Under C o m mo dus at rst things too k their

course and the persecutions was continued We
h ear for t he rst ti me of martyrs i n Africa
whe n s ix C hristians from Scili were tried and
condem ned at Carthage A D 1 8 0
T h e p ro
consul S at u rn i n u s however behaved with great
h umanity tried to persuade them to swear by

o ur
Lords the Emperors and when they
refu sed urged them to take a month i n which to
thin k things over I t was only after this o ffer
was refused that they were condemned to the
co mparatively lenie n t puni s hment of decapita
tion
The victims h owever showed n o desire t o
escape their doom They rather gloried in their
religion and openly exulted in the prospect o f
death I t i s possib l e that they were M on tanists
Their leader S p e rat u s i n reply to a n exhortation
to swear by the emperor replied wi th an o ffer to
exp l ai n t he mystery o f the C hri stian re ligion
Cy t hi u s protested i n an swer to a threat o f
pu nishment K now proconsu l that we fear n o
other except one God our Lord W ho is i n
.

Ru i n art , A cta W arty ru rn Si n ce ra

The Chu rch

u n de r

F o re ig n E mp e ro rs

1 1

heav e n
Another D onata
W e giv e hono u r
to Caesar but fear and worshi p we accord to
C hrist the true G od
V estia an aged woma n
apparent l y Thi s sha ll my heart a l ways meditate
and my l ife pronounce that I am a
We al s o read of martyrs i n M ada u ra A D 1 8 0
There was a l so a persecution i n Asia A D 1 8 2
under Arri us Antoninus when Tertu ll ian re l ates
that a ll the Christians of the provi nce pre sented
e
th m se l ves before his j udgement seat on wh ich
ordering a few to be ex e cuted he said to the rest
Unhappy men if you wish to die you have
precipices and ha l ters
Obscure provincia l s were not however t he
only C hri stians to su ffer
I n t he year 1 8 5
Apo ll onius described by E u sebius 3 as a man
renowned for h is cu l ture and phi l osophy was
s ummoned by Peren ni s Prefect o f the Praetorian
Guard to give an account of himse l f before the
S e nate a procedure which cou l d hard l y have been
fol l owed unless Apo ll onius were a senator or a
man of disti nction From the Armenian acts o f
thi s martyrdom which have been translated by
by Mr F C Co n y b e are 4 we learn that when
brought before the Senate he was questioned
by Pere nnis in the fo ll owing manner
Asked why he would n ot sacrice h e rep l ied
Because I am a C hristian therefore I fear G o d
Who made heaven and earth and sacrice not to
empty idols
Urged to swear by the good for

Ru i n art , A cts: M arty ru m Si n ce ra

To Scap ula, 5
4 M o n u m e n ts o
l
H 8
E
a
r
h
r
sti an i t
2 1
i
f
y
y
2

1 1

6 Chu rch H i sto ry

Ne ro

ro m

Co n stan ti n e

to

tun e of the autocrat Commodus he said I am

wi ll ing to swear in truth by the true G od that w e
too l ove th e emperor and o ffer u p prayers for his
maj esty

Th e prefect said Com e then and sacrice

to Apol l o and t o the other gods and to the
e mperor s i mages
Apo l lonius refused saying
among oth er things But as to sacrice s I and
all C hri stian s o ffer a bloodless sacrice to G o d
H e was remanded for a day i n th e hope that
he would change hi s m i nd b u t he remained rm

and was conde mned The magistrate said I

would fai n l et thee go but I cannot beca u se of
the decree o f the Senate Yet with be nevo l ence
I pronounce sentence upon thee and h e ordered
hi m tO be beheaded with a sword Apo l lonius

said I thank God for thy sente nce

Then

in the word s of the Acts

The executioners
straightway led hi m away and beheaded him
wh i l e he co nti n ued to glorify the F ather S o n
and H ol y Spirit to whom be g l ory for ever
Amen
After A D 1 8 5 persecution s seem to have ceased
in this reign wh ich may hav e been due to the
in uence of Marcia the con sort or m organatic
wife of Commodus who was herse l f a sy mpathizer
if no mor e with C hristianity She was i n s tru
mental i n securing th e re l ease o f the Christian s
working i n the lead mi nes of Sardinia and is
li ke l y to have used her inue nce i n favo ur o f
to l eration
At any rate from this date the
persecutio n was appreciab l y relaxed
,

The Chu rch

F o re ig n E mp e ro rs

u nd e r

S EV E R U S

A D
.

1 1

2
0
93
5

I n the year A D 1 93 Marcia the consort of

Commodus found her own nam e o n a l ist of
persons marked for e xecution She thereupon
arrang e d successfu ll y for her husband s assassina
tion i nstead H i s successor Pertinax was soon
murd e red by the Praetorians who put the
E mpire up to auction and knocked it down to
Septi
D i di u s Ju l ianus as th e highest bidder
mius Severus a gen era l of the army of the
Danube at once invaded I ta l y and w as acc e pted
as e mperor by the Senate D i di u s was deposed
and sentenced to death and thus ende d h is
dear l y bought reign of sixty six days
Seve rus w as an African whose native speech
w as Phoenician ; after con sulting the stars he
married a Syrian J ulia D omna and w as with
out the O ld R oman cons e rvativ e pr ej udice against
Christianity
According to T e rtu ll ian he w as
onc e hea l ed by the anointing of a Chris tian and
a C hristian n urse was foster -mother to h i s son

Both men and women of highest rank whom

Severus knew we ll to be C hri stian s he not on l y
did n ot inj ure but e ven distinguished them by
his t e stimony and gave th em pub l ic l y back to
us in spit e of the rag e of the mob
Never
the l e s s
the l aw was not a l tered and p e rs e cu
tions took p l ace notab l y in Africa T e rtu ll i an s
Apo l ogy (A O 1 97 ) w as provoked by o n e of
them
.

To Scap ul a, 4

1 1

8 Chu rch H i sto ry

ro m

Ne ro

Co n stan ti n e

to

Severus had troub l e with th e Jews and renewed

a law of Anto ninus Piu s forbiddi ng th e circum
H e also forbade conversion
ci s i o n o f proselyte s
to C hristianity This was i n A D 2 0 2 I t is note
worthy as the rst law enacted agai n st C hristian s
H ith erto t he y m
prosecuted under the
ee n
o l d laws I t was fol l owed by new outbreaks o f
persecution pri nci pa ll y i n Alexandria and Africa
In Alexandria Leonides the father of Origen
B as i l i de s o n e o f
was o n e o f the v i ct i m s
Orige n s disciple s was an o i ce r i n th e army
an d was i n charge o f the soldiers wh o led away
o n e P o tam i ae n a to
executio n and defended he r
from th e violence o f the m o b Noticing h is act
she bade him be of good che e r for she would
i ntercede for him with the Lord Sh e h erself
was killed by havi ng boili ng pitch poured over
h er body No t long after B as i l i d e s declared
himself a Ch ristian
and was condem ned to
su ffer When q uestion ed by one of the brethren
he declared that P o tam i ae n a had appeared to h i m
three nights after her marty rdom and had
o n
placed a crown o n his head sayi ng that she had
e ntreated the Lord for him and had obtained her
prayer and that soon she would take him with
her Whereu pon he was baptized and soon
afterward s beheaded
Th e persecution reached Carthage where Per
petua and her companion s su ffered in M arch
,

A D
.

2
2

Fo r

O ig
bi

E u se

en

u s,

se e

H 8
.

bl w
vi 1
e o
.

2
4

The Chu rch

u n de r

F o re ig n E m p e ro rs

1 1

Perpetua who was twenty-two years o l d was

married and n ursing an infan t s o n She w as a
lady of some birth and position H e r father
moth e r and two brothers were l iving O ne
brother was a catechumen as was Perpetua her
self H e r compan ions w ho were arrested at the
same time wer e R e v o catu s and F elicitas hi s fel l ow
s l ave and consort who was expecting h er con
n e m e n t S at u rn i n u s and S e cu n d u l u s
They
were a l l catechumens T he fo ll owing accoun t
of thei r su ffe rings is an authe n tic narrative by
Perpetua herse l f down to the point where it i s
taken up by another hand probably T e rtu ll i an s
When I was in the hands of our persecutors
my father for the a ffection h e bore me made
new e fforts to shake my reso l ution
F ath e r
He
I said do you see this vesse l lying here
said I s e e it
And I said to h im Can it be
cal l ed by any other name than i ts own ? An d
he said No
No r can I ca ll myse l f by any
H er
thing e lse than what I am a C hristian
father then l eft h er for a time and all the accused
were baptized Though u nder arrest they had
not been taken to p rison
After a few days we were put i n prison and
I was terried because I had never known such
darkness I t was a dreadfu l day T he heat w as
terrible thanks to the crowds there through t he
extortions of the so l diers Besides which I was
distract e d with anxiety for my baby Then Ter
tius and P o m p o n i u s th e ho l y deacons who were
S l av
l d t t a t a l gal m a i ag
,

e s co u

n o

co n

r c

rr

Chu r ch H i sto ry

1 20

Ne ro

ro m

to

Co n stan ti n e

ministering to us arranged by payme nt that for

a few hou rs we should be refresh e d by being l et
out into a better part of th e prison My baby
was brough t to me almo st famished and I nursed
h im Being anxio u s for h im I spoke to my
mother about h im and encouraged my brother
I was di stressed becau se I s aw that they were dis
tressed o n my account S uch were t he anxieties
I su ffered for many days ; and I arranged that
my baby s hould stay i n the prison with me and
at once I grew strong and was relieved o f worry
and anxiety about the child my pri son s u ddenly
b e cam e a palace s o that I preferred being there
to be ing anywhere else
Whi l e waiti ng for her trial s he had a vision
She saw a ladder reaching u p to h eaven very
narrow and th e sides garn ished with every kind
o f cutting and stabbing weapon
Underneath i t
lay a dragon i n wait to catch any who fell and
t o deter others from making the attem pt
S at u ru s who was n o t arrested with the rest
was th e rst to climb When he got to the top

he said Perpetua I am supporti ng you

Per
petua came next steppi ng on th e dragon s h ead
When she reac hed the top she s aw an immense
garden and seated in th e midst o n e like a shep
herd m i l ki ng his shee p surrounded by many
thousands i n white robe s H e ca ll ed her and
o ffered her curds from the milk which he had
drawn ; this s he ate ; the m ultitude exclaimed

Amen
Then s he awoke
And I told my
broth e r and we understood that our passion was
,

The Chu rch

u n de r

F o re ig n E mp e ro rs

1 2 1

imminent and we ceased to have any mor e hope

i n this wor l d After some days a rumour got
about that we were to b e examined and my father
came from the city to the prison ov e rwhelmed
with grief
D aughter have pity on my grey
hairs ; have pi ty o n your father if I am worthy
to be call ed your father ; if I have brought y o u
up ; if I have preferre d y o u to your brothers
Think of your brothers thi nk of your mother
thin k of your son who cannot surviv e you Lay
aside this obstinacy do not d e stroy u s a ll
As he said this he kissed my hands and threw
himse l f at my feet and ca ll e d me not daughter
but mistress I was distr e ssed on my father s
account because he alone out of all my family
w o u l d not r ej oice i n my passion I com fort e d
h im saying What G od wi ll s wi ll be done K now
that we are not in our own power but i n God s
And he w e nt away from me sorrowful

The next day when we were at dinner we

were carried o ff sudden l y for our examination
and we came to the forum The rumour ran
through a ll places near the forum and an
imm e nse crowd collected We went up into
the dock The others w e re q u e s ti o n e d and con
fess e d Then it was my turn And my father
immediate l y appeared with my s o n and drew
me a l ittl e aside beseeching me H ave pity on
thy bab e And H i l ari an u s the procurator who
then acted a s j udge in p l ace of the deceased pro
consu l M i n u ci u s said Spar e your fath e r s grey
hair ; spare the infancy of your s o n Sacrice for
,

Chu rch Hi sto ry

1 22

Ne ro

ro m

o n s tan ti n e

to

the hea l th of the emperor I rep l ied I will n o t

H i l ari an u s said Are you a C h ristian
I rep l ied
I am
And when my father attempted to draw
m e a w ay h e was ordered by H i l ari an u s to be
pul l ed dow n and h e struck him with a rod
And I was distressed for my father as thou h
I had been beaten my self ; s o unhappy was I gr
h im i n hi s o l d age Then he sen te n ced u s all to
the beasts And we return ed j oyfu l ly to the
pr i son

Then because I had been used to n urse my

baby and had had hi m wi th me i n pri son I sent
at once P o m p o n i u s the deacon to ask my father
for the chi l d But h e would not give hi m to
me
After her return to prison s he had another
vision i n which s he s aw her brother D i n o crate s

w ho died whe n seven years o l d

A few days
after while we were al l praying suddenly a voice
reached me and I said D i n o crate s ; and I was
asto ni shed because he had not come into my mind
until then And I began to pray ferven tly fo r
him O n that night I had the fol l owing vision
I s aw D i n o crat e s coming out o f a dark place
where there were many others very h ot and
thirs ty hi s face dirty and pale
Betwee n him
and me ther e was a great space so that we could
no t get near to each other Near him w as a
vesse l of w ate r j u s t out o f hi s reach up to wh ich
he was stretching in order to drink I awoke
and knew my brother was i n trouble But I
trusted I cou l d re l ieve hi m by prayer An d I

The Chu rch

un de r

F o re ig n E mp e ro rs

1 23

prayed for him e very day and n ight with tears

On the day we spent in the stocks I s aw t he
same p l ace which I had seen dark to be fu l l o f
i
r
l ight and D n o c ate s c l ean we ll dressed and
refreshed and wher e there had been a wound
there was a scar I saw the same vesse l of water
now l owered to h is midd l e with a cup attached
to it out of which he was drinking An d when
his thirst was qu e nched he b e gan to p l ay happi l y
l ike a chi l d
We are no doubt to understand from this
vision that D i n o crate s had died unbaptized
Soon after Pudens the o ffi cer in charge O f
the prison guards began to make m uc h of u s
perceiving that there was great virtue i n u s and
a l lowed u s to receive visits from the brethren for
our mutua l refreshment When the day of the
spectac l e was near my father cam e to me over
come with grief and be an to tear his beard and
threw himself o n h is f
ace on th e ground and
cursed h is years and said e nough to move any
created being I grieved for his unhappy O l d
ag e
P e rp e tu a recorded another vision from which
s he knew sh e wou l d h ave to
contend n o t with
beasts b u t the devi l She e nds h er narrative

I have to l d thi s story up to th e day before

the G ames Of what takes p l ace at the Games
let him write who wi l ls
Fe l icitas was conned premature l y in an swer
to the prayers of her companions as s he feared
that O therwis e her execution would be postponed
.

Chu rch H i sto ry

1 24

ro m

Ne ro

o n s tan ti n e

to

Wh en sh e cried out i n he r pains h er guards said

I f y o u cry out n o w what wi l l you do whe n

exposed to the beasts
She replied No w I
bear my su fferings al on e The n there will be
another i n m e W ho will su ffer fo r me because I
shall be su ffering for H im
The child l ived and was given t o a sister t o b e
brough t up as her dau hte r
I t was the custom o r condem ned criminals to

have what was called a free supper on their

last night a supper which s ee m s to have been
public as well as free Perpetua and her co m
panion s turned it i n to an agape and tried t o
convert the onlookers remindi ng them o f th e
j udgement o f God and al leging their o w n j oy

i n su fferi ng S atu ru s said Look at o u r faces

carefully that y o u may recognize us at the Day

o f J udgement
They proceeded from prison to the amph i
theatre j oyfu l and rm in demeanour
Th e
me n were in front followed by Perpetua with
Felicitas last o f all When they passed H ilari

anus they cried o u t Yo u are o u r j udge ; Go d

i s yours
F o r this they were scourged
T he narrative co nti n ues

Ask and ye s hall re

H e Who had said
ceive gave them the death they de sired F o r
when they talked about the kind o f m artyrdom
they would prefer S e cu n du l u s used to d eclare
that he would like to be exposed to al l the beasts
hat h e m ight wear a more glorious crown
Accordingly he and R e v o catu s wer e attacked
,

The Chu rch

u n de r

F o re ig n E mp e ro rs

1 2

rst by a l e opard an d then by a b e ar S at u ru s

dreaded a bear more than anything e ls e and ther e
fore hoped h e wou l d be dispatc h ed by one bi te
from a l eopard H e was exposed to a wi l d boar
wh ich turned on h is keeper and inicted such a
wound that he died a few days l ater whi l e Satur n s
was o n l dragged a l ong the ground ; and when
s t e n e d near a bear the an i m al would n o t
he was fh
l eave his cage So that S atu ru s being unhurt
was ca ll ed upon to face a seco nd encounter
Perpetua and F e l icitas were exposed to a

F irst Perpetua was tossed and

savage cow
fe l l on her back
Then sitting up an d
s he
p e rceiving that her clothes were torn s he
covered hers e l f as we ll as s he could thin king
more o f mode sty than pain Then s he did up
her hair for i t was n ot seem l y for a martyr to
su ffer with hair l oose o r she wou l d have l ooked
like a mourner Then s he got up and seeing
that Fe l icitas was hurt sh e took her hand
and supported her Both stood up together
and the crowd being moved to pity cried o u t
that they should be l ed to the G ate o f Life
There
Perpetua
was
received
by
n av i v ari a
S
a
)
(
a certain catechumen ca ll ed R ustic u s an d

appeared as though j ust woke u p s o far w as

gone
in
ecstasy
and
i
n
the
spirit
and
s he
began to look ro u nd and s ay to the wonder
ing bystanders Whe n are we to be exposed
to the cow ? When she h eard what had
happened she did not be l ieve i t unti l she s aw
the marks o n h er body and her clothes Then
.

Chu rch H i sto ry h o m Ne ro

1 26

Co n stan ti n e

to

'

she called fo r her brother and the catech umen

and said to th em Stand fast i n the F aith and
love one another an d do n o t be o ffen ded by
our su fferings

Meanwhile Satur n s was talking to the soldier

Puden s at another gate As I anticipated and
foretold l have n o t yet been hurt by any beast
May you believe with your whole hear t Beho l d
I go forth and with o n e bite a leopard wil l
take away my life
Almost i mmediately j ust at
the end of the Games a leopard was l et loose
and with o n e bite covered him with blood s o
that the m o b shouted in derision at this second
baptism Well bathed "Well bathed " And
I
saved ind e ed he was w ho had a bath l ike that
Farewell remem ber my
T o P udens he said
faith and do n o t let these th ings disturb but
H e al so asked
rather let them reassure y o u
fo r th e ri ng o n hi s nger and dipping it i n h is
b l ood retu rned it leaving it as a pledge and a
His lifeless body was
m emorial o f h i s death
the n thrown down at the place where the t hroats
o f the woun ded were cut
T h e people s houte d for them t o be br o ugh t
into the mid dle o f the theatre that their eye s
m igh t be accomplices o f the sword in their
murder An d they g o t up at onc e and moved
T hey ki ssed
t o where the people wanted them
o n e another that they might co n s u m m at their
martyrdom with the s ole m n rites o f the ki ss o f

Salt/ u rn lo tu rn ,
u i l hoc mode lave rat
g

salvu rn

lo tu rrt

P lane

i gue

ut

salt/ as

e vat ,

un de r

The Chu rch

F o re ig n E mp e ro rs

1 27

peace The n the others received the death blow

si l ently without a movement and without a
word especiall y S atu ru s who had a l ready given
up hi s soul as he had been the rst to c l imb the
l adder
F o r i n the vision h e was supporting
Perpetua But Perpetua that s he might l eave
no woe untasted was left to a raw gl adiator s
apprentice and cried out when she fe l t the prick
o f the stee l i n her bones and guided h i s u n s k i l
ful w e apon to her throat Perhaps s o great a
woman who was feared by t he unclean spirit
could not have been ki l led had she not herself
been wi l ling
The story has been given at som e length
because it i s an authen tic and contemporary
account and enab l e s u s to understand much of
what was taking p l ace There was no attempt
at a general proscription of a ll C hristians
So was
R ustic u s w as apparently unmolested
Perpetua s brother
The governor tries to
secure the release o f the accused but when
he fai l s to persuade them to recan t j ustice
has to take i ts course We s e e the e n t hu s i
asm o f th e martyrs their su fferings in prison
a ll eviated i n some measure by visits from
their friends perm itted by the gao l er whose
heart w as touched
F ina ll y t h e i r j o y i n su ffer
ing their going out to the beasts as to victory
their treating death as l ife
Sev e rus was ca ll e d to Britain A D 2 0 8 o n
F
i g i al t t w i th a i t i al i t d t i
th
Ed
l 1
A m i tag R b i
Cam h i dg T t a d St di
.

o r

o r

ex s

cr

ex

es, vo

ro

uc

o n

se e

n so n

1 2

8 Chu rch Hi sto ry

Ne ro

ro m

o n st an ti n e

to

account of a n i nvasion o f that province by the

barbarian s of the north H e led h is army to the
norther n extremity o f the island and compe l led
h i s enemies to submit at least i n ap pearance
On h is return he fe l l sick a nd died at York
F e bruary A D 2 1 1
.

CA RA C A LL A

A D
.

2 1 1

2 1 7

Severus was s ucceeded by hi s son s Caracal la

an d Geta who began negotiation s for dividing
the E mpire but before they were completed
C aracalla had his brother murdered and became
undisputed lord of the whole Under h im an
era of toleration for th e C hurch may be said to
have begun Neverthe l ess th e re was a p e rs e cu
tion at Carthage at the beginning of th e reign
which provoked T e rt u ll i an s protest addre ssed to
Scapu l a th e proconsul
There i s no reason to
suppose that persecution ceased a l together but
the em perors were u nintere sted many provin cial
governors disliked i t and C hristians were p ro
bably su ffi ciently nu merous to make i t n o t
al together wise o r prudent for private citizen s to
act as prosecutors
C araca l la was murdered and succeeded by
M acri n u s
J ulia Dom na the widow o f Severus
had been the real ruler o f the Empire i n the
reign of Caracalla When he died sh e committed
suicide but her sister Julia Mo c sa had two
daughters S o ae m i as and M am m ae a each o f
w hom was a widow and each had an only s o n
,

The Chu rch

u n de r

F o re ig n 8 mp e ro rs

1 2

afterwards kn own as the E mp e ror

H e was
E l agaba l us w as the son of S o ae m i as
at the time high priest of the Sun and during
the reign of M acri n u s m inistered at th e T e m p l e
of the Sun in Emesa Through the machina
tions o f his grandmother M o c sa sister of Julia
D omna he raised t h e troop s in Syria against
M acri n u s and succeeded him as emperor
Apart from his vices hi s main interests seem
to have l ain in the ritual o f the worship of the
sun H e was murdered by the Praetorians and
was succeeded by hi s cousin Alexander Severus
the son of M am m ae a Alexander Severus l eft
to his mother the principal cares of State H i s
own character was amiab l e enough and he had
He is
none of the qua l ities of the persecutor
said to have placed a statue of J esus i n his
oratory by the side of statues o f Abraham
Orpheus and Apo l lonius o f Tyana I n a l aw
suit be tween C hristians and a company of
victua ll ers for the posse ssion o f a piece o f
ground he awarded the site to the Christians

Better that the land shou l d be devoted to t he

service of G od in any form than that it should
be handed over for the use of cook shops
His mother the E mpress Ju l ia M am m ae a
having heard of the fame of Origen s e n t fo r him

when s he was staying i n Antioch

With her he
stayed some time exp l aining i n numerab l e matters
ca l cul ated to promote the g l ory of the Lord and
t o show the exce l lence of divine i nstruction
E
b i H 8 vi
B as s i an u s ,

u se

u s,

2 1

0
3

Church Hi sto ry

Ne ro

ro m

M ax i m i n u s ,

o n stan t n e

to

a Thracian who had attracted the

attention o f Severus thirty-two years before by
his gigantic stature an d remarkable strength and
agi l ity became emperor when Alexander was
killed by the troops near M ainz i n A D 2 3 5
H e was a r ude and unlettered barbarian without
kn owledge o f Greek o f a erce and sanguinary
temper and according to E usebi u s was i n
s ti at e d t o persecute the C hurch because o f the
g
n umber o f C hristian s in the government services

I n am e d with hatred against the o i ci al s o f

Alexan der consisting o f many believers h e
raised a persecution and commanded at rst o nly
the heads of th e C hurches to be s l ain
Th e
heads o f the C hurches probably included presby
ters as well as bishops M ax i m i n u s i s the rst
persecutor to single o u t bishops and clergy fo r
destruction Nevertheless the persecution was
not severe excep t i n Pontus and Cappadocia
where an earthquake had cau sed ill -feeling and
S e re n i an u s the governor was hostile
M axi
min u s was ki l led by his soldiers A D 2 3 8
After a rapid s uccession o f emperors Go r
dian I I I w as placed o n the thron e and was
s ucce e ded by Phi l ip the Arabian ( A O 2 4 4
w ho n o t only to l erated bu t eve n favoured the
C h urch and in later days w as wit h Alexander

counted among those em perors

were
w ho
Eusebius even
O penly said to be C hristian
asserts that at Antioch he wished to attend a

public service at Easter but was not permitted

8
H 8 vi
,

u n der

The Chu rch

F o re ign Emp e ro rs

by B ab y l as t he bishop to e nter before he had

confe ssed hi s sins and n umbered hims e lf i n th e
ranks of the penitents F o r otherwise h e never
shou l d be received by him unless he rst did
this
on account o f the many crimes whi ch
he had committed
The emperor is said to
hav e obeyed wi ll ing l y and exh ibited a genui n e

and re l igious disposition and fear o f G o d

Eusebius also states that Origen wrote l etters
H owever this
t o him and his wife Severa
evidence does n o more than show his friendly
i nterest in the C hurch Th e incident at Antioc h
need only mean that he wished to be present at
the Easter Eucharist and was permitted t o do so
on l y if p l aced among the catechumens who were
probab l y seated close to the penitents
I f he
had been a C hristian we shou l d have much more
denite assurances on the point
Philip was defeated by rebel legions under
D ecius and ki ll ed A O 2 4 9 Since the accession
of Severus i n A D 1 93 there had fo r practical
purposes been no R o m an emperors
Severus
was an African and a persecutor but n o t a syste
matic o n e C aracalla was ha l f Eastern by his
Syrian mother J u l ia D omna
Cru e l and brutal
as he was he had no particu l ar animus against
C hristianity
H i s successors with the brief
i nter l ude of M ax i m i n u s unti l the death of
Phi l i p (A O
wer e for the most part
i nc l ined to favour -Christianity and S howed a
friend l y interest i n it
H E vi 3 4
I b id 3 6
.

2
3

Chu rch Hi sto ry

ro m

Ne ro

to

o n stan t n e

Th e Church had enj oyed something like

toleratio n over th e greater part o f a period
which began A D 1 8 5 and as a result made
an enorm ous advance i n numbers and in uence
C hri stian s began t o buy sites and bui l d ch urches
in stead o f w o rhi p p i n g i n private houses an d
gai ned som e m easure of popularity and fashion
I t is im possible to estimate numbers with any
approach to precision but it seem s a n o t unreason
ab l e gues s that the number o f C hri stian s was
more than doubled betwee n A D 1 8 5 and 2 4 9
.

VI I
TH E

S C H OOL OF
ALEXA ND R IA

C ATE C H ETI CAL

CL E M E N T

OF

A L EX A N D R I A

LEXA ND R IA w as one of the greatest citie s

of the Empir e
I t had been founded
by A l exander the Great and after his death
became the residence of his companion Ptolemy
and hi s descendants Under this Macedonian
i nuence it becam e a centre of H e l lenistic
thought and culture the head-quarters o f phi l o
sophers poets and mathematicians from a ll
over the wor l d I t possessed a wor l d
fam ous
and we ll endowed University thr e e libraries
and a sta ff o f professors
I t fe l l to the
R omans i n the year 3 0
when Octavius
afterward s th e Emperor Augustus took p o s
session Egypt did not become a R oman pro
vince but remained the private property of the
emperor I t was the main source of the R oman
corn supply which was shipped on board
huge corn -shi ps at A l exandria
I t w as al s o
t h e ha l f-way house between R ome and I ndia
Merchants have learned the shortest way and
commerce has brought I ndia near to u s
The

33

H
h
i
t
h
urc
s
o
r
C
34
y

Ne ro

ro m

to

Co n stan ti n e

was up the Ni l e to Coptos o r s ome

i nterm ediate stopping-p l ace then by caravan to
M y o s ho rm o s o r Berenice wells and cis tern s
being laid along the track From M y o s ho rm o s
or Berenice they cou l d go to Arabia I ndia
Ethiopia and C hina An d much trade did go
Alexandria became also a favourite resort o f
J e ws Accordi ng to Ph ilo there were n ot less
than a mil l ion i n Egypt and th e se were mostly
co ncentrated i n Alexandria Two ou t of the ve
di stricts i nto which the town was divided were
given over to them There was someth ing li ke
a rapp ro chem e n t between the J ewish intel l ectual s
and the Hellenic philosophers w h i ch w as h elped
co nsiderably by the translation o f the H ebrew
Bible into Greek i n the well k nown Septuagint
version Already as early as Philo i n the rst
cent u ry of our era Plato was claimed as an
Attic M oses and the law was fou nd i n Plato
and P l ato i n th e law I t was the busine ss o f
Philo to provide a Platon ist i nterpretati on o f
the O l d Testamen t I t was therefore only i n
t he nature o f things that the Christian philo
sopher should conti nue i n th e same path and
show that C hristianity was not irreconcilable
with the nobler conception s o f Plato and the
Greek ph ilosophers
The origi n o f C hristianity in Alexandria is
obscure I t is n ot me ntioned in the Ne w Testa
men t though pi l grim s from Alexandria m ust
have bee n i n J erusalem o n the Day o f Pentecost
F i dl a d R m a Li] a d Ma
i 3 6
ro u

te

r e

e r,

n n e rs ,

The Cate che ti cal S cho o l

flexan dri a

35

and the four thousand conv e rts m ust have

inc l uded on e wou l d think some from Alexan
dria Apo ll os is the only A l exandrian C hristian
mentioned by S Pau l Acc o rding to a tradition
mention e d by E usebius S Mark w as the founder
but thi s tradition i s
o f the Al e xandrian C hurch
not corroborated
Eusebius gives a l ist of
eighteen bishops beginning with An n i an u s who
succeeded S Mark in the eighth y e ar of Nero
The fame of th e Al e xandrian C hurch rests on
its catechetical schoo l which E usebiu s writing
i n the fourth century t e ll s us had been e stab
l i s he d as a schoo l o f l earning from ancient times
A ll C hurches gave in structions to catech ists and
i n any C hurch where numbers were as l arge
something like a r e gul ar catechetica l schoo l must
have aris e n But i n Alexandria there was a
demand not on l y for this e l ementary i n struction
corresponding to the ordinary Conrmation o r
rst Com munion c l ass but for som e th ing t o
meet the needs of mor e sophisticated inquirers
Young Christian s studied phi l osophy an d some
fe l l away ; A m m o n i u s S accas became a heathen
and Ambrose a Gnostic On t he other hand
pagans l ike Ce l sus and Porphyry studied C hris
t i an i ty
There was an O bviou s need for that
kind o f teaching which the Oxford Mission has
been giving in Calcutta to much the same kind
of i nquirers The rst head whose name has
come down is P an tae n u s a native of Sici l y and
a Stoic philosopher who became a convert to
C hristianity and a missionary to the nations o f
,

rch H i s to r
6
h
u
C
y
3

ro m

Ne ro

o n stan ti n e

to

the Eas t ; he had penetrat e d to I ndia where he

i s sai d to have fo u nd the Gospel o f S Matthew
i n Hebrew wh ich S Bartholomew left behind
after he had preached there P an tae n u s after
wards settled down as the head o f the school
None o f his writings have com e down
H e was
C leme n t a l so began l ife as a heathen
a Greek and possibly an Athe nian born about
After
wandering
i
n
many
land
s
e
h
1 0
A D
5
became a disci ple o f P an tae n u s at A l exandria
where he settled down as a teacher became
a presbyter and eventual l y succeeded his mas ter
When the persecution broke o u t A D 2 0 2
th e school was broken up ; he l eft Alexandria
and li ttle more i s known o f hi m except that he
was alive i n A D 2 1 1 and at that date assisting
Alexander ( who wa s i n pri son ) i n the work o f the
C hurch o f J erusalem o f which Alexander was
bisho p He was a bearer o f a le tter fro m Al ex
ander to the Ch urch at Antioch i n which he is
descri bed as the ble ssed pre sbyter a man e ndued
with all virtue and well approved whom y o u
already know and wi l l learn still mor e to know
who also being here by the foreknowledge and
oversight o f the Master has established and
increased the C hurch o f G o d
H i s works
that survive are the P ro trep ti cus addressed t o
the heathen ; the ?aedagog us or Tuto r a book
fo r the ordina ry C hristian ; the
o f in structio n
S tro m ata o r M i s ce llan i es for th e Gnostic o r
advanced disciple and a practical treatise entitled
E
b i H 8 vi
,

u se

u s,

1 1

What

Ale x an dri a

The Cate che ti cal S cho o l

R i ch M an

? in

37

which Cl e ment
m aintained that th e right di sposition of the so u l
and not the renunciation o f wor l d l y goods was
the condition of sa l vation
Though Justin c l aim e d phi l osophy as the
handmai d of religion and continued to w e ar
his phi l osopher s cloak after his conv e rsion to
Cl em e n t be l ongs the credit of being t he rst
to emphasize t he importance of profane l earning
in God s p l an for the wor l d o r in other words to
c l aim a ll l earning as i n a sense sacred
I t is not fair to s ay that the leaders of the
C hurch condemned l e arning but some of th e m
were certainly shy of it I renaeus has nothing
to say against it but thought it b e tter to be
simple and unlettered than pu ffed up and he
quotes with approval the words of S Paul

K now l edge pu f
feth up but l ove e di e t h
But
they did not condemn l earning as s uch Tatian
did but Tatian became a heretic and died a
Gnostic S Pau l and the C hristians of the next
two centuries had to deal with Gnostics and
Greek phi l osophers who both tended to over
value knowl edge Man was to be saved by
knowledge They had to warn their disciples
that know l edge was good but might be danger
ous that know l e dge by itse l f cou l d not save
Some no doubt exaggerated this cautious atti
tude and it i s quite possib l e that Ce l sus had
met Christians who sco ffed at human learning
and adopted the attitud e D o not inquire ; only
believe
can

he

sav e d

8
h
rc
h
i
or
C
u
H
s
t
3
y

Ne ro

ro m

o n stan ti n e

to

Tertu l lian was a man of i mmense learning

which he used freely enough for controversia l
p urposes though he has n ot m uch to s ay of its
p l ace i n the Christian scheme Cl em ent has no
misgivi ngs He was a learned man himself
though h i s erudi tion was n ot quit e s o profound
as appe ars at the rst reading o f h is works as
he seem s t o have been indebted t o a dictio nary
fo r many o f his quotation s
H e c l aim s with

enth usiasm all learn ing for God

God i s the
cause of a l l good things ; o f some primarily as
the Old and Ne w Testament ; others by co n
A l l good things come
sequence as philosophy
from G o d i nc l uding phi l osop hy which is there
fore the handmaid o f God and the schoolmaster
to bring t he Greeks to C hri st as the law was t o

bri ng the J ews

Philosophy i s conducive to
piety being a kind of preparatory training to
those who attai n to faith through demonstration
Clement in fact carries the war in to the
enemies camp and c l aim s the title o f Gnostic
the one who knows for the C hristian S P au l
said o f th e C hristian s of hi s day to th e Jews

We are the ci rcumcision

So Clem ent says

W e are the Gnostics

A s though a believer

to day were to s ay We are the R ationalists

and make good hi s c l aim to the title The
i nstructed C hristian is the true Gnostic and
bri ngs all his knowledge to bear o n th e F aith
so that from geometry and m usic and grammar
and phi l osophy itse l f culli ng what i s u seful h e
St m i 5
,

ro

The Cate che ti cal S cho o l

c/

fle xan dri a

39

guards the F aith against as s au l t

A ll schoo l s
of phi l osophy wer e i ll uminated by rays from the
true Light The G reeks he co n sid e red borrowed
from Moses P l ato was Moses in an Attic dress

Ther e is then in phi l osophy thoug h sto l e n as

the re of Prometheus a s l ender spark capab l e o f
being fann e d into ame a trace of wisdom and
an impul se from G od
H e thought that women ought to phi l osophize
as we ll as m e n 3 and he l d the modern V iew that
good i s to be done wi thout the prospect o f reward
or punis hment No twentieth century teacher

cou l d be more e mphatic

The tru e G nostic i s
not to abstai n from evi l out o f fear 4 I f he had
to choose between the know l e dge o f God and
eternal sal vation he wou l d choose w ithout the

least h e sitation the knowledge of God

He
does not consider whether any protab l e reward
or enj oyment come s to him ; but drawn by the
l ove of H i m Who i s the true obj ect of l ife and
l ed to what i s requisite practises piety

The sou l of the wis e man and G nostic as

soj ourning in the body conducts itse l f towards
it grave l y and respectfu ll y he says i n one p l ace
but o n the who l e he seems inc l ined to carry
asc e ticism further than this maxim wou l d warrant
as the advanced C hristian i s to aim at complete

apathy towards exter n a l things detachment

as we should call it n o w
Cl ement is a mystic an d his aim is to e nter
into immediate and rea l ized com munion with
St m i 9
Ibid 7
I b i d iv 8
Ibid
I

ro

22

Chu rch H i s to ry

0
4

Ne ro

ro m

o n s tan ti n e

to

God while externa l ru l es si n k into r e l ative i n s i g

n i can ce
H e lean s towards th e i mmediate
apprehension of God and away from rules and
externa l s Clemen t fo ll ows S Joh n and S Paul
rather than S Peter Like all mystics he believed
i n th e prayer o f silence and l ike Brother Laur
ence did n ot need any s e t times o r places for

the practice o f t he presence o f G o d

I f som e
assign denite hours for prayer as fo r example
the third sixth and n inth yet the Gn ostic prays
throughout hi s whole life endeavouring by prayer

t o have fellowshi p with G o d

Clemen t was righ t i n emphasizing th e need and
possibility o f communio n with G o d and a life
l ived o n a high spiritua l plan e H e fe l l i n to
error when he distinguished to o s harply between
the d i fferent sorts o f C hri stian l i v e s I t i s safer
for us n o t to j udge o r say which i s h igher o r
lower but t o go wherever we are led Th e
Gnostic i n practice mu s t have found it hard
not to be a Pharisee as h e is taught n o t only

that there are degree s o f glory i n heaven and

the Gnostic w ho has become perfect o n earth will

share the h ighest ran k with the Apostles

but

that to kno w is more than to believe as to be

dignied with the highest honour after being
saved is a greater thi ng than being saved
In
other words there was more di fference between
a Gnostic and the lowes t category o f the s aved
than betwee n the j ust saved and the lost More
over th e prayers o f the Gnostic are receiv e d
I bid 4
St m vii 7
,

ro

The Cate che ti cal S cho o l

Al ex an dri a

wi th special favour
The Gnostic receives a ll
that he asks on account of his worthiness for

God knows those who are and those w ho are

not worthy
Th e danger o f thi s spiri t i s accentuated by the
u n -Pau l ine stress l aid on a man s own power of

achievement
But him who from this has
trained himse l f to the summit of know l edg e
the e l evated h eight o f the perfect man a ll thi n gs
re l ating to time and space he l p on
According to Clement it was only possib l e to
become a true Gnostic after years of arduous
preparation
There appear to be three stages
of preparation
I The sta e o ffaith imp l ying a com prehensive
know l edge 0 the essential s
Knowledge conveying the sou l to i n fall i
2
b i l i ty science an d comprehension
Love
which
gives
the
l
oving
to
th
e
loved
3
that which knows to that which i s k n own

There are two conversions the rst from

heathenism to faith and the second from faith
to knowl edge
We are reminded of the three stages in the
progress of th e mystic
th e purgative th e
i ll uminative and the un i t i ve

F ina ll y the perfected Gnostic

is equa l to the
ange l s and urges hi s ight to the ancestral b all
through the holy septennial of heaven l y abodes
to the Lord s o w n mansion
Cl ement did a service to the C hurch by c l aim
St
vii 7
I bid 1
.

ro ut

Chu rch Hi sto ry

2
4

Ne ro

ro m

o n s tan ti n e

to

i ng the support of phi l osophy and by l ayi ng

down the pri ncip l e that a ll good things are from
God includi ng art and l earning Th e devi l i s
not to have a ll th e be st tunes But his zeal
carried hi m too far I n hi s eyes phi l osophy
i nstead of being a respon sibi l ity to its possessor
puts hi m into a superior class T here i s a touch
H e i s here
o f the P harisee i n hi s Gnosticis m
rather Platonist than Pau l ine
Of hi s other works the Tu to r contains m uch
i nteresting i n formation on th e l ife and man ne rs
of both Christians an d heathens i n Alexandria i n
that day The year o f his death i s uncertain
bu t it must have occurred before A O 2 1 5 when
A l exander a l ludes to him i n a l etter to Origen

as having gone before

,

O RI GE N
One o f Cl e me nt s pu pi l s was a b o y named
Origen a native o f Egypt a Copt born A O 1 8 5
H i s rst teacher had been h is father w h o had
train ed him i n both C hristian and Greek litera
ture Fro m the begi nn ing he had shown great
zeal and ability i n his studie s and knew m ost
o f th e
Scriptures by heart Z eal w as i n deed
the key note of hi s life During the p e rs e cu
tion at Alexandria he wo uld have g iv e n hi m s e l f
up and was only deterred by the persuasi on o f
his mother who went to the length o f hiding
h i s c l othes
When h is father was seized h e
b i H 8 vi 1 4
E

,
.

u se

u s,

The Cate che ti cal S cho o l

of

Al exan dri a

43

wrot e him a l etter in which h e encouraged

him to stand rm
Take h e ed not to change
H e was seventeen
thy mind on account of us
when h i s father w as martyred and he s u p
ported h is mother and six younger brothers by
teach ing G reek l iterature When the persecution
broke out t he catechetica l schoo l cam e to an
end but at t h e r e quest of some who desired
instruction he started it again and was accepted
by Bishop D e metrius as a catechist Severa l of
his pupi l s became martyrs and Origen was noted
for the fearlessness with which he vi si ted them
i n prison stood by them at their tria l and k issed
them when l ed away to d i e s o that more than
once he was near l y stoned by th e m o b
H is
i mmunity from persecution may have bee n due
to t he fact that the l aw w as apparent l y directed
against converts to C hristianity
The number of his pupils becam e so great that
he gave up hi s schoo l of philosophy and devoted
himse l f entirely to teaching the F aith H e l ived
a l ife of extreme asceticism and so l d his Greek
books so as to secure for himse l f a triing pension
and be abl e to teach without a fee H e l imited
h i s sleep as we ll as h i s food and always s l ept
on the bare ground wor e no shoes drank no
wine and ate on l y such food as w as n ecessary to
keep body and sou l together The fame o f his
asceticism seem s to have attracted many i n

c l uding heretic s and even phi l osophers of no

mean acco u nt
who w e re prevai l ed upon to
I bid 8
E
b i H 8 vi 3
.

u se

u s,

r
t
o
i
h
u
c
h
H
s
r
C
44
y

o m Ne ro
r
f

to

o n s tan ti n e

adopt his doctri ne Many also i mitated h is way

H i s zeal led him into extremes i n all he
o f l ife
did and his asceticism carried h im t o the length
se
l
f
mutilatio n taking the words o f Scripture
f
o

as E usebiu s puts it i n too l i teral and puerile

D emetrius t h e bishop was inform ed
a s ense
and bade h i m continue his work H i s school
became s o popu l ar that h e w as forced to enlist help
and e mployed H e racl as to i nstruct the beginners
while h e devoted himself to the more advanced
pupils At the sam e time he found it necessary
As he h imself put
t o study Greek p hilosophy
it
When I had devoted myse l f wholly to th e
Word and my fame went abroad concern ing my
pro ciency as I was someti me s visited by here
tics sometimes by those who were conversant
with the studies o f th e Greeks especially those
that were purs ui ng p hilosophy I was reso l ved to
examin e bot h th e opi nion s o f the heretics and
those works o f the phi l osophers which pretend

t o speak o f truth
Like Ploti nus he attended the lectures o f
Porphyry the Neoplaton i st
Am m o n i u s S accas
philosopher attended t he same lectures and

gives the following account of Orige n

whom
I happened to meet when I was very young
an d who was very celebrated and i s sti l l cele
b rate d by the writings which he has left
I
mean Origen whos e g l ory i s very great -with
the teachers o f those doctrine s F o r this man
having been a h earer of Am m o n i u s who had
E
b i H 8 vi 8
I bid 1 9
.

u se

u s,

The Cate che ti cal S cho o l

A lexan dri a

45

made the greatest prociency in philosophy

among those of o u r day as to know l edge
d e rived great benet from his master but with
regard to a correct purpose of life he pursued
F o r Am m o n i u s
a course direct l y O pposit e
a Christian and brought up among C hristian s
by hi s par e nts wh en equipped with reason and
know l edge changed h i s v i e ws and l ived accord
ing to the laws But Origen a Gre ek educated
in G reek literature fe l l away to thi s barbarian
fo ll y To which h e both consigned hims e l f and
his attainments in l earning l iving l ike a C hristian
contrary to the l aws but in regard to his opinions
both of things and t h e D eity acting the Greek
and intermingling Greek l iterature with these
for e ign ctions F o r he was a l ways i n company
with P l ato and had the works of Nu m e n i u s and
C ran i u s o f A p o ll o p han e s and Longinus of
M oderatus and Ni co m achu s and others whose
writings are valued i n hi s hands H e also read
th e works o f Chae re n o n the Stoic and thos e of
F rom them he derived the a ll egorical
C ornutus
mode of i nterpretation and applied it to the
Jewish S cri p t u re s

About A D 2 1 2 he visited R ome being de

s i ro u s to s e e this very ancient C hurch
H e was
one of the earliest textua l critics and having
learned H ebrew search e d for di fferen t versions in
ord e r to compare them with the Septuagint H e
trave ll ed wide l y and hi s fame steadi l y increased
H e was sent for by the G overnor of Arabia ,
E
b i H 8 vi 9
,

u se

u s,

6
r
h
H
t
o
r
i
h
u
c
s
C
4
y

Ne ro

ro m

o n stan ti n e

to

wh o wishe d to consult h i m about hi s soul

Later M am m ae a th e mother of the future
e mperor Alexander was so impre s sed by h i s
reputatio n that sh e sum moned him to Antioch

and provi ded him with a military escort

so
desirou s was s he of conversing with him
The
Emperor Philip corresponded with him D uring
t he sack of Alexandria by the so l diers o f C ara
calla Origen took refuge in Pa l estine and w as
welcomed by the Bishops of Caesarea an d J eru
salem who i nvited him th ough a layman t o
addres s not only t h e catech umen s but the
congr e gation i n church
This was A O 2 1 5
D emetri u s wrote to protest and reca ll ed hi m
t o Alexandria

Orige n s rst book D e P ri n cip i i s O n First

i s the earlie st attemp t to form a

Pri nciples
synthetic C hristian theology Th e Apostles h e
argues had handed down certai n facts an d usage s

which are to be received leaving how e ver the

grounds o f their state ments to be examin ed i nto
by those w ho s hould deserve the excellen t gifts
Th e Apostolic tradition co ntain s
of the Spirit
the fo l lowing poi nts
There i s o n e G o d Who created all th ings
J esus C hrist was bor n of a Virgin and the H oly
Spirit and was I ncarnate although G o d ; did
truly die and did truly rise from th e dead ; and
was taken up i nto heaven Thirdly the Holy
Spirit i s associated i n honour and dignity with
the Father and the Son
.

De P ri n cip i i s,

Pr

ef
ace

The Cate che ti cal S cho o l

Al exan dri a

47

The sou l has a l ife of its own and w i ll be

rewarded or punished There w i ll be a re s u rre c
tion of the body E very rational sou l has free
wi ll and is opposed by evi l spirits and assisted
by angels
The Scripture s are from the Spirit of God and
have two meanings the l itera l and the hidden o r
spiritua l
Origen s business was to dene explain co
ordinate expand and genera ll y adapt to the
ne eds o f his conte mporaries thi s Apostolic tradi
tion H e was a daring thin ker and some o f h is
specu l ations were eventua ll y disa ll owed But in
this res p ect as i n s o many others he was a pioneer
and was sailing over seas as yet uncharted
H i s l iterary output was prodigious
H e is
said to have produced six thousand works in a ll
H e l earnt H ebrew and wrote comme ntarie s on
the Scriptures H i s great work was the H exap la
o r
sixfo l d Bib l e which s e t out i n para l lel
columns the H ebrew text in H ebrew the
H e brew text i n Gree k characters the S e p tu a
gint and three other G reek texts H e was the
pioneer of textual criticism as app l ied to th e
Bib l e and took e normous pai ns to acquir e texts
and version s
Those origina l works written i n
the H ebrew and in the hands of the J ews he
procured as his o w n H e also investigated the
edition s of others who besides the Seventy had
pub l ished trans l ations o f the Scri ptures and some
di fferent from the we l l -known tran s l ations of
Aqui l a Symmachus and T he o d o ti o n w hich he
.

r
H
r
8
c
h
i
s
t
o
h
u
C
4
y

ro m

Ne ro

o n stan t n e

to

h unted up and traced to I know not what ancien t

lurking-places where they h ad lain concealed
from re mote times and brough t them to the
light I n which when it was doubtful to him
fro m what author they came he on l y added the
remar k that he had found this tran slation at
Nicopolis n ear Actium but this other translation

i n such a lace
I n the Hex ap la indeed of the
Psalm s aff
er those four noted edition s he adds
n o t o nly a fth but a sixth and seventh tran s l a
tion and in on e it i s remarked that it was di s
covered at Jericho i n a tub i n the time o f
Antoni n us the son o f Severus
His friend Ambrose a ma n o f wealth p ro
v i de d h i m wi th seve n amanue nses wh o re l ieved
one another and seven copyists besides girls
wh o did other writing for him
About A O 2 3 0 he was on a j ourney to Greece
and went very m uch o u t o f h is way to visit his
frien ds t he Bishops of Jer u salem and Caesarea
who or d ain ed him priest
I t has n o t been
sugge sted that the Ordination was arranged
beforehand but i t can hardly have been other
wise A seriou s -minded man like Orige n would
not be ordai ned casual l y as a n incide nt of a
short vi sit On his return to A l exandria he
had to face a storm D emetrius according to

E usebius was overcom e by human in rmi ty

o r
i n other words became a prey t o j ealousy

and wrote to traduce h i m to a l l the bishops

o f the
C hurch though h e had nothing to
b i H 8 vi 1 6
E
,

u se

u s,

The Cate che ti cal S cho o l

Ale x an ari a

49

a ll e g e against hi m beyond t he act done by him

as a boy near l y thirty years b e fo re
It
i s not necessary how e ver t o impute j ea l ousy
R ightly or wrongly D emetrius had acted o n a
de l iberate and considered reso l ve in not ordain
ing Origen
I f Origen desired Ordination as
presumably he did his friends must have pressed
it upon D emetrius
Whether D emetri u s re
garded the mutilation as a s u i ci e n t obstacle
which w as quite a reasonable view to take o r
whether he suspected h i s orthodoxy w ithout fee l
i ng sure enough of his ground to cha l lenge so
redoubtable an opponent o n that gro u nd or
whether h e had other reasons good or bad with
which we are not acquainted the decision must
have been de l iberate and main tained not withou t
di ffi cu l ty No t unnatural l y he was considerab l y
provoked and summoned a Synod of Bishops and
Presbyters which condemned Origen to l eave
A l exandria D e metrius then summoned a second
Synod by which Origen was excommunicated
a sentence which was enforced i n Eg y pt and
recognized in the West b ut not in Pa l estine
Arabia o r Greece
Origen retired to Caesarea where he found
she l ter and protection T h e school at Alexan
dria was taught rst by H e raclas and when
H e racl as succeeded D emetrius as Bishop of
A l exandria by D ionysius I t is s i n i can t that
neither of them though both were f
ormer pupi l s
of Origen and H e racl as had been h is assistant
E
b i H E vi 8

u se

u s,

0
5

Chu rch H i sto ry

Ne ro

ro m

o n stan ti n e

to

whe n they i n turn became Bishop of Alexandria

did anythi ng to bring him back
The famous Al exandrian school was h owever
i n e ffect transferr e d to Caesarea where many
cam e n ot only o f th e residents but also i nnu
m e rab l e oth ers from abroad who l eft their country

i n order to attend hi s lectures

Thither came
Gregory afterwards ca ll ed Thaumaturgus and
his brother At he n o do ru s F i rm i li an u s Bishop o f

C aesarea i n Cap padocia s um moned him t o bene t

the churches i n h i s diocese H i s o w n bishop
the B i shop of J erusa l e m we are told attended

hi m li ke a pupil his master and al l owed hi m

to perform the dutie s o f expoundi n g the sacred
Scriptures and other matters that pertain to the

doctri nes o f the C hurch

About A O 2 3 0 he wrote hi s work again st
C elsus
I n A O 2 5 0 during the Decian persecution he
was seized and put to the torture
The nature
and n u mber o f the bonds which h e e ndured
un de r an iron collar and i n th e deepest recesse s
w here fo r many days h e was ex
o f the pri son
tended and stretched to the distance o f four h oles
o n t he rack besides th e threats of re and oth er
su fferings he bore man fully
H e survived hi s tortures for t w o o r three
years a nd died at Tyre where fo r many centurie s
hi s tomb was the pri ncipal ornament o f the
cathedral o f the H oly Sepulchre and is still
poi nted o u t though n o w on l y ruins re m ai n
C Bi gg Ch i ti a P lat i t f Al a d i a
.

r s

on s s 0

ex

The Cate che ti cal S cho o l

Ale xan dri a

He

r e ceived no vener ation after h i s death i n

S pit e of his stout confession and the austere
ascetici sm of his who l e l ife
I n l abours few
scholars of any age have bee n more abundant
I t may be that s uch l abours did not make th e
popu l ar appea l which was the necessar pre
liminary to the automatic canonization 0 those
days or that his unorthodoxy may have made
more impression than appears or hi s rash act
may have been the bar or there may have been
something wanting in h is character
But he
remained uncanoniz e d
H e has never bee n
reputed to be a saint
Saint o r not he was o n e of the great men of
his or indeed of any age and a sh ining examp l e
t o a l l students
.

VI I I
PAGA N ATTE MPTS AT
ST R U CT I O N

RECON

O R a long time the philosoph ers ignored

C hristianity , treating it as beneath con
tempt W h en they did notice i t, th e y n am ed
i t as li ttle as possible Lucian , w ho was more
a man o f letters than a philosopher , sco ffe d at
i t i n hi s D eath of P e reg ri n us But the n he sco ffed
.

at a l l religion s i mpartially
Somewhere toward s the en d o f the second
cen tury a Platoni st ca ll ed C elsus thought i t
worth while to write a book agai n st the C hris
tians ca l led The True Wo rd About the year
A O 2 3 0 whe n C elsus
had long since departed
Origen wrote a reply and th e original attack sur
vives only s o far as i t i s quoted by Origen The
book is worthy of some examination as i t show s
th e obj ection s to Christianity entertained by a
pagan philosopher o f t hat day an d gives som e
i ndication o f the sort of reconstruction o f the
pagan religion wh ich was to be attempted
C elsus was well acquainted with th e Scri ptures
o f th e Old Testament
with the Four Gospels
and with some o f the Epistles of S Paul H e
probably knew the rest though it did not an swer
.

52

P ag an

R e co n stru cti o n

attemp ts at

his purpose to quote them H e fastens on the

I ncarnation and the Virgin Birth as the starting
point of C hristianity and furth er dea l s with th e
descent i nto he ll the R esurrection the seco n d

coming to j udge as wel l as the creation an

i nteresti ng because independent witness to what
were the sa l i e nt features of Ch ris tian teaching in
his day
The I ncarnation h e thought prepost e rous
H e scorns the thought that G od shou l d hav e

come to earth at al l
G od is good and beau
tifu l and b l essed
But if H e come down
am ong men H e must undergo a change from
good to evi l from virtue to vice from happi n e ss
to mi sery and from b e st to worst
G od

could not admit of such a change

Why
?
H
e
s hou l d
do it
Was it i n order to l earn
?
what goes o n among me n
That it shou l d

be to make men righteous he dec l ares a most

sham e l ess assertion
H e sees no di ffe rence
betw e en men and animals Bees and ants are
not in ferior to men
Jews and C hristians are compared to a ight
of bats or to a swarm of ants issuing out of thei r
nest or to frogs ho l ding counci l in a marsh
or to worm s craw l ing together in a dung
hil l
and quarre l ling with one another as to wh ich of
th e m were th e gr e ater sin ners and asserting that

G od shows and announces to u s a ll things

b e forehand ; and that abandoning t he who l e
wor l d and the region s O f heaven H e becomes a
Agai t C l
I bi d 8
iv 4
.

ns

e s us,

c
H
t
o
r
h
r
h
i
s
C
u
54
y

Ne ro

ro m

to

o n s tan t n e

citizen among us alone and to us a l on e make s

H i s i ntimations and does not cease sending and
inquiring in what way we may b e associated with
H i m for ever
H i s account o f the birth of Jes us i s that H e
was born i n a certai n J ewis h vi ll age o f a poor
woman of the country wh o gained her living by
spi n ning and who was turned out o f doors by
her husban d a carpenter by trade because s he
after bei ng
w as convicted o f adultery ; that
driven away by her husband and wandering
about for a time s he disgraceful l y gave birth
to Jesus an illegitimate c hild W ho having
hired Hi m self o u t as a servant i n Egypt o n
account o f H i s poverty and having then
acquire d some m iracu l ous powers returned to
H i s own coun try and by mean s of the m pro

2
claimed H im self a god
Celsus even went
far as to say that the father w as a soldier
so
cal l ed Panthera On which story Or i ge n makes
the j us t com ment that i t at least admits that
J esus was not the s o n of J oseph and Mary
The su ffering the lowly station the a ffronts
t o wh ich H e sub mitted cu l m inating i n the C ros s
were i nexplicable to Ce l su s if Jes us were divine
H e co mp l ai ns that Jesus received no assistance
from H i s F ather and was unable to h elp H i m
self 3 H e considered that the rank o f the

Apost l es w as beneath divine dign ity

J esu s
havi ng gathered rou nd H i m ten or eleven
persons of notorious character the very wickedest
Ag ai t C l
I bid i 8
I bid 5 4
iv 3
,

ns

e sus,

P ag an

atte mp ts at

I55

R e co n stru cti o n

of tax -gatherers and sailors e d in company

wi th th e m from p l ac e to p l ace and obtained
H i s l iving i n a shamefu l and importunat e

m an n e r
Why
H e asks contemptuous l y :
did you not become a king i nstead of wandering
about in s o mean a condition hiding yourse l f
through fear and l eading a m iserab l e l ife up
and down
H e accuses J e sus we do not know o n what
ground o f having attempted to hide after H i s

condemnation and to escape in a most dis

gracefu l manner ; and he goes on to assert

that a god cou l d neither ee nor be l ed away

prisoner ; least o f a ll could h e be deserted and
delivered up by them who had been his asso
ciates 3 The b e traya l was a ve ry sore point
No good genera l or leader was ever betrayed
n or even a wicked captain o f robbers or com
mander of very wicked men who was though t
4
t o be of any use to his associates
The descen t into H ades an d th e R esurrection
arouse his scorn and incredulity ; but at the
same time he cal led the C hristians si ll y because

they wou l d not acknow l edge that

a great
mu l titude of Greeks and barbarians have fre
quent l y seen and sti ll s e e no mere phantom
but Aescu l apius himse l f hea l ing and doi n g good

and forete ll ing the future 5

C hristianity as a w ay of li e he thought as bad
as the Christian religion considered as a philo
Ag ai t C l
i 6
I bid 6
I bid 1
I b i d ii 9
I b i d iii 4
,

ns

e s u s,

6
h
u rch H i s to ry
C
5

Ne ro

ro m

to

o n s tan t n e

sophy No t only the ignorant b ut the si nfu l

are welcom e d Others whe n they i nvit e to thei r
mysteries proclaim
Every one who h as c l ean

hands and a pure tongue approach But the

Chris tian s s ay
Every o n e who i s a sin ner who
i s devoid o f u nders tanding who i s a chi l d an d
to speak genera l ly whoever i s unfortunate h im
wi l l the K i ngdom o f G od receive D o you not
ca l l h i m a sin ner t hen who i s unj u st and a thief
a housebreaker a prisoner a committer o f sacri
l ege o r a robber of the dead ? What other s
wou l d a man i nvite if he were issui n g a pro
c l amatio n for an assemb l y of robbers ?
To which Origen rej oins that the C h urch
i nvi te s th e sick that they may be cured
H e com p l ained that the C h urch made its
appeal to th e foo l ish and ign orant i n other
words t o l abouring folk women and children
I n the market places they avoided philosoph ers

but whenever they s e e young men o r a m o b

o f s l aves or a gatheri ng o f u ninte l ligent person s
they thrust them selves i n
I n private houses
the manua l workers became C hristian the fullers
the workers in wool and leather and through
them the leaven sprea d s The ch ildren are to l d

according t o Ce l sus
to go with the women
and their playfellows to the wome n s apartmen t
or to the leather shop o r to th e ful l er s shop to
be taught 3

Do
H e accuse s the C hristians of repeati ng

and Your faith

n o t examine ; only believe
I bid 5
I bid 5 3
Ag ai t C l
ii i 5 9

ns

e s us ,

P ag an

atte mp ts at

Re co n stru cti o n

57

wi ll sav e you an d that th e y a l so s ay Th e

wisdom of this l ife i s bad but fool ishness is
One can s e e how the words of
a good thing
S Pau l about th e wisdom of this world to the
C orinthian s might be thus wrested by an adv e r
sary and i t is quite as l ike l y that C e l sus found
the ground for this charge i n th e Epist l e as i n
h i s actual experienc e

H e asserts that C hristian s

rep e l every wise
man from the doctrine of their faith and invite
on l y the ignorant and vu l gar ; and that they
l ay down the fo ll owing ru l es

Let no one come to us who h as been

i nstructed or who i s wise and prudent ( for
such qua l ications are deemed evil by us ) ;
but if there be any ignorant or uninte ll igen t
or foolish or uni nstructed persons let them

come with condence 3

Neverthe l ess he has to admi t that others
besides the simp l e becam e fo l lowers of C hrist
and that there were among them persons o f
moderate inte ll ig e nc e and gentle disposition and
possessed o f un derstandi n g and capab l e of com
prehending al l egories 4
H e dec l ares that their m iracles are due to
sorcery magic and demoniaca l assistance 5 H e
obj ects to th e sim p l ici ty of the l a n g u ag e o f
6
Scripture to the existence of h e resies to the
doctrine of the resurr e ction of the body and

be l ief i n prayer
God i s not to be reached
I b i d iii 1 8
I b i d 44
i 9
Ag ai t C l
I b i d vi
I b id 6
I b id i 7
,

ns
.

e su s ,

,
.

u rch H i sto ry
C
h
8
5

Ne ro

ro m

to

o n s tan ti n e

by word
But hi s principa l charge against t he
followers o f C hrist as against C hris t H imse l f

i s that of lowness
They are an ignorant
credulou s l ow born and criminal rabble
He
ca n hardly express the scorn he feels Toward s
a con structive theory of life and re l igion Celsu s
does n o t give m uch help H e quotes Plato as

saying
I t i s a hard matter to nd o u t the
Maker and F ather o f the u niverse and after
having found H im it is i m possib l e to make H i m
known to all
On l y the wi se i n fact says
Celsus are able t o make o u t H i m W ho i s the
rst the unapproachable Being
And they
endeavour to convey a notion o f this Body by
synthesi s o r by ana l ysis o r by analogy to those
capab l e o f understandi ng
B ut C hristian s he
thinks would be i ncapable being s o comp l etely
wedded t o t he e sh as to be i ncapable o f seeing
augh t but what i s i mpure
I t i s right to serve demons and spirits because
they belong to the Most H igh I t i s right to
sacrice to t hem because Go d is the God o f all
alike ; He is good ; H e s tan ds i n need o fn o thi n g
and He is without j e alousy What then i s there
to hinder those w ho are most devoted to H i s
service from taking part i n public feasts ? 3

M oreover these d e mons

being s e t over the
thi ngs o f t his world we must give them than ks
and rs t-fruits and prayers
Th e Supreme
Being it may be remembered could not be
reached by the word of prayer I f we fai l to
Agai t C l
vi i 4
I bid
I bid i
.

ns

e s us ,

2 1

P ag an

I59

R e co n stru cti o n

atte m

t
s at
p

do so they wil l be angry and we S hal l su ffer

Th e satrap of a Persian or R oman monarch

or ru l er o r gen e ra l or governor yea even those
who ll l ow e r O ffi ces of trust and service in the
State wou l d be ab l e to do great i nj ury to those
who despised them ; and wi ll the satraps and
ministers of earth and air be insu l ted with
im punity
H e defends the worship o ffered by Egyptians
to crocodiles and anima l s o n the ground that
such acts o f worship are rea ll y o ffered to eternal
ideas and not as the multitude thi nk to e p he
mer al anima l s
H e beli e ves in rewards and punishment after
death though indignant with the Christian
preaching of them I n one p l ace h e complains
that God is made to come with re like a tor
turer and in another burn s up the wor l d l ik e a
cook H e he l d that God di d n o t create the world
nor the body of man but only hi s soul
God
made no thing mortal but immortal things a l one ;
while morta l things are the work of others and
the sou l is a work o f G od ; but t he nature of
the body is di fferent and there is no di fference
b e tween the body of a man and that o f a hat
or a worm or a frog for the matter i s the same

and the corruptib l e part alike

The origin of evi l was n o t di f cu l t for the
phi l osopher to fathom but u nnec e ssary for the

mu l titude to kno w They are to be to l d that

evils do n o t proceed from God but c l eave to
viii 3 5
Ag ai t C l
I b i d iv 5 5
.

ns

e s us ,

6 0 Church H i sto ry

Ne ro

ro m

to

o n s tan ti n e

matter and have their abod e among mortal

things ; whi l e the course of m orta l things being
t he same from begin ning to end the same thi ngs
must a l ways agreeably to the appoi nted cyc l es
recur in the past presen t a nd future
B ut Ce lsus though he begi ns with abuse ends
with an appea l H e i mplores the C hri stian s to
ra ll y to the support of the emperor to l abour
with him i n the maintenance o f j ustice to ght

with him and to take o ffi ce in the govern

me nt of the coun try
H o w far C hristians did
thei r duty as citizens is discus sed elsewhere
H ere i t wi l l be e no ugh to observe that C elsus
admits the great in uence o f m e m bers o f the
C h urch or appea l s to them woul d n o t have bee n
worth while
B u t the work of Cel su s is main l y destructive
H i s main purpose i s to destroy and ridicule the
C hurch not to im prove pagani sm
So far as
that comes i n at all i t is in cide ntal
,

A PO L LO N I U S

OF

T YA N A

T houghtful pagans whether religio us m inded

o r not saw the absurdity of the popular re l igion
o f which Lucian made fun and li ke C elsu s the
i m portance o f re l igion as a prop of th e Em pire
becau se i t was
C hristianity was im possible
excl usive ; but by t he begi n ni ng of t he t hi rd
ce ntury i t was beco m i ng c l ear that persec ution
had failed and that the C hurch must be met by
I b i d viii 7 5
iv 6 5
Ag ai t Cel
-

ns

su s,

P ag an

Re co n stru cti o n

atte mp ts at

61

a reconstructed paganism I t m ust me e t the

demands of phi l osophy by postulating One
Supreme Being but at the same time be broad
and comprehensive enough to i nclude al l deiti es
or heroes popu l ar with the multitude o f what
ever ki nd s o that both popu l ar feeling and
phi l osophic honour could be satised
There i s
no harm i n kissing the hand to inferior deities
A n attempt was made at the suggestion o f
J u l ia D omna the second wi fe of Severu s and
the mother of Caraca ll a who l eft to her the
direction of civil a ffairs whi l e he occupied him
se l f with the Army She w as the power behind
the throne throughout his reign and surrounded
herself with a coterie of l iterary men and phi l o
sophers
Severus married her because s he had a royal

nativity Gibbon wrote o f h e r

Julia D om na
for
hat
was
her
name
deserved
all
t
h
at
the
t
(
)
stars could promi se her She possessed even i n
an advanced age the attractions o f beauty and
united to a lively imagination a rmness of mind
and strength of j udgeme nt seldom bestowed o n
her s e x H e r amiab l e qua l ities n ever made any
deep impression on the dark an d j e al o u s tem per
of her h usband ; but i n her son s reign s he
administered the principal a ffairs of the Empire
with a prudence that supported his authority
and with a moderation that sometimes corr e cted
his wi l d extravagances Ju l ia app l ied herself to
l etters and philosophy with so m e success and the
most splendid reputation She was the patroness
Y
.

6 2 Chu rch H i sto ry

f

ro m

Ne ro

to

o n stan t n e

every art and the friend of e very man of

genius The gratefu l attery o f th e l earned has
ce l ebrated h er vi rtue s but i f w e may credit the
scanda l of ancie nt hi stori e s chastity w as not the
favourite virtue o f the Empress J u l ia
H e r re l igious sym pathies were n o doubt
Orienta l rath e r than Greek and s he seem s to
have wished to promote a grand ama l gama
tio n o f all th e religion s o f the E mpire a
super undenomi nationa l i sm i n fact A visit o f
the C o urt to Tyana i n the spri ng o f A D 2 1 5
may have given her the idea of setting u p
Apoll o n ius as a rival to C hrist
Among her

circle of li tte rateu rs was P hi l o s t rat u s a you ng

s ophis t and he w as give n th e commi ssion h e
wrote a book with the t it l e P hi lo stratus o n Ap o l
l o n i u s of Ty an a
I n i t he tells u s that o n e Damis
a disci ple and com panion o f A p dl l o n i u s w ho had
played Boswe l l to hi s Dr Joh nson had left

be hi n d h im m emoirs and a person w ho was

related to this Dami s brought the originals o f
these mem oirs hi therto undi scovered to the
knowledge of the E mpress J u l ia and she laid
o n me the task of transcribing and editi ng these
papers I t was her wish also that I shou l d be
respon sib l e fo r the form o f expressio n ; for th e
Ninevite s language though clear was anything
b u t a model o f lit e rary art
O f the real Apollo nius we know little He
D li
a d Fall v
Phi l t at
S
l
vi
i
i H
l
i
a
a
l
T
A
f y
]
p
T a l at i
a d I t d
by P f
S P hill i m
ti
o

2
2

r ns

ec n e
os r
o n

us

o n our 0

ro

uc

o n

o n us

ro

e ss o r

ee

o re

P ag an

atte mp ts at

R eco n stru cti o n

63

was born about the time that C hrist di ed an d

he died i n the reign of Nerva But he l e ft
no great name among his contemporaries and
founded no schoo l A l most a l l we know of him
we l earn from P hil o s trat u s and P hi lo s tratu s
book is a romance written with a purpose H e
seems to have travel l ed and to have addressed
the crowds at markets i n G reek town s i n G reece
and Asia to have had some c l aims to be con
s i d e re d a philosopher and a worker of mirac l es
Whether he was more a serious teacher or a
char l atan and wonder -worker we cannot te ll
I n readi ng the book in his praise it i s best
to take it as an attempt made A O 2 1 5 by a
Greek philosopher to he l p on th e great schem e
favoured by the Court of promoti ng a genera l
ama l gamation of all religion s and to point out the
in feriority o f th e F ounder of Christianitythe
religion that obstinately refused to amal gamate
to Apo l lonius
According to P hi l o s trat u s the birth of Apol
l o n i u s was heralded by swans and tho u gh he
would n ever ack now l edge it the countryside
gav e him Jupiter as a father H i s parents were
peop l e of rank and fortune H e went to Tars us
to be educated and became l earn ed in philosophy
and adopted the opi nion s of Pythagoras ; h e l ived
a l ife of ascetici sm refusing to eat meat or wear
any ani ma l product and going always barefoot
H e used according to P hi l o s t rat u s to work
mirac l es of hea l ing at t h e temple of Aescu l apius
At the age of twenty three his father died and
,

6 4 Church Hi sto ry

ro m

Ne ro

to

o n s tan t n e

left hi m a fortune o f which he gave away half

After that h e kept th e Pythagorean rule by
observi ng a ve years silence T h e silence h e
fou nd inconvenient but i n spite o f it was o n one
occasion able to que l l a tumult save the governor
o f a town fro m being burned alive and com p el a
n umber o f food -hoarders to disgorge by waving
his hand and writing o n hi s tablets
H e afterwards s e t o u t o n a j ourn ey t o Babylon
and I ndia accompanied by the fai th ful Dami s ;
he knew t he languages o f the cou ntries to be
visited without havi ng learnt th em an d was also
able t o converse with birds as he told Damis
though these useful accomp l ishments did n o t
make an interpreter u n necessary later o n n o r are
hi s conversation s with th e birds o n record T h e
rest o f th e book i s taken up mai nly with hi s
travels h is m irac l es and his discourse s pri n
H
e
hi
s
discourses
discoursed
without
c i al l
p y
pity and improved every occasion D uring a
prolonged stay i n Babylon o n h i s way to the
I ndian s he discoursed t o th e king at length
o n religio n and philosophy and i n addition gave
him advice o n domestic and foreign po l icy
wh ich was gratefully received and acted upon
with docility When the king w as sick h e dis
coursed with s o much eloquence o n the nature o f
the soul as to e ffect a n i m mediate cure
Un l ike o u r Lord he was n o t to b e found
i n the company of the outcast A t least this

prayer i s put i n hi s m outh :

0 sun grant
Ap ll i
I
P hi l t at
,

os r

u s on

o n us,

xv

P ag an

atte mp ts

I65

R e co n stru cti o n

at

me to know the virtuous on l y : as to the wicked

I wish neither to know them o r to be known
by them
F rom Baby l on h e went to I ndia and spent four
months with the I ndian sages H ere he seems
to have found philosophers as loquacious as
hi mself They discussed their respective pre
incarnation s Apol loni u s describing an adventure
with pirates when in a previou s existence he w as
an Egyptian ship master they ta l ked o f creation
of pygmies who l ived under the earth of dragon s
of gri ffons wi nged anima l s as strong and large
as l ion s and of other things and parted with
expressions of mutual esteem Afterwards h e
visited the principal towns o f Asia M inor and
Greece di spensi ng advice to their inhabitants
At Ephesus he drove away a plague by per
s u adi n
the
inhabitan
ts
to
stone
an
o
l
d
beggar
g
man who subsequently disappeared in the form
o f a
hound
At Athen s to hi s credit h e
rebuked the Athenian s for their devotion to
g l adiatoria l shows an d at C orinth h e cast out a
devi l from o n e M e n i p p u s an exorcism during
w h ich the demon i mp l ored n o t to be tormente d
l anguage which suggests familiarity with the
G ospe l of S L u k e
H e found hi s way to R ome i n the reign o f
Nero and meeting a bride being carried o u t to
buria l raised her to l ife again Towards th e end
of hi s l ife he was imprisoned by D omitian and

ta l ked free l y with hi s fe l low prisoners

As to
viii 8
,

6 6 Church H i sto ry

ro m

Ne ro

to

o n stan ti n e

Apolloni us say s P hi l o s t rat u s h e n ever ceased

giving advice
Before his tria l he dispatched the faithfu l
Damis to wait for hi m at Puteoli Wh en sum
m o n e d before the tribunal which was presided
over by Dom itian and attended by a ll the great
men o f R ome
h e treated the emperor with a

great degree of superci l iou s contempt

No t
being allowed to make the speech he had written
o u t for his defence after a few word s o f advice
h e vanished from th e court and
t o D omitian
appeared to his despairing compan ions at
P uteoli
For tw o years afterwards he discoursed t ri u m
h
n tl
to
admiri
ng
crowds
i
n
Greece
an
d
Asia
a
p
y
M i nor and was able to announce at Ephesus the
assassination o f D omitian at th e mo me nt of its
occurrence Nerva i nvited h i m to come and
teach hi m ho w t o rule He refused the request
but sent hi m a long letter by the han d o f Dami s
partly to get hi s disciple o u t o f the way as he
knew that the hour o f hi s own departure was at
hand and h e wished to have no witne sses

C oncern ing the manner O f his death if he

did die
says P hi lo s tratu s
variou s are the

accoun ts
O ne says that h e died at Ephesus
waited on by two handmaid s ; another that h e
e ntered the Te mple o f M inerva at Li n du s and
then disappeared ; a third that he w as la s t see n
going i nto the temp l e o f D i cty m n a i n Crete the

gate s o f which were m iraculously opened

As
soon a s he e ntered them they sh ut of them selves
,

P ag an

atte mp ts at

R e co n stru cti o n

67

and the temple resounded with the singing o f

many virgin s the burden of whose song was

Leave th e earth com e to heaven come

come which seemed as i f they said Proceed
from earth to
After his death he appeared to a young man who
wou l d not be l iev e i n the im morta l ity of the sou l
and was heard to dec l are for the last time Th e
sou l is i mmorta l I mmorta l ity does not be l ong
to y o u but to Providence After the disso l ution
o f the body the sou l l ik e a m ett l esom e cours e r
when freed from al l r e strai n t m ingles in th in air
im patient o f the servi l e state to which it was sub
e ct
with
more
to
h
e same e f
f
ect
t
j
At some subs e quen t date he r e ceived divin e
honours Caraca ll a bui l t hi m a shri ne and Aure
lian refrained from destroying Tyana through a
vision of Apo l lonius having r e cogniz e d him by
his li kene ss to t he many statu e s he had seen i n
temples
The points o fl i ke n e s s with C hrist are so many
that they must have been int e ntional There i s
before the birth of Apo l loni u s a kind o f A n n u n
ci ati o n and miraculou s si nging attends t h e event
H i s parentage is l e ft in doubt H e was be l ieved
we are told by h i s biographer to be the s o n of
Jupiter but he would not himself admi t it T h e
vu l gar might ho l d th i s opinion but it ne e d
not be received by the philosopher There are
mirac l e s sugg e stive o f the G ospe l mirac l es There
i s a trial foreknow l edge of death and at l east
o n e appearance after death
,

6 8 Chu rch H i sto ry

r
om
f

Ne ro

o n s tan ti n e

to

The di ffere nces are fundamenta l P hi l o s trat u s

and his friends found their stumbling -block i n
the lowlin e s s o fJ
e su s
H e was not grand e nough

Hi s h umble and mean birth H i s lowly u p bring

ing H i s unacquaintance with the s y stem s o f
philosophy i n vogu e the r usticity o f the stage
o n which th e scene s o f H i s life were set the
falling away of H i s followers the h umiliation o f
Hi s las t days and last and greatest the crown

in
f
i nfamy o the Cross a ll these things were
ge n ce s and had to co me o u t
0f
Apollonius worshipped the sun and believed
i n o n e supreme being who i s to be worshipped
above and through the lower gods and hims e l f
needs neither sacrice nor O ffering This supreme
being gives all but receives no thing The i nferior
deities might be pro pitiated with sacrices though
Apollonius hi mself wo uld o ffer none U nli ke
the God of the Jews and C hristians it cannot

even be said o f his supreme being A broke n

and con trite heart thou wilt not despis e

I n dian theosophy a natural scienc e drawn

chiey from Stoic authorities antiquarian ritualism
in certain Greek cults a great copiousne ss o f

moral sentiment and certai n ascetici sms are

according to Professor P hi l l i m o re the main
ingredients i n his religion
I t may have had a success in Court and literary
circles but it i s i mpossible to think that it ever
had much e e ct o f the sort i nte nded Th ere
was nothi ng to attract the great mass o f su fferi ng
i
striving s n laden men and women
.

P ag an

atte mp ts at

R e co n s tru cti o n

69

NE O P L A T O N I S M

Thirty years after P hi l o s tratu s began hi s work

P l otinus the founder of Neop l atonism came to
R ome and began to lecture
P l otinus was an
Egyptian who had studied at A l exandria and
taught at R ome from A D 2 4 5 until h is death in
,

A O
.

2 70

He

wou l d never te ll the date or p l ace o f his

birth as he did not l ike to dwe ll o n the detai l s of
that misfortune the descent of sou l into body
We are told that he entered the Univ e rsity at
A l exandria i n orde r to study philosophy and tried
teacher after teacher but l eft them a l l with head
hanging down
At l ast he attended a l ecture
by A m m o n i u s Saccus by trade original l y a port e r
by r e l igion once a C hristian then a Platonist
phi l osopher When he heard him he exclaimed
This is the man I have been looking for and
for ten years he attended his lectures
U n l ike C elsus and P h i lo s tratu s w ho had other
ends in V iew Plotin us was disi nterested H e
sought the truth for its own sake and not with
the ulterior aim o f inj uring the C hurch or but
tressing the Empire or making a l iterary reputa
tion H e was concerned with phi l osophy rather
than religion but hi s teaching had the e ffect
of showing how ancient be l iefs might be recon
ciled with modern phi l osophy
H e allowed
the existence o f subordinate deities
heave n
and the heavenly bodies nature e arth and
the demon s
A ll these i n their degree are
,

0
7

Chu rch H i sto ry

ro m

Ne ro

o n stan ti n e

to

causes and desire wors hip But the supreme

cause God i n the proper sense o f the word
stands far above all these created deities and
e m braces i n i tself a unity o f Three H ypostases
The individual soul has to be puried by virtue
and asceticism and then thro ugh reason to attain
commu n ion with the nous o r i ntelligence F i nally
through a ki nd of ecstasy the soul may at tain
com munion with the O ne Plotin us attained this
four ti me s i n s ix years Porp hyry on l y once in
his lifetime
The te achi n of Plotinus was di ffi cult and h is
moral s tan dar h igh and its i n uence m ust have
bee n conn e d to a chosen few H e can hardly
be said to have founded a religio us system m uch
less a church B ut so me o f his ideas have been
fruitful As his latest com m entator has put it
the C h urch quietly carried o ff some o f hi s honey
i nto its o w n h ive
The theologian s w ho had
t o form ulate the doctri ne o f the Trin i ty seem to
have been indebted to h im ; and the p hi lo s o
i
cal doctrine o f matter underlying the th eory
h
p
o f transubstantiation is hi s
Porphyry w ho was hi s disciple and publis hed
hi s lecture s wrote a book against the Christians
which except for a few fragme n ts has perish ed
I t was the m ost form idable attack o f that sort
that the C hurch had to face No less than four
re futation s were publish ed i ncluding o n e by
E usebius the h istorian but none have sur vived
After Plotin us Neoplaton ism became more
W R I g Th P hi lo p hy f P l ti
i 67
.

e,

so

n us ,

P ag an

I7I

R e co n structi o n

atte mp ts at

and more concerned with demono l ogy and magic

and was therefore more popu l ar and its anti
C hristian inuence more seriously fe l t

Porphyry is the most devout be l iever in

H ecate and her hell dogs i n j inns hobgoblins
spectres amul ets spel l s and can give the most
philosophica l reasons for the most ridiculous
superstitions
Everything that the Christian
alleged against Polytheism h e admits i n the
coole s t way I t was true that the Greek sacri
I t was true that
ce d to devi l s not to G od
the demons were corporea l mortal mostly ma l e
ce n t
I t was true that they were deceivers and
that philosophy was n o safeguard I t was true
that they demanded and received human sacri
ce s
H e tells u s that human blood was regularly
poured o n the altars in his time i n Arcadia and at
Carthage and that even at R ome Jupiter L at i ar i s
was annually sprink l ed with the blood of a
What are we to s ay of this man who
l adi ato r
found the Ne w Testament incredible and took
the Arahi an Nights fo r ospe l
Gibbon s description o fthe later Neoplatonists

is not unfair
They attered themse l ves that
th ey possessed the secret o f di s e n g a ing th e soul
from its corporea l prison claimed a f miliar i nter
course with demons and spirits and by a singu l ar
revolution converted the study o f p hi l o s o p hy i n t o
that o f magic The ancient sages had derided
the popular superstition ; after disguising its
extravagance by the thi n pretence o f al l egory
C B i g g N p lat i m p 3
,

eo

on s

00

2
7

Church Hi sto ry

ro m

Ne ro

to

o n s tan t n e

the discip l es o f Plotinus and Porphyry becam e

its most zea l ous defenders As they agreed with
th e Christian s i n a few mysteriou s points o f faith
they attacked the emainder o f their philosoph ica l

sy stem with al l the fury o f civil war

a d Fall
i ii
D li
.

ec n e

IX
R I VAL R ELIGI O NS

HE

o l d re l igion s of the R oman worl d in

spite of the reconstruction s of the philo
sophers were never any real menace to Chris
They could d e stroy by instigating
t i an i t y
persecution but they could n ot replace One
can not imagine that the m asses of man kind
can conceivab l y have been attracted by th e
specu l ations o f P l otinus or eve n th e romance
of Apo ll onius
Very many people perhaps
the maj ority were conten t with u nreformed
paganism wit h l oca l gods to protect th e home
the camp and th e farm without much i nquiry
i nto their m ora l s o r any searchings o f heart
as to po l ytheism But these were peop l e t o
whom religio n was forma l a matter o f custom
and convention which made n o direct appea l
to the heart or to the conscience There were
h owever many who did want something better
and more satisfyi n g Man who wants a rea l
re l igion wants an O bj ect of devotion he wants
to be ab l e to give himself and he demands
a response H e give s himself and he asks
to rece i ve H e is ready to die but h e desires
to nd l ife through death With all the myriad
,

73

H
h
i
t
o
r
c
r
h
s
u
C
74
y

ro m

Ne ro

o n s tan ti n e

to

calls o f the world sounding i n his ears he

desires to n d o n e voice that he mus t O bey
o ne
leader h e cannot choose but fol l ow At
the same time i n the troubles and pai n s and
perplexities o f l ife h e l ooks fo r a Being t o whom
he may g o fo r comfort and sym pathy and h e l p
I n times o f bereavemen t the help he feels the
need o f m ost o f all i s som e assurance o f a life
beyond the grave
An d often though n o t
always he needs deliverance from h i s sen se o f
guilt the s alvatio n o ffered to si nners by Ch ris t
I n the face o f suc h n e eds the third -cen tury
philosopher was o f as little u s e as was the ni ne
t e e n t h ce ntury Ration alist a generatio n ag o
T he three rival religion s that seemed m ost
likely to satisfy th ose who really felt the need
o f o n e i n the second and third centuries were
C hristianity th e worship o f I sis a nd M ithraism
,

THE

WO RS H I P

o r

I sis was an Egyptian goddess Her h usband

the god Osiri s was killed by his brother Typhon
I sis brokenhearted wandered over th e marshe s
o f the Delta i n her boat o f papyru s and gathered
the fragments o f hi s dead body Th e son o f
O siri s wan ted to kill Typhon but I si s cut his
bo n ds and let hi m g o O siris then became Lord
I sis m ay be said
o f the Spirits o f the Dead
to have furni shed the fe male e l emen t i n the
obj ect o f worsh ip She was ki nd gentle full
o f pity and sympathy
Like Jesus an d u nli ke
,

R i v al R elig i o n s

75

M ithra s he presented the idea o f a su ffering

G od and this no doubt constituted a great

p art of her attraction

She does not forget
the sorrows which she e ndured nor h er painful
wanderings but ordains most holy rites i n
remembrance of her su fferings for instruction
i n piety for the comfort o f men and women

oppressed by similar misfortune

She had a regu l ar priesthood dai l y services s u r
i
l
c
e d choirs gorg e ous ceremonia l and sp l endid
p
rites ; there were al so r e ligious orders Apuleius
who was a convert gives a descriptio n of a p ro
ce ssion in her honour The occasion was a festival
of the goddess F irst came a body of masquera
ders dressed as so l diers l adi ato rs magistrates
phi l osophers and in other i n cy costumes There
was an ape represen ting Ganymede and a don key

with wings as Pegasus

You would have enj oyed

your l augh at both said Apuleiu s Then fol

l owed the procession proper F irst came women
gorgeously arrayed in white some scattering
owers others sprinkling the street with per
fume
Then me n an d women carrying l amp s
and tapers
M usicians fo l lowed with a choir
of youths i n snow-white garments
Then a
body of the initiated men and women clad in
white keeping up an incessant tink l ing with
their si stra or ratt l es The priests fo l lowed
with the symbols of the goddess There fol
Q t d b y Bi gg Th Ch h Ta h i th R m a 8 mp i
,

uo

P 45
2

The Go lden A ss,

Bk

xi

u rc

re ,

r
6
rc
H
i
s
h
h
t
o
u
C
7
y

om

Ne ro

to

o n stan t n e

lowed represen tat ions o f the gods i nc l udi ng

a co w borne erect o n th e s houlders o f a man
an e i gy of th e divinity bearing no resemblance
to bird o r beast or man and an urn with a
live as p embracing its spout After dedicating
a s hip the proce s sion returned to the temp l e
One of the priests reci ted prayers and then dis
missed the co n g re gati o n w ho departed after kis sing
the fee t o f a golde n i mage o f th e goddess
Ap ulei us also give s an account o f his o w n
i nitiation which is too long to quote H e passed
ten days i n secl usion i n the tem ple e ating no
m eat i n constant i ntercourse with th e priests and
attendance at the ser vices H e had also to se ll
all h e possessed to pay th e fee H e had vi sion s
o f the
goddess and the actual initiatio n was
accompanied by a ceremonia l bath and an ecstasy

I approached the con ne s o f death and

having trod o n the threshold o f Proserpi ne I
returned therefrom bei ng borne through all the
elem ents At midnight I saw th e s u n shining
with i ts brilliant ligh t and I ap proached the
presence o f the god s beneath and the gods
above and stood near and worshipped them
Th e initiatio n was called a new birth I t was
celebrated with a banquet and afterwards he
returned home
I si s worship got a footing in R ome as early
as the time of Su l la The Emperor Tiberiu s
p ulled down her temple and crucied her pri ests
J uvenal complai ns o f the attraction s he had for
,

The Golden Ass,

Bk

xi

R i v al R e l ig i o n s

77

the R oman l adies H e r cu l t spread fast and

traces of it have bee n found as far north as
the R oman Wa l l i n Britain I ts theology l ike
paganism could be adapted to the phi l osopher
but its attractiv e ness l ay in its
o r the p e asant
e m otiona l appea l which neither paganism nor
M ithraism possessed and which in C hristianity
was ba l anced and k e pt in check by the stern
d e mand of mora l renunciation
Perhaps Isis
would hav e b e e n a more serious riva l to C hrist
if she had made mor e demands on her worshippers
I t l acked the e lement of austerity fou n d both in
M ithraism and C hristianity
,

M I T H RA I S M
I n the third century after C hri st from C o m
modus to Constantine M ithraism was the most
dangerous rival of Christianity to which it had
many striking resemblances Like C hristianity
it came from the E ast and at about the same
time P l utarch tells us that the rites were rst
practised in R ome by m e n who had l earnt them
from Ci l ician pirates captur e d by Pompey But
it w as n ot until th e end of th e rst century after
C hrist that it was fairly estab l ished i n R ome
Its appearance in the West w as in fact co n
temporaneous with C hristianity I t grew rapidly
Co m
u nd e r the F lavians and the Antonines
m odus who was himse l f a devot e e av e it an
enormous im petus and by th e end 0 the cen
tury i t may have counted as many adherents as
2 A
,

8
r
H
t
h
u
c
h
i
o
r
s
C
7
y

Ne ro

ro m

to

o n s tan t n e

th e Church Both fou nd their opportunity i n

the po l itical unity and th e m oral anarchy of the
Empire Both mad e their appea l to the world
rather than to ph ilosop hers
Th ey spread i n
di ffere n t directions
C hri stianity tended to
fo l low the trade routes and w as most strong
a l ong the coasts o f the M editerranean M i thra
i s m fo l lowed the cam p and w as stronges t in
I taly and on the frontier s o f t he R hi ne and th e
Dan ube I t was strong a l so i n the va ll ey o f the
R hone
I t see ms to hav e m ad e a sp e cial appeal
to the Germanic races Nowhere are its mon u
men ts m ore n umerous than on the R hin e Th ey
are near l y as thick i n what i s now H ungary and
n ext i n order of frequency i n I taly and th e most
romanized o f the provinces
the S outh o f
Fran ce and Dalmatia Only one mon ument has
been found i n Greece only four i n Spain I n
France they are almost con n ed to th e val l ey o f
the R hone I n Britai n they have been fou nd in
the track O f the legion s
M ithraism originated i n Pe rsia and n o doubt
u nderwe n t many change s but when i t burgeoned
i n the West its theolo gy seems to have bee n fairly
e stablished There was O ne S upreme Go d th e
rst prin ciple unknown u nap proachable called
som etimes Aion o r Saturn generally represented
i n human form with a l ion s head hi s body
entwined with a serpent T he rs t pr inciple
generated the earth and s k y and ocean wh ich
could easi l y be identi ed with J uno Jupiter and
These and their o ffspring in habit
Neptune
.

I 79

Ri v al R e lig i o ns

heaven A mu l titud e of m al e ce n t demons are

how e v e r beneath th e e art h whom it w as necessary
to appease The active princip l e s of nature re
water l ight were id e ntied with gods or wer e
their manifestations T he sun w as the obj ect of
specia l adoration as the giver of l ife s o were
the moon and p l ane ts But of a ll the heroes
and obj ects of worship the mos t popu l ar was
M ithra
M ithra was the god o f l ight and as such
thought to dwe ll between heaven and earth
which gave rise to one of his tit l es that of
Mesites or Mediator H e i s sometimes re p re
sented between two children each carrying a
torch one up l ifted the other cast dow n H e
was born of a rock and s hepherds hastened to
adore him at his birth H e was born with the
Phrygian Cap or M ithra from which he took h is
name and was armed with a dagger and carried
a aming torch H i s life began with a conict
with the sun wh om he overcam e and with whom
he afterwards established an eterna l l eague of
friendship and mutua l aid H i s most stri king
adventure was hi s duel wi th th e bu ll the rst
l iving being created by J upiter The bu ll was
feeding on a mountai n a l p the h ero seized him
by the horn s and bestrode him Thrown by the
violence of its p l unges he sti ll h e l d its horn s
When t he an i m al fe ll exhausted he seized it
by the hind l egs and dragged it backwards in to
his cave over many O bstac l es
This painfu l
j ourney became an a ll e gory of the pi l grimage
.

8 0 Chu rch H i sto ry

ro m

Ne ro

o n stan ti n e

to

of the h uman soul

Th e bull escaped and
once more roamed the country The s u n sent
a message by a raven to M ithra t o slay th e
fugitive M i thra th ough much agai nst hi s wil l
obeyed H e pursued the bul l cam e up with
h im an d seizing his nostri l s with his hand
plunged hi s knife into his side
Th en e nsued a prodigy From the body o f
the dying bull grew the grass and health ful
plants which cover the earth From the spinal
marrow wheat germinated an d th e vi ne from its
blood From it also sprang all kin ds o f usefu l
ani mals and its sou l translated to cele stial
regions became the specia l guard of soldiers
I n this way the bull by its death became the
source o f l ife
Th e rst human pai r n o w appeared o n earth
and were attacked by the powers o f evil and
protected by M ithra
Man survived drou gh t
ood and a devastating re before h e was l e ft i n
com parative peace a nd the temporal m issio n o f
M ith ra was over Then Mithra m ounted to
h eaven i n the chariot o f the sun but from the
heave ns co nti n ued to protect his faith ful fo l
lower s o n earth M ithra w as therefore regarded
as an emanation from God who acte d rst as
creator and the n as protector o f the world and
m ediator betwee n its inhabitants and G o d I n
this there are poin ts o f rese mblance with the
Logos
The morals taught were lofty A great point
was made o f sexual re straint an d absolu te
.

,
.

Ri v al R e lig i o n s

81

chastity w as the idea l

Man was r e gard e d as
taking part i n a strugg l e against evi l H i s
good consisted i n action The ideal virtues
were strength and courage rather t han l ove and
pity The re l igion was hard I t was above al l
the re l igion O f soldiers and extolled the mi l itary
V i rtues
M ithra i s the sustain e r o f morta l s i n a ll
H e i s t he defen der of
di f cu l ties and tria l s
truth and j ustic e , the pres e rver o f health the
H e is
antagonist o f the powers of darkness
eterna ll y young and vigorous a l ways vigi l ant
a l ways victorious giving victory to morta l s
a l ike over their enemies with out and within
H i s fo l lowers believe i n l ife after death in
a na l j udgement i n heaven and he ll and some
ki nd of bodi l y resurrection T h e secret of its
attraction l ay in its appea l to its votaries to take
up arms agai n st the forces o f evil
M ithraism had its l iturgy and its o i ces its
sacred books and its sacrame n ts
There were
even d e grees of initiation the lowest that of the
ravens the highest the fathers through which
al l the initiated passed on the way to attain
perfect puri ty and wisdom
On ceremonia l
occasions the votaries wore vestments suitab l e

to their degree
Some ap their wings like

birds others roar l ike l i o n s

Only those
who attained th e fourth rank that of l ions
were actua l partakers i n th e mysteries which
C m t T t t M g e l a my t d M i th a
i p 3 4
.

o n

ex e s e

ons

u r s re

ux

re s

8 2 Chu rch Hi s to ry

ro m

Nero

Co n s tan ti n e

to

wer e presided over by the s e venth order that

o f fath ers
who also adm itte d the novices
Ther e w as a p ater p atru m a kin d of bishop
A ll the i nitiated were brothers
The cerem ony o f i nitiation to each order was
known as a sacrament sacram en tu m because
o f the oath th en taken
There were th us seven
sacraments Lustrations were a promin ent featu re
o f mo st of them
Th ere was al so a so l e m n service i n which
consecrated bread and water with win e added
were the pri ncipa l features The i nitiati on to the
order o f soldiers inc l udi n g branding o n th e fore
head with a ho t iron and had som e resemblance
to the anoi nting and the sign o f the cross i n
Conrmation an d Baptism
There was a regular
order o f priests and eve n orders o f m onks The
ceremo nial bath s previo u s t o in itiation were
not para ll el to C hri stian Baptism They were
for purication only Bu t the cere m ony of the
had m uch m ore in com mo n wi th
tau ro ho l i u m
the C hristian sacrame nt I n i t a bull standi ng
on a platform had its throat cut and the blood
poured through th e platform an d bathed a mystic
hidde n i n a ditch underneath by which he was
supposed to acquire a new birth
They had tem ples and festivals of which o n e
on December 2 5 t h celebrated the birth of th e
and a nother took place about th e time o f
su n
the C hristian Easter
The sen se o f brotherh ood among the i nitiated
was cu l tivated an d thi s as among Chri stians was
,
.

R i v al R e lig i o n s

83

no doubt a great attraction especia ll y with t h e

poorer peop l e whi l e the degrees of in itiation
were a con stant i nterest and stimu l us

I t had one fata l defect

i t had no place for
women
F rom the succession of C ommodus for more
than a century Mithraism w as active l y patron
i z e d by the emperors
From the rst years
of t he third century ther e was a priest of
Mithraism in the pa l ac e
I n A D 307 Dio
cl e t i an
Licinius an d G al e ri u s consecrat e d a
temp l e to M i thra This was due to the con
v e n i e n t support which i t l ent to t h e
imperia l
theory of the divine natur e of emperors Accord
ing to the Mithraic theory th e emperor w as an
emanation or e ffu l g e nce o f the sun an i n car
nation i n fact s e l ected by the gods i ndependen t l y
of birth fo r that positio n and th e refore the
e mp e ror de facto could point to the fact as a
proof of hi s divini ty
M ithraism had no quarr e l with the re l igion s
it found in t he Empire or they with i t I t w as
r e ady to nd a p l ace for their gods i n its pan
th e on and to modi fy its own dogma and ritua l
to suit l oca l e xigencies But its essentia l features
were unalter e d After a ll no pagan wou l d have
obj ect e d to C hristianity if room had been made
for his deiti e s a l ongside o f Jesus C hri st I t
aspir e d to b e univ e rsa l and wou l d have estab
l i s h e d the univ e rsal domination of Mithra a ll ied
to the sun but in the process wou l d have assimi
lated l oca l and nationa l be l iefs and deities
,

8 4 Chu rch H i sto ry

Ne ro

ro m

Co n stan ti n e

to

The poi n ts of re semblance between M ithraism

and C hri stianity are some of them rea l others
on l y supercial
Th e real resem blances are a
co mmo n belief i n a mediator i n a j udgement
i n a future life and the resurrection o f the
body ; also in the doctri ne of brotherhood
and o f the need o f purity and re n unciation i n
conquest of self M ithraism had n o re de m p
tion para l lel to the Cros s Th e n earest approach
was the slaughter of the bull by M ithra a thing
mo nstrous and repulsive The rese mb l ance i n
ritua l i n festivals an d sacraments i s only sup e r
ci al though the tau ro ho li um claimed to have the
e ffect o f Baptism
I t i s i nconceivable that the C h u rch should
h ave borrowed from M ithra at t hat early date
I ts horror of heathenism its se nse o f separa
tio n and re n unciati on was far too strong But
M C u mon t thinks that M ithraism may have
borrowed th e Adoration of the S hepherd s the
Last Supper and the Asce n sio n from the
Gospels I t certai nly refrai ned from borrowi ng
the Cross Herein lay i ts weakn ess I t had
little to win weak and su ffering me n and
women I t preached a gospel to the strong
and had no I nvitation fo r the weary and heavy
laden
,

X
P E R SE C UTI O NS O F
AND V ALE R IA N

TH E

D E C I US

Phi l ip c e l ebrated t he thousandth

anniversary o f the foundation o f R om e with
immense pomp Th e twenty years t hat fo ll owed
were perhaps the most ca l amitous that the State
had known German armi e s crossed the R hin e
and penetrated Spain H ordes of G oth s passed
while others
t he D anube and i nvaded I l lyria
sai l ed down the Euxi n e plundered Trebizond
ravaged Pontus and Bithynia and even the cities
G reece and Persian armies crossed the
o f
Euphrates And as if these misfortunes were
not enough a pestilence of a most dead l y kind
ravag e d the Empire from A O 2 5 0 to 2 6 5
Philip fel l i n A D 2 4 9 and was succeeded by
D ecius a R oman genera l of birth and merit
H e seems to have desired to restor e the virtues
o f the ancient State and went so far as t o r e vive
the o ffi ce o f C ensor i n the person of Valerian
One o f his domestic reforms took the form of
a persecution of the Ch u rch o n t he grand scale
As a soldier and an upholder o f the ancient ways
he obj ected n o doubt to C hristianity as a modern
innovation at deadly enmity with the gods that
had made R ome great

A D
.

24 8

85

2 B

8 6 Chu rch H i sto ry

ro m

Ne ro

Co n stan ti n e

to

The exact wording o f the edict is lost but i t s

meaning i s p l ain I t s obj ect was to produce
apostates rather than martyrs All men w e re to
sacrice to the gods and the genius of the em peror
by a certai n day Bishops w ho refused were to
be executed Les ser person s to be i mpri son ed
and tortured to make th em recant an d to lose
their p ro p e rty
Fabian Bishop o f R ome was among the rst
victims and o n account of the persecutio n a suc
c e ssor cou l d not be elected for a year Alexander
Bishop o fJ
e ru s al e m
died i n pri son as did B ab y l as
Bishop o f A ntioch
I n Alexandria the persecution had preceded th e
edict by a y e ar a popular m ovement stirred u p

apparen t l y by a loca l prophet o r poet

It
consisted i n outrages by the mob again st the
C hristian s many of whom were ki ll ed and a

ge neral plunderi ng of their houses

A cer
tai n prophet or poet i nauspiciou s to the city
whoever he was excited the mass of the heathen
against u s stirri ng them up to thei r nativ e
F irst seizing a n aged man
supersti tion s
named Metra th ey called o n him to utter
blasphemies and as h e did not O bey beat his
body with c l ubs and pricked h is face and eyes ;
after which they led h i m away to the suburbs
wh ere they stoned him Next they l ed a woman
named Q uin ta who was a believer to the te m ple
of an idol and attem pt e d to force her to worship
but whe n she turned away i n disgust they tied
Cy p i a O th L ap d
,

se

The P e rse cuti o n s

D e ci us

an d

Vale ri an

87

her by the fe e t and dragged her by t he hair

through the who l e city ove r the rough ston e s
o f t he paved streets The n wi th o n e accord a ll
rushed upon th e houses of t h e faithfu l and
despoi l ed and p l undered them setting apart the
more va l uab l e article s for thems e l ves ; but the
commoner furniture they burnt i n t he streets
making the city l ook l ik e one taken by the
When the edict arrived there w ere a
en e my
l arge number of arrests and m any recantations

Some ed ; others were taken and of them

som e he l d out as far as the prison and bonds
and some after a fe w days imprisonment abj ured
before they entered the tribuna l Some after
enduring the torture for a whi l e renounced their
Lord Others however rm and blessed pi ll ars
of the Lord becam e admirab l e witn e sses of H i s
kingdom
A boy of fteen named D i o s co ru s
stood rm against both torturer and argument
and was re l eased But near l y all the accused
though kept in prison for some time and to r
t u re d to make them recant were put to death
i n the end many by re Women wer e espe
ci al l
prominent
i
n
this
persecution
and
many
y
su ffered
T here were also so l dier martyrs
Some who were p resent at the tria l of a
C hristian encouraged him by gesture s to stand
rm when inclined to waver They then gave
themse l ves up and dec l ared that they were
C hristians and su ffered i n their turn
Dionysius Bi shop of Al exandria remained at
E
b i H 8 vi 4
,

u se

u s,

o m Ne ro
r
f

8 8 Chu rch H i sto ry

to

Co nstan ti n e

hom e awaiting arrest

The soldiers searched
i
every poss b l e hiding place fo r four days think
i ng it impossible that h e should not have
attempted to escape
At last they thought o f
going to hi s house and found him there H e
was seized and carried O ff According to hi s
o w n account o n e o f his friends named Timothy
came to the house and found i t empty
T hen

a certai n countryman m et Timothy ying and

much disturbed and asked the cause o f h is haste
and was told th e reason When t he countryman
h eard i t he went his way for he was goi ng to
a marriage festival and when h e arrived h e told
it to those w ho were present These at once
with a single impulse as if by agree ment a l l
arose and came as q uick as possible i n a rush
u pon u s and as they rushed they rai sed a shout
The so l diers that guarded us immediately took to
ight and o u r rescuers came upon us lying u pon
the bare bedsteads God k nows I too k them at
rst to be robbers come to plun der R emaining
therefo re i n my bed o nly covered with a line n
garment the re st o f my dres s I o ffered the m as
it lay beside me But they commanded me to
rise and depart a s quickly as possible
The n
understandin g fo r what purpose they had com e
I began to cry beseeching and prayi ng them to
o away and to let u s alone
But
if
they
wish
ed
g
t o do us any good to anticipate those w h o had
led me away and t o cut o ff my head When
I thus cried o u t they tried to raise me by force
as my compani o n s k now ; I cast myself back o n
.

The P e rse cuti o n s

D e ci us

an d

Vale ri an

89

the ground But th e y seized m e by the hands

and fe et and dra ed m e away whi l st Caius
gPau l who were witnesses
F austus Peter ang
fo ll owed behind They taking m e
o f a ll this
up bore me away from the town and carried me

The chief interest

f o n an ass bareback
Of
of this incident i s that it shows the tide had
turned and that C hristians were no l onger hated
by their paga n neighbours un l ess popu l ar hatred
had been stirred up as in Alexandria itself
I n Carthage Cyprian was bishop At the time
of his conversion h e had been the leader o f the
Carthaginian bar renowned fo r his e l oquence and
success H e speaks o f the liberal banquets and
sumptuous feasts o f his then l ife of g l ittering
in go l d and purpl e of bei ng ce l ebrated fo r hi s
dre ss and of de l ighting in the attendance o f
lictors and civic honours and being accompanied
by crowds of c l ients
all of which point to a
considerable position
H e was soon advanced to the rank of presbyter
and in A D 2 4 8 became Bishop or Pope of Car
t hag e
The C h urch had had peace for thirty
seven years since the death of Severus February
h
t
A
O
Thirty
seven
years
seem
s
a
short
1
2
1
4
time as we read of it but it meant that no C hris
tian under forty kn ew anything o f persecution
except by hearsay They were unmo l ested ; they
knew their numbers were increasing No doubt
they l ooked on pers e c u tion as a thing of th e past
The Church was therefore like the draw net
E
b i H 8 vi 4
T D at
.

u se

u s,

on

us

Chu rch H i sto ry

ro m

Ne ro

Co n stan ti n e

to

ful l of all sorts of s hes bad as well as good

m uch as it i s to -day M any no d o u bt w e re
faithfu l Many more on l y needed the trumpet
ca ll o f persecution to rou se the m from s l umber
But many others were l eading carel e ss and
world l y lives Cyprian writi ng after the event
it i s true paints a somewhat black picture o f th e
pre persecution C hurch
Among other things he comp l ained that bishops
had so far forgotten their sacred ca l ling as to
become agents in secular business to desert their
peop l e an d wander over fore ign countries o n
commercial quests and had eve n l en t money o n
u sury
Th e Decian Edict o f persec utio n required that
every o n e should give evidence of not being
a C hristian by a certain day Something like
a panic seized the C hurch
Large n umbers
without waiting for the persecution to begin

hastened to sacrice
They i ndeed did n o t
wait to be apprehended ere they ascended or to
be interrogated ere they denied Many were
conquered before the battle prostrated before
the attack
No r did they permit it to be
said o f them that they seemed to sacrice to

idols unwilling l y
Th ey ran to the market
p l ace o f their o w n accord ; they willingly has
tened to death as if th ey had long wished for
it as i f they would e mbrace an O ppor tunity
they had fervently desired
T he o ffi cials
could not keep pace with the crowd of wou l d
vi
T D at
,

on

us,

Th e P e rse cuti o n s

be

D e ci us

an d

Vale ri an

9
1

Ho w

many were put o by

magistrates at that time when evening
th e
was coming on how many asked that their
destruction m igh t not be de l ayed
Others on l y brok e down aft e r en d uring many
tort u res who might p l ead as Cyprian suggests :
The scourges w e re l acerating my al ready worn
O u t body t h e c l ubs bruised m e
the rack strained
m e t h e c l aw dug i nto me t h e re roast e d me
my esh de s erted me i n the strugg l e th e weak
ness of my bodi l y frame gave way in the struggl e
not my mind but my body yie l ded in the
su ffering
I n som e case s heads of hous e ho l ds obtai ned
a c e rticate as bavin sacriced and so secured
immunity not only If
" themse l ves but for their
fami l ies and dependants and wer e even able to
receiv e fugitive C hri stian s into their houses

thus o ffe ri ng to the Lord many sou l s l iving

and safe to entr e at for a sing l e wounded o n e
Others received certicates without actua ll y
sacricing Either i n person or by deputy th e y
appeared befor e t he magistrate stat e d that they
w e r e C hristian s and were not a ll owed to sacrice
but were wi ll ing to pay for a certicate which
seems to hav e been granted
Cyprian himse l f withdrew from t h e storm
As there i s no reason to qu e stion hi s readiness
to face death or to suppose that he was
unwi ll ing to become a martyr his mora l
courage in withdrawing i s remarkable
I ts
T D at
viii
i ce rs

s acr

on

us ,

Chu rch H i sto ry

Ne ro

ro m

to

Co n stan ti n e

expediency w as undoubted Decius had struck

princi pal l y at the bishops and it was playing
i nto h is hands for bis hops to let them se l ves be
killed to o easily Moreover th e ock needed
a shepherd ; never had th e need of rule been
greater Besides his presence in Car thage wo uld
h ave still further excited the already frenzied
m o b
T h e R oman presbyters when B ishop
Fabian had been mar tyred wrote a letter o f
pai ned sympathy and good advice t o the Cartha
ginian c l ergy o n Cyprian s withdrawal
T hey
were to be good shepherds and not hirelings
i n the absence o f their bishop The advice was
un necessary as Cyprian was discharging hi s func
tion s o f government and oversight with diligence

H e exhorted the presbyters and deacon s to

discharge your o w n o f ce and m ine that there
be n othing wanti ng to discipli ne or diligence
They were also to see that nothing i n th e way of
m oney was t o be lacking to those i n pri son or
t o the poor and he h i mself had provided mon ey
fo r the purpose
They were to be careful not
to be provocative and were to s e e that the
brethre n did n o t visit the confessors i n crowds
and that only o n e presbyter and o n e deacon at
a ti me should celebrate the Euchari st i n the

prisons an d that th ey s hould take turns because

by thus changing the person s and vary ing th e

pe ople suspicion i s diminished

T he systematic and thorough nature of the
persecution i s shown by some certicates o f
.

8p 5
.

The P e rs e cu ti o n s

D e ci us

an d

Vale ri an

93

heathenism recent l y discovered near Al e xandria

These state that the bear e rs have a l ways sacri

ce d to the gods and have now don e so i n the
presence of certain com missioners whose signa

tures are ap p e n de d
Decius was s l ain i n battle w i th the G oths in
the D o b ru dj a A O 2 5 1 Ga ll us succe e ded and
though the persecution ceas e d for the moment
it was renewed i n the following year as a result
of a pesti l ence which beginning in Egypt spread
ov e r the R oman worl d for which the C hristians
were b l amed
Meantime a serious di f culty was brewing i n
the Carthage C hurches The martyrs and con
fe s s o rs wer e recognized as the saviours o f the
Church
The brethren vi sited them i n crowds
and Cyprian addressed them in term s of lyrica l
enthusiasm Every death is to be communicated
to him that he might commemorate them i n the
Eucharist and place their names in the calendar
for fut u re obs e rvance H e recognizes that th e
martyrs have a certain privi l ege ( p re rog ati v a )
with God I t is not surprising that some of
them had their heads turned I ndeed Cypr i an
had already written to this e ffect that they were
to be exhorted to be humb l e and modest and
peaceable
The trouble arose over the lapsed many of
whom wished to come back to C ommun ion I t
had been the custom for martyrs to intercede
with bishops for the restoration o f sin ners Ter
G wat ki
6
8 a ly Ch H i t ii
5
.

2 c

or
H
r
h
i
s
t
h
c
C
u
y
94

om
N
r
o
r
e
f

to

Co n stan ti n e

tullian protested again st the custo m

N sooner
o

has any o n e put o n the bonds than adulterers

beset him fornicators gain access to him prayers
echo roun d h im ; p o o l s o f tears from the eyes
o f the polluted s u rrou n d h im
Let it su f ce
the martyr to have p urged hi s o w n sin s it is the
part of in g ratitude o r pride to lavish upon others
what o n e has obtained at s o h igh a price Who
has redeemed a nother s death by hi s o w n but the
2
n
o
f
So
G o d alon e
No w aided and abetted by four di sa ffected
pre sbyters w ho s aw their opportunity o f creating
a formidable factio n the practice threatened to
grow beyond all bounds C yprian laid down
that those who had received a letter fro m a
martyr and were i n danger o f death after co n
fe s s i o n and th e i mposition o f hands i n toke n
might receive Com munion All
o f forgiveness
others m ust wait until after the restoration
o f pe ace
whe n the bishops with the cl er
i n the presence o f the faithful laity ( the p l ei ii
who stand fast) would order a l l thi n gs after co n
,

s u l t at i o n

Thi s did n o t go n e arly far e nough fo r the

frie nds o f the lapsed Great pressure was e v i
de n tl y brought to bear o n the bishops and the
bishop s remaining rm recourse was had to
the confes sors O ne Lucian while i n prison was
asked by Ce l e ri n u s that h e o r o n e o f hi s fellow

martyrs
wh ichever i s rst crowned should
remit this great si n to o u r sisters Num erica
.

X X

II

D e ci us

The P e rse cu ti o n s

Vale ri an

an d

95

and Candida
Lucian rep l ied that whi l e th e
b l essed martyr Paulus was a l ive he ca ll ed hi m
and said Lucian in the presence of C hrist I
say to you if a ny o n e after my summons shal l
ask for peace from you grant it in my nam e
According l y Lucian went o n to gran t peace to

the two women with the proviso

the case
being se t forth before the bishop and confessio n

being made
But that was not the worst The confessors
appear to have felt that their letters were re ce i v
ing inadequate attention from the bishops At
any rate they met and sent Cyprian a j oint l etter

written by Lucian : K now that to a ll concerning

whose conduct since the commission o f their sin
has been i n your estimation satisfactory we have
granted peace We wish you to i nform the other
bishops
H ere we see an advance
I t i s not the bi shop
who grants peace o n the i ntercession of the martyr
but the confessors w ho grant peace i f the s u b s e
quent behaviour o f the lapsed has been satisfactory
to the bishop Such a grant o f abso l utions e n
hl ao wou l d have reduced the matter to an ab
surdity Cypr i an stood rm and refused to be
carried away H i s reply was to repudiate ab s o
l u t e ly the abso l ution e n hlo c
Each case must be
considered on i ts merits Peace might be given
to those who after having sacriced were tried
a second time and stood rm
Others must
wait unti l a ll the bishops cou l d be gathered
Cy p i a 8p
I bid 3
.

'

22

6
h
rch H i s to r
C
u
9
y

ro m

Ne ro

Co n stan ti n e

to

together an d each case could be con sidered o n

I t s mer i ts
A schism w as begun by the friend s o f the
laxi ty headed by a presbyter called No v at u s and
a deacon F e l i ci s s i m u s
When at length the Council o f Bishops met
i t decided that th ose wh o had actually sacriced
could only be restored at the h our o f death
Others might be re stored after a proces s varying
i n l ength according to the circumstances Those
who wou l d n o t undergo their penance were n o t
to be restored even i n the hour o f death
I n Rome Novatian headed a rigorist schism
and g o t himself elected anti pope in opposition t o
the Bishop Corne l ius
When a fresh persecution seemed to threaten
th e African bi shops met May A O 2 5 2 and wrote
by Cyprian to i nform Cornelius o f their decisions

We have decided h e wrote that peace i s t o

be given to those who have undergone penance
that th e y may be armed and equipped fo r th e
battle wh ich i s at h and That we may n o t leave
those whom we stir u p and exhort to the battle
unarmed and naked but may forti fy them with
the protectio n o f C hrist s Body and Blood ; and
as the E ucharist i s appointed fo r this very pur
pose that i t may be a safeguard to th e receivers
that we may arm them whom we wi sh to b e safe
against the adversary For ho w do we teach o r
provoke the m to shed their blood i n confession
o f H i s Name if we deny t o them the Blood o f
?
C hrist
Or ho w do we make them t for the
,

The P e rsecu ti o n s

D e ci us

an d

Vale ri an

97

cup of martyrdom if we do not rst admit them

to drin k in the C hurch the cup of the Lord by
the right of Communion
2

Valerian became emperor A O 2 5 3 and began

by favouring th e C hristians
Never was there
any emperor before him s o favourably and ben e
vol ent l y disposed towards them No t even those
who were open l y said to be Christians so p l ai nly
received them with such civility and friendship i n
the beginning of hi s reign A l l h is house was
ll ed with Christians and was indeed a congrega
tion (e cclesi a) of the Lord
Th e change i s
attributed by D ionysius B ishop o f A l exandria
to M acri an u s hi s prime minister and chief of
the Egyptian magi whom he accuses of having
instigated his master to practise magica l rites to
sacrice chi l dre n and s e arch the bowels of new
born babes and to muti l ate and dismember the
creatures of G od 3 We may take i t that Mac
ri an u s was an e nemy of th e C hurc h and found
his opportunity in the military disasters that
befe ll the Empire o n every frontier to suggest
that t he Christians were to blame
The persecution began A O 2 5 7 Valerian s
rst edict was directed mainly against bishops
and priests and forbade assemb l ies for worshi p
and the entrance of C hristians into their ceme
t e ri e s sti ll used apparently as p l ace s for worship
by Christians
Cy p i a 8p 5 7
E
b i H 8 vii
I bid
,

r
.

u se

u s,

10

rch H i s to r
8
h
C
u
y
9

Ne ro

ro m

Co n stan ti n e

to

Cyprian was banished to Cu ru b i s , an d D i o

s i u s t o C e hro , a vill age i n the desert
n
y
p
.

Dionysi us gives som e particulars of the per

s e cu ti o n i n letters quoted by Eusebius

We
did not k e e p al o o f from assemblies but I athered
together all th e more dilige ntly those l e ffi n the
city as though I were present
At Ce p hro
at rst we were persecuted and stoned at last
n o t a few o f the h eathen abandoned their idols

and turned t o G o d
Agai n I t i s superuous
to recount o u r breth ren by name as t hey are
numerous and unknown t o y o u They are men
and wom e n young and o ld young virgin s an d
aged matrons soldiers an d private m en eve ry
c l ass and every age so me that obtained the vic
tory u nder stripes and i n the ames some by the
edge o f th e sword
I n the city M aximus
De metrius and Lucius presbyters concealed
themselves and D i o s cu ru s secretly vi sited th e
brethren
I t was Eu sebiu s a deacon wh om
God strengthened from th e rst and prepared
to m inister strenuously to the con fessors i n prison
and to bury the bodie s o f the blessed mar tyrs
made perfect at the risk o f hi s o w n li fe F o r
u p to the prese nt ti me the governor does n o t
cease killing i n a most cruel manner torturi ng
scourgi ng wasti ng wit h i mprison ment and bonds
a nd co m manding that n o o n e sha ll go n e ar t he m
and looking to s e e i f any one shou l d do s o
Yet
G o d by the alacrity and kindness o f the brethren
2
f

has a fforded some relief to the a icted

b i H 8 vii I 1
E
.

'

u se

u s,

The P e rse cu ti o n s

i
e
u
s
c
D
f

Vale ri an

an d

C arthage

99

had escaped m ore l ight l y But in

August A D 2 5 8 Cyprian wrote that Va l erian
had sent a new rescript to the senator orderi ng
that bishops presbyters and deacons be s u m
mari l y put to death that senators men of rank
and R om an knights be deprived of both their
rank and their property and if afterwards th e y
persisted in b e ing C hristians be executed ; that
matrons l ose their property and be banished ;
that a l l imperial o i ci al s who have either con
fessed before o r confess now h ave their property
conscated be reduced to s l avery and sent to
work on the imperial estates
I t i s worthy of note that Cyprian s anxiety was
now no longer lest C hristians should fail to co n
fess but only that they should k e ep the peace
and that none shou l d voluntari l y give them
se lves up
He returned to Carthage to await arrest and
was ordered to conne h imse l f to h is country
house near by as G al e ri u s the governor was
detained at Utica H e refused a ll solicitations
to seek safety in ight but disappeared when he
heard that he was to be tried at Utica H e did
this because he wished to die i n Carthage because

the city i n wh ich he presides over the C h ur ch

o f the Lord is th e place where a bishop ought t o
confess his Lord and to glorify his whole people
by the confession o f their prelate i n their pre
sence
Some years before he had written to
Luc i us that the victim which has to s e t before
the brotherhood the pattern o f man l iness and o f
.

o m Ne ro
r
f

Chu rch H i sto ry

2 00

to

Co n stan ti n e

faith ought to be o ffered up in the pre sence o f

the brethren
When G al e ri u s came to Carthage Cyprian cam e
o u t o f hiding and returned to hi s vil l a
O n Sep
tember 1 3 th two o i ce rs drove up in a chariot
and carrie d hi m o ff to Carthage R ound the
house where he spent the night a vast crowd
assembled pagan as we l l as C hristian to do him
honour
The next day h e was brought before G ale ri u s
t he proco n sul w h o began

Yo u are T has ci u s Cy p ri an u s

Cyp ri an
I am

Gale ri u s
Yo u have given yourself to be a
bis hop to people o f sacrilegious views

I have
Cyp ri an

Gale ri us
C onsider

D o what y o u are ordered t o d o

Cyp ri an
I n such a si m ple matter there is noth ing to
conside r
G al e ri u s the n assed sente nce
Your
life
has
P
long been o n e O f s acri l e g e you have been asso
ci at e d yourself wi th a great number o f person s i n
a cri minal conspiracy Yo u have constituted
yourself an antagonist to the gods o f R ome and
to their sacred O bservances As y o u have been
detected as the instigator and stan dard bearer in
he i nous o ffences you shall be i n your o w n person
a lesson to those w ho have been associated wi th
you O ur pleasure i s that T has ci u s Cy p ri an u s
be executed with the sword
T hi s sente nce Cyprian acknowledged by saying

The P e rse cu ti o n s

D e ci us

an d

Vale ri an

20 1

Thanks be to G od
Th e crowd al l greatly
moved shout e d Let us a l so die with him
Accompanied by an immen se crowd he was
taken to the p l ace of execution Arrived at the
s pot he took o ff his woo ll en cape and kne l t down
and prayed Then h e rose removed hi s da l matic
and i n his white l inen alb prepared for death H e
p l aced the bandage over h is eyes and his deacon
fastened it The executioner tremb l ed s o that
he could not perform his task But the centurion
took the sword and sev e red his neck at one
stroke
I n R o m e the Pope Sixtus w as found teaching
in the Catacombs and there executed with s i x o f
his seven deacons Four days later S Laurence
with others met their death S Laurence w as
Archdeacon o f R ome Th e story is that when
he saw Sixtus bei ng led to execution he exc l aimed

?
W hy do you leave me ho l y father
Shou l d
the priest go to the sacrice without his attendant
deacon ? Laurence as keeper of the treasures
of the C hurch was ordered by the authorities to
produce them H e asked for a day i n which
to co l lect them and spent the time i n visiting
the poorest quarters of the city The next day
he appeared at the tribunal attended by a crowd

o f b e ggars and cripp l es

These he exp l ained

are the treasures of the C hurch " H e was

ordered to be burnt on a gridiron
The persecution came to an end with the cap
ture of Val erian by the Persian s under Sapor
G a l lienus w ho succeeded issued an edict of
,

2 D

202

Chu rch H i sto ry

Ne ro

ro m

to

Co n stan ti n e

toleration A D 2 6 0 The edict i s lost but i t

allowed the clergy to perfor m their accu stomed
mi ni stration s un molested an d granted permission
t o the bishops t o recover the cemeteries
I t was
addressed to them and therefore recogn ized the
C hurch as a corporation
Thi s edict re mai ned in
force u n til the last and greatest persecution under
Diocletian A D 3 0 3
For forty -three years the C h urch had peace
.

XI
R O MA N CH U R C H

TH E

OW Christianity was rst i ntroduced into

But we know
R ome we do not know
that on the day of Pentecost among those

addressed by S Peter there were the soj ourn

ing Romans Jews as we ll as prose l ytes that
is a body of Jews from R ome resident for the
time at J erusa l em
These Jews may probab l y
be identied with the Synagogue O f the Liber
tines O r R oman freedmen to whom in the
rst place S Stephen addressed his preaching
There can be no reasonab l e doubt th at C hris
ti an i ty found its way to R ome within a year
o r two
at most
B ut we do n o t know wh o
rst organized the C hurch there or who l ai d
its foundations We know that S Pa u l had

l eft i t alone because he would n o t build on

another man s foundation and that when h e
wrote A O 5 7 5 8 it was a large and ourishi n g
community Who was the other man
The
universal tradition of the C hristian Church
answers S Peter and there is no su f cient
reason for rej ecting this testimony
I t has also
of l ate years received the support o f archae o
l ogica l i nvestigation

II

203

Chu rch H i sto ry

2 04

ro m

Ne ro

to

Co n s tan ti n e

Mr Edm und son suggests that whe n S Peter

van ishes from S Luke s history i n th e Acts after
his escape fro m prison i n th e spring of A D 4 4
h e we n t to R om e I f s o the suggestion may
have come from Corne l ius who bel onged to
th e Co ho rs I tali ca There i s a strong tradition
that S Peter spe nt some years there though
if s o hi s re sidence would hardly have been con
On th e authority o f J usti n Eusebiu s
ti n u o u s
tell s u s that he followed o n the heels o f Simon
Magus wh o had preceded him th ere and was
regarded as a g o d H ippolytu s tel l s u s that
S Peter successfu l ly opposed Simon Magu s i n
R ome as he had previous l y in Samaria 3
I n A D 5 1 o r 5 2 Claudius expe l led the J
e w s fro m
R om e and the Acts tell u s that S Paul fou nd
Aquila and h is wife Pri sci l la in Corinth who had
come there i n con sequence of the edict bei ng
at the time a l ready C hristians Suetonius gi ve s
the further i n formatio n that the J ews were
expel l ed o n account o f their continua l tum ults
i mp u ls o re Chre sto C hre s t u s bei ng th e i nstigator
So i t i s n o t unreaso n able to assume that the
disturbances arose through the i ntroduction of
C hristianity

1
6 3 ) as a
A
O
6
S Paul s pent tw o years (
prisoner at Rome and S Peter probably wrote
t here hi s F irst Epi stle which ends with a greeting
2

,
.

2
2

E dm u n dso n , The

H 8

ii

Ch

u rch

i n Ro m e i n the

Fi rst Ce n tury

3, I 4

3 F o r t he w h o e s u
e t e r s co n n e c t o n w
e ct o f S
j
s e e The Chu rch i n Ro m e i n the Fi rs t
e c t u re
en tury ,
.

i th R
ii

o m e,

The R o m an Chu rch

from

205

Babylon
and Babyl on i s a l most cer
I t is reasonab l y
tai n l y a synonym for R ome
certain that both Apost l es were martyred there
probab l y between A O 6 4 and 6 7 It was there
fore tted by its Aposto l ic connection s as by
i ts centra l position and the associations and g l ory
of its name to become the centr e O f C hristendom
when Jerusalem was destroyed R ome was not
on l y the cap i t al o f the wor l d : it w as the on l y
Apostol ic s e e i n the West
A great source of inuence may be traced to
its hospita l ity On e of the most e l ementary
charitab l e duti es of the C hristian as we have
s e en was hospita l ity
The wor l d ocked to
R om e as th e Eng l ish -speaking wor l d ocks to
London to day and th e R oman C hurch became
by its position th e hostess of visiting C hristians
from a ll over the Empire and beyond
Owing perhaps to their e xceptiona l o p p o r
t u n i t i e s of knowing the needs o f other C hurches
R oman C hristian s seem to have been distinguished
for their generosity D iony sius who was Bishop
of Corinth writing t o the R omans addressing
hi s l ett e r to Soter the bishop of that city i s
quoted by Eusebius as saying
F o r this practice h as prevai l ed with y o u from
t he beginning to do good to a ll the brethren in
every way and to send con tributio ns to many
church e s i n every ci ty thus refresh i ng the needy
i n their want and furnishing necessaries to t he
brethren condemned to the mine s you preserve
by these contributions th e practice s of your
8

Chu rch H i sto ry

206

Ne ro

ro m

Co nstan ti n e

to

ancestors the R omans Which was n o t only

observed by your Bishop Soter but al so in creased
as h e n o t o nly furnished great supplie s to the
sai nts but a l so encouraged the brethren that
came from abroad with words o f consolation
as a loving father hi s children
I t i s noteworthy that at rst it i s the Church
rather than the Bi shop o f R om e which i s promi
n ent Clement wrote a letter to the Cori nthians
o n certai n disorders i n their C hurch wi th which
th e R oman C hurch was closely con nected as
Ignatius wrote to C hurches i n Asia M inor an d
Dionysius o f C ori nth wrote t o remonstrate with
the Church at Athens I t was a part of the
general sense o f brotherhood I f your neighbour
was i n di f cultie s o r si n you had t o try to help
What was true o f the individual was equally true
I t was the m ost natural thi ng i n
o f the C h urch
the world that Clemen t should write to the
What does seem strange i s
C ori nth ia n C hurch
that Clement writes n o t in his O w n name as

bis hop but i n the nam e o f th e C hurch of G o d

which soj ourn s i n R om e
Ag ai n Ignatius th e
last man to slight the o ffi ce 0 f a bishop writing
about twenty years later addres sed his letter to
the C hurch an d n o t to the bishop D ionysius o f
C ori nth also i n acknowledging th e generosi ty o f

the R oman Church wrote to th e R oman s i n

stead o fto Soter their bishop
Ignatius describe s
the R oman C h urch as havi ng the presidency i n
the country o f the land o f the R oman s and as
I bid
E
b i H E iv 3
.

u se

u s,

The R o m an

h
rc
h
u
C

207

being famous fo r good works Th ere i s no word

of the bishop and no hint o f more than a presi
den e y o f honour among t he l oca l C hurches
Amo n g the famous Christians who visited R ome
w as Po l ycarp who came in the time of Anicetus
and disputed with the fo l lowers o f Va l entinus
and Marcion and brought many o f them to the
F aith
H e and Anicetus had many arguments
about the proper date o f Easter but neither
cou l d persuade the oth e r H owever they agreed
to di f
fer amicab l y and Anicetus al l owed Po l ycarp
to celebrate i n h is place
Soter who succeeded Anicetus wrot e the letter
to the C orinthians which has already been men
.

ti o

ne

We get the rst clear picture o f the R oman

C hurch as a nat u ral guide and arbiter from
I renaeus though he to o speaks of the Church and
n o t the bishop
I t would b e he says to o tedious
to refute t he Gnostics by reckoning up the suc
cessions o f all the C hurches so it wi l l be enough

to show the Apostol ic tradition of the very great

the very ancien t and universally known C hurch
founded and organized at Rome by the two most
F o r to
glorious Apostles P eter and Paul
this Church every C hurch that i s the faithful

everywhere must needs resort on account o f

its great e r pre -eminence since th e Aposto l ic tradi
tion has a l ways been preserved therein by the
faithfu l who resort to i t from everywhere
The words are obscure and the translation d i i
i
Ag ai t H
III 3
,

ns

eres es,

Chu rch H i sto ry

208

Ne ro

fro m

Co n stan ti n e

to

cult b u t the meani ng apparently is that C hristian s

looked o n the C h urch o fR ome as an arbiter o n di s
u te d poi nts o ffaith because from her position s h e
p
w as i n touch wi th the faith ful everywhere and i n
a posi tion to know th e truth generally professed
I n A D I 7 7 I re naeus was sent with a le tter
from Lyons to bring i ntelligence o f the martyr
doms i n Gaul to E l e u t he ru s w ho was the
Bishop of R ome and a l so to protest again st the
errors o f the M ontanists E l e u t he ru s seem s to
have conde m ned the Mo ntanists At l eas t Ter
tullian clai ms that a s ubsequent Bishop o f R ome

acknowledged the claims o f M ontanus Prisca

and M ax i m i ll a and bestowed h i s peace o n the
but afte rwards
C h urches o f Asia and Phrygia
withdrew his approval at the in stigation o fP rax e as

who i n si sted o n the authority o f the bishop s

predecessors i n the see

Victor bishop A D 1 8 9 1 99 took a m uch

stronger li ne than any o f his predecessors T h ere
had long be en a controversy as to the correct day
fo r keeping Easter
T he C hurches i n Asia we re
quartodecimans ; that is they ended their fast
before Easter o n the fourteenth day o f the
Jewish m onth Nizam s o as to coincide wi th the
conclusion o f the Jewish Passover Elsewhere
Easter was always obse rved o n a Sunday An i
ce tus an d Polycarp had had as we have seen a
friendly di fference o n the subj ect but the feeling
o f the
C h urch was consolidating against th e
quartodecimans everywhere except i n Asia T he
T P a i
,

r x

The Ro m an Chu rch

20

question was specially felt at R ome because o f

the number o f strangers who kept Easter there
and Victor seems to have made up hi s mind to
procure uniformity Counci l s were held in Gaul
i n Pontus i n Pa l estine an d i n Asia Every
where except i n Asia th e quartodecimans were
condem ned
Po l ycrates Bi shop o f Ephesus
a nd the Bishops of Asia were alone recalcitrant

Po l ycrates quoted the exam les o f the great

lights i n Asia whom they o ll o we do f Ph ilip
the Apost l e and hi s virgin daughters o f Joh n
w ho rested i n the bosom o f o u r Lord and o f
other great men Moreover seven of his o wn

relatives had been bishops and they always

observed th e day when th e J ews threw away the
Nothing therefore would induce him
leaven
to give way Victor who seem s t o have been
the chief mover i n promoting these gatherings
forthwith endeavoured to cut o ff the C hurche s
Asia together with the neighbouri ng
o f al l
C hurches as heterodox from the common unity
And he published abroad by l etters that a l l the
brethren there are whol ly excommunicated
But this continues Eusebius was n o t the opin ion
o f all the bishops
O n the contrary they ex
ho rte d Victor with much severity t o promote
peace and unity I renaeus i n particular wrote in

the name o f the C hurches i n Gaul admonish

ing Victor n o t to cut O ff whole Churches o f
God who observed the tradition o f an ancient
H e urged the example o f Victor s
custom
H 8 v
4
,

2 10

Chu rch H i sto ry

Ne ro

ro m

Co n stan ti n e

to

predecessors i n a l lowi ng the di fference notably

the i n stance o f Anicetus and Po l ycarp

Wi th
all these mai ntained peace a nd we have main
tai n e d p e ace w i t h o n e another ;
and the very
di fference i n o u r fasting establish es the unanimity
i n o u r faith
I t i s probable that Victor afterwards withdrew
from an u ntenable position
Hip p olytus w ho died A D 2 3 5 o r 2 3 6 is
the outstanding gure i n the R oman C hurch
d uring th e rst quarter of the third century H e
was a disciple of I renaeus and a man o f immen se
learning Under Victor he seem s to have been
i n favour but i n the time o f Z ephyri n us A D

1
1
Z
2
he
lost
i
n
uence
ephyri
nus
was
99 7
succeeded by Calli s t u s who had once been a
slave Hippolytus had been o n bad term s with
Call i s t u s and was i n furiated by th e appoi n tmen t
of his enemy The subseque nt h i story is obscure
but H ippolytus we nt into schism and i s possibly
the rst anti -pope At least he never speaks o f
Cal l i s t u s as bish op but as having set up a

school and made himself the head o f it I n

the fol l owing e ntry in the Liberian Catalogue h e

i s referred to as a pre sbyter not as a bi shop

At
that time the Bi shop Pontianus and the Presbyter
Hippolytus were deported to Sardinia a pesti
l e n tial island i n the con sulship o f Seve ru s and
H i s death probably
Q u i n t i an u s A D 2 3
Li b i a C atal g
F
vi w th at H i p p ly t w a
th
Bi h p f P t
Li ghtf t Ap t li Fath I l ii
,

er

7 36

o r us

se e

ue

o r

oo

os o

e rs ,

us

vo

The R o m an Church

2 1 1

occurred i n this year or the next H e is n ot

however r e ckoned among t he anti popes and he
is counted among the martyrs so it may be that
he w as reconci l ed with h is riva l Pon tianus i n the
marshes of Sardinia and his schism forgotten
H e was laid to rest i n the time of F abian by
the Via Tiburtina where a statue was found
in 1 5 5 1 perfect except for the head He i s
seated in a chair o n which are inscribed h i s
tab l es for nding Easter As th i s cyc l e went
wrong fro m A D 2 3 7 the s tatue cannot have
been put up later There i s al so a catalogue
of his writings Among them are a l arge num
ber of exegetical works and the Phi lo sop hurn en a
a voluminous book against heretics
H e also
wrote a book O f Chro n i cles and i s probab l y
the author o f the s o -ca ll e d 8gyp ti an Church
.

H ippolytus
distance
He

i s the R oman Tertullian at a

had immense learning and was
decient in charity ; but is far below Tertu ll ian
as a writer of vivid and nervous prose H e
attacked Call i s tu s in the most savage manner
for past scanda l s in his private l ife the truth
o f which
we have n o means o f j udging but
He
they bear marks of gross exaggeration
a l so attacked his policy principa ll y in respect
o f his l e niency
to S III H CI S
H ippo l ytus like
Tertull ian was a rigorist and wou l d a l low no
absolution for grave sins Call i s tu s had issued
S
a ti l
i T x t a d St di
viii 4 b y D m R H
C ll y
,

'

o no

ee

c e

es ,

21 2

Chu rch H i sto ry

Nero

ro m

Co n s tan ti n e

to

an edict a l lowing repentance to thos e guilty o f

adultery which ca l led forth one o f T e rtu l l i an s

characteristic protests
Yo u i ntroduce
he

write s addressing the pope

i nto the Ch urch
i n order t o m e l t the brotherhood by hi s prayers
the penitent adulterer Yo u lead him into th e
midst and prostrate hi m all i n haircloth and
ashes a compound o f disgrace and horror before
th e widows before the chi l dren suing fo r the
tears o f all kissing their footpri nts clasping their
knees M eantime y o u harangue the peop l e and
excite their pity fo r the s ad fate o f this suppliant
O good shepherd O blessed pope y o u re l ate the
Parable o f the Lost Sheep in or d er that th is goat
may be returned to you
Call i s t u s decreed that if a woman o f h igh
birth married a slave the marriage should be
recognized by the Church The State did n o t
recognize t he marriag e o f a slave at all
H i ppolytus accused him o f allowi ng men w ho
had been twice o r thrice married to continue
i n holy orders and of allowing those already
ordai ned to marry H e a l so say s that du ri n
h is p o n ti cate a second baptism was atte m p t e cg
This mu st mean a re -baptism of h eretics but i f
the attempt was n o t successfu l as n o t long
so

after Stephe n stated that re baptism had n ever

bee n allowed by his predecessors
After t he death o f H ippolytus his mant l e fell
o n Novatian
Like H ippolytus he was a man
o f real learni ng
and like h im was contentious
O Cha ti ty iii

The

Chu rch

o m an

2 1

and unru l y According to Corne l ius he had

been bapti z ed on h i s sick bed and had never
bee n conrmed ; and fo r this reason obj ection
He
was made to his ordination as presbyter
produced a l earned work o n the Trin ity and

again according to Corne l ius expect e d to be made

pope But being disappointed he persuaded
three obscure I tal ian bishops to consecrate him
and headed a secon d rigorist schi sm during the
troub l es that fo ll owed the D e cian persecution
H e made common cause with No v atu s o f Car
so
we have the surprising resu l t that
t hag e
Novatian at the head o f a rigorist schism i n
R ome was al l ied with No v atu s at the head o f
a l axity schism in Carthage I t gave ri se to
a good deal of correspondence between Cyprian
and the R oman Bishop Corne l ius wh ich has
been preserved
Cyprian wrote to give an account O f hi s own
troub l es with schismatic presbyt e rs and sympa
even
th i z e d with C orne l ius in h is d i i cu l ti e s
going s o far as to write a l etter to t he confessors
at R ome who wer e causi ng them I n reply
Corne l ius wrote to t e l l him o f the submission
of some of the rebel l ious presbyters in order
he exp l ain s that he may give thanks
When expecting a second outbreak o f perse
cu t i o n
Cyprian and the assemb l ed African
bishops decided to admit the penitent lapse d

t o C ommunion
that th e y might be armed for
the fray
This decision was communicated to
E
b i H 8 vi 4 3
,

u se

u s,

2 1

Chu rch Hi sto ry

Ne ro

ro m

Co n stan ti n e

to

C ornel ius ,

partly for his information and partly

appare n t l y for h is example
Fortunatu s and F e li ci s s i m u s two o f the
African in subordi nate presbyters went to com
p l ai n at Ro me
Cyprian then wrote to urge
C ornelius whom he eviden tly thi nks wanti ng
in rmness to have nothin g to do with them
I t had evidently not entered his h ead that th ey
had a righ t to appeal to R ome They had
wandered about maki ng trouble all over the
province o f Africa and being n o w too well
known there had go ne to try their for tunes
at R ome
Later when Ste phen was pope Marcian
Bishop o f Ar l e s ann ounced that he adhered to
Novatian and separate d himself from the rest
o f the
bishops W he reupon Cyprian advised

Ste phen now pope to write t o

fellow
o ur
bi shops i n Gau l n ot to su ffer any longer that
M arcian
should i nsu l t our asse mbly because
h e does n o t yet seem to be excomm unicated
by us
I n other words Stephen was to write
to the bishops o f the provi nce and to th e people
at Arles that Marcian might be excommunicated
and a s uccessor appoi nted
Cyprian urge s
Stephe n t o act in stead o f acting himself pre
s u m ab l
because
R
om
e
was
uch
n
earer
than
m
y
Carthage to Arles an d i ts co mmunication s with
the province much closer
H i s letter went on to descant o n the duties o f
bishops and gave S tephen some excellen t advice

Among other thi ngs he wrote : Although we

,

The R o m an Chu rch

I5

are many bishops we feed one ock and ought

to co ll ect and cheri sh a ll th e ock which C hrist
by His B l ood and Passion sought for ; nor ought
we to su ffer our supp l iant and mourning br e thren

to be despised
words which show p l ai n l y
enough that any idea of papa l j uri sdiction of the
o n e bishop over a ll was n ot i n his mind
I n another case of discipline Steph e n was i n
conict with Cyprian B as i li de s and Martia l two
Spanish bishops had given way i n the p e rs e cu
tion and were expe ll ed by their ock who e l ected
S ab i n u s and F e l ix i n the ir p l ace
Their deposers
W rote to Cypria n i nforming h i m of what had
happened and to be rel ieved by the comfort o r
by the help of our j udgement
Cyprian and
hi s fellow bishops war m l y approved th e ir conduct
B as il i de s had aggravat e d hi s o ffe nce by appea l ing
to Stephen who p l aced at a distance and ignorant
o f what had been done and of the truth
had
been induced to canvass that he might be replaced
u nj ust l y in the episcopate from which he
had
been righteous l y d e p o s e d
On the question of the re
baptism of heretics
there was an acute di fference I n the seco nd
century such baptism s had be e n administered by
G nostic sects which wer e denite l y outside the
C hurch and the refusal to recogniz e th em was
a l most a matter of course Later after the rise
o f the Montanists and the Novatianists w ho were
schi smatics the question cam e up for decision
Novatian himse l f had begun by re -baptizing his
Cy p i a Ep 6 7
,

2 1

6 Church H i s to ry

Ne ro

ro m

Co n stan ti n e

to

disciples Cyprian adopting the traditional view

refused to recogn ize an baptism given outside
the C hurch He was fhl l o w e d by most o f the
Africa n bishops Stephe n Bishop o f R om e was
as emphatic o n t he other side Cyprian s position
was logica l and clear
Those outside the C hurch
are dead No o n e can be made alive by that
which i s dead Therefore n o baptism outside
the C h urch can be baptism at all H o w can
?
dead waters give life
T he controversy was acute and lasted fo r
some ti me The Eastern C h urch seem s t o have
f
bee n i n favour o re bapti sm though Dionysius
o f Al exandria
was rm o n the oth er s ide

F i r m i l i an B i shop o f Caesarea wrote

All
powers and grace are established i n the C h urch
when the elders pre side who possess the power
both o f baptizing and O f i m p o s i ti o n o f hands an d
F o r as a heretic may n o t l awfully
o f ordain ing
ordai n o r lay o n hand s s o neither m ay h e bap

Fro m which we s e e i ncidental l y that n o

tiz e
mai ntained th e validity o f conrmation o r
o ne
ordination i f administered by heretics
Steph en Bi shop o f R ome strong l y opposed
Cyprian and those w h o thought with h im and
we n t s o far as to excomm u n icate them F i rm i l i an
was much shocked by thi s breac h o f ch ari ty and
poi nted o u t that previously there had been dif
fe re n ce s with the C hurch o f R om e i n res pect
o f the date o f Easter and other matters wi thout
produci ng any breach o f the peace and unity o f
I bid 7 7
C y p i a Ep 7 1
.

The R o m an Chu rch

I7

the Catho l ic C hurch such as Stephen has n o w

The controversy was for the
dared to make
moment ended by the d eath o f Stephen and th e
martyrdom of Cyprian but t h e Eastern C h urch
w as s l ow to give in though the R oman view
prevai l ed in t he end
I t is worthy of note that the C hurch in R ome
was at rst a G reek and not a Latin C hurch
C lement wrote in G reek and down to H ippo l ytus
a ll who wrote at R ome wrote in Greek H ippo
l y tu s was the l ast great writer o f the R oman
C hurch who wrote i n Greek
,

Cy p i a
NO T E

Ep

75

NO at te m p t

i
b

h as e e n m ade t o d e a w t h the
t h e o ry o f P a a S u re m acy , t h o u g h ce rt a n fac t s t h at
e ar o n
p
p
i t ha e e e n g e n
T o go n to t h e q u e s t o n at an y e n g t h
wo u d b e
e o f th s w o rk
F
o r t h s re aso n
e o n d t h e sc o
y
p

t he p assag e s i n
r
a
n s T re at se O n the Un i t
t
e
a
t
h
oli c
c
h
f
yp
y

hu rch, h a e n o t e e n d scu sse d F o r i ts d sc u ss o n , se e e n so n s

2

v b
l
b

l
iv

C i
b
i

8 0 sqq

C
B

XI I
LI FE I N

T H E C H U R CH

ante -Nicen e fathers tell u s litt l e o f th e

C hurch l ife o f their day ; o f i ts i nternal
organization i ts o ffi cers and their d uties the
m inistry o f its wom en the orderi ng o f its
services its social life i ts chari ties and i ts
discip l ine though we are able to glean some
valuabl e an d int e resting i nformation
But
scholars i n rec e n t years h ave added consider
ably to o u r knowledge o f these things by bring
i ng in to the ligh t what are known as the C h urc h
Orders These are M anuals o f Ch urch Order
and Di scipline for the u s e and in struction o f
local bishops
The earliest i s probably the

D i dachc o n which was afterwards based th e

seventh book of the Ap o sto li c Co n sti tu ti o n s Next
came a manual com monly known as the Eg yp ti an
2
I t s original see ms to have bee n
Chu rch Orde r
written i n Greek by H ippolytus and was called
the Ap o sto li c Tradi ti o n somewhere duri ng the
rst quarter o f the third century T he Gre e k
origina l i s lost but we have som e fragments
of a Lati n version published by E H au l er and
commonly cal l ed the Verona fragment and four
S
viii 4 b y D m R H C ll
T t a d St di
HE

ee

ex s

e s,

2 1

o no

the

L i i n

Chu rch

2 1

Ori e nta l versions trans l ated from t he Latin two

of t hem Coptic one Arabian and o n e Ethiopian
F ourth or ft h-century adaptations of th ese are

found i n the s o ca ll e d Can o n s of Hipp o ly tus Book

vii i o f the Ap o sto li cal Co n sti tu ti o n s an d the Testa
m e n t of the L o rd
Later sti l l came th e 8p i to rn e
and the Co n sti tuti o n es p e r H ipp o ly tum derived from
Book viii of the Ap o sto li c Co n sti tu ti o n s We hav e
al so a third cen tury manua l in Syriac though
this i s n o t to a ffi rm that Syriac was t he o ri g i n al
language i n which it was wri tt e n ca ll ed the
D i dascal i a Ap o sto l o ru m wh ich reappears l ater
brought u p to date and revised in the rst six
books of the Ap o sto li c Co n sti tuti o n s written towar d s
the end of the fourth century
So far as our period is concerned we have to

re l y on the D i dache the Egyp ti an Chu rch Orde r

and the D i dascali a
Between them we learn
a good deal o f the i nner C hurch l ife o f th e
third -century C hristian
2

B A PT I SM
Admission into the Church was by Baptism
About that there is no doubt We have n o
very ear ly description o f the service J ustin
Martyr gives some account i n his F i rst Ap o logy
but does not enter into details

S e e The Statutes of the Ap ostle s, b y

H T at tam , Ap o sto li cal Co n sti tu ti o n s ; a so
o n sti tu ti on es A o sto loru rn
p
2
Ix i
2

Re v

F k
un

H o rn e r

Di dascali a

et

o m Ne ro
r
f

Chu rch H i sto ry

2 20

to

Co n stan ti n e

As many as are persuade d and believe that

what we teach i s tru e and undertak e to l ive
accordingly are instructed to pray an d entreat
God with fasting fo r th e remission o f their
past sins we praying and fasting with them
Then they are brought by us where there i s
water and are regenerated i n the same man ner
in which we were ourselves regenerated F o r
i n th e Name of God the Father and Lord o f the
u niverse and o f o u r Saviour Jesus Chri st and
o f the H oly S pirit they then rece ive th e wash ing
with water F o r Christ also said Except ye be
born again ye shall not enter into the kingdom
,

I n the D i dach there was a direction to bap

t i z e i n runni n g water i n the Nam e o f th e Father

and of the Son and o f the Holy Spiri t : I f

thou hast n ot runn ing water baptize i n some
other water ; and i f t hou canst n o t baptize i n
cold the n in warm water ; but if thou hast

neither ( that is neither a stream o f run ning

water o r a pool o f standing water) pour water

three times o n the h ead
By the middle o f the third century the pre
a
rat i o n for Baptism and i ts ritual had developed
p
co nsiderably Th e candidates o r catech umens
had to serve a long and arduo u s apprentice shi p

First o f all they were brought to the te achers

before th e peop l e came i n ; and they s ha l l a sk

them fo r what reason they so ught the Faith

Di da he vii
,

H o rn e r, Statutes of the Apostles, p

8
4

L ife i n

the

Chu rch

22 1

Th e y were also examined as to their trades and

way of l ife A s l ave might not b e admitted
un l ess he cou l d bring a good character from
his master Fo u r c l asses of peop l e are to chang e
their way o f l ife or to be rej ected
1
Those leading i mmoral l ives or l iving on
the i mmora l ity of others
2
Those havi ng to do with heathen worship
whether a priest or a maker of ido l s or a painter
o r gilder o f them
Those
who
have
any
con
nection
with
the
3

Shows or Games o f the circus

A man or
a woman who i s concerned i n a theatre o r a
charioteer or an O l ympic contender or a chorus
ute -p l ayer o r a harp -p l ayer or a pip e r or a
dancer or o n e who goes to the games or w ho i s
a g l adiator or teaches g l adiators to ght
Sorcerers
and
soothsayers
of
a
l
l
kinds
4
star-gazers divi ners serpent -charmers
one
who augurs by the birds o f heaven
I f the catechumens answered the questions
satisfactorily they were admitted by the imposi
tion o f hands They were then placed under
instruction and allowed to attend the rst part of
the Eucharistca l led later the Mass of the Cate
They stood at the back of the church
chu m e n s
an d heard the readings of the Scripture and the
sermon but were dismissed before the ce l ebration
of the Mysteries
The teaching was moral and doctrina l The
moral teaching seem s to have been mainly o n th e
.

Ho m

e r,

Statutes

f the Ap o stles

31

2.

o m Ne ro
r
f

Church Hi sto ry

222

Co n stan ti n e

to

line s o f The Two Ways which are given i n

the D i dach as the groundwork o f a catech etica l
instruction The teacher might be a l ayman and
H e w as cal l ed
w as appointed for the p urpose
the D octor After each i nstruction they prayed
by them selves the wom en s e parately from the
me n the instructor th en laid hi s hands o n them
and di smi ssed them with a prayer
The preparation lasted norm ally for three
ye ars bu t it varied with the individual candidate

Yet if he were a good scholar and o n e who

knows good conduct n o l ength o f ti me need be
required of him but the conduct alone shall
decide fo r him
Candidates i m pri soned for their religion b e
fore the e n d of their catechumenate were n o t
be apprehen sive at th e prospect of dying
to
unbaptized as martyrdo m w as con sidered to

have the e ffect o f baptism

I f a catech um e n
i s arrested for h is re l igion he is n ot to fear
because if put to death he i s baptized i n hi s
,

wn

the fortieth day before the Easter o n which

they were to be baptized their l ives were ex

i f they lived in the fear o f G o d i t

am i n e d
they honoured the wi dow or visi ted the sick o r
if they did a l l good and if there is wi tn ess i n
their favour from those w h o bri ng
and
i f the result was satisfactory the Gospe l was read
On

2
2

H o rn e r, Statutes of the Apo stles, p

I bid , p 1 5 1
.

I bid

2.

o
5

L i: i n

Chu rch

the

223

over them and they were admitted to a more

i n tensive pr e paration
They w e re now dai l y instructed and exorcized
with th e imposition of h ands Some day shortl y
before E aster they underwen t an e xamination at
th e hands of the bishop
An d if o n e i s found
who i s not pur e they shal l put h im aside by him
s e l f ; for he has not hearken ed to the voice o f
instruction with faith
Those who are accepted are directed to bathe
o n t he Thursday an d to begi n their fast on th e
next day On t he Sat u rday they w e re onc e more
brought to th e bishop and kn e l t before hi m

And when h e has l aid h i s hand upon them l et

him exorcize a ll al ien spirits to ee away from
them and not to return to them henceforward
And when he has done exorcizing l et h im breathe
i n th eir face
At nightfa ll they assemb l e d
with the faithful for the devotions of the Pascha l
vigi l a pro l onged service o f l esson s hym ns and
a sermon I t inc l uded the rst part of th e
Euchari st and l asted until dawn
They then
went to the baptistery The baptism began with

th e blessing of t he water
At the hour when
the cock wi ll crow l et them rst pray over the
wat e r Let the water be owing along into the
tank or descending upon it
But if there
be a scarcity then use the water wh ich ye shall
nd 3
At the sam e time the oil has t o be b l essed and
,

2
2

H o rn e r, Statu tes of the Ap o stles, p

I b id

3 6
1

I bid

I 52

Church H i sto ry

224

Ne ro

r
om
f

Co n stan ti n e

to

the candidates u ndre ss

Le t the bishop give
thanks over the o i l and p ut i t i nto a vessel and
ca l l it the o i l o f thanksgiving ; and take al s o
other oil and exorcize i t and cal l it the o i l o f
exorcism
An d a deacon shall carry th e o i l
o f exorcism
and stand o n th e left hand o f the
pre sbyter And a n other deacon shall take the
o i l o f than ksgiving and stand o n the right hand

o f the presbyter

The children are to be baptized rst

And
ye sha l l rst baptize the chi l dren All w ho can
speak for the mselves l et them speak But fo r
them who can not speak let the ir paren ts speak
for t hem or any other belonging to their
family
Then fo ll owed t he renu nciation
And when
the presbyter has take n hold o f each o n e w ho
wi l l be baptized le t him com mand h i m to re
nounce saying I renounce thee Satanas and
all thy service and all thy
I n th e
Can o n s of H ipp o ly tus a l ater work the catechu

me n turns to the west and says

I re nounce
t h ee Satan and al l thy works 3
The candidate i s then exorcized
And when
he has renounced all these let hi m an oint h im
with the oil o f exorcism saying Let every foul
spirit remove far from the e
The anointing
presbyter the n han ds h im over n ake d to the
presbyter o r bishop who is to baptize
Li ke
.

2
2

Ho m

I bid

e r,

Statu tes of the Ap o stles, p

3I7

6
p 3
C ab ro l an d L e cl e rcq , M o n u rn en ta E ccl e s i ae
.

Lit

ca,
i
g
p

ur

26

L ie i n

Chu rch

the

22 5

wise a l so l et the deacon go with him into th e

water and l et him s ay to him he l ping him to
say it I be l i e v e in the on l y true G od the
F ather the A l mighty and H i s on l y Son Jesus
Christ o u r Lord and Saviour and H i s H oly
,

Then t he act of baptism takes p l ace

And
he who gives the baptism sha l l put hi s hand
on the head of him who receives and dip
him three times ; and he who is baptized sha ll
make declaration e very sing l e time that he is
dipped
Afterwards apparen tly he repeats hi s profession

o f faith
H e i s asked :
Dost thou believe in
the Name of our Lord J e sus C hrist the only Son
o f G od th e F ather that H e became man in an
incomprehensible mirac l e by th e H oly Spirit and
by o u r Lady Mary the V irgin without seed o f
man and that H e was crucied i n the time of
Pi l ate the Pontian and H e died ; and H e died
by His own w i ll to save us and H e rose from
the dead o n the third day and re l eased the cap
ti v e s
and ascended into t he heavens and sat
down on the right hand of the F ather and H e
sha l l come to j udge the l iving and the dead at

H i s appearing an d H i s kingdom ?

D ost thou be l ieve in the Spirit the holy

the good the sanctied i n the ho l y C hurch
and dost thou believe i n the resurrection of
the body which shal l happen to every man
and the kingdom of the heavens and eternal
j udgement
.

,
,

226

Chu rch Hi sto ry

Ne ro

ro m

Co n stan ti n e

to

And h e shal l an swer fo r all these th ings

sayi n g Veri l y I believe i n this

After th e act o f baptis m and the professio n o f
faith the candidate is anointed with th e o i l o f
thanksgiving
,

CO N F I R M A T I O N

Th ey then dry them se lves and put o n their

clothes and go i nto the ch urch and are im me
d i at e ly conrmed
Let t he bishop lay hi s h and upon them with
great desire saying Lord G o d according as
T hou hast made thes e worthy of rece iving the
forgiven ess o f their sins unto the future li fe make
them worthy o f being lled wi th T hy H oly Spirit
and sen d down upon them Thy grace that they
may serve T hee accordi ng t o Thy will because
Thine i s the glory Father Son and H oly Spirit
i n the holy C hurch n o w and always and fo r ever
and ever
H e then anoints the candidate

And he shall pour som e o i l o fthe than k sgiving

upon h i s hand and lay his hand upon hi s h ead
sayi ng I anoi nt thee with an unction in h oly o il
by God the Father Alm ighty and Jesus C hrist
an d th e H oly S piri t
And h e shall seal him
upon hi s forehead k issing him and s hall say
Th e Lord be with thee
And he w ho has been

sealed shall answer And with thy spirit

,

2
2

H o m e r, Statu te s of the Ap ostle s , p

I b i d , pp 3 1 8 - 1 9
.

54

L i s i n
'

Church

the

227

The who l e congregation then pray si l ently and

give o n e another th e kiss of peace
I t shoul d be noticed that the outward sign o f
C onrmation consists o f unction imposition o f
hands and signing D r Brightman says that
the unction i n the West was probably pecu l iar
to R ome and was not found i n Africa the i m
po sition o f hands being the essentia l part o f the
rite I n the East the unction was the centra l
act Origen does n o t mention th e laying o n o f
hands
The Eucharist was n o w continued and the
baptized received their rst C ommunion
,

E U C H A R I ST
When the newly-baptized received their rst
C ommunion a cup containing water and another
containing honey and milk were consecrated at
the same time as the wine The water was to
symbolize the washing o f the inner man and the
honey and mi l k the Promised Land into which
they were now entering They received rst

the Bread with some such words as Thi s

i s the Body o f Christ
The com municant
saying Am en Then t h e cups containing water

He
and mi l k and honey The n the W i ne 3
i
t
t
a
H
t
h
C
h
h
a
i
i
d
M
l
8 y
y of
y p p 3 49 5
I
h
E th i p i v
i H
t
t
l
Stat t
th
A
f
p
THE

8
7
Th

t m e
e tc

s or

u rc

e rs o n

o rn e r,

n s r

u es o

os

e s,

i s th e o rd e r i n t he V e ro n a fragm e n t
o f t h e so -c a e d C an on s c
H
h
i
o
t
s
t
e
l
u
,
f pp y
h
h
ce
w e re g e n a
e
c
e
r
t
a

iv

ll

li

L at
cu

e r,

s o

by

th e

f w at e r,

22

Chu rch H i sto ry

ro m

Ne ro

to

o n s tan t n e

who administers the cup sha ll s ay T his i s

the Blood o f Chri st
the communicant agai n
saying Am en
It was the great privilege o f the baptized to
be present at th e Eucharist Sunday by Sunday

J usti n Martyr record s that on th e day cal led

Sunday all who l ive i n cities or i n th e country
gather together i nto one place
I n later ti me s
some C hristian s required urging Th e writer o f
the D i dascal i a urges th e faith fu l to be regu l ar i n
their atte ndance to s e e tha t n o o n e dim inishes
th e C hurch by n o t assemb l ing o r makes smaller

by a m ember the Body o f C hrist

They are to
leave everything o n the Lord s Day and run
eagerly towards your church fo r this i s your
glory I f n o t what excuse wil l you have before
God fo r those w ho have n ot assembled o n the
Lord s Day to hear the Word of Life and to be
nouri sh ed with th e divine Food wh ich endureth
for ever
I t was the custom for all w ho were present to
receive u nless undergoing penance and i n some
part s of the C hurch those w ho wi shed could carry
away with them som e portion o f the consecrated
Bread and possib l y o f the consecrated Wi ne
with which they might com municate themselve s
during th e week Th e Egyp ti an Chu rch Orde r
gives directions as to i t s safe custody when i n

the house : Every o n e sh all be m ost careful

not to let any but th e faithful receive o f th e
h
l
t
a
d
f
m
t
t
l
i
D
Di da aha A
a
t
S
a
b
M
p
y
y
Gib
iii

sc

so n

o s o o ru rn ,

r ns

ro

L ife

in

Chu rch

the

22

Mysteri e s nor a mouse nor any other crea

ture and not to l e t any be spi l t and l ost since
it is the Body of C hrist and H i s Blood an d

a ll the faithfu l sha ll eat of i t i t i s not proper

to negl ect it
I t is to this custom that Tertu ll ian a l ludes
when he warns h i s wi fe in speaking of the
i nconveniences of marriage with a heathen that

he wi ll want to know what it is which you

secret l y taste before taking any food
D ai l y
Communion was thus made possible and was no
doubt the practice o f many We do not hear
much of the dai l y celebration though Cyprian
a l ludes to it as being apparent l y his custom
At rst the Eucharist succeeded th e agape
But by T e rtu l l i an s time it seem s always to
hav e been received fasting Th e C hurch Order
l ays down that All be l ievers sha ll accep t th e
admon itio n that they shou l d receive of the
M y stery before that they taste anything
In
the Can o n s of H ipp o ly tus the faithfu l are to fas t

before Communion
especia ll y on the days of
the sacred fast 3
The seating of the congregation was ordered
with due care I n the east o f the building the
seats of the presbyters were to be p l aced and
the bishop s throne i n the midd l e The deacons
when n o t engaged i n guarding the doors or seat
i ng the congregatio n o r keeping watch over th e
,

2
2

H o rn e r, S tatutes of the Ap ostle s, p

I bid

R H
.

,
.

80

o no

26 1

ll y

Tex ts an d Stu di es ,

vi i i

4 p
,

68

Chu rch H i sto ry

2 30

ro m

Ne ro

Co n stan ti n e

to

o fferings stood close at hand

The writer o f
the Ap o sto l i cal Co n sti tuti o n s say s they m ust wear
tightly girt garm en ts like th e mariners of a
ship to which h e compares the C hurch But
thi s w as later
West o f the clergy sat th e
l ayme n and behind the laymen th e women
w ho were arranged i n c l asses
The o l d wome n
and widows s at by themselves and virgins and
deaconesses no doubt had their special p l ace s n o t
l ong afterwards Tertul lian com p l ain s bitterly
that a virgi n was seated among the widows
which shows that there were n ot t hen special
p l aces for the m but tha t s uch p l aces were felt
t o be required
C hildren are to s i t with their parents or in
a place by them selves Girls are to sit apart
by them selve s o r if there i s n o t room stand
behind the women
A deacon i s to stand at the e n tries fo r men
and l ater on a deaconess at those for women

Every o n e has his own p l ace and if any o n e

si ts o u t o f i t he must be admonished by th e
deacon and put i n his proper p l ace
Th e
deacon has to see that they go to their places
and do not s i t at the entrance H e has also

to keep an eye o n their behaviour lest any

o ne wh isper o r s l eep or laugh o r make signs
F o r a ch urch i s not a place o f con fabu l ation
but of reverent prayer 3
Careful arrangemen ts are made fo r the recep

ti on of visitors
I f there com e a person from
I b id
ii
I b id
D i da
2

,
.

sc

L ife i n

the

Church

23 1

nother assembly a brother or a sister l e t the

deacon ask an d l earn if s he be a wife or a b e l i e v
ing widow i f s h e be a daught e r o f the C hur c h
or if it be o n e of the heresies and then let him
conduct her to the p l ace that bets her
A presbyter i s to be received by presbyters
and seated among them a deacon is to sit
with the deacons
I f a bishop comes he i s
to sit with the bishop and is to b e asked to
preach for the admonition o f strangers is very
acceptab l e and no prophet i s acceptab l e in h is
H e i s to b e asked to o ffer the
own country
Eucharist I f he be wise and gives honou r
to the l ocal bishop by refusing to o i ci ate yet

over the cup l e t hi m speak

Later he i s
to give the b l essing

If after the congregation i s s e t down any

person arrives who has honour in the world
either man o r woman whether he be a stranger
o r o n e of your own country neither do thou O
bishop if thou art speaking the Word of G od or
hearing hi m that sin g s or reads accep t persons s o
far as to leave the ministry o f th e Word that thou
mayst appoint a p l ace for him ; but continue
quiet and let the brethren receive h im Let one
o f the brethren w ho i s fu l l of l o v e and loves his
brethren and would do honour rise and give hi s
place 3 But if no on e rises then O deacon
look thou at those who are sitting for h im who
i s younger than h is comrades or her who i s
younger make them rise and seat hi m who rose
I b id
Ibid
D i da
ii

sc

Church H i s to ry

23 2

Ne ro

om

to

Co n stan ti n e

and gave up his place Lead him whom tho u

hast made to rise and put h i m behi nd his co m
rades that others also may be educated and learn
to give place to those who are more honourab l e
than they
I f a poor man or poor woman o f
a m ean family come especially o n e of advanced
years a plac e must be found I n the D i dascali a
the bishop mu st nd a p l ace eve n i f he himself
has to sit on the oor ; but later this is left to the
deacon i n the case of a man while the deaco nes s
has to do it for a woman
Good behaviour i n church could apparen tly
no more be tak e n for granted then than it can

no w
The D i dascali a speaks o f those who n o t
eve n in the com m union of the as sembly o n Sun
day when they come are attentive ; the wome n
and th e men they either sl ee p soundly o r talk
about something el se
.

THE

A GA P E

T he agape was originally a solem n meal which

i m mediately preceded o r followed th e Euchari st
D uring the second century the agape was
separate d from the Eucharist and becam e a
social meal o n e migh t al most c al l it a sanctied
parish te a I t took place i n the eve ni ng and was
partly religious and partly social Tertul lian has
given a vivid accou nt of it i n hi s Ap o lo gy After
speaking of th e l avish feasting associated with

heathe n worsh ip he goes o n : Yet about the

.

Didasc

xi i

the

L ife i n

Chu rch

233

modest supp e r
room of the C hristian s a l on e a
great to do i s mad e Our fe ast exp l ains itse l f by
Whatev e r
i t s name
T h e G re e ks ca ll it l ove
it costs our out l ay in the name of piety i s gain
sinc e with t he good things o f the feast we benet
t he n e e dy ; not as with you do parasites aspi re
to the g l ory of satisfying their l icentious propen
sities but as it i s with God H imse l f a pecul iar
respect is shown to the low l y As i t is an act
service it permits no vi l eness o r
o f r e l igious
immod e sty The participants before rec l i ni ng
rst pray to G od As much is eaten as satises
the cravings of hunger ; as much is drunk as
bets the chaste They e at as rememb e ring that
during the night they have to worship G od ;
they talk as knowing that the Lord is one o f
th e ir auditors After the washing of hands
and bringing i n of lights each o n e i s asked to
stand forth and sing as he can a hymn to G o d
either one from the ho l y Scriptures o r one o f

a test of the measure o f o u r

own
composing
hi s
drinking The feast is c l osed as it began with
prayer
The agap e seems to have begun with a prayer
of thanksgiving and an address by the bishop
if present I n hi s absence a presbyter or i n
defaul t o f either a deacon would preside and
say the prayers and distribute the E ulog i a the

h
en i t
e st
or
b
l
bread
sometimes
cal
l
ed
a
i
n
p
the bread of exorcism Catech umens were not
al l owed to s i t down at the feast but were
.

Ap o l 3 9
.

2 H

234

r
o m Ne ro
f

Chu rch Hi sto ry

Co n s tan ti n e

to

given a s hare of the E u log i a I n the absence

of any o f th e clergy a layman m ight pre sid e
but i n that case there w as no distribution of
.

E u log i a

I n the Ethiopian C h urch there seem s to h ave

bee n a r ule o f silence the obj ect fo r w hich w as
that those pre sent m ight ask the bishop questi on s

Thos e w ho are i nvited shall eat without con

versing but when the bis hop allows they shall

speak an d a sk what is suitable

The bri nging i n o f l ights at the agape was th e
signal for the Psalm s and hym ns which closed
the feast and was at o n e tim e attended with some
ceremony Th e Eth iopic version o f the C h u rch
Order has some interesti ng direction s concern
ing the bri nging i n o f lamps at th e supper o f the
congregat i on

W he n the evening has come the bi shop

bei ng there the deacons shall brin g in a lam p
and the bishop bei ng about to give thanks
s tanding i n the m idst o f the faithful s hall rst
ive
us
the
salutation
th
us
saying
The
Lord
g
be with y o u all
And the peop l e also shall say

With H i s Spiri t
And the bi shop shall s ay
Let us give thanks to the Lord ; and the
people shall s ay R ight and j ust both greatness
and exaltation with g l ory are due to H i m
and
th ey shall n o t s ay Lift up your hearts b ecau se
that shall be said at the tim e o f the oblation
And he prays thus sayi ng
We give Thee thanks G o d through Thy
S o n J esus C hrist o u r Lord because T hou hast
,

the

L ife i n

Church

235

en l ightened us by r e v e aling the incorruptib l e

Light We having therefore n i shed th e l ength
of a day and havi n g com e to the begi n ni ng o f
the night and havi ng been satiated with the l ight
of th e day which Th ou hast created for o u r
satisfactio n and now since we have n o t been
decient of the light o f the evening by Thy
grace w e sanctify Thee and we gl orify Thee
through Thine only S o n our Lord Jesus C hri st
A n d th e y shall al l say Amen
The feast then ends with t he recitation O f
Psa l m s and the solemn o ffering and sharing of
a cu
ie prayer given in the Ap o sto li cal Co n sti tuti o n s
Tf
to be used at the lighting of the lamps i n church
after the dismissal of the catechumen s or peni
ten ts is evidently take n from the one u sed here
Thou Who h as brought us through the l ength
of the day an d has brough t us to the beginning
of the night a fford u s a peaceable evening and a
night free from sin preserve us by Thy Chri st
through Whom g l ory honour an d worship be to
Thee in the H o l y Spirit for ever
With thi s
may be compared the evening hym n a ll uded to
by S Basi l as bei ng in hi s time a l ready ancient

H ai l g l addening Light of the pur e g l ory of

the Father Who i s i mmorta l ho l y heaven l y
Jes us C hrist the b l essed ; now having come to
the setting of the s u n be h o l ding the l ight of
evening we hym n the F ath e r Son and H o l y
Spirit o f G od Worthy art Thou at a ll times
.

Ho m

e r,

S tatu tes

the

Ap o stle s, p

60

23

Chu rch Hi sto ry

Ne ro

ro m

Co n stan ti n e

to

to be hym ned wi th holy voices S o n o f G o d

G iver of Life therefore the world shall own

Thy g l ory
B ut a l ready th e agape was begin ning to de
ge nerate from the pari sh tea i n which al l meet
o n the basi s of brotherhood i nto the pari sh treat
organized on a basis o f charity I t had become
a private a ffair Th e partakers are there by
i nvitation o f a wel l -to-do m ember o f the congre
i
a
t
o n
Th
e
feasters
mus
t
eat
and
drin
k
with
g

decency and not with inebriety that he w ho

i n v i ted y o u may not b e di stressed
T he frag
ments of th e feast are t o go to the poor and
t he feasters are urged t o moderation i n their
repast that th e fragments may be abu ndant

Eat with m oderation and drink wi th modera

tion that there may be som e left and that that
which i s l eft from y o u m ay be sen t by hi m w ho
i nvited y o u to whom h e wi l l : and h e shal l s ay
that thi s m eat i s the leavings of th e h oly ones
,

W i t h t h i m ay b e o m p are d t h m e t i al t a sl ati
K bl
M
f H i p r gl ry p r d
H ai l gl add i g Li g ht
Wh i t he I m m t al F ath r H e av l y B l t
h
t
C
i
r
r L
d
H li t f H li
J
2

en

l i g ht

t he

co

un

So n

v i

f e en ng
at h e r, So n ,

i a t Th
W i th d l

o rt h e s t

r n

o u

by

o n

en

o u e

o u

su n s

o r

ho

ur

es

re s t,

d u s sh n e ,
an d H o l y S p r

ro u n

at al l t m e s t o
to n gu e ,

iv

be

i i t D ivi
su n

G o d, G e r o f l fe , Al o n e "
al l t he w o rl d T hy g l o r e s,
o rd ,

o ur

T h e re fo re i n
2
D i dasc i x

t he

to

m e

e su s

e s,

w e are

T he
hy m n

o r

es

No w

We

r c

ne

t he y

wn

L ife i n

the

Chu rch

23 7

The Can o n s of H ipp o ly tus speak o f agap ai

prepared for the poor as we ll as those giv e n to
widows Those who entertain e d widows had to
send them away before dark I f this could not
be done the food and wi ne was distribut e d to

them and eaten at hom e

I f this i s not
possib l e because of t he c l ergy who have been
i nvited he sha ll give to them fo od and wine
and having given them send them away imme
,

d i ate l y

The cessation of persecution ki l le d the agape

Whe n churches cou l d b e bui l t and used it was
no l ong e r nec e ssary to conduct worship secret l y
in private houses Before i t had been safer
to meet for a meal and tak e advantage of the
meeting for co mmon prayer and praise But
when churche s were there and cou l d be used
it was equa ll y natura l to use th e churc h for
prayer and the house for food and to separate
the two We see by the C hurch O rders that
the sparing use o f food and drink was not
easily obtained A l ready i n the fourth century
W e nd the beautifu l ceremony an d prayers at
the lighting -u p o f th e l am ps transferred to
church No doubt there were other reasons
The unfortunate tain t of pauperism was on i t
The gospe l of brother l y l ove and charity can
demora l ize giver and recipien t alike The Ch ris
tians o f the rst days were as ful l y awake to these
dangers as were the founders of the Charity
Organization Society wh o h ave added little to
the warnings against the abuse of charity con
.

23

Chu rch H i sto ry

om

Ne ro

to

Co n stan ti n e

i n the Ne w Testame nt and th e C hurch

Orders The l ove fe asts a fforded an irre sistible
temptation to the spirit of patronage o n the part
of the giver and to greed and deceit o n the part
of the receiver Th ey were doom e d
There also seems to have bee n a disti nct a ape
wi th a close connection with the memorial o th e

departed
No w when y o u are invited to their
me m orials do you feast with good or d er and
the fear of G o d as disposed to intercede for
th ose w ho are departed
Pre sumably i t
took the sam e form a s the oth e r except that
their devotio ns were explicitly for the so u l o f
th e departed I n this case the m e m o ri al began
with a E uchari st and was followed by the
memorial agape

t ai n e d

F AST I N G
Fro m the beginning i t is probable that fasting
formed part of the discip l i ne and devotional life
o f the C hu rch
I renae us writi ng to Victor B i shop o f R ome
with reference to the date o f Easter a l ludes to
the di fference not only as to the day but also

as to the fast preceding it

Some th i nk they
ought to fast o n e day some two som e more
days ; some compute their day as con sisting o f
forty hours day and night and thi s d iv ersity i s
not a matter that has j u st sprung up i n o u r time
As
but long ag o among those before u s
bi H 8 v 4
E
viii 44
Ap
C
.

os

on

u se

u s,

the

L ife i n

h
u
r
c
h
C

23

had been a discip l e o f Po l ycarp who

was the disciple of S John hi s statement poi nts
I t was
t o the extr e me antiquity of the practice
conn e cted with the D eath and Passion of C hrist

When the Bridegroom shal l be taken away

then sha ll ye fast
Tertu ll ian seems to assume that until the rise
of Montanism on l y th e days i mmediate l y before

Easter were fasti ng days of obligation

They
think that those days were denite l y appointed
for fasts in which the Bridegroom w as taken

away
Other fasts were to be of choice n o t
H owever there had sprung
o f command
up the custom of fasting o n Wednesdays and
F ridays up to 3 p m
the hour of o u r Lord s
death on the Cross the days being chosen as
those o f H i s Betraya l and Crucixion They
were cal l ed station days and those who observed
the fast o n them were said to keep a station
The name seems to have be e n a mi l itary term
and i s thus explained by Ambrose : Our fasts
are our encampmen ts (stati o n es) which protect
us
from t he devi l s attack ; they are call ed
stations because standing in them we repel
o u r foes
I n t he ear l iest Church Orders we nd dir ce
tions to fast o n the F riday and Saturday before
Easter
No other fasts are mentioned except
for those pr e pari ng for Baptism
The fast is
an abso l ute fast NO food at a l l i s to be taken
from Thursday night until after the Easter
C ommunion
Sick perso n s need only fast on
I renaeus

2 40

Chu rch H i sto ry

Ne ro

ro m

to

Co n stan ti n e

day and o n that day were allowed bread and

water
Travellers w ho omitted to fast before
Easter had to make up for i t by fasting after
Pentecost
I n th e D i dascali a C hristians are directed to
fast from M onday i n H o l y We ek u n til Easter
Fro m the tenth day which is M o nday during
the days o f the Passover ye sha ll fast a nd be
nourished by bread and salt and water at the
un ti l Th ursday B ut o n
n i nth hour ( 3
Friday and Saturday ye s hall fast com pletely and
eat nothing ; but assemble yourselves and wake
and pray t he whole o f the night wi th prayers and
supplications and with the reading o f th e p ro
h
e
h
e ts
with
t
Gospel
a
nd
the
Psalms
with
p
revere nce and fear and i ntercession u ntil the
third hour o f th e night after the Sabbath and

then ye shall leave your fast pre sumably after

the Easter Eucharist
T h e exten sion o f the Holy Wee k fast s o as
t o become the Lent fast o f forty days was a
l ater development probably arising out o f the
custom o f catechumens begin ning their strict
preparatio n for ty days before Easter
O ne o f the M ontani st innovation s was the
i ntroduction o f novel fasting days T h ey i ntro
d u ce d two weeks o f abstinence from all except
dry food extended the station from three unti l
s ix
m
and
make
their
observance
compulsory
p
i nstead o f leaving i t a matter o f fre e choice fo r
the i ndividual

o ne

H o rn e r, Statu tes o f the A oo stle s, p

'

260

the

L ife i n

Chu rch

24 1

S I CK
C are w as taken that the sick should be visited
They were anointed wit h o i l which had been
blessed by the bishop but m ight be administered
by any person c l erica l or l ay
in the Egyp ti an
A prayer i s giv e n
Chu rch Order by the deacon
for the b l essing of the oil by the bishop in wh ich
he prays that for those who shal l be anointed
therewith it may be for hea l ing and safety and
benet in a l l diseases and sicknesses and for
extermination o f the Satanic adversary
Women who were sick were i n some places
visited by a widow or deaconess
I n the
D i dascal i a we nd rebuke s addressed to the

widows w ho neg l ect this duty

Thou seest
t h e widows thy companions and thy brethren
in sicknesses and thou carest not to fast and
pray for thy memb e rs to put to thy hand and
to visit them
Some Christians were looked on as possessing
the gift o f hea l ing though we do not hear V ery
much about it and it does not seem to have l led
a very large p l ace i n the popu l ar mind There
seem s to have been an order o f healers i nto
which new members were admitted only after
giving proof of their powers
A s for the grace
of heal ing i f some one says I have acquired the
grace of healing and prophecy they shal l n o t lay
hand on him unti l h i s deed make evident that he
i s trustworthy 3
THE

H o rn e r, Statu tes of the Ap o stle s, p 1 5 9

3 H o rn e r Statutes o f the A ostles
xv
, p
p
.

47

2 1

2 42

Chu rch H i s to ry

ro m

Ne ro

Co n stan ti n e

to

Th e healer was soon m erged i n the exorcist

Wh en dead the Christian could be buried i n a
C hri stian ce metery wh ich w as maintai ned by the
bisho p o u t o f the o fferings of the faithful for the
benet o f th e poor members of t h e co m m un ity
Those who could a fford i t were expected to pay
the wages o f th e gravedigger
.

M A RR IAG E
Marriage remai ned thro ughout thi s period th e
business o f the State I t s legality depended on
civil and n o t religious sanction But pagan rites
and religious ceremonies accompani ed i t among
the heathen s o at an early stage C hristian s s u b s ti
t u t e d for such ceremonies t hose o f the C hurch
At marriage C hristian s received the b l essing o f
th e C h urc h o n th eir union T he Church seems to
have i n some form al way approved the marriage
through the presence o f its repre sentative at
the betrothal th e legal contract and by a s u b

sequen t blessing i n the C hurch

Whence are
we to nd words enough fully to tell the happiness
o f that marriage which the C hurch brings about
and th e oblation conrm s and the benediction
sign s and seal s which th e Father holds for
ratied F o r even on earth ch ildren do not
rightly and l awfully wed without their father s
consen t
Ignatius had already writte n eighty years before

th at m en an d women who marry ought to be

T t ll i a T hi Wif i i 8
.

er u

e,

L ife i n

Church

the

2 43

united with t he consent o f t he bishop that t h e

marriage be according to th e Lord and not
accordi n g to l ust
No t that the marriage wou l d not have been va l id
without for the contracting parties then as now
were he l d to be the ministers of t h e Sacrament of
Marriage but the Church gave i ts approva l and
afterwards its b l essing in th e communion of the
new l y married
,

O RGA N I Z AT I O N

OF

CH A R I TY

had told H i s disciple s they were to love

one another and their neighbour as themselve s
and had i nsisted on the necessity of giving
Brotherly love was not so much an emotion as
practical assistance given to those who were i n
need I t was fe e l ing rea l ized i n action The
ki ndness shown by Christians to one another
excited the attention and aroused the exasperation
and envy of pagan s Th e heathen Cae ci l i u s in
hi s dialogue with Octavius i s made to assert

They know one another by secret marks and

signs and they love one another a l most before
they are acquainted
To which Octaviu s re

to t ted
We do not disti nguish o u r people by
some smal l bodi l y mark as y o u suppose but
easi l y enough by the sign of innocency and
modesty We love one another to your regret
because we do not know how to hate We call
o ne
another brethren to your envy as being
I g at i T T ly a p v
Christ

,
.

u s,

c r

Church H i sto ry

2 44

ro m

Ne ro

to

Co n stan ti n e

born o f o n e G o d and F ather and companions

i n faith and fellow heir s i n hope You ho w
do n o t recognize o n e another and are
e ver
cruel i n your m utual hatreds ; n o r do you
acknowledg e o n e another as brethren unless fo r

the purpose o f parricide

S o Tertullian
they s ay ho w they
love o n e anoth er fo r they t hemselve s are animated
by m utual hatred
H o w they are ready to die
fo r o n e another fo r they them selve s wil l sooner
put to death An d they are angry with us because
we call each other brethren
T he giving o f alm s was a feature o f the

E uchari st o n the rst day o f the week

They
w ho are well t o do and willi ng give what each
thinks t ; and what i s collected i s deposited
with the presiden t w ho succours the orphans and
th e widows and those wh o through sickness o r
any other cause are i n want and those w ho are i n
bonds and the strangers soj ourning amo ng u s
and i n a word take s care o f all w ho are in

need
Such passages mi ht be multiplied Tertullian
apparently knew o g a month l y n o t a wee kly
co l lection
Even i f there is a C hurch fund it is n o t
m ade up o f fees as though o f a religion wh ich

has its price

On the monthly c o llection
day each if h e l ikes puts i n a s mall donation ;
b ut only if willing and able T hese gifts are
piety s deposit fund F o r they are n o t taken
t
i
M
t
A
6
Ap l 3 9
a
l
7
J
p
y
,

us

r,

L ife i n

the

Chu rch

24

out to be spent on feasts and drinking bouts

and eating houses but to support and he l p
poor people to supply the wants o f boys and
gir l s destitute of mean s and of parents and o f
conned to the house ; such as
o l d persons
hav e b e e n s hi p wre ck e d o r are in the mines o r
banished to the i slands o r shut up in the prisons
for their del ity to the cause o f God become the
nurselings of their co n fe s s i o n
We s e e fro m this and simi l ar passages that the
C hurch took care that none o f i t s sick o r indigen t
unfortunate members shou l d su ffer want
o r
The regu l ar C hurch fund seems to have been
admi nistered by the bishop assisted by th e
deacons
H ence the importance attached by
S Paul to the presbyter -bishops not being

lovers o f money

When I was i n prison ye visited Me was

a text taken to heart and acted upon with zeal
The pagan Lucian sco ffs at C hristians fo r visiting
Peregrinus i n pri son and supplying him with
mea l s
Tertul l ian begins hi s exhortation To

B l essed martyrs
the M arty rs with the words :
designate A l ong with provision that o u r Lady
Mother the C hurch makes from her own breasts
and e ach brother out of his private means fo r
your bodi l y wants i n pri son accept also from me

some provision for your spiritual sustenance

I nstances occur again and again in the acts of
the martyrs The gaoler of Perpetua and her
companions allowed them to receive visitors w ho
,

T e rt

Ap o l 3 9
.

Chu rch H i sto ry

2 46

ro m

Ne ro

Co n stan ti n e

to

mi nist red to their needs

records
Eu se b iu s
that Lici n ius wh en he b e came a persecutor
devi sed i l legal l aws by which prisoners were
forbidden to receive visitors or food in prison
and those who transgressed the edict were to
receive the same pu nishment as th e prisoners
th e y visited
Th e care of the C hurch fo r its n eedy m embers
was liable to abuse a fact which did n o t escape
Lucian But th e C hurch was ful l y awake to the

danger
I f a man receive being i n need he
shall be free from guilt ; but he who receiveth
when n ot i n need shall pay a pe na l ty as to why
h e has received and for what p u rpose and when
he i s i n tribulation he shall be exam ined as to
what he has don e and shall n o t depart till he
has paid the uttermost farthing For o f a truth
it has bee n sai d o n these matters Let thy alms
giving abide i n thy hands until tho u knowest
unto whom tho u art
The prophet w ho remains as a guest fo r three
day s an d takes m oney a s well as food fo r hi s

j ourney i s a false prophet

Whos o ever shall

say i n th e spirit Give me money o r things o f

that kind liste n n o t to him 3
Furth er it was laid down that the C hurc h
mu st provide work rather than alms for the able
F o r those able to work provide work
bodied

and t o those incapable o fwork be chari table 4

Let every o n e that cometh i n the Name o f
the Lord be received
I f h e be a wayfarer

H 8 v 8
I bid i
C l m H viii
Dida h i
I

c e,

o rn

L ife i n

the

Chu rch

24

assist him s o far as ye are ab l e but he wil l not

remain more than t w o or thr e e days un l ess there
be a necessity
But if he wish to sett l e with
you being a craftsman let h im work and s o e at
but if he know not any craft provide ye according
to your own discretio n that a C hristian may not
l ive id l e among you But i f he is not wi ll ing to
do s o he is a tra fficker i n C hrist F rom such

keep a l oof
Cyprian a l so assumes that any one who has
been l iving by an art forbidden by the C hurch
must be provided with work o r if unab l e to work
outside his profession with the necessaries of life
There are dir e ctions i n the C hurch Orders
for the care of orphans and children I n the
D i dascali a the bishop is to persuade the rich and
child l ess members of his ock to adopt orphans

I f o n e of the chi l dr e n o f the C hristians be an

orphan either a boy o r a gir l it i s wel l that if
ther e be any o f the brethren who hath no chi l dre n
he take the boy in p l ace of chi l dren
I f they are no t wi ll ing to do this the bishop i s
to see to it himse l f
Ye therefore O bi shops
take up the burden o f them that they may be
brough t up so that nothing be wanting to them
and when i t i s the time for the maiden give her
i n marriage to one of the brethren And l et t he
boy whe n he i s grown up l earn a handicraft and
when h e is a man l et h im take the w age t hat is
meet for hi s craft and acquire the necessary too l s
that he may no longer be a burden o n t he charity
Di da h
ii
I b i d vii
,

'

c e, x

Chu rch H i sto ry

248

f the

ro m

Ne ro

to

o n stan t n e

brethren Truly blessed i s h e w ho is able

to help hi m self and does not straiten the place o f
the widows and orphan s and the poor
Three i nstances at least are on record o f
ministration s by the C hurch o n the grand scale i n
ti me o f plague
I n A O 2 5 9 there was p l ague i n Alexandria

o f wh ich Bisho
D
ionysius
wrote
M
ost
o f
:
p
o u r brethren by their exceeding great love and
brotherly a ffection n ot spari ng themselves were
constantly superintendi n the sick min istering
t o their wants without g
ear and with out cessa
tion
Among the heathen i t w as th e
reverse They both repe l led those w ho began to
be sick and avoided their dearest friends They
would cast them out in to the road s half dead and

throw o u t the ir bodie s without burial

D uri ng the plague i n Carthage we are told

by Cyprian s biographe r that when all were

shuddering eeing sh unni ng the contagion and
bodies lay about t he who l e city Cyprian sum
exhorted them to
m o n e d t h e C hri stians and
ministe r to the heathen sick as well as to the

brethre n As a result
good was don e to all
men n o t only to such as are o f the household o f

faith 3
Th e third i n stance is recorded by Eusebius 4
as havi ng occurred i n the govern ment o f Maxi
m in D aza after his defeat by th e Armenian s
though he does not specify the exact place :
b i H 8 vi i
E
vii
D i da h
8
H 8 i
Cyp L ij i
o

'

c e, x

u se
.

u s,

22

L ife i n

the

Chu rch

24

The n al so the evidences of the zea l and piety

o f the C h ristians became manifest to a ll for they
a l one showed sympathy and humanity amid so
much distr e ss They continued a ll day ; som e in
the care and buria l of the dead for number l ess
wer e they for whom ther e w as none to care ;
others co ll ected the mu l titude of those wasting
by famine and distributed bread among them al l
s o that th e fact was cried abroad and m en glori

e d the God of the C hristian s

,

D I SCI P L I N E

No

question caused th e C hurch of th e third

century mor e troub l e than that of disciplin e
Strict probation and a stern renunciation were
required of the catechum e n befor e he could be
admitted by baptism
I t follow e d that if he
relapsed i nto immoral ways or pagan practic e s
h e must be disowned and separated from the
communion o f the faithfu l
W e nd the princip l e e nunciated by C hrist in

t he gospe l
I f he neglect to hear the C hurch
let him be unto thee as a heathen man and a
pub l ican
The commission given by o u r Lord
to bind and l oose had a recognized meaning to
frequenters o f the synagogue I t had a denite
refere nce to exc l u sion from the privi l eges of re l i
i
o u s membership and adm ission to them
g

S Pau l bids the C orin thians not to keep

company i f any man that is call ed a brother be
viii 7
S M att
.

2 K

0
5

Church H i sto ry fro m Ne ro

Co n stan ti n e

to

a fornicator o r covetous o r an idolater o r a

railer o r a drunkard o r an extortioner ; with
2
such an o n e n o not to eat
They are to put
away from themselve s that wicked person He
com mands the Thes s a l onian s in the Name of
C hri st
that ye withdraw yourselve s fro m every
brother that wa l keth disorder l y and n o t after

If
the tradition which h e rec e ived from us
any man obey not o u r word by thi s e pistle note
that man and have no com pany with him that
he may be ashamed 3
I t was acted o n from the beginning by the
C hurch and is th us explaine d by Origen to
C elsus

An d this i s their method o f pr o ced u re bo th

with those who are si n ners and those w ho l ea d
di ssolute l ives whom th e y exclude from their
com munity
The venerable school o fP y tha
h
o
o r e an s used t o
erect
a
cenotaph
o
those
w
t
g
had apostatized from their system o f ph i l osophy
treati ng the m as dead but the C hri stian s lament
as dead those who have been vanqui shed by
licentiousn ess o r any other sin because they are
lost and dead to God and if they change they
receive th em afterwards as risen fro m t he dead
though aft e r a greater in terval than was th e ca se
o f those admitted at rs t but n ot p l acing i n any
o i ce
o r post o f ran k i n the C hurch o f G o d
those who after professing the Gospel lapsed
and fell 4
Th
v
iii 6
C
ii i 5
I bid 1 4
Ag ai t C l
,

o r

1 1

ns

e ss

e s us ,

the

L ife i n

Church

si ns which i n curred th e p e n a l ty of e xc l usion

w e re of the sort that t he candidat e for baptism
had to renounce such as ido l atry magic s e rious
o ffences against th e l aw o f purity fraud vio l ence
and fa l se wit n ess a l so heresy and schism
I n many cases the si nner wou l d excommunicate
himse l f ; either because hi s sin was self-evident
or because his own sen se of shame wou l d n o t

al l ow him to fac e the congregation

I f he
who si nneth see that the bi shop and deacon s
are free from accusation and a ll the ock are
pure he wi ll n o t dare to go up to the con
h
because
he
is
reproved
by
r e ati o n
i
s
o wn
g g
mind
I f he does ventur e to appear the
bishop i s to reprove him before the whole con
he
wi
l
l
b
l
ush
therefore
and
with
re at i o n ;
g g
much shame he will go out quickly weepi n g and

be i n penitence of soul
When a denite accusation was made and
guilt was denied something like a j udicial prose
c u t i o n took p l ace with the bishop as j udge the
presbyters and deacons as assessors and the
congregation as j ury I f gui l ty the accused was
excommu nicated
The obj ect of excommunicatio n was to pre
serve the Church from impurity and to a fford an

example to the faithful

They al so who see
them and he ar that they have gone out l ik e
pub l icans may fear and take heed to themse l ves
D i da v
I b i d i F E B i g htm a 8 a ly H i t y f th Ch h
T he

sc

an d

M i n i stry , 13 3 6 5
.

s or

u rc

Church H i sto ry

25 2

Ne ro

ro m

o n stan ti n e

to

that they si n not l est it happen thus to them

also and they go o u t o f the C hurch bei ng
reproved for sin and for falsehood
I t had for its third obj ect the restorati on o f
the sin ner Th e bi shop i s con stantly exhorted
The sin ner i s co m
t o kee p thi s end i n view
pared to a man who has fallen i n the river and
the bi shop i s to stretch out his han d s o as to pull
hi m o u t Prayers are to be o ffered in c hurch
for th e sin ner an d the bishop i s to try to move
him to repe ntance
Him that i s aban doned i n
si ns o r excom municated as fo r reproof leave n o t
without but teach and admonis h and convert and
receive hi m i n to thy ock
d o not allow
h im to perish utterly B ut do thou visit him
admonish and teach a nd convert him command
h im and e ncourage h im to awaken tell him that
th ere i s hope
Si n ners w ho repen ted were admitted to penance
the severity and duration o f the penance v ar ing
according to the C hurch and the nature 0 the
si n The obj ect o f the penance was that the
penite nt sinner might bri ng forth fruits o f re ent
ance ; i n oth er words give an earnest o t h e
si nceri ty o f h i s penitence
By penitence amend s
are made ; o f penitence repentance is born ; by

penance God is appeased 3 M iriam i s quoted

as an example o f pe nance
I f h er father h ad
but spit i n her face would she n ot have been
ashamed and separated fo r seve n days without
?
th e cam p and then she would have come i n
T t O P a
I b i d vi i
B i da
i
,

rt

er

en

n ce ,

L i

h
u
c
h
r
C

the

in

25

The procedur e s e e ms to hav e b e e n that the

sin ner wh e n wi ll ing to submit to penance rst
app l ied privat e l y to the bishop and th en sent
emissaries to the bishop and assemb l ed congre
The
i
o n fo rmal l y asking for their prayers
a
t
g
bishop then comman de d him to come in and
asked if h e repen ted ; if s o h e admitted him to

penance
I f he be worthy to b e received
i nto the C h urch appoint h im days of fasti ng

according to hi s fau l t
As a penitent he
stood once m ore i n denite re l ation ship to the
H e was in fact i n the position of a
C h urch
H e had a special p l ace assigned
catechumen
to him at the back of the church and w as not

a ll owed to communicate
Thus a l so we do
not communicate with these unti l they show
the fr u its of repen tance ; for they can certain l y
come in if they wish to hear th e Word that
they may not perish utter l y but in prayer they
take no part but go outside
They are not to

be utter l y prevented from hearing the discourse

of the bishop ; but were sent out before th e
Eucharistic prayers Th is w as in Syria
I n Africa the p l ace of th e penitents w as outside

the church in the porch or vestibu l e

Before
her doors it stands 3 say s Tertull ian of peni
tence B u t they do n o t seem to have been
dismissed at any period of the service
I n Asia Minor there were three or four grad e s
or stages of pen itence The l owest was that of

H earers ; th e se wer e admitted to the

t he
D i da vi
I b id
O M d ty i ii
,

sc.

es

25

h
r
h
H
i
s
t
o
c
r
C
u
4
y

om

Ne ro

o n s tan t n e

to

Mass o f th e Catech umens and dism issed after

th e serm on Then cam e t he K nee l ers wh o

were also dis missed before the Eucharistic prayers
but only after the faithful had prayed over them
as they lay prostrate o n the ground The nal

stage was that of the Co n s i s te n ts who stood

with the faithfu l throughout th e service but di d
not com municate But Dr Brightman thin ks
that this system did not extend beyond Asia
M i nor
The course o f penance o r exomologesi s as i t
was cal l ed i s described i n l ively term s by Ter

tu l lian
Thi s exomologe si s i s a discipl ine fo r
man s prosecution and h umiliation enj oining a
demeanour calculated to move mercy Wi th
regard to the very dress and food i t commands
the pen itent to lie i n sackcloth and ash es to
cover h is body i n mourning to lay his s pirit l o w
i n sorrows to exchange fo r severe treatme nt the
si ns which he has committed ; to know n o food
and dri n k but such as i s plain n o t fo r the
stomach s sake but fo r the soul s ; for the most
part however to feed prayer s with fastings to
groan to weep and roar unto the Lord your
G o d ; to roll before th e feet o f the presbyters
and kneel to God s dear on es to enj oi n o n all
the brethren to be ambassadors to bear h is

What if he co n
supplication to Go d

tin n es besides the h um iliatio n which they make

the most account o f they dread the bodily i n
conveniences ; i n that unwashen sordidly attire d

T e rt

O n P en i ten ce , i x

L ife i n

h
h
u
rc
C

the

55

estranged from g l adness they must spend their

tim e in th e rough ness of sackc l oth and the horrid
ness of ashes and the s u n k e n n e s s of face caused
by fasting
But after a l l the austeri ties o f the penitent
are no worse than the an noyances su stained by

seekers of o f ce
Why they who go about
canvassi ng for civil o i ce fee l it neither degrading
nor irksome to struggle for the attainment of
th e ir desires with annoyance to sou l and body
and contume l ies of al l kinds
Do we
hesitate when et e rn ity i s at stake to endure what
the competitor for consu l ship or praetorship puts
up with ? Shall we be tardy in o ffe ring to the
o ffe nded Lord a self chastisemen t in food and
raiment which G entiles lay upon themselves

?
when they have o ffe nded no o n e at all
So perhaps penance was not s o sever e as i t
sound s
The l e ngth of penance varied from a few
weeks to a lifetime t he penitent in that case
being given communion on l y whe n at t he point
I n Syria apparently the longest term
o f death
was seven weeks
At the end of the appointed tim e the penitent
had to appear in the church and make hi s e x o m o
l o g e s i s or confession wh e n he appeared before
the c l ergy and congregation confessed his sin s
and imp l ored forgivenes s
The congregation
then implored t he bishop to pronounce abso l u
tion which was done I t seems that the bishop
T t O P it
i
Dida vi
,

er

en

e n ce , x

sc

25

6 Church H i sto ry

Ne ro

ro m

Co n stan ti n e

to

had previously satised h im self of the peniten t s

earn e stness
This confession probably took p l ace i n the
Eucharist after the dismi ssa l o f t he catechumens
s o that the penitent could co m municate duri ng
the service This restoration was never granted
more than once Tertullian ca l ls penance and
baptism the two planks of salvation Neither
cou l d be repeated
D isciplin e as practised i n th e C hurch n ot u n
natural l y gav e ri se to d i i cu l t i e s
Th e system
w as se vere and i t was pub l ic and especia l ly
duri ng the persecution s produced hard case s
The rs t controversy was over the q uestion
whether the C hurch h ad any right to grant absolu
tion for cer tai n grave sins
The S hep he rd of
H ermas was written to plead for forgiveness for
all si ns T he question whe ther ce rtai n sins cou l d
be forgiv e n was m uch debated Som e o f the
African bishops we learn from Cyprian had

decided that peace w as not to be granted to

adulterers and wholly closed th e gate o f repen t
ance against adul tery
About A D 2 2 0 t he pope Ca l list o s apparent l y
i ncluded am ong absolvable si ns adu l tery and

fornication
I abso l ve such as have discharged
th e requireme nts of penitence from the sin s o f
adultery and fornicatio n
This drew fu rious
protests from Tertullian now a M o ntanist and
fro m H ippolytus Tertullian i n h is tract On
C y p i a 8p l v
i Reh tati f a/l H i i 7
O P it

en

e n cc,

2 1

on o

e re s e s ,

Life i n

the

Church

15

mai ntain e d that a ll dead l y sins were

non abso l vab l e That i s while counse ll ing l i fe
l ong penance to the gui l ty he dec l ared that
the Church had no power to restore them to
comm union but they m ust be l eft to the mercy
o f G od
By a strange perversity the C h u rch h as often
been accus e d of shutting the gates o f mercy o n
mankind by denying the possibility o f forgive
ness to those who were not admitted to penance
The C hurch did nothing of the kind Even the
rigorist Tertu ll ian i s far from doing that H i s
point i s not that such sins as adu l tery are u n fo r
givab l e but that their forgiveness be l ongs to G od
a l one and i s beyond the scope of the j udgemen t
o f the C hurch
The penance of such S inners

he dec l ares
believ e s not that man s peace i s
adequate to its guilt and as far as regards the

C hurch
i t prefe rs the b l ush of shame to the
privilege of com munion F o r before her doors
it stands and by the examp l e of its own stigma
admonishe s a ll others and ca ll s to i ts aid the
b re thre n s tears and return s with their compas
sion merchandise even richer than their com
munion And if it reaps not the harvest of peace
here yet it sows the s e ed of it with the Lord
nor does it lose but prepares its fruit
Origen seems to have he l d t he same view as to
n
n
the o ab so l vab i l i ty of certain deadly sins I t w as
based on 1 S John v 1 6
There i s a s i n unto
death for that I do not s ay that he sha ll pray
O M d ty i ii
P en i ten ce

o es

25

8 Church Hi sto ry

ro m

Ne ro

to

o n stan t n e

T ertul li an lays down that there are two classes

f
sins those absolvable by th e C hurch and
o
those n o n -absolvable
By the m iddle o f the third century in Africa
at least the rigori st view had bee n given up
At least we nd Cyprian i n a letter about
Novatian assuming that even to adulterers
repentance i s granted and th e hope o f lamen t

i ng and atoning is left

T h e persecutions
under Decius and Valerian gave rise to bitter
controversies o n thi s vexed question o f which
som e account has already bee n given They
were revived again after the Diocletian p e rs e cu
tion But the inevitable tendency was in the
direction o f l e s s e n e d severi ty and eve n o f l ax i ty
Ep iv
6
.

XI I I
TH E

T H E C HU RC H

OF F I CE R S O F
A ND T H E I R

D UTI E S

T i s clear that from the very earliest times the

C hurch had its regular o f cials its Apostles
presbyters and bishops its deacons and widows
not to mention evangelists prophets and teachers
whose status an d duties are more disputable
The C hurch Orders give some interesting
information about their admission to o f ce and
their duties when admitted during the third
ce ntury by which time some changes i n the
procedure had taken place
,

BISHOP

TH E

The bishop of course comes rst H e is the

source of authority in each diocese H e is the
high priest the sace rdo s wh o is the customary
ce l ebrant at the Eucharist ; h e holds the purse
and di spenses the o fferings of the faithful he i s
the teacher of hi s ock and also ho l ds the keys
i n other word s admini sters discipline
H i s duties are s e t down in the Ordinatio n
Prayer to be said at h is consecration by the
m
a
t
h
C
V
H m
Stat t ofth Ap tl
I
a
3
p
p
9
F agm t F k D i da ali a t C ti t ti Ap t l
.

en

e r,

u es

un

sc

os

es,

on s

59

on es

re

os o o ru rn

e ro n

Chu rch H i sto ry

2 60

Ne ro

ro m

o n stan t n e

to

bishop s present when they pray that h e may

feed Thy ock and minister as priest to T hee
without b l ame
that h e may o ffer Thine Ob l a
tion i n Thy ho l y C hurch i n th e H oly Spirit o f
the priesthood having authority to forgive s i n
according to Thy commandme nt and to give
ordination according t o Thy com m and an d
loose all bon ds o f i niquity according to th e

authori ty which Thou gavest to Thine Apostles

The bishop was considered to be chosen by
the Holy Spiri t This choice might be i mme
diate as whe n th e l o t fel l o n Matth ias o r the
prophecies were made over T im othy o r the
dove alighted o n th e shoulder o f Fabian
It
was generally i ndicated by the personal wo rthi
ness o f the chose n candidate conrmed and
ratied by popular assent Ther efore stre ss was
laid o n hi s election His character al so i s to be
carefully examined I f there was n o o n e i n th e
diocese com petent to exami ne the proposed bishop

hel p must be go t from outside

I f it i s a
place with few peop l e i n it o f the faithful and
the asse m bly n o t large enough to elect a bishop
being n o t m ore than twelve men then let them
wri te to th e C hurch es o f the neighbourhood to
bring three o f the faithful trustworthy m en
and they shall test carefu ll y as to which i s
worthy o f the work I f h e has a l ife o f good
repute among the peopl es and without sin o r
anger a lover o f the poor and kin d n o t a
drunkard or ad ulterer not a railer o r hypo
I T im i 1 8
,

'

T/z e Oi ce rs

of

6
7
1
2
11
1
(3

the

fDu tz es

an d l i mi t

26 1

He

sha ll have a share of a ll sound

doctrine and be ab l e to expound the Scripture s
and if he shou l d be one who cannot expound
the S cri p tu re s h e shou l d be h umb l e and abound
in love to all men that t h e bishop may be con
d e m n e d i n nothing whatever nor l et him be
reproved in anything
H e need no t be u m

married but it is good that h e be without

wife tho u gh i f he have married o n e before he i s
He
ordained bishop he sha ll live with her
wou l d have a pri ncipal part in disposi ng of the
alms of the faithfu l therefore he must not be

a lover of t he greater share for himse l f F rom

the above quotations we see incidenta l ly that the
n umbers in the diocese might be tiny an d the
bishop a l most i ll iterate
T h e election was n o t carried out in the exact
modern way
I t was rather a n acc l aim o r an
assent o f the faithfu l to the person put before
them by their leaders and the neighbouring
bish ops
I t was e ffective as i s shown by an
instance given by D r F rere 3 At C irta A D
0
Silvanus
who
had
surren
ered
books
in
d
3 5
the persecution was proposed an d the peop l e
shouted /i us at
Le t another be appointed
and they had their way
Cyprian 4 says that i n order to preserve the
divine and Aposto l ic tradition at ordinations a ll
i te

cr

'

H m r
I b id p
o

Early

Statute:

33

H i t to ry

EA 6 7 , 5

f te

Ap ot tlet , p

39
.

rr
M
e

u
C
f

an d

M i n i t try p 3 0 0
,

Church H i sto ry

262

fro m Ne ro

to

Co n stan ti n e

the nearest bishops i n the same province are to

assemble an d the new bishop i s to be chosen i n
the presence o f th e people because they are fu l ly
acquainted with the l ife and character o f a l l wh o
are prese n t I t is i n fac t a power o f veto rath er
than e l ection Th e choice was probably made
befo rehand by the presby t ers and deacons o r
the i nuen t ial lay people and later o n i n time s
s ubsequen t t o t h e pe riod u nder review by the
king o r some great civil au thori ty as i s the case
t o day
Bu t the veto was a real thi ng I t has
su rvived i n the S i gai s for priests and deacons
a nd t he citation t o obj ectors which i s part o f
the co n rmation ceremony for bishops
Th e presence of t he neighbou ring bishops was
a guaran t ee to the rest o f the C hurch that t he
ordina t ion was val id and a wi t n es s to the new
bi shop and his ock o f t heir participa t io n i n the
unity o f t h e Catholic C hurch
We have also an account o f the Ordina t io n

S e rv i ce
The bis hop shall be o rdai ned as we
have already s poken o n e w ho has been ch ose n
by al l the people together with the presbyters
and deacons o n th e Lord s day
And al l the
bi s hops s hall go wi t h m u tual con s en t a nd lay
t hei r hand s upon h i m ; and the presby t e rs
standing by keep quiet and all o f t h em t ogether
i n silence and praying i n their hearts t hat th e
Holy Spiri t may help them and descend upon
h im And every o n e o f the bishops shall pray
an d a l l o f them severally s t andi ng up shal l
,

m e

Statute: o

t/l :

Jp ot tlz t , pp

8
3
39
.

The O

ee rs o

the

Chu rch

an d the i r

D uti es

2 63

l ay their hands upon him who i s ordained

bishop and they shal l pray over him th us
T hen fo ll ows the con secration prayer which

after the exhortation goes on to pray :

And
now pour out from T hee the migh t of the H o l y
Spiri t which T hou gavest to T hy be l oved Son
Jesus C hrist which T hou gran t e s t to u s th e
holy A post l es T hy he l pers i n T hy C h urch
working with the p l ough o f the C ross and in the
place of T hy holiness
T hen follows the
prayer for the graces required for the specia l
duties of the episcopate which has been give n
already
After the consecration prayer came the kis s of

peace
Every o n e of them sha ll sa l ute him
with the mouth kissing him who has become
a bishop
A deacon the n brought him the
ob l ations upon which the other bishops and the
presbyters l aid their hands and he then began t he
C ommunion Service wi th the S ursu m Co rda
The consecration prayer wh ich followed imme
di ate l y contai ns in t he Ethiopic version one
beautiful ph rase which i s worth recordi ng
Spreading out H i s hands for su ffering that H e
I
migh t release the su fferers who trust o n T hee

P RESBYT E RS
T h e presbyters were i n the second and third
centuries very much oversha dowed by the bishop
and the deacons I t i s not unti l in the fourth
H r r Stat t f the Ap tle p
TH E

ne

u es o

os

s,

Chu rch H i sto ry

2 6a
r

Nero

ro m

Co n stan ti n e

to

and fth centuries when the organi z ation o f the

C hurch made i t necessary for them to have
independent cure s tha t they begi n to assert
themselves We n d J erome for i nstance
asking what a bishop can d o that a presby t er
doe s not do except ordain I n the th ird century
they are still comparatively submerged
T here i s o n e i nteresting bit o f evidence i n the
C hurch Orders illustrating the ri se of th e pres
b y te rat e be t wee n th e begin ning o f t he third and
the end of the fourth centuries
I n the Egyp ti an Chu rch Orde r there i s a
direc t ion that the bishop s prayer should be

u s ed over the presbyter

I n the form which
"
we s aid before he shall pray and then follows
the same exo rdi um as that i n the bi shop s prayer
b u t the prayer i t self is di fferent and appropriate
to the presby ter M r C H Turner s uggest s
that the direction only means tha t the same
e xo rdi u m should be used
H owever tha t may be the Can o n s of H ipp o
ly tus
a fourth o r fth century adaptation o f
the Egyp ti an Chu rch Orae r directs that the same
prayer s hould be used for t he presbyter as fo r
th e bi shop with the exception o f the name and

adds t he signi can t explanation

T he bi s hop is
equal i n a ll things to the presby t er except fo r
the t hrone an d ordination F o r t he power o f

ordaining i s not given to the presbyter

T here
i s also the prel imi nary direction that All things
Earfy H i t ry ofth Ch h a d M i i try p 2 8 4
,

'

s o

C ab ro l

et

u rc

n s

L e cl e rcq , Reli gu i ae Li turg i cae Vetu sti ss i rn ae , p

64

The O

t
h
e
of

ce rs

Church

D u ti es

an d the i r

265

are to be done with t he presbyter as i n the

ordination of a bishop e xcept that h e i s not
enthroned
This p l ain l y implies an advance i n
the posi tion of the presbyter
I t i s a l so l aid down i n th e Can o n s of Hipp o ly tus
that the deacon is to mi nister to the bishop and
t o th e presbyters
But in the Egyp ti an Church
Oro e r there i s nothing said about their minis ter
ing to presbyters T hey are the servan ts of
the bishop a l one T hese changes are al l for

the greater glory o f the presbyter an d given

the earlier date o f the Egyp ti an Chu rch Orde r
which may be con sidered to be estab l i shed by

the researches o f D o m C ono ll y show hi s rise

i n position and prestige between A D 2 2 5 and
approximate
l
y
375
The C hurch i n t owns was organi z ed on the
plan o f a cathedral and not of a modern diocese
I nstead o f a l arge number o f sma ll and more
o r less independent parishes there was the o n e
C hurch presided over by the bishop assisted
by presbyters and deacons
The presbyters
were in some respects l ike the canon s of a
modern cathedral where the bishop i s also
dean They were general ly elder l y always in
residence always present at the services but
neither ce l ebrated o r preached i n the presence
of the bishop And the bishop nearly al ways
was presen t As to absolution it seem s unlike l y
t hat they were ever authorized t o give it s o early
as th is They were the bishop s advisers and
as s essors his Chapter in fact and n o doubt if
,

2 M

Chu rch H i sto ry

266

fro m Ne ro

Co n stan ti n e

to

men o f abi l ity found enough to do B ut we

hear lit tle o f them and it is l ikely that they were
general l y ordai n ed when elderly from am ong
the more devout and religiou s deaco n s minor
o f cia l s o r l aymen and quite possib l y on the
analogy o f widows some were ordained i f of u n
blemished character t hat they m ight receive an
h onourable and suitable provision i n their o ld age
The C hurch Order says that a bi shop i s to
have three always with h im I t also says tha t
th e proper n umber of presbyters i n a ch urch is

twenty four
And it i s p roper fo r the pres
b y t e rs tha t they should be like o l d me n
and they shall partake o f the M ystery wi th the
bishops and help with him in everything what
soever an d gather round him wit h love o f their
shepherd And the presbyters wh o are o n the
righ t shall be carefu l to give assistance at the
altar
And t h e presbyte rs w ho are o n t he
left shall a tt en d t o all the people that t hey may

be quiet and n o t i n commotion

At his ordination the bishop shall lay his

hand upon his head ; and a ll t he presbyte rs
shall touch hi m an d pray over h im
At o n e time th e custom prevailed of allowi n g
con fe ssion involving torture t o take th e place o f
ordina t ion j us t as martyrdom was allowed to
coun t as baptism The Ethiopian text o f the

if the con fessor

C hurch Order 3 lays down that
has been i n the place o f p unish ment i n chains
.

Ho r r
Ibid p
ne

,
.

Statu tes

the
3

Ap o stle s, p 1 3 4
1 46
, p

I bid

The O

ce rs o

the

Chu rch

an d the i r

D u ti es

267

for the Name o f Christ they sha l l not lay

hand on him for a ministering for that is the
ho nour of a deacon ; but as for the ho n our of
the presbyterate though he hath t he hono ur o f
the presbyterate by that which h e hath con
fessed yet the bishop shall ordain him having

l aid his hand upon him

I n the Arab i c and
S ai d i c
versions the confessor may be advanced
to the presbytera t e without laying on of hand s

but if he is appointed bishop th e hand sh al l

be laid o n him
I t i s not c l ear how far this
ru l e was carried o u t i n practice
We know
that Cyprian only made the confessor Ce l e ri n u s

a reader tho u gh h e was given the honour

and a ll owances o f a presbyter
,

T H E D E A CO N

The deacon was a most impor tan t person and

unlike the presbyter whose principal quali cation
was age o r at least the chasti ty and sobriety that
age shou l d bring a long lis t o f more po s itive

T hey shal l be
qualitie s is required o f him
tried concerning all the service having the testi
mony o f all the people that they l ive with o n e
wife and have reared their chi l dren i n puri ty
and such as are mercifu l and humble and such
as are not murmurers and such as are no t double
tongued n or wrathful because wrath depraves a
wise man And t hey sha ll not respec t t he person
H r r Stat t of th Ap tl p 46
I bid p 3 8
,

ne
.

u es

os

es ,

Chu rch H i sto ry

268

fro m Ne ro

Co n s tan ti n e

to

the rich nor act u nj u s t ly t o t h e poo r ; n o r

dri n k m uch wine and they shall work hard fo r
the M ys teries th e hidden the beau t iful the
cheering And they shall honour all with al l
honour a nd modesty and fear and they shall
keep themselves i n all purity
A n d some o f
t hem they shall teach and some o f them t hey
shall que s t ion an d some o f the m they sha l l
reprove and some t hey shall console A s for t he
rej ec t ed they shall a l so expel th em a t once and
they shall know that those w ho oppo s e the revile rs
the rej ected are your adversaries
H e was i n fact th e bishop s chaplain secretary
man o f business and almoner ; and as a l l the
o fferings o f the C hurch cam e u nder the control
of the bishop the deacon had enough to do He
had both to make i nquiries and distribu t e t he
alm s H e was al s o responsible for most o f the
dutie s i n c hurch which n o w would be d ivided

be t ween t he sacri stan the verger t he door

keeper and acolyte came later and the o l d

fashioned pa ri sh clerk
H e bid the p rayer s

F o r i nstance we read
The deacon shall s ay
Pray ye for those who gave their names
In
fact he seem s to have combined all these e ccl e s i
as ti cal fu nc t ions with those o f an agent o f th e
C hari t y Orga n ization Socie t y
I n the deaco n s ordi nation prayer t he bishop

p rays that h e may obtai n the exal t ed pries t

hood
so it i s no t unreasonable to as s u me tha t
when t o o o l d t o carry o n the work o f deaco n s
o

'

Ho m r
e

S tatutes

f the Jp o st/es

35

The O

ce rs o

the

Chu rch

an d the i r

D u ti es

26

e f cient l y they were raised to the priesthood if

their l ives were satisfactory j ust as a pari sh priest
to-day when getting too o l d for the work o f a
big pari sh i s sometimes made the canon of
a cathedra l
At hi s ordination the bishop alone i s to lay his

hand o n his head

And why do we s ay that
the bishop a l one is h e who l ays h i s hand upo n
him 3 F o r a sign it i s of this thing that he was
not ordained for priesthood but on l y for the ser
vice o f the bishop And h e w as n o t ordained to
be a teacher of those wh o are i n Orders but t o be
o n e who will think of what is proper
and to
i nform the bishop And he was not ordained
to acquire the Grea t Spiri t o f which the presbyters
par take b ut to occupy hi mself w ith that which i s
proper t ha t t h e bishop may trust him and that
he may acquaint the bis hop with t hat which is

t t ing for him to know

The a rchdeacon l a t er on was called the o culus
ep i sco i
We
see
the
beginning
of
it
here
The
p
modern archdeacon s t ript of th e acciden t al and
ex t raneous function s wh ich sometimes devo l ve on
him as a canon or pari sh priest i s the descendant
o f the ancien t deacon
,

T H E M I NO R

O F F I C IA L S
O u t side the Orders of Bishop Pries t and
D eacon the rst o f cia l to appear i s the reader
H i s duties except so far as they are indicated
,

H r r
o

ne

S tatu te s

the

Jp ostles

44

Chu rch H i sto ry

2 70

fro m Ne ro

to

Co n s tan ti n e

by his name are ob s cure and he soon lost hi s

importance We read i n the Church O rde r

tha t a reader shall be ordai ned aft er he has

been rs t t ried
H e shall n o t be o f ma n y
words o r a dru n kard o r a sco ffer
And he
shall be o f good charac t er an d a lover o f the
good ; o n e w ho is quick t o go every day to
the church who re members the j udgem ent ;
and h e shall be obedient and o n e w ho reads
well and w ho knows the du t y o f him who read s
t ha t he should do according to what h e reads ;
and o n e who lls t he ear o f others with h is

?
word ough t h e no t to do i t him self
At thi s ti me at any rate he wa s appoi nted
ra t her than ordained
T o th e reader w ho i s
ordai ned the bishop s hall deliver the Scrip t ure

and shall n o t lay hand upon hi m

,

T H E S U B D E A CO N

Th e s u bdeacon at this period came afte r t he

reader an d apparently afte r the widow and the
virgi n H i s dutie s were to as s is t the deaco ns

H e shall n o t lay hand upon a s u bdeaco n bu t

he sha ll make m ention over t hem o f t he Name
tha t they may mi n iste r t o t he deaco n s
Th e
fou rt h and fth ce ntury witne s s ed a grea t e x p an
sion o f the du t ies of t he deacons and t he impor
tance o f t he subdeacon grew accordingly Th e
reader and su bdeacon were paid an d may have
,

Ho r e r
I bi d p
n

,
.

Statu tes
1

74

the

Jpo stles, p

55

7 he Oi ce rs

the

an d the i r

Chu rch

D u ti es

27 1

ranked as c l ergy but Cyprian says they were

cl e ro
ro xi m i next to the clergy
p

A co

L YT E s

We hear l itt l e of aco lytes They are not men

t i o n e d i n the rst C hurch Order b u t we l earn
that i n Rome i n the third century there were
seven deacons one for each ecc l esias t ica l district
and under each deacon o n e subdeacon and six
aco l ytes
.

W I Do w

I t is not permitted to a woman t o speak in

the church or to teach o r to baptize or to o ffer
or to claim to herse l f a l ot in any manly function
nor to s ay in any sacerdota l o ffi ce
T his
probably represents no t untru l y the negative
attitude o f the Church as a whole Ne ve rthe
less there had been from t he beginni n g a
mi nistry of women
F rom very early days there was an order of

widows
Let not a widow be enro l led u n der
three score years o f age having been the wife
wel l reported o f for good works ;
o f o n e man
if s he have brought up children if s he have
l odged strangers i f s he have washed the saints
feet if she have relieved the a f icted if s he have
di l igently fol l owed every good work But th e
younger widows refuse 3 T hey are to continue
Early Hi t y of th Ch r h a d M i i try p 3
ix
I T i m v 91 1
T t O th V ili g f Vi rgi
TH E

s or

er

u c

n s,

n s

02

Chu rch Hi sto ry

2 72

fro m Ne ro

Co n stan ti n e

to

i n prayer nigh t and day They were not h o w

ever to teach appare n tly o r t o usurp authori t y
over th e m en
The widow was e nrolled par t ly as an ac t o f
charity F o r if s he has nephews or children
they are to support her
She i s n ot to be a
burde n on th e C hurch O nly if she is desola t e
and without means o f support i n addition t o
more spiritual quali cations can she be enrolled
Later o n the quali ca t ion o f de sti t u t io n seem s t o
h ave tended t o o us t the other
The agape seem s to have s u rvived la t es t as
a t reat for widows Th e mos t a f ic t ed are to be
i n vi t e d o fte n e s t
On e o f the reasons fo r n o t appoin ting you n g
widows i s that by reason o f i ndigence t hey migh t
marry again
l n the rst C hurch Order t here
are direction s for t he ordina t ion o f widow s
Only those whose husbands have been dead
a long time are to be ordained Th ey are to

be ordai ned by word only

They shall n o t
lay hand upon her because she does n o t o ffer
the sacri ce nor has s he a ( sac red ) mi n i s t ry
F o r the sealing is fo r the priests because o f thei r
mi nistry bu t the duty o f widows i s about
prayer 3 A la t er edition adds that a widow
m ust remain a l ong ti me keeping apa rt with
good works with fasting a nd prayer before
she i s admi t t ed i nto the order
I n t he D i aascali a t hey are n o t to b e le s s t han
I b i d xiv
Di da ix
.

sc.

H r er
o

Statutes

h
t
e
f

Jp o stles, p

1 47

The O

ce rs o

Chu rch

the

an d the i r

D u ti es

2 73

fty
Ter t u l lian gives sixty as t he age l imi t
T hose w ho contribute t o their support are no t
.

to give t o the widows with their own hands

but are to con t ribute through the bishop w ho
knows the circumstances o f each ; and when
t hey receive t he gift they are t o be told the
name of the giver
T ake care o f them therefore O bishop and
remember also the poor
Therefore those
who bring gifts are not to give to widows with
their o wn hands but are t o o ffer to thee o n thei r
behalf
And when thou di s tri b u te s t tell
them the name of the giver tha t they may p ray

for h im by his name

Sh e i s to be humble peacefu l and quiet She
i s not to be a great ta l ker or l ift up her voice
when s he speaks o r t o have a long t ongue or
love quarre l s She i s to care for nothing else
bu t to pray for h er benefac t ors and th e whole
C hurch

She is not to teach because if it is declared

to them ( heathen under i nstruction ) by a woman
about how o u r Lord became incarnate and about
the Passion o f the C hrist they wi l l mock and
j oke
Therefore it is not necessary o r righ t
that women should be teachers especial l y abou t
the Name of the Lord and abou t sa l vation by
H i s Passion for women were not appointed to
t each especia ll y not a widow ; but that they
shoul d make prayer and supplication to the

Lord God
I b i d xv
,

2 N

Church H i sto ry

2 74

fro m Ne ro

Co n stan ti n e

to

As

a class t hey do n o t seem to h ave been

satisfac t ory wh ich i s no t altogether s urprising
T here are bitter complai n ts o f widows who gad
about and are grumblers quarrelsom e and have

n o shame
for n o t eve n i n an as s emb l y o n
Sunday are t hey a tt entive ;
they either
sleep soundly o r talk about som ethi ng e l se
By them thei r order is considered a merchandize

and they care o n ly for money

Sh e who i s
assiduou s to gad about can no t please G o d

When s he stands up to pray s he recollect s

where she should go to receive some t hing or
that she has forgotte n to s ay some word to
h e r fri e n ds

But the widow who wi s h es to please Go d

sits wi t hi n her hou s e and medita t es i n the Lord
nigh t and day without ceasing a t all ti mes o ffer
i ng prayer and s u pplica t ion She doe s n o t gad
about h er prayer is n o t i mpeded and her peace
fulness quie t n es s an d puri t y are accep t e d o f
God
This system o f providi n g fo r widows not

T h e wise
unnatu rally fomented j ealousy
widow whe n some o l d widow thy companion
has received a garm en t o r a gift tho u O wi dow
o ugh t es t t o s ay Blessed be God Who co m
fo r t e th t he o l d woman my comrade
Th e
wom an wh o received the gift will l i k e a wi se
woma n conceal the name o f th e donor B ut
if t he recipien t i s without sen se s h e wi l l reveal
t he giver s name and if sh e to whom it i s
I bid
D i da xv
,

sc

The O

ce rs o

an d thei r

Chu rch

the

D u ti es

275

revea l ed is one of those who on l y care to beg

or gad about
she grumb l es and b l ames the
bishop who made the provision o r th e e l der

or h im who gave the gift and says D ost thou

not know that I am nearer to thee and I am

much more destitute than she ?

Some dis
appointed widows seem t o have so far forgot t en
themselves as to curse t he bi s hop who was
responsible
T h e widows were in fac t an order o f desti t u t e
persons with a c l ai m on t he charity o f the
faithfu l which they were expected to requite
with prayers
,

T H E D E A CO N E s s

deaconess seems to have been evolved

from the widow We come acros s th e phrase

I n som e cases
widows who are deaconesses
at any rate they anoi nt the bodies o f women i n
baptism and take communion to sick women
visit women i n houses when men would not be
admitted put women i n their places in ch u rch
and have ge n eral ly a recogni z ed m inistry to

women
A woman i s required for the service
o f women ; for there are houses where thou canst
not send a deacon on account of the heathen
She was
Send a deaconess for many thi ngs
a l so to visit th e sick and anoint those who were
h eal ed from sicknesses Th e D i dascali a says they
are to be appointed T h e compi l er of the Ap o s
T he

D i dasc

xv

Church Hi sto ry

276

fro m

m to

Co n stan ti n e

Books i vi who produced a

revised and amp l i ed edition o f the D i dascal i a
says they are to be ordai ned Th e same editor
l ays down that widows are to be subj ect to
deaconesses By the four t h ce n t ury there are
direction s fo r t he bishop to o rdai n h er by laying
an d a S peci al prayer i s provided
o n o f hands
H e r o rdi na t ion follows that o f deacon s and
comes before those o f subdeacon s and reader s
I n t h e Testam en t of o ur L o rd t here are direc t ion s
fo r the appoi n tment o f widow s and also o f

re s b t e re s s e s
in
fron
t
o r widows
h
o
s it
w
p
y
w ho are presumably much th e same as deacon
esses and have been evo l ved i n the sam e way
Th e deacone ss does n o t appear un t il towards
t he lat t er half of th e third cen tury and n o t often
then Th e C hurch Order ( i n a la t er edition )
speaks o f s u b de aco n e s s e s and women readers but

gives no particulars

to

li c Co n sti tu ti o n s ,

V I R G I NS
The virgin i s th e woman w ho volu n tarily
u n de rtakes to lead a celiba t e life fo r t he sake o f
grea t er devotion to o u r Lord
The idea i s n o t exclu s ively C hristian Co n s e
c ra t ed virgin s o f wh om the Vestal Virgi n s o f
Rom e are the be s t known example are fo und i n
hea t he n religions
I n t he C hurch t here are t hree i dea s u n derl ying
t h e li fe There i s rs t that which i s pro minent
.

H o rn e t Statu tes of the Jp ostlcs, p

,

20 1

The Oi ce rs

the

Chu rch

an d the i r

D u ti es

277

i n S Pau l s mind of serving the Lord without

distraction i n h i s case emphasi z ed by h i s expecta
tion o f the Second Coming as being i mminent
T hen there is the idea of a mystica l union with
C hrist Wh o is the bridegroom and the virgin
may take no other ; an idea wh ich has been
prominen t in ascetic l iterature a nd l ives for cen
t u ri e s
We n d i t i n T ertu ll ian i n h is treatise
de Vi rg i n i hus Ve l an cl i s
Y o u do not belie your
self i n appearing as a bride for wedded y o u are
to C hrist : to H i m you have surrendered your
fl esh to H i m y o u have espoused your maturity
Cyprian has the same idea
T h e third deve l o p
ment later than our period i s the idea of l eading
this life i n common with others who are i n the

same condition i n other words o f leading the

community life
We n d them mentioned as an order in the
rst C hurch Order when we read t hat
he sha l l
not lay hand on a virgi n "
in ordination ] but it is
with her heart a l on e that she became a virgin

I n the next century we read

A virgin is not
ordained for we have no such command from
the Lord ; for this i s a state o f vo l untary tria l
not for the reproach o f marriage but o n account
of leisure for piety
Later T hey are to com
m u n i cate after the deacon esses and before t he
widows
I n the four t h century the Empress H elena found
a company o f ho l y virgins or C hurch virgins at
Jerusa l em and waited on th em at supper

o m e

S tatutes ofthe Ap o stles, p

47

Chu rch Hi sto ry

278

fro m

Co nstan ti n e

m to

But women had m uch ear l ier consecrated the m

se l ves to C hrist with a vow or at l east a reso l ution
o f conti n ence
T ertul l ian wrote to urge them to
wear veils bot h in ch urch and i n the stree t s He
seem s to urge the veil o n all women married and
unmarried th ose l ooki ng t o marriage and t hose
regarding themselve s as e s poused to Christ ; bu t
h e plai n l y regards th e last as a special cla s s H e
a l so mentions that h e knew a virgin o f twe nty
placed i n the order o f widows which he n o t
unnaturally considered an unsuitab l e arrange
ment I t s eem s to point to the fact tha t women
wh o were under a pledge of chastity were regarded
a s a class apart and worthy o f special h o n our
and fur t her that i n his time in Africa there w as
as ye t no regular order for them t o enter
.

X IV

A ND

M I NI S T ERIAL

A U T H O RIT Y
TRA NS M I SSI O N

ITS

OM E

a t tempts m ust be made t o answer th e

much vexed question o f the source from
which the ministers of the Church derived their
authority T here are three theories T h e rst
that it came fro m above that i s from the
Apostles who were themselves sent from C hri st
and they i n their turn com missioned others like
Timothy and T itus who were given authority
to hand on the power of ordaining to their s u c
ce s s o rs
T h e second that auth ori t y came from
below that the Church or at l east the m inistry
e l ected to vacan t o f ces and that e l ection
followed by the l aying on o f hands was a ll that
was necessary
The thi rd theory i s tha t no
externa l authority was required ; that each
ministered as moved by the Spiri t and their
frui t s as seen i n their prophesying or teaching
o r
healing were their only and su f cien t
credentials P
Al l that will be attempted wi l l be to summari z e
the facts and give such explanations as seem to
be necessary
The last theory may be dealt with rs t
It
.

27

80

Church H i sto ry

fro m

to

Co n stan ti n e

was evolve d by Professor Harnack from the

D idache and i s som etim es called the chari s m atic
theory o f t he ministry derived from charisma a
Gree k word t ranslated grace gift by t he D ea n o f
Wells
I
I n the D i aach th e local church es are or dered
elect bishops and deacons bishop being
to
apparently used i n i t s Ne w T estamen t sense as
a synonym fo r pre sbyter ; but t he prom inent
mini s ters are the Apostles proph e t s an d teach e rs
Apostles an d prophets may refer t o the same
order as seems to be imp l ied i n thi s passage
Le t the Apost l e take n othi ng but bread if h e

as k for money he i s a false p rO p h e t

This
however is not the u s ual V iew
These o f cials
take precedence o f the bishop o r pre sbyter
9
They are to celebrate the E ucharis t s o far as
t h ey are willing to do so 3 T he local churches
are warned not to des pise the bishops and

deacons fo r they a l so render to you the ministry

I t h as t herefore
o f the prophets and teachers
bee n suggested that these itinerant Apo s tles
prophets and teachers were t he origi nal type o f
min is t er who were replaced later o n by th e
local ministry of presbyter bishop and deacon
wh ich was j ust coming i nto prominence The
chief passage i n the Ne w Testament that
can be urged i n i t s s upport of thi s t h e ory i s
f:
28 f
I C orin t hians xii

And s ome God hath se t i n t he church rs t

Apos tles secondarily prophets third l y teachers
I bid x
I b i d xi
v
,

'

M i n i ste ri al Autho ri ty

an d

i ts Tran sm i ssi o n

8I

after that mirac l es t hen gifts o f hea l ings helps

govern ments diversities o f tongues
Are al l
?
?
Apostles are a l l prophe t s are a l l teachers ?
?
are al l workers of m irac l es
H ave a ll the gifts
o f healing ? do a ll speak with tongues ? do all

i nterpret
But covet earnestly the best gifts
H ere it is said we have rst of a l l the three
orders of Apostles prophets and teachers
and th en S Paul diverges to impersona l gifts
But S Pau l has been speaking of the spiritual
gifts o f the Spiri t i n the C hurch and has been
exalting edifying gifts such as p rophecy at the
expense of speaking with tongues I t is much
more natural to take Apost l es prophets teach ers
as denoting quali cation or function rather than
o f ce God hath sent Apost l es with th e Apos
tol ic qua l i cations of being witnesses o f th e

Resurrection ; others they may be presby t ers

deacons or laymen with the gift o f pro ph esy

ing yet others who have the gift of teaching
o t hers again wi t h the gift of hea l ing others wh o
can work miracles and s o on To -day a bishop
wri t ing a letter i n h is D iocesan M agazine might

sa :
God
has
given
us
i
n
this
diocese
men
y
missioners di l igent parish priests
0 f l earning
others who have the gift o f conducting retreats
others who are ski l led i n hearing confessions
some even who devote themse l ves to spiritua l
hea l ing T herefore we have every right to be

encouraged
We have
H e wou l d hard l y s ay :
a bishop priests and deacons s o take courage
and go forward
,

,
,
,

2 o

2 82

Chu rch H i sto ry

fro m Ne ro

Co n stan ti n e

to

Another passage of S Paul i s also quoted

i n favour o f thi s charismatic theory

And
he gave so me Apostle s ; and some prophe t s ;
and some evangelists ; and some pastors and
teachers
H ere we note rst of all that the l i st has
developed
Evangelists and pastors have been
added B u t if i t i s really a l ist o f o f ce -bearers
i t i s di f cul t to accoun t for t he fact that la t er
o n s till i n the D i aach they have agai n shrun k

to two or three at the m os t Apos t l es prophets

and teachers
Secondly i t m ust be repea t ed
that an Apostle w as probably a prophet certainly
an evangelist and teacher a nd that a presbyte r
was probably both pastor and teacher I n the
Pastoral Epistles the presbyter who teaches i s to
be doubly honoured
This charismatic theory has l ittle support fro m
the Ne w Tes t amen t and non e from any othe r
C hri stian li terature excep t the D i dache
Th e
D i aache appears to belong to som e obscure
Palesti nian group o f C hri stian s and may easi l y
No r i s there
have bee n i so l ated and peculiar
anythi ng i n i ts pages to sh ow that these itinerant
A po s t le -prophets o r Apostles and prophets were
not ordained and given au t hority to ordain
o t her s i n the ir turn W hatever t h eir positio n
was i t seem s to have been very exceptional and
irregular

There were not two forms o f mi nistry th e

f
f

m inis t ry of gifts and the mi nistry o o ce but

E p h iv 1 I
.

'

M i n i ste ri al Autho ri ty

an d

i ts Tran sm i ssi o n

28

one form inc l uding Apost l es bishops or presby

ters and deacons any member o f which might
be endowed with o n e o r more of the many
gifts of the Spirit prophesy miracles teach ing
T h e source of authority
tongues o r any o th e r
Was it from
w as n o t then within each minister
above o r be l ow
No w when C hurch history opens with the rs t
chapter o f the Acts a ll ministerial authority i s
T hey are the undis
centred in the Apost l es
u t e d ru l ers o f the C hurch and a ll authority to
p
minister in the congregation excep t as regards
certain endowments such as speaking with
tongues seems to come from them T here may
be exceptions but we do not hear o fthem When
i n the rst days the E uchari st was celebrated

a
li
that i s in private houses i t is di f cu l t
to be l ieve that the ce l ebrant was not either an
Apostle or some o n e authorized by an Apost l e
T hough they are never me ntioned there must
have been many among the seventy mentioned
by S Luke as being appointed by C hrist who
wou l d seem to have been ready to hand for t he
purpose
T here i s no hin t that t he Apo s tles looked
forward to a distant future and provided a
schem e o f government and a regu l ar ministry to
meet i t s needs T h ey lived and acte d as though
the Second Coming was imminent and no long
S
A R bi
E ay i i Th E arly Hi t ry of th
Ch r h a d m i i try
S L k x I
,

Ir

co u

ee

u c

n s

n so n

ss

s o

2 84

Chu rch Hi sto ry

fro m Ne ro

to

Co n stan ti n e

views were required

Whatever o f ces were
e stablished we should expect t o n d provided to
meet the needs o f the m oment as t h ey arose
Their conviction o f t he nearne s s o f t he e nd made
their Church policy o f necessi ty opp or t u n i s t an d

ha n d-to -mouth
This vi ew is borne o u t by
t he appoin t men t o f t he S even w he t h er we are to
t ake t he tradi t ional V i ew t hat the Seve n we re t he
r s t deacons o r to hold t ha t they we re e x ce p
t i o n al o f cial s crea t ed t o mee t a need t ha t did
n o t recu r
Th e Apos t les found tha t t he wo rk o f
supe rin t e nding the distribu t ion o f alm s interfered
with t heir more spiritual function s s o the C h u rch
was t old to choo s e seven men and autho rity w as
give n t he m by the Apostle s th rough th e i mposi
tion o f hands
With the dispersion that followed t he dea t h o f
Stephen t he si t uation was alte re d Th e disciple s
were s ca tt ered abroad and whe rever t hey wen t
they p reached t h e Word We know t he re were
bodie s o f C h ris t ian s in Samaria and a t An t ioch
we do n o t k n ow whe t her any o f cial mini s t e rs
We re appoi n t ed t o s uperi n t end the s e sca tt e red
congrega t io n s and to p re s ide over t heir Euch aris t s
We r s t hea r of a body of C hu rch o f cial s
called p reshy tcrs o r e lde rs at Jerusalem whe n t he
bre t h ren at A n t ioch de t ermi ned to s end relief

sending i t t o the pres

t o the M oth er C hurch

b y te rs by the hand s o f Barnaba s an d P au l

Again when the di s pu t e arose a t Antioch t he
bre t hren appoin t ed Paul an d Ba rnabas and
.

Acts

xi

30

M i n i steri al Autho ri ty

an d

i ts T rans m i ssi o n

285

other delegates to go to Jerusa l e m un t o the

Apostles and presbyters
T h e deputation w as

received o f the C hurch and the Apostles and

presbyters and later on we read t hat the

Apostles and presbyters were gathered toge t her
t o consider of this matter
Paul and Barnabas
on their missionary j ourney appointed presbyte rs
in every city T he title was p robably adopted
from the synagogue as every Jewish synagogue
was presided over by a council of elders I t no

more imp l ied ag e than the Roman title senator

o r our
alderman
Later on we come ac ross ep i scop i o r bishops
The word is Greek and is found both i n the
Sep t uagin t and i n c l assi cal Greek Bishop Light

foo t give s inspector as the nearest E ng l i s h

equivalent Though a di fferen t view has been
held there seem s no su f cient reason to doub t
tha t in the Ne w T es t ament th e t erm s presby t er
and ep i scop us or bishop are iden t ical
By the death o f S Paul the presby t er o r
e i sco us
with
deacons
may
be
considered
t
o
p
p
be everywhere e stablished as the l ocal church
o f cials T h e le t ter to the Philippians i s addressed
to the C hurch in Philippi with bishop s and

deacons
S Peter exhorted the elders w ho
to feed the ock o f G o d I n
are amo n g y o u
I
Timo t hy iii S Paul gives directions for the
appointment o f bishops and deacons I n h i s
letter to T i t us he tells him to appoint elders i n
every ci t y We are n o t t o l d explicitly as to
I S P t v I

Chu rch H i sto ry

2 86

Ne ro

om
r
f

to

Co n stan ti n e

their appoi ntment o r their duties B ut there

can be no reasonable doubt tha t t hey were
appoin t ed by Apostle s o r Apos t olic delegates
I t i s unlike l y that s o important a class wou l d
have been formed without Apos t olic appoint
men t and i n the Acts and the Pa s t oral E p istles
we n d t hat s uch i s t he case
As t o their du t ie s we are t old li t tle and it i s
easy t o s e e tha t t heir most obviou s and pre s s ing
duties are the lea s t likely to be mentione d
S Lu ke i n the Acts doe s n o t e x patia t e o n things
that we re fam iliar and a mat t er o f course t o h is
reader s T he H oly C om mu nion is only men
The appoi nt
t i o n e d i ncidentally
s o i s Baptism
men t o f the S even i s mentioned a t some le ngth
I t represen t ed a new departure The a ppointment
o f presbyter s followed s o
closely upon Jewi s h
u sage that thei r e x i stence was ass u med and t hei r
duties were known t o all
Th e wri t ers o f t he Reforma t ion period i n

England frequen tly u se the phrase preaching

m inis t ers o r men t ion tha t a particular p rie s t was

a preacher No o n e mentions that th ey were
celeb rants No o n e writing to day would m e n
tio n e ither I t i s take n fo r gra n t ed S o with
Ne w Te s tamen t wri t e rs

S Paul t ells Ti m o t hy t ha t elder s w ho rule

well be counted wor t hy o f double h onou r espe
ci al l
those
h
labour
i
n
the
Word
and
i
n
w
o
y

teaching
S o i t i s plai n t ha t s ome do no t
t each
.

T im

R V.
.

M i n i ste ri al Autho ri ty

an d

i ts Tran sm i ssi o n

2 87

The candidate fo r episcopal o f ce mus t rul e

his own house wel l if not how wil l he care fo r
th e C hurch of God
They were t o be n o lovers
o f money so probably they were in charge o f the
treasury of the Church They were t o be l over s
o f hospita l ity and were no doubt the repre s enta
ti y es of the congrega t ion whom visi t ing breth ren
would natural l y seek out rst o f a l l
But there can be l it t le do ubt that their principal
duty was to preside over the E uchari st This
no doub t accoun t s for their early appearance at
Jerusalem where the nu mber o f Chri s tians w as
l arge from t he begi n ning and fo r their appoint
ment by Paul a nd Barnabas i n each i nfan t
C hurch
T h e ques t ion t o be solved i s H o w then were
t he Apostles replaced either as rulers o r as trans
m i t te rs o f authority
What were the stages to
be traversed before the monarchical and local
bishop took the place o f the equally monarchical
?
but itinerant Apos tl e
Was it a descen t by a
regular act o f de v o l u te d authority ? O r was it
an ascent D i d the bishops o r elders compelled
by t he needs o f the time choose o n e o f their own
number and under God themselves i nves t him
wi t h the necessary power o r is the power t ra n s
m i tt e d and devo l ved from above
I n the Pastoral Epist l es we n d Timothy and
Titus acting as temporary bishops i n E phesus
T h e appointment i s
and Crete respective l y
t emporary ; t hey are rather episcopal delega t e s
than bishops but their position and duties are
,

Church H i sto ry

88

fro m Ne ro

to

Co n stan ti n e

those o f a bishop
Their work i s t o rule and
t o ordai n M oreover S Timothy is remi nded

to
stir up t he gift of G o d which i s in h im

by the putting o n o f my hands

I t i s true
tha t h e i s also warned n o t to neglec t the gi ft

given hi m by prop hecy with the layi n g o n o f

the hands o f the pre s by t ery which migh t appea r
to favour a p resbyteral ordinati on i f we did n o t
k n ow t ha t from the earliest times o f which we
have any record i t was th e custom fo r the pres
b y t e rs to be associated wi t h the bishop i n t h e
laying o n o f hand s
The evidence a fforded by the sub -apos t olic
C hu rch i s scan ty but the r s t epi stle o f C leme n t
seem s to bear o u t the theory o f t rans mis sio n
from the Apo stles Th e author o f t h i s epis t le
addressing the C hu rch o f G o d at Cori nth i n the
n ame o f the C hurc h o f G od
wh ich s oj our n s a t
Rome wrote i n order to put an e nd to s t rife
which had arisen i n consequence o f the extrusio n
o f cer t ain presby t ers at C orinth by a faction i n
t hat C h u rch
The pe rtinen t pa s s ages are as
follows
C hr i st t herefore was s e n t forth by G o d t he
A po s t les by C hri st

A n d thu s preaching through cou n tries and

s
cities they appointed th e r t frui t s o f their
labours having rst proved them by th e Spirit
t o be bishops and deacons of those w ho should
afterwards believe
Our Apostle s also knew
through o u r Lord Jesus C hri s t that t here would
i 4
iv 1 4
I T im
1

M i n i ste ri al Au tho ri ty

an d i ts

Tran sm i ssi o n

89

be strife fo r the o f ce o f the episcopate F o r

this cau se therefore inasmuch as they had
obtained a perfect foreknow l edge of this they
appoin t ed those ministe rs a l ready mentioned
and afterwards gave instructions that when these
should fall asleep other approved men should
succeed them i n their ministry We are of
opinion therefore that t hose appointed by them
o r afterward s by other emi nent men
with the
consent o f the who l e C hurch an d who have
b l ameless l y served the ock of Christ can not be
j us t l y dismissed from the ministry F o r o u r sin
wil l not be smal l if we ej ect from the episcopate
those who have b l ame l essly and h olily fu l ll ed
its duties Blessed are those presbyters who
havi n g nished their course before now have
ob t ained a fruitful and perfect departure
I t i s plain that p reshy te r and hi shop are still
synonymous term s
Also that stress i s laid
o n
t heir appointment originally by Apostles
The controverted point turn s on the a l ternative

method of appointmen t
afterwards by
o r
T he Apostles
other emi nent "
approved ]men
we are given to understand made arrangements
for the future provision of clergy When the
presen t c l ergy should die others should succeed
T hose then appoi nted either by Apostle s o r
other approved men must not be extruded

Take n by itse l f th e
other approved men
might be prophets and not ordered ministers
at a ll Bu t read with the context it can hardly
F i r t ep i tle of Cl me t i 44
.

n ,

2 P

Chu rch Hi sto ry

Ne ro

o rn

to

Co n stan ti n e

be 5 0 H i s argu me n t i s t hat God has xed all

things belonging to H i s worsh ip
C hrist i s
from G o d the Apostles are from C hrist t he
pre s by t ers are from the Apo s t le s
Th erefore
their ej ection i s a s i n I f the approved men
do no t derive their au t hority from the Apo s tles
like Timothy and Titus the argume nt falls to
the g round
C le ment was after all appeal ing

to facts perfectly well known and if t h e o t her

approved me n were o f Apo s tolic descen t i t

would be u n necessary to u s e some such clum sy

periphrasis as me n authorized by Apostles to

ordain which wou l d have been the alterna t ive
T h e D i dache has o n e reference to the subj ect

Appoi n t for yourselves bishops and deacon s

The Greek word m e ans properly to elect by
a sho w o f hands but it is used o f the appoi nt
men t and ordinatio n o f elders by S Paul and
S B arnabas So that the writer o f th e D i dache
may well be speaking o f t he electio n o f t
perso n s to serve as bishops and deacon s leaving
their formal ordination o n o n e side
S Ignatiu s is silent on the subj ect o f Apos
tolic appointmen t but his co mplete silence if
it proved anything would prove that Apostolic
appoi ntment was unknown to him wh ich is
absurd H e probably t ook it for granted No r
d i d he need it fo r the purpose of his argumen t
Th e bishop i s li ke Go d the presby t ers l ike the
Apostles at th e Las t Supper I t would have
been an anti -climax to have gone o n t o ascribe
the authority o f either to Apos t olic descent I t
.

M i n i ste ri al Au tho ri ty

an d

i ts Tran sm i ssi o n

is quite possible that Ignatius and o t he rs acce p te d

the fact without attaching any particu l ar import
ance to i t But hi s si l ence certainly does not
s how that he was ignorant of th e fact M ore
over he i mplies the theory of the transmission
o f authority i n the fol l owing passage

Let that be held a va l id Eucharist which

is under the bi shop o r one to whom he sha ll
have entrusted it
I t is noteworthy that there i s no mention of
a hi shop i n the l ater senseeither at Rome o r
The evidence
C orinth by Ignatius o r Cl ement
of the papa l l ists which Bi shop Lightfoot has
marsha ll ed with s uch skill i s fairly conclusive
proof that there was a Bishop of Rom e though
Ignatius writing twenty years l ater seem s to
ignore his existence T h e case of Corinth is
more doubtful I t may be that the Church was
ruled by presbyter bishops some at l east wi t h
the power of ordination or there may be som e
other exp l ana t ion which has not yet come to
l ight T here is the same ambiguity i n the case
of t he Phi l ippian Church as Polycarp writing
to that C hurch about the year A D 1 5 0 makes
no mention of a bishop
With these exceptions episcopacy as we
u nderstand it with the possible exception o f
Alexandria seems t o have been the rule i n
every C hurch from the beginning At least
we have no evidence o f any other form of
government
In J
erusalem We n d J
ames the Lord s

Chu rch H i sto ry

fro m Ne ro

to

Co n stan ti n e

brother established as ru l er o f the Ch urch ;

and H e ge s i p p u s record s that he was succeeded
by Symeon Eusebi us further gives a list o f
thirteen bishops w ho s ucceeded
T h e Syrian
Antioch had E v o di u s as i ts rs t bishop after
the Apostle S Peter and he was succeeded by
I gnatius I n procon sular Asia Clement o f Alex
a n dria dis t inct l y states tha t S Joh n went about

from city t o ci ty in some places to establish

bishop s in others t o con s olidate whole C hurche s
i n others t o appoi nt t o t he clerical o f ce some o n e
o f t hose w h o had bee n signi ed by the Spirit
Polycarp was said by his pupil I renaeus t o have

been es t ablished as bishop by the Apostles in

Asia i n the C hurch at Smyrna
By the th ird quarter o f the cen t ury the Ch urch
had to face a n ew development o f th e Gnos t ic
heresy T he M arcion ite s made o u t that t hei rs
was th e true Apostolic doc t rine an d the Catho l ic
version th e fal s e The peril was grea t and the
Ch urch m et i t by a f rming the Apostolic char
acter o f i t s Creed i t s Scriptures and its mi n istry
F o r t he r s t tim e the word succes s i on ( di aao che )
i s used
H e g e s i p p u s o f Pales t ine writing about A D
after t ravelling through G reece o n hi s way
1 75
conversed with m os t o f
t o Rome s t ate s t hat h e
the bi shop s whe n he t ravelled to Rome and that
h e received t he same doc t rine from all 3 T hen

in every succe s sion an d i n every city the preach

i ng o f t he law and the prophets i s faithfully
3 Ib i d
H E iv 5
I b i d iv I 4
,

22.

M i n i ste ri al Au tho ri gt

an d

i ts Tran sm i ssi o n

93

fo ll owe d and when h e came to Rome h e began

to make out a succession
up to Anicetus
D i aao che i s plain l y a technical term used to describe
th e succession o f the bi shops and though he does
n o t say succession from the Apostles it is plainly
implied
I renaeus was born i n Asia M inor A D 1 2 5 to
and was a pupil of Polycarp Bi s hop o f
I 3O
Smyrna H e was i n Rome when Polycarp was
martyred A D 1 5 5 1 5 6 and afterwards went to
Gaul As bishop he had to contend wi t h Gnos t ics
and found that they claimed to teach an eso t e ric
doctrine handed down secret l y from t he Apos tl es
and t ha t t he Creed o f the C hurch was on l y a
debased and vulgari z ed version o f t h e true
teaching I n h i s grea t work commonly known
as Ag ai n st H e resi es h e appeal ed t o the succes
sion s of bishops from t he Apostles as a proof
that the Church taugh t the Apostolic doctri n e
and that t he Gnostic had no case when he
appealed to an alle g ed sec re t Aposto l ic tra ditio n

as over riding the Scrip t ures

I t is within the
competence of a l l therefore i n every Church
who may wish to see the truth to contemp l ate
clearly the tradition o f the Apostl es manifested
throughou t t he whole world ; and we are i n a
position to reckon up those w ho were ins t i t u t ed
bi shops i n C hurches by t he Apostles and the
successions o f these men to o u r o wn times

Since however
it would be very tedious to
reckon up the succession s o f all the Churche s
I r a Agai t H r i i ii 4
,

en

e u s,

ns

e es es ,

94

Chu rch H i sto ry

fro m

e ro to

Co n stan ti n e

he con t ents himself by i n dicating t hat tradition

derived from the Apostles of the very great the
very ancient and universally kn own C hurch
founded and orga n ized at Ro me by t he tw o
mo s t glorious Apos t les Peter and Paul as also
th e faith preached to men which come s down to
o u r tim e
by mean s o f the successions o f the
bishops
The blessed Apos t les then
havi ng founded a nd built up t he C hurch co m
m i t te d i nto t he hands o f Linus th e o f ce o f the
episcopa t e O f thi s Linu s Paul makes men t ion
i n h i s Epis tle to T i mo t hy T o him s ucceeded
A n e n cl e t u s and afte r him i n th e third place from
the Apostles Cl ement w as allotted the bishopric
This man as he had seen the bles sed Apo s tles
and had been conversant with them migh t be
s aid t o have t he preaching o f th e Apostles still
ech oing i n his ears
To this Clement
s ucceeded E v are s t u s Alexande r fol l owed E v ar
e s t us ; then sixth from th e Apostles Sixtus was
appoi nted ; after Tele s phorus w ho was gloriously
ma rty red ; t h en Hygi nu s ; after him Pius ; then
after him Anicetus
Soter having succeeded
Anice t u s E l e n t he ru s does now i n t he twelfth
place from th e Apo s tles hold the i n heritance
episcopate I n t hi s order a nd by this
o f t he
succession the ecclesiastical trad ition o f the
Apos t le s and the p reaching o f th e tr u t h have

come down to u s
La t er o n dealing with the marks o f th e t rue

presby t er he says
Wherefore it is i ncumbent
to obey t he p re sby t ers wh o are i n the Church
,

M i n i ste ri al Au tho ri ty

an d i ts

Tran sm i ssi o n

95

those who as I have shown posses s the succe s

sion from the Apost l es
Tertu ll ian the grea t African wrote to the
same e ffect

Let the heretics display the origins o f t heir

churche s ; l et them unro l l the l ists o f their
bishops i n u nbroken succession from the begin
nin g showi ng that their rst bishop was created
and preceded by o n e o f the Apost l es or of
the Aposto l ic men who conti nued with the
Apost l es
H ippo l ytus was t h e rst to write o f the
bishops i n genera l as being s uccessors of the
H itherto the particu l ar bish op had
Apost l es
been spoken o f as the successor of the Apostle
who founded his particular s e e
Cyp rian was Bishop of C arthage A D 1 4 8
1
8
5
H i s l anguage on the authority of bishops r e
semb l es that o f Ignatius H e i s accused o f using
sacerdotal language ; but he is not more sacer
dotal than T ertu ll ian To Cyprian the bishop is
the sace rdo s the c l ergy are the sena t ors the l aity
the plebs H e i s as clear as previous writers on
the subj ect o f the succession
Writing to
P u p i an u s w h o had accused him o f unworthy

Yo u constitute yourself a
conduct h e says
j udge o f God and of C hrist w h o says t o the
Apostles and therefore to a l l pre l ates w ho
succeed to the Apost l es by appoin t men t i n their
room H e that heareth you heare t h M e 3
I r a s Agai t H r i iv 6
1
O hj ti
ag ai t H r ti
Ep 6 8
,

en

eu

ec o n

ns

ns

e es es ,

e e

cs ,

Chu rch H i sto ry

6
9

fro m

m to

Co n stan ti n e

As agai n st th is body o f t estimony there i s only

t he case o f Ale xandria where according to
Jerome from M ark the Evangeli s t down to t he
times of the bis hops H e racl as A D 2 3 3
2 4 7 and

D io nysius 2 4 7 2 6 5
the presbyters always
n ominated as bishop o n e cho s en o u t o f their o w n
body a nd p l aced in a h igher grade j ust as if an
army were to appoint a general o r deacons were
t o choose from their o w n body one whom t hey
knew to be diligent and ca l l him archdeacon
This however is n o t to say that th e pre sby t e rs
were n o t endowed with the episcopal authority to
ordain F u rther B i shop Ligh t foot quote s Hilary

to t he e ffect that I n Egypt the presbyters seal

i
e
no t
ordain
i
f
the
bishop
be
o r consec ra t e
(
)
present
B ut seal undoubtedly m eans con rm
n o t ordain
and i n t he Eas t to this day t he
presby t ers con rm though u si ng o i l previously
blesse d by the bishop
Bi s hop Gore also quotes Severu s an i n t ruded
Bishop o f Antioch w ho was expelled about A O
I
and
settled
at
Alexandria
as
saying
tha
t
the
8
5
Bishop o f Alexandria had i n o l d ti mes been
appoin t ed by presbyters
B u t h e th i nks that
Jerome and Severus a nd those w ho i n m odern
times have adopted their view have been led
as tray by a bl under fo r which some Arian here
t ic s were responsible Th ese he retics visi t ed th e
Abbot F oemen and disparaged the Archbishop
by saying that he had been
o f Alexandria
ordained by presby t ers
The archbi s hop i n
Th Ch r h a d the M i i try p I
,

u c

n s

22

M i n i ste ri al Au tho ri ty

an d

i ts Tran sm i ssi o n

97

question however was Athanasius o f whose

consecration by bishops we have sa t isfac t ory
evidence I t i s quite possib l e that Jerome and
Severus were led astray by this story
At any
rate Origen who had every reason to disparage
the position of the Bishop o f A l exandria appears
to know nothing of this presbytera l s u ccession
and in the rst Church Order which goes back
to t he early part o f the third century and
survives i n two C optic versions it is very clearly
l aid down that the bishop is to be elected by the
people but consecra t ed by o n e of the bishops
present Later on this ru l e is altered and th ree
bishops are required for a consecration
S o far as the princip l e of su cce ssi o n is concerned
it does not matter whether Jerome was right o r
not I t wou l d on l y mean that the presbyters of
Alexandria were all bishops with the right to
ordain but e l ected one of their number to e x e r
cise the main functions o f the episcopate
T here is o n e other fact of history that te ll s
against Bishop Lightfoot s theory that the bishop
rose o u t of the body o f presbyter-bishops by
ascent and received his authori ty from t hem
i n stead o f from an Apost l e or bishop and that i s
the comparative i n s i g n i can ce of the presbyters
in early days Nowhere are t he presbyters at all
promi nent I n the C hurch Order about A D
22
r
a
they
e
p
l
ainly
almost
ho
norary
o
f

cials
i
n
5
comparison with the bishop and the deacons as
we have seen in the last chap t er I t i s unlikely
that i f the p resbyters were the real C hurch -ru l ers
,

Z Q

Church Hi sto ry

8
9

fro m

e ro

to

Co n stan ti n e

early i n the second ce n t ury they sho u l d have been

so comple tely suppressed withi n a h undred years
and tha t the fourth and fth ce nturie s should
have wi t nessed their slo w and gradual rise i nto
power
To s u m up the position seems to be that by
the middle of the second century episcopacy as
we understand it that i s o n e bishop over each
diocese wi th authority to rule and ordain was
everywhere established with the po ssible e x ce p
tion o f A l exandria T hat i t had bee n established
in Apostolic times at l east i n Antioch i n Jeru
salem i n Asia and in Rome I t i s possib l e
though u n l ike l y that in C ori nth P hilippi and
possib l y o n e o r two other Greek cities with
democratic prej udic es the C hurch was ru l ed by
presbyter-bi shops o f whom some at least had
power to ordain
I t i s not i mprobable t hat
b e twee n the time that the Apostles died and the
time that the bi shops were everywh ere localized
there were itinerant o f cials with powers o f s uper
vi sio n and ordi nation like those co n ferred o n
Ti mothy and Ti t us cal l ed variously Apostles
prophets evangelis t s B ut the eviden ce shows
pretty clearly that the authority to mini ster was
given by the Apostle s to a c l ass by whatever
name called afterwards known as bishops who
were them s elve s t he on l y authorized tran s m i t ters
thereof
,

C H AP T E R X V
T H E T R U CE ,

A D
.

2 60

0
3 3

RO M the cap t ure of Va l erian by Sapor

2 60
down to the i ssue o f his rst
A D
edict of persecution by D ioc l etian in F ebruary
the
hurch
enj
oyed
a
period
of
A D
0
C
3 3
peace compara t ive which was undoubtedly a
time of very considerab l e growth T he Gospe l
reached new countries and was listened to by
many i n provinces where it had long been
preached with an attention n ever show n before
D ecius and Va l erian had tried a fall with the
P ersecution may
C hurch and had been worsted
very we l l have seemed a thing of the past
The h istory of the C hurch during thi s period
i s somewhat obscure but some names stand out
Of these the most n otab l e are D io nysius o f
Alexandria ; Paul of S am o s ata the heretic ;
M anes the founder of M an i che e i s m ; Gregory
the Wo nder -worker and Gregory the I l lumina
tor though the last is a very shadowy gure

D I O NY S I U S

OF

A L EX A ND R I A

D ionysiu s W e

have already met as the Bishop

of Alexandria duri n g the D ecian and Va l erian
2

99

Chu rch H i sto ry

0
0
3

fro m Nero

to

Co n stan ti n e

persecutions H e was a pu pil o f O rigen and

like his m aster o f an inquiring m ind

I

peruse d he wrote the works and tradition s o f

the here t ics de l i n g my mi nd fo r a little with
thei r execrable s e n t ime n t s
When a cer t ain
brother o f the presby t ers a tt empted to dis s uade
m e saying my mind would be corrupted i n
which as I though t h e spake t h e truth I was
con rmed in my origi n al p u rpo s e by a vi s ion
from heaven whe n a voice came to m e and com
m an de d m e i n word s as follows :
Read all tha t
thou take s t i n hand fo r thou are qua l i ed to co r
rect and prove all and t his ve ry thing has bee n
the cau se o f thy faith in C hris t fro m t he begin
n ing
I received th e vision as consi s t en t with
the Apo s t olic declaration whic h s ays to t he more
skilful
money
changers
compe t en t Be e
He was o r(yai n e d pre s byter and s u ccee d ed
H e racl as as head o f t he Ca t eche t ical School
where he remained un t il h e becam e
23 2
A D
bis hop A D 2 4 7
U nlike m os t o f the Eas t ern bi s hops he allowed
heretical bapti s m bu t he O ppo s ed S t ephe n when
t hat prelate proceeded t o excom mun ica t e t hose
w ho like Cyprian too k the oppo s ite view
H e al s o had his t roubles co n cern ing the t rea t
m e n t o f the lapsed an d adopted m uc h the sam e
meas u res as Cyprian and C ornelius I n a le tt er
to F abi us Bi shop o f Antioch wh o was inclined
to j oi n t h e rigorist party o f Nova t ian h e gave
some accoun t o f his method s which is worth
b i H E vi i 7
E
.

u se

u s,

The Tru ce , A D
.

2 60 3 03

1
0
3

repeati n g
T here w as a certai n Serapio n an
aged be l iever who had passed his long l ife irre
ro ach ab l
s he had sacri ced duri n g the
but
a
p
y
persecution though he frequently begged "
to be
ad m itted to penance ] no o n e wou l d listen to him
H e was taken sick and continued three days in
succession speechless and senseless
O n the
fourth day he recovered a litt l e and ca ll ed his
grandson
I beseech y o u hasten and get me
abso l u t ion Call o n e o f t he pre s byters
The
boy ran t o t he presby t e r But it was night and
th e presby t er was sick I had already given an
order that those at th e poin t of death if they
desired it and especially if th ey had asked fo r i t
before shou l d receive absoluti on that they migh t
depart from l ife i n comfortable hope I therefore
gave the boy a sma ll portion o f the Eucharist
telling h im to dip it i n water and to drop it i nto
the mouth of th e old man The boy re t urned
with the morsel Serapion said at once T hou
hast come my s o n bu t th e presby t er could n o t
come D o what you are told quickly and le t me
go T he boy moistened it and dropped it into
the old ma n s mouth And he havi n g s wallowed
a little immedia t ely expired
Though peace was restored to the Church wi t h
the accession of Gal l ienus i n A D 2 6 0 t here was
l ittle enough of it in Alexandria There was rst
of a l l civi l war so that D ionysius says he cou l d
n o t pass from one side o f the city to th e other
T his was succeeded by pestilence and fami ne
E b i H E vi 44
.

u se

u s,

Chu rch Hi s to ry

2
0
3

fro m Ne ro

to

Co n stan ti n e

H e has le ft a vivid accoun t o f the noble cond uc t

o f t he C hristian s during the p l ague
which i s
give n elsewhere
H e wa s a wise an d loving ruler full o f the
s pirit o f reasonableness and conci l iatio n We
ge t a vivid picture o f h im i n th is character i n hi s
treatment o f Nepos an Egyp t ian bi shop w ho
had promulgated certain chi l iastic heresies
These views had a tt ained con siderable vogue

i n the neighbourhood o f Arsinoe

S o when
I w as at Arsi noe where as y o u know thi s
doc t rine was aoat s o that schism s and apos
t as i e s o f whole C hurche s fol l owed 1 called the
presbyters and teachers o f the brethren i n the
vi l lages and exhorted them t o exam in e the
doctrine pub l ickly Whe n they had produced
thi s book o f Nepos as a kind o f armour and
i m p re n ab l e fo rt re s s I sa t with them fo r three
days g
ro m
morn ing t ill eve ning attem pting to
refute what i t contain ed
At lengt h hi s moderatio n and reasonableness
carried th e day

H e rej oiced
a t the modera t ion and concili
i
spiri
t
displayed
by
all
I
t
s doubtful
at o r
y
h owever i f these quali tie s wo uld have been s o
promi ne nt if the ma t ter had been handled by a
Ter t ullian o r even a Stephen
H e was also which i s m o re s urpri sing an
acute critic o f th e Ne w Te s tament a higher
critic before h i s time The fragme nt o f hi s
critici sm that has survived concern s th e Apoca
He tells u s that some had s e t aside
ly p s e
,

The Tru ce , A D
.

0
3 3

2 60

0
3 3

the book a l together and attributed it to Ceri n

th us
but
D ionysius wou l d n o t rej ect it
thought it shou l d be understood symbo l ica ll y
and fe l t that he did not himse l f possess the

F o r though I do not
key to the symbo l ism
understand yet I suspect that som e deeper
sense i s enve l oped in the words ;
but
a ll owi ng more to faith I have regarded them
as too l ofty to be comprehende d by me and
those things which I do not understand I do
n o t rej ect but I wonder the more that I canno t
understand
H e was o r opinion that the author was Joh n
but not the John who wrote the E pist l e and
Gospe l he gives his reasons a ll of them sound
though not necessari l y conc l usive
H e ends

his argument by saying T he attentive reader

wi ll n d the expressions the l ife the lig ht fre
quent l y occurring i n both ; i n both he wi l l
n d the expressions e ei ng fro m darkn ess the tru th
race
o
d
d
t
e
h
o
o
h
e
d
e
a
h
e
s
h
n
l
o
d
o
t
h
e
L
r
t
u

g
j y
f
j g
m en t
And throughout it wi l l be obvious
t ha t there i s on e comp l exion and character in
the Gospel and E pist l e Very di fferent and
remote from al l this is the Apocalypse
H e remarks that John was a common name
and that many assumed th e name o u t o f devotion
to the Apost l e and that there were two monu
ments i n E phesus each bearing the name o f
John
H e died A D 2 6 5
E b i H E vii 5
,

use

u s,

0
3 4

Ne ro

Chu rch H i sto ry fro m

PA U L

o r

to

Co n stan ti n e

S A M O SA T A

Paul had succeeded D emetriu s as Bishop o f

Antioch about A D 2 6 0 He seem s t o have
bee n o f obscure birth but co n siderable tale n t s
and was n o t only bishop but a nancial o f cial
H
i
s
ry
with
a
l
arge
sala
ro curato r de ce n ari us
)
(p
co nduct gave o ffence and caused scandal H e
was accused of having amassed im me nse weal th
by b ribes and extortion o f being full o f pride

and osten t ati on

wishi n g rather to be called
a ma is t rate than a bishop s t ru t ti ng through
the g
orum and reading letters and repeating
them as he walked i n public escorted by mul
I n ch urch he prepared him s elf a thro n e
t i t u de s
and struck his thigh and stamped o n the oor
wi t h his feet and reproved and insul t ed t ho s e
w ho would n o t clap o r app l aud
He was said to have stopped the hymn s that
were sung i n honour o f Jesus C hris t as recen t
composition s and prepared a ch oir o f women
to si ng hym n s i n his o wn honour a t Eas t e r
H i s co nduc t i n ano t her respec t gave ri se to
scandal as two beau t iful women accom panied
him wherever he went By bribe s and threat s he
had every o n e i n his power Beside s all t his
he was accused of the heresy o f A rte m as I t i s
n o t qui te clear what Paul s heresy was but it had

t o do with the divi ni t y of C hrist

H e en t er
t ai n e d l o w and degrading no t ion s o f C hrist and
t augh t that H e was i n na t ure a com mon man
E
b i H E vi i 3
I bid 7
.

u se

u s,

0.

The Tru ce , A D
.

2 6 0-3 0 3

0
3 5

I n A D 2 6 5 a counci l was summ oned to deal

with him
I t was attended by F i rm ili an o f
Caesarea in Cappadocia Gregory Thauma t urgus
from Pontus H ymenaeus Bishop o f Jerusalem
and many others D ionysius w as summoned but
cou l d not come on account o f age and in rmi t y
T he council seems to have concerned itself
with h is doc t rinal rather than h i s moral i rre g u
Possib l y as i s often th e case t o -day
l ari ti e s
witnesses are s hy and moral charges very di f cu l t
The doctrinal charges were n o t much
o f proof
e asier to substantiate Pau l was acute and subt l e
and many questions about the person and nature
of Christ were not yet de ned At rst he could
not be pinned down to any de nite l y h eretica l
statement M ore than one counci l w as held bu t
at l ast i n the reign of Aurelian the bishops took
with them a presbyter named M al chi o n who h ad
been at th e head of the Sophi st Greek Schoo l at
Athens I t w as a case of setting a sophist to ca t ch
T his m an i ndeed was the only one
a sophi st
who after opening a discussion wi th him which

was taken down by severa l reporters was ab l e to

ferret out hi s cunning and deceitfu l sentiments

Accordingly the council proceeded to depose
and excommunicate Pau l and appointed another
bishop in h is place by name D omnus T hi s
was A D 2 6 7 or 2 6 8 Pau l however refused
to submit ; he was supported by Z enobia and
remained in possession of the church and the
tempora l ities o f the s e e
Z enobia the celebra t ed queen o f Palmyra and
.

2 R

0
6
3

Chu rch Hi sto ry

fro m Nero

to

Co n stan ti n e

the East w as a remarkable woman Wi t h her

hu sband O de n at hu s she had driven back the
victoriou s Persians and O de n athu s was accepted
as a colleague by Gallienus After the death o f
O de n athu s i n A D 2 6 7 Z enobia ruled alone and
throwing o ff her allegiance t o Rome defeated the
Roman general w ho came again st her B u t i n
A D
272
th e Emperor Aurelian defeated h er
armies shut her u p i n Palmyra and took her
prisoner O ne o f the b y -products o f his vic t ory
was that the C hurch appealed to h i m to recover
the ecclesia stical buildings o f An t ioch from Paul
Au relian d ecided that the bishop who was i n
communion with the Bishops o f Rome an d I taly
was the rightful possessor o f th e churc h which
was accordingly handed over to D om nus Thi s
i s th e rs t i nstance o f an appeal being made to
the secular arm I t i s a shock t o n d it made to
a heathe n em peror at a ti me when Christianity
was ra t her con nived a t tha n permi t ted Bu t as
long as th e C h urch h olds pro perty i t can n ot
entirely escape State control and i n the course of
e x ercisi ng t hat con t rol th e S t ate will som e t imes
be fo rced to de ne the faith o r lay down term s
o f com munio n
I f i n any given case th e price
is to o h igh the C hurch m us t fo rgo its claim to
t he prope rty i n di s pute
.

G R E G O R Y T H A U M AT U R G U S
The episcopate o f Theodorus o r G regory after
wards named T haumaturgus or the Worker of
,

The Tru ce , A D
.

2 60

3 0 3

0
3 7

Wonders throws som e l ight on the work of a

missionary bishop in a remote and uncivili z ed
region Gregory was born A D 2 1 0 and whi l e
sti l l quite young spent ve years wi th hi s b rother
Ath e n o do ru s as the pupil o f Origen at Cae s area
o f which he has left an interesting accoun t
H is
biographer and relative Gregory of Nyssa wri t ing
about a hundred years afterwards asserts that he
spen t some time studying i n Alexandria b u t he
may have studied there wh ile under Origen s
direction
Somewhere about A D 2 40 Gregory re t u rned
t o Neocaesarea i n the east o f Po n tus his n ative
city and became as Eusebius t ells u s one of the
mos t famous bishops of his age U nfor t unately
the biography o f Gregory o f Nyssa belongs to
the order of ecclesiastical romances and is a l most
con ned to ta l es o f the marve l lous But enough
may be gl eaned to give some va l uable and inter
esting information
Before he wou l d consent to be ordained h e
desired time for meditation during which he i s
said to have had a vision in which S John was
told by the M other of our Lord to dec l are to
him the mystery of the F ai t h Thi s declaration
became t he founda t ion o f his preaching and h is
biographer tells u s t hat those who wi sh to be
reassured may refer to t he origina l written down

and preserved i n the writing o f tha t ble s sed

hand in the actual church at Neocaesarea i n
which he pre ached T h e creed a ll uded to i n thi s
story may have been Gregory s but the story o f
,

0
8
3

Chu rch H i sto ry

fro m Nero

Co n stan ti n e

to

how it came to hi s knowledge a l most certainly

belongs to a later date F o r one thing far to o
authori tative a positio n is iven to M ary
Of hi s adminis t ra t ion 0 h is s e e we know li t tle
but can infer a good deal H e seem s t o have
swept i n the h ea t hen e n m ass e We are t old tha t
shortly before hi s death A D 2 7 0 th ere were only
seven teen heathen left whereas h e only found
seventeen C hristia n s when he cam e The country
round Neocaesarea was cer t ainly very heathe n

whe n he arrived there

Th e ci t y and cou n t ry
a l ike were fu l l o f idols and t em ple s ; the whole
natio n was devoted t o heathenism and given over
to an i nsane worship which s t ain ed t heir alta rs
with i mpuritie s and abom i nations
H i s biographer attribu t e s h is s ucces s t o hi s
miracles O ne may be permi t ted perhaps to
at t ribu t e his mirac l e s i n a great meas u re to his
s uccess
Li ke Aidan he i s credited wi t h the gift
o f second sigh t
At the begin ning o f h is minis t ry
the re was a grea t h eathen festival at Neocae sa rea
the t heatre was crammed and fresh crowds came
flocking i n from the country all praying wi t h o n e
Z eus m ake room for u s
accor d
Whe n
Gregory heard this reiterated p rayer h e exclai med

Y o u shal l have m ore room than y o u pray for

o r have ever kn own
Al most i m mediately t h e
plague broke out with devastati ng re s ul ts I t
may have bee n already o n som e o f t he s pec t a t ors
and if so th e i n fection would have been spread by
the crowd I n any case Gregory s reputatio n seem s
t o have been made an d conversions began
.

The Tru ce ,

A D
.

3 0 3

2 60

0
3

On a l ater occasion during the D ecian per

he foresaw the torture an d death of a
s e cu t i o n
martyr a nd to l d his deacon w ho wou l d not
be l ieve unti l he had gone to the spot and veri ed
the account
Among his o t her wonders he is said to have
dried up a l ake which was a matter of contention
be t ween two bro t hers diverted the course o f the
Lycus which had overrun and devastated fertile
an d inhabited country
exercised supernatura l
powers over demons moved a roc k without
touching it and worked many m irac l es o f hea l ing
Some o f the wonders appear far l ess incredibl e
now than t hey did twenty years ago for modern
science has been busy investigating admitted
facts such as cures by faith or suggestion which
appear to tran scend the h itherto known course
o f nature
The more i mpossib l e wonders seem rather t o
show that Gregory was a m an o f vivid personality
who had an enormous i nuence over ignorant
peop l e I f he gained a great reputatio n as an
arbitrator i t is easy to understand t hat stories
were to l d of his signa l success in o n e case when

a l ake was i n dispute and th e stories grew until

he was credi t ed with drying up the l ake H e
might even have threatened that G o d would dry
i t up The story of the diversion of t he course
o f th e Lycus reminds o n e o f Wilfrid w ho when
Bishop of the South Saxon s saved the i n habi t ants
from starving in time of drought by teaching
them to s h Gregory had studied mathematics
,

10

Chu rch H i sto ry

fro m Ne ro

to

Co n stan ti n e

and conceivably the diversion was a feat of

en i neering m iraculous enough to th e pri mitive
su g
ere t s from the devastated regions
One cla s s o f m iracles which impressed hi s
biographe r wi th his powers and would have
impressed most p e o l e un t il lately with the
extreme gullibili ty 0 his biographer i s that in
which h is powers as an e x orcist were di splayed
To take an instance H e was o n o n e occasion
driven by the weather to spend a night in a
heathen temple
By hi s prayers t he demons
were exorcised s o that wh en the h eathe n priests
arrived i n the m orning their customary i n can t a
tion s were in e ffec t ive u ntil Gregory i n answer
to t h eir remonstrances gave them a parchment

with the words o n i t Gregory to Sa tan en t er

Thi s would on e i magines be regarded to day
by a large n umber o f people as a commonplace
manifestation o f spiritualism Gregory was ho s
tile and in hi s pre s ence there co u ld be no mani
,

fe s tati o n s

Gregory o f Nyssa give s a picture o f hi s work

which has t he air o f truth Whe n ever he arrived
a t a place and only a few heard h is discourse
over-nigh t by dawn t he next morning a large
crowd would have collected The next m o rn i n

again t here would be outside his doors a cro wg

with o l d
o f men with t heir wive s and children
people and those who s u ffered from demons or
ailments o f the body An d according to t h e
need of each discriminating by the power of
the Spiri t he preached argued admoni shed
.

The Tru ce ,

A D
.

a6 o

-0

3 3

1 1

taught or heal ed H e used to attract masses

to his preaching because sight corresponded
with hearing and through both the token s o f
th e divine power shone forth upon him F o r
their hearing was overpowered by his words
and their eyes by his mirac l es o f healing
Gregory s converts were possibly made to o
r apid l y and with to o l itt l e real conviction
Perhaps he tempered the word o f C hristian
discip l ine too tenderly to the shorn lambs o f
hi s fl ock
We are to l d that as a wise concession
to those wh o had recent l y abandoned heathenism
festivals were instituted on t he anniversaries o f
martyrs to take the place o f t he heathen fes t ivals
to which th ey were accustomed and that this
concession was popu l ar and these festiva l s kept
with great re l o i ci n g s T h e principle o f c l aiming
the heathen fe s ti v al s l ike the heathen philosophy
for Christ was sound ; but human nature being
wha t it i s we may feel quite sure that an ignorant
race made very much the same devotions at
the C hristian festiva l s as they had done before
when they were heathen even if they troub l ed
to alter the names of those whose favour they
were supp l icating
The D ecian persecution tried his ock sore l y
I t raged in Pontus with especia l fury and s tress
is laid on the i nnumerable and exquisite forms o f
torture put in practise Gregory s poor converts
behaved very much as o n e might expect they
wou l d have done but no worse When it broke
L if b y G r g ry f Ny s a
,

e,

1 2

Chu rch Hi sto ry

fro m Ne ro

to

Co n stan ti n e

we are told i do l a t rou s worship had ceased

and the population was no m ina l ly C hristian
T here was n o w a divi sion
M ost seem to have
been faithful though many sacri ced
The
prisons were fu l l ho uses were empty and th e
deser t s and solitary places were crowded with
fugitives Neither age nor s e x w as spared
Gregory advised flight and himself s e t t he
example
I n A D 2 5 7 Gregory returned to Neocaesarea
and i n A D 2 5 8 peace was res t ored to the Ch urch
B u t i t was short lived as it w as soon followed by
an invasion o f Goth s who ravaged Po ntus and
Asia M i n or durin t he reign o f Gallienus An

authentic l ette r 5 0 m him

concerning those
who had ea t en things o ffered to idols and com
m i tt e d o ther sin s during the i ncursion of the
barbarians h as s urvived I t appears that som e
C hristians had taken advantage o f the gen eral
confu sion to enrich themselves with the goods
of their fellow C hristians who we re fu g i ti t i v e s ;
others had forcibly detained escaped prisoners ;
and some had eve n j oined the army o f the
barbarian s Gregory in sists that all such mu st
be dealt wi t h by t he ecclesiastical discipli ne
appropria t e to their crimes There i s however
n o rea s o n to infer as some writers have done
that t he n u mber o f s uc h backsliders was large
o r t hat t h ere was a general collapse of C hri s tian
fai th and morals
Gregory was present with his b ro t her Athe
n o do ru s at
the council which me t at Antioch
o ut

,
.

,
.

The Tru ce , l m
e

2 6 0-3 0 3

3 3
1

i n A D 2 6 4 to j udge Paul o f S am o s ata T here

was a Theodo rus present at the council which
me t in A D 2 6 9 and thi s Theodorus may pos
s ib l
be
Gregory
Before
he
died
he
exp
r
essed
y
great anxiety for the conversion of the seven
teen heathe n who remained i n his diocese and
ordered that no l and should be bough t for h i s
grave s o that as he had owned no proper ty in
l ife he might not o wn any when dead H e
was buried i n the church o f Neocaesa rea which
he had built
.

G R E G O RY

T HE

I LL U M I N A T O R

Nowhe re

was grow t h more rapid than in

Arme n ia t he name given to that mountai nous
re ion lying be t ween Persia an d Asia M inor
Our
o rm ati o n is scan t y
in g
but it seem s certain that
when Gregory t he I l luminator rst went there
the king Ti ri date s (who reigned A D 2 6 1
was decided l y hostile and t h e Armenian Chri s
tians very few B ut whe n the great persecution
took place n o t later than A D 3 0 9 we read that
M aximin was forced to carry o n a re l igious w ar
against the Armenian king to compel him to
pe rsecute his C hristian subj ec t s which he was
unwilling to do
T his is t he rs t war i n
h istory i n which t he Christian religion is directly
concerned
Gregory the principal agent in this conversion
o f a who l e peop l e had been brought up in the
b i H E ix 8
E
2 S
,

u se

u s,

Chu rch Hi sto ry

3 4
1

ro m

Cappadocian Caesarea

Ne ro

to

Co n stan ti n e

t he execution

his
parents and all h i s relatives who were people of
h igh rank i n Armenia H e was educated as a
C hristian m arried and had two children o n e O f
whom succeeded hi m as Catho l icos o f Armenia
but was separated by con sen t fro m h is wife and
the n came to the court o f T i ri date s w ho i s said
to have con ned him i n a dungeon for twelve
years We may take it t hat he w as at rst
unfrie ndly Later o n he became a C hristian
and hi s people followed him T his i s the rs t
i nstance o n record of a whole na t ion becoming
o f cially C hristian The Ch urch was e ndowed
as well as established and the tem ple property
was made over to the C hurch Gregory was
e s corted by a re t inue o f nobles to Caesarea in
Cappadocia where h e was consecrated Cat ho
licos o f Arm enia by L e o n ti u s T hi s was A D
2 85
H e built hi s cathedral at As chti s chat
29
O
not far west o f Lake Van A s chti s chat had been

r
the pri ncipal seat o f t he Persian
e wor s hip
wh ic h had bee n i mported into Armenia
Gregory i s said to h ave cons ecrated twelve
an d was succeeded by his s o n Aris
s u ffragan s
takes
Th e o ffi ce seem s afterwards to have
becom e hereditary an d remai ned s o for a consider
able period He was no t presen t at t he Council
of Nicaea A D 3 2 5 and Profe s sor H arn ack says
that h e was dead but h e is reported to have
retired to lead a solitary life i n the wilderness
H ar a k E p a i of Ch i ti a i ty i i
3
I bid 3
o n

02

ns on

r s

20

The Tru ce ,

A D
.

2 6 0 3 03

3 5
1

after consecrating his son as his successor and

this account seems probab l e enough
,

M A NE S

A ND

M A NI C H E E I S M

M anes

was born abou t A D 2 40 at Ctesiphon

and seems t o have derived his doctrines from
Gnostic Buddhist and C hristian sources
He
c l aimed to be th e Parac l ete promised by C hrist
and l ike C hrist was accompanied by twe l ve
discip l es After extensive trave l s he settled i n
Persia taught under Sapor and was nall y put
to death by o n e of his successors A D 2 7 2 2 7 4
E usebius writing fty years l ater says that hi s
doctri nes had spread i n Pa l estine l ike a dead l y
pestilence S Augustine as he te ll s us i n hi s
Co nf m i o n s was for some ti me a M anichee and
i t is evident that the teachers of the M an i che e an
tenets were numerous and in fl uentia l in Africa
in his time
M a n es seems t o have tau g h t a Gno s tic dualism
man O wing his body to t he powers of darkness
and his soul to the Spirit of Light All matter
is the body therefore inc l uding the body was
evi l I n organi z ing his society h e borrowed from
the C hurch At the head were twe l ve apostles
with a thirteenth person as president the rst
being M anes himself Be l ow there was a hier
archy of bishops presbyters deacons and trave l
l ing missionaries H i s fol l owers were divided
into H earers consisting o f the main body o f
adherents and the Perfect or the inner circ l e
.

Chu rch H i sto ry

6
3
1

o rn

Ne ro

Co n stan ti n e

to

The H e arers had among their o t her du t ies to

supply t he Perfect with t he n ece s sar ies o f l i fe
The Perfec t led l ive s o f ex t reme asce t icism
They owned n o proper ty nei t he r d ra n k wine
nor a t e meat They did n o wo rk bu t we re
occupied entirely i n religious con t em plation
They were forbidde n to de s troy life and could
only ea t fruit an d vege tables if ga t hered by some
o n e else
S Au gus t in e say s t ha t a M an i che e an
s ai n t m igh t only eat a
i
f
some
o n e else had
g
com mi tt ed t he s i n o f plucking it
They kept
S u nday as a fa s t day bap t ized with O il in s t ead o f
wa t er an d celebrated the Comm u nio n bu t wi t h
wate r i ns t ead o f wine
D iocletian issued a dec ree again s t t hem A D
2 8 7 addre s sed to t he proco n s u l o f A frica whe re
M an i che e i s m was especial ly s t ro n g t hen an d
afterwards
However u p to t he e n d O f t he
period wi t h which we are im media t ely concerned
it d oes not s eem to have come i n t o co n fl ict with
t he C h u rch to any se riou s e xt e n t
iii 1
A g C
,

on

0.

X VI

TH E

F I NAL
A D
.

STR U GGLE

0
3 3 3

ORT Y T H RE E years o f peace e n abled t he

Church to grow in numbers in in fl uence
and in b u i ldi n s bu t re l axed i ts moral s and left

it ill prepared or the last an d e rcest pe rsecution

i t ever had to face
C hri s t ians were found in h igh positions in the
i mpe rial service some were even governors o f
provinces and the rulers o f t he C hu rch were

W h o could desc ribe

courted and honoured
those huge congrega t ion s which gathered i n every
city and the distinguished crowds in the churches
On whose account not content wi t h t he ancient
buildings they erected spaciou s churches i n all
No wonder if some o f t hose w ho
the ci ti e s
crowded i n were unworthy and if t he heads o f

others were t urned

By reason O f exce s sive
liber t y we san k in t o negligence and slo t h ; we
envied an d reviled o n e another and were almost
taking ar m s agains t each o t her prelates inveigh
ing agains t prelates and people rising up against
peop l e
D iocletian was the s o n o f D almatian slave s
E b i H 8 vi ii 1
I bi d
-

u se

u s,

3 7
1

8
3
1

Chu rch H i sto ry

fro m Ne ro

to

Co n stan ti n e

He

entered the Army a nd ro se to the position of

comman der of the guard i n the army of th e E ast
When Nu m e ri an died at o r near C halcedon o n
his re t urn from a successful Persian cam paign
D iocletian was chose n emperor by the so l diers
O f a l l his predecessors h e most resemb l ed Augus
t us H e reo rga n ized the E mpire though n o t
always wi t h the happiest results an d gave i t a
new lease o f life H e was pruden t po l i t ic and
more o f a statesman than a soldier S O far as
we can j udge he was a believing paga n with a
s pecial devotio n to Jupiter as t h e patro n o f his
fortunes and t o Aesculapi u s as th e guardian o f
his hea l th he was a believer in soothsaying and
d ivina t ion of many kinds I n A D 2 8 6 he associ
ated another soldier o f for t une a rude and savage
peasan t ca l led M ax i m i an with himsel f i n the
govern ment of the Empi re both having the
ti tl e o f Augus t u s I n A D 2 93 h e added t w o
subordinate e mperors o r Caesars Con stantius
fo r Gaul Spai n and Britain and G al e ri u s fo r
I llyricum ; while h e hi mself retai ned Thrace
Egyp t an d A sia and M ax i m i an I taly a nd Africa
H e xed his o w n capi t al at Nicomedia
F o r many yea rs D i ocletian was ve ry fully
occu pied i n reorga n izing the E mpire and i n
defe nding his frontiers The Per s i an War which
began A D 2 96 wi t h t he defeat o f Gal e ri u s was
ended by t he comple t e over t hrow O f Narses the
Persian king i n the following year D iocletian
was n o w for t he rst t ime at lei sure to cope with
the C hristians H itherto h e had let them be
.

,
.

The F i n al Strugg le,

A LI)

1
0
3 3 3 3

He

could not have done any t hing else T O

destroy t he C h u rch was a much more formidable
task than it had been for D eci us and Val erian
and D ecius and Va l erian had fai l ed E ven after
the termination of the Persian campaign and the
success wh ich attended him everywhere h e may
we ll have hesitated
M ax i m i an and G al e ri u s hated the C h ristians
G al e ri u s according to L actan ti u s was egged on

by his mother
who had conceived an i l l will
again st Christian s because they would not take
part in her sacri ces and whi l e s he feasted with

the Gentiles they conti nued in fasting and prayer

G al e ri u s i s described by the same writer as

of
fu ll stature fat and swo ll en to a horrible degree
of corpu l ence by h is speech voice and gestures
T h e weight of
a terror to a ll who come n ear
the soothsayers and Ne o p lato n i s ts like H i e ro cl e s

the author and advi ser of the persecution was

thrown into th e same s cal e
A foretaste O f wha t
was to happen had been given i n th e E ast a year
o r two before the persecution broke ou t
An
examination of some sacri cial victim s proved
unsatisfactory and the soothsayers attributed
th eir failure to the Christians present at the
sacri ce who had made th e s ign o f the Cross
D ioc l etian i n a rage ordered every o n e i n the
pa l ace at the time to sacri ce or if they refused
to be scourged H e also ordered t ha t a ll so l diers
should sacri ce or l eave the Army T his seems
to have been i n th e autum n A D 3 0 2
L a ta t i
O the Death of th P r
xvi
t r
.

u s,

e secu o s ,

Church H i sto ry

2
0
3

fro m Ne ro

Co n stan ti n e

to

L actan ti u s

say s t hat he had long wi t hs t ood t he

pe rs ecu t i ng zea l o f G al e ri u s bu t at length gave
H i s hesi t a t ion m ay have been due t o
way
doub t s abou t the succes s o f policy n o t abou t
i ts es s e n tial appropria t ene s s
The persec u t io n
when i t came w as evide n tly a deliberately an d
care fu lly lan n e d a t temp t at th e complete a n n i
hi l ati o n o f
C h ristianity
The per s ecution began with t he demoli t io n o f
the g reat c hurch a t Ni co m e di a w h e re the empe ro rs
we re s tay i n
Nex t day F ebruary 2 4 A D 3 0 3
t he edic t o fpe rs ecu t io n was pub l i s hed By this
edict all churches were to be demolished 3 all
sac red w riti n g s burnt ; t he h igher m ini s ter s o f
s t ate if C hri stian to be outlawed and sub
o rdina t e o f cials being Christians to be reduced
to
slavery Gal e ri u s wished t o burn all w ho
r efu s ed to sacri ce b ut to thi s D iocletia n would
n o t con s en t
The edict was t aken down and
t orn to pieces by a C hristian o f rank said by
fered t he
o n e t radi t io n t o be S George w ho s u f
n a t u ral conseque nce s o f t hi s daring ac t 4
The pe rsec u tion wen t far beyond the let t e r o f
t he edict from the rst Two ou t break s o f re
a t the imperial palace in Ni co m e dia a tt ribu t ed by
G al e ri u s to t h e C hristian s and by L actan ti u s t o
G al e ri u s b rou ht about a holocaust o f vic t im s
O ne example go m E usebius will be eno u gh I t
is an acco un t o f t he death O f Peter a palace
L a ta t i
O th D e ath of th Pe r e t r
I b i d xi i i
I b i d xii
E b i H E viii 5
,

u s,

u se

u s,

s cu o s, x

The F i n al Strugg le ,

A D
.

1
0
3 3 3

2
1
3

domestic
H e was led i n t o the middle of
the aforesaid city before those emperors a l ready
mentioned H e was then commanded to sacri
ce but as he refused he was ordered to be raised
i n mid -air and scourged a ll over his naked body
unti l he wou l d O bey As he w as immovable amid
a l l these s u fferings hi s bones already appearing
bared O f the esh they mixed vinegar with salt
and poured it upon the ma n g l ed parts o f his
body But as he bore these tortures a gridiron
and re was produced and the rem nants o f his
body like pieces of meat for roasting and eating
were pl aced i n the re not at once s o tha t he
might expire but l itt l e by l itt l e H e however
persevered i n his purpose and gave up hi s life
victorious i n the midst of h is torture s
The demand fo r the Scriptures led to some
divi sion among C hristians
I t was generally
agreed that canonical wri t ings m ust n o t be
given up Those who refused to surrende r
them were executed but the magistrates were
not particular as a rule abou t what books
were given up as long as some were handed
over M e n s u ri u s of Carthage ll ed h i s church
library with heretical works which were burn t
in stead o f t he Scriptures Others adopted a
stricter line F elix a bishop near by refused
to give up any books at al l H ahe o se d n o n do

he repeated
I t is better for me to be burnt
than the Scriptures
An u l i n u s the proconsul
said Why don t y o u surrender some worthless
H E viii 6
.

2 T

2
2
3

Chu rch Hi sto ry

Ne ro

ro m

Co n stan ti n e

to

books
No I will n o t give them up was
his reply
A second edic t followed orde ri ng t he imp rison
ment O f t he c l ergy Th e prisons were i n co n
sequence so lled with bishops presbyters and
deacon s readers a n d exorcists that we are told
there was no r oom left fo r cri minals
T he second edict was succeeded by a t hird
which al l owed prisoners to be liberated o n condi
tion of sacri cing but ordered t h em to be
tortured if they refused
As i n the D ecian persecution there we re at
rs t many apostates
Eusebius a co ntemporary
O f these eve n t s tells us t hat vast numbers
e ndured the most appal l ing trials but many
gave way Roman us a deacon o f the C hurch o f
C aesarea was at Antioch whe n the church es were
demoli s hed and s aw men women and ch ildren
approaching the idols i n mas s e s i n order to
H e w as moved to reb uke them w as
sacri ce
seized had h is to n gue cut o u t and died
I t i s al so clear that the Roman o i ci al s n o
longer had much s t omach fo r the work We read
O f me n being dragged t o th e altar by force and
allowed t o go as though they had s acri ced ;
t hose w ho p rotes t ed we re fo rced to silence
by soldiers s t a t io n ed there for the pu rpose by
whom they we re s t r uck and viole ntly driven
away
D iocletian was incapacitated by
sickness
t hroughout A D 3 0 4 M ax i m i an took advantage
o f his absence to issue
a new edic t ordering

The Fi n al S trugg le, A D

.

0
3 3

3 1 3

2
3 3

that al l persons of every city shou l d sacri ce and

h
m ake l ibations to the
o ds
T
e pena l ty of
g
refusa l was torture and death F o r th e account
of what fo ll owed we are main l y indebted to
E usebius ; it is con ned pri ncipal ly to E gypt

Pa l estine and Syria

I n E gypt thousands
men women and chi l dren submitted t o death in
Some after being tor t ured wi th
Various shapes
scrapings and the rac k and the most dreadful
scourgings and other innumerable agonies were
na l ly com mitted to the ames
Some were
cruci ed as crimi nals usually were ; others were
nai l ed with the head downwards and kept a l ive
unti l they were destroyed by starving on the

cross itse l f
I n T hb ai s as many as a hundred men with
their wives and childre n were s l ain i n one day
We ourselves have observed when on the spot
many crowded together i n one day som e su ffer
ing decapi t ation some b u rning s o tha t the
weapon was complete l y blunted and having lost
its edge broke to pieces and the executioners
themselves wearied wi t h s l aughter were ob l iged
to re l ieve one another
Then also we were
witnesses to the ardour o f those that be l ieved
As soon as the sentence was pronounced agains t
the rst othe rs rushed forward to the j u dge at
the tribuna l and co n fessed t hat th ey were
C hristians
T hey received th e sentence of death
with g l adness and exultation s o far as even to
E b i s O th M arty r f Pal ti iii
H E vii i 8
,

u se

s o

es

n e,

2
3 4

Chu rch H i sto ry fro m Ne ro

to

Co n stan ti n e

sing and send up hymns of praise and than ks

giving u ntil they breathed their last

T h e victim s i ncluded P h il o ro m u s a high
o f cia l in the imperia l service i n A l exandria an d
Ph ileas a bis hop di s t inguished for his conduct
and the service s re n dered to h i s country as we l l
as i n the di fferent branches of ph ilosophy
At D amascus certain women o f the town were
co mpelled under threat o f torture t o declare that

they had once been Christian s and t ha t they

were privy to t he c riminal acts among them ;
that in their very ch urche s t hey commi t ted l i ce n
tiou s deeds an d i nnumerable o t her slanders

which he ma d e them ut t er against o u r religi on

T his declara t ion the em peror had published
abroad
I n Phrygia th e mos t appalling ou t rage was

perpe t rated
Soldiers surrounded a certain
C hristian town toge t her with the garri son and
h urling re in t o it burn t t hem t ogether wi t h
women and children calling upon C hris t th e
G o d o f all
And t his because all th e i nhab itan ts
of the tow n together with th e town clerk and
the gover n or with all t he magistrates o f ra n k
an d the i n habi t an t s o f the surrounding country
confessed t hemselves C h ri s t ian s an d would n o t
3
s acri ce
The town was E u m e n e a and t h e
story i s corrobora t ed by the discoverie s o f Sir
Wil l iam Ram s ay 4
I n Arabia C hris t ian s were slain with the axe ;
I b i d vii i I
I b i d ix 5
E b i H E viii 9

8
h
i
t
i
i
h
i
a
i
i
a
d
B
P
5 5 5
C
yg
p of
I

u se

u s,

es

Fi n al S trugg l e ,

The

m)

1
0
3 3 3 3

2
3

some had their limbs fractured as i n Cappa

docia ; some were hung up by the feet and
su ffocated with the ascending smoke of a slow
re as in M esopotamia ; som e were m uti l ated
by having their noses ears and hands cut o ff and
the rest o f their l imbs and parts of their bodies

cut to pieces as i n M esopotamia

At Antioch they were roasted o n grates over
s l ow res I n Pontus some had their ngers
pierced with sharp reeds thrust under the nai l s
Others had masses o f boiling l ead poured down
th eir necks
I n M ay A D 3 0 5 the tw o Augusti D io cletian
and M ax i m i an abdicated I f we may believe
L act an ti u s they did so re l uc t antly under pressure
from Gale ri u s D ioc l e t ian retired to Sa l ona i n
D a l ma t ia and occupied himself with building
planting and gardening Gibbon relates that
when pressed by M ax e n ti u s to resume the pu rp l e

h e rep l ied that if he could show M ax i m i an the

cabbages which h e had planted with hi s own hand
he should no l onger be u rged to relinquish the
en j oyment of happiness for the pursuit o f

power
The abdica t ion was fo l lowed by a long period
of civil war Gal e ri u s and Constantius becam e
Augusti and Severus and D aza afterwards ca l led
M aximin were made Caesars
T o M aximin
D aza was given th e char e o f E gyp t an d Syria ;
Severus had I ta l y and A rica Constantius ruled
Britain Gau l and Spain ; w h ile G al e ri u s r e
E b i H E vii i 1
,

u se

u s,

Church H i sto ry

2
6
3

fro m Ne ro

to

Co n stan ti n e

ser ved for himself the countrie s betwee n I taly

a nd Syria
T h e arrangemen t was soon upset
C onstantius
died at Y ork i n A D 3 0 6 and was s ucceeded in
spite o f G al e ri u s by h is son Co nstan tin e I n the
same year the Romans revolted from Severus ;
and M ax e n t i u s son o f th e ex-em peror M ax i m i an
with t he assis t ance o f hi s father brought about
th e downfa l l an d death o f Severus and s e t
himself up as Lord of I taly and Africa
These changes had their e ffec t o n the p e rs e cu
tion s T hey had ceased altoge ther i n Spai n Gaul
and Britain whe n Co n stantiu s becam e A u gu s t u s
And though t o quote Gibbon h e was a ty rant
as contemptible as h e was odiou s M ax e n t i u s
a l lowed them to die out i n I taly and Africa
Licinius w ho had been given I l lyria was n o t an
active persecutor and G al e ri u s h i mself seem s to
have tired o f this work B ut M aximi n D aza i n
Egypt an d Syria carried o n the persecutio n with
the enthusias m o f a neophy t e L actan t i u s say s
that h e had been tending ca t tle no t long before

hi s elevation and calls h im a person ign oran t

ali ke o f war and of civil a ffairs
Eusebius w ho
had every reaso n for thin king ill o f h im says
tha t h e was devo t ed to the pagan gods and
had t emple s built fo r th e m i n every city and
would unde rt ake n othing without soothsayers
and oracles ; tha t he was a drunkard and
indulged in every sort o f d is s ipation an d was
distinguished fo r hi s innumerable adulteries
However that may b e and h is acts bear out the
.

The Fi n al Strugg le ,

A D
.

0
1
3 3 3 3

2
3 7

descri p t ion h e was both shrewd and energetic

and perhaps the most formidable persecutor the
C hurch has ever had
E usebius has l eft a graphic account of h i s
doings in Pa l estine and E gyp t T here i s n o
reason to doubt its veracity I t would be on l y
natura l if it were high l y co l oured in places but it
is probab l y a case where the co l ours of nature are
vivid enough T h e intenti on as i n ear l ier perse
cu t i o n s
w as to produce apostates not martyrs
and as compared with former persecution s th is
i ntention was carried o u t with far more l ogic and
perseverance Be fore Christians were torture d
as part of the regu l ar proceedings to make them
recant as s l aves w ere tortured to make them
confess i n order to overcome thei r obs t inacy
Whe n it was clear that they intended to remain
obstinate they were pu t to death usua l ly i n som e
pai nful manner But now the torture was much
more pro l onged Whether death was fe l t to be
so
ligh t a punishment as t o be use l e s s o r they
thought that the stoutes t would break down
under torture if on l y the torture were su f ciently
prolonged we do not know Those whom we
read of as being sentenced t o death sum marily
are for the most part those who had made
t hemselves con spicuous Ap p h i an u s for ins t ance
o n
the day when every o n e i n Caesarea was
crowding to sacri ce in obedience t o the edict
crept up behind U rbanus the governor as he
was O fferi ng an d seizing hi s right hand exhor t ed
him to desist H e was scourged racked his
,

2
3

Chu rch H i sto ry

fro m Ne ro

Co n stan ti n e

to

sides were scraped h e was bea t en o n the face and

neck u ntil unrecognizable his fee t were wrapped
i n linen bandage s steeped i n O il and then lighted
before he was throw n into the s e a and drowned
H i s brother A e de s i u s met very m uch the same

fate a t Alexandria
When he s aw the j udge
at Al exandria co ndem ning the C hri stian s there
and going beyond all bounds sometimes i nsult
i ng grave and decen t men an d women i n various
ways some t i mes co n s rg m n g V i rtuous women
an d co n secrated virgi n s to h ouses o f ill fame
he tried to do what hi s brother had done and
with his words and acts covered the j udge with

shame
The results also fo r h imse l f were no t
dissimilar
A t Cae s a rea Theodosia app roached some co n
fe s s o r s arraigned before the j udgeme n t -s eat and
spoke t o t hem T he j u dg e seems to have regarded

t his as a provocation
He had her t ortured
with dreadfu l and horri c cruelties furrowing
her side s and breast s with i nstru ments to t he very
bones and while ye t breathing and showi n g a
seren e and cheerful cou ntenance had her t h rown
i n t o t he s e a
B ut the others were only co n
d e m n e d to the mines a t P ho e n o i n Palestine
B u t o n e D o m n i n u s w ho had m ad e him s elf
known by his boldnes s was condem ned to be

burned
Others h e made eunuchs and co n
d e m n e d to the mines ; others after dreadful

torture he cast i nto prison

P am p hi l u s a
friend o f Eusebius a l earned philosopher was
b i Th M arty r ofPale ti v
E
,

,
.

u se

u s,

ne ,

The F i n al S trugg le , A D
.

0
3 3

3 1 3

2
3

tortured with especial malignity and then cast

I nto pr i son
The intention seem s to be to torture and n o t
to kil l I n the year A D 3 0 8 mutilation was
substituted for capita l puni s hment E usebiu s
states that O f a vast number o f t he confessors
of the true re l igion con ned in the porphyry

quarry ninety seven men women and chi l dren

were sent to the Governor o f Palestine and had
th e ank l es and sinews of their l eft legs scarred
with a hot iron Besides this they had their
righ t eyes cut out T hey were the n committed
to the mines i n Pa l estine to drag out a miserable
existence in cons t ant and oppressive toi l
Late i n the year A D 3 0 8 a new edict appeared
orderi ng the m agistrates i n every city to re store
the decayed templ es ; to compel men women
domestics and even infants at the breast to
sacri ce and to cause al l food o ffered fo r sale
i n t he markets t o be d e l e d with l i b at i o n s
At
Caesarea the bodie s o f mar t yrs were forbidden

buria l
Beasts an d dogs and birds o f prey
scattered the human l imbs in a l l directions ;
and the whole city was spread with the entrails
and bones o f men so that those w h o had been
most opposed to us were ou t raged not from
an y love o f the mar t yrs
but because o f the

nuisance to themselves
We also read tha t
some E gyptians who had trave ll ed to Cilicia to
mi nister to their brethren i n the mines and
were o n their way home were detected tortured
E b i Th M arty r f Pal ti ; ix
.

u se

u s,

s o

es

ne

0
33

fro m Ne ro

Chu rch H i sto ry

an d

to

Co n stan ti n e

burnt as were others shor tly a fte rwa rds fo r

the same o ffe n ce
I n Apri l A D 3 1 I an Edict o f Tolera t ion was
i ssued i n the names o f G al e ri u s Constantine and
Licin ius M a x imi n s n am e may h ave appeared
i n the origi nal document and been erased after
his fa l l I t an nounced that as persecution h ad

i t h as bee n impossible to induce th em

fai l ed
to abandon their obstinate way o f life -in
order t hat men s l ives should n o longer be put
i n peri l the persecu t ion wa s to cease Prisoners
were released and convicts in th e m ines allowed

t o g o home
Joyous and cheerful they p ro
ce e d e d through every city
Num erous bod ies
pursued their j ourney through the public high
ways and markets ce l ebrati ng the praise s o f
Even their enemies
G o d i n songs and psa l m s
congratu l ated the m o n t hei r release
M axim i n was n o w emperor in the East and
did n o t issue the edict though h e gave orders
fo r persecu t ion to cease ; but before the en d o f
the year a fres h persecu t ion began o n new l ines
Beginning with Antioch h e stirred up the mu nici
i
h
a
l
i
t
es
to
send
delegates
to
hi
m
aski
ng
i
s
p
permission to expel all Ch ristia ns
This was
F urther he took step s to
graciously give n
revive paganism by appoi nting a priesthood
I n every city priests we re appoin ted fo r the
i mages with high priests over them by M aximin
himself from among th e m ore distinguished
inhabitan t s S O -cal led Acts o f Pilate were forged
xi
E
Th M arty r f Tal ti
bi
,

u se

u s,

s o

es

n e,

The F i n al S truggle ,

0
1
3 3 3 4

A D
.

33

and sent t hrough the who l e of the dominion s

subj ect to him T h ese were ordered to be
pub l ished broadcast and to be given to school
masters to hand to their pupi l s t o study and
com mit to writing as exercises for de cl am ati o n

We are to l d that schoolboys had the name s

o f Jesus and Pi l ate and the forged Acts i n their
mouth s the whole day
At T yre the letter o f M axi min in answe r to
the municipal pe t ition against the C hristian s
was engraved o n bron z e H e beg i ns by assum
ing that Christian ity i s exp l oded
H e co n
gratulates them o n their renewed devo t ion to
the gods and pointed t o the ourishing crops
the exce l lence o f the season a nd the prevailing
peace a s a proof that t heir devo t ion had been
rewarded I t ends by ordering the restitution
of apostates and t he expulsion o f those who
remai n O bdurate
Only the l eaders of the
C hurch seem to have been put to death
Peter o f Alexandria and several other E gyptian
bishops and Lucian a learned presbyter of
Antioch were among the s l ain
But t he end was to come soon C ivil war
broke o u t between th e emperors Con stantine
and Licinius combined agains t M ax e n t i u s ruler
o f I ta l y and Africa
C ons t anti ne who was a t
C olmar
moved at once agains t M ax e n ti u s
Somewhere after leaving Colmar he had hi s
vision o f the Cross I n October A D 3 1 2
C on stantine defeated M ax e n t i u s at Saxa Rubra
E s bi s H 8 ix 5
Ibid 7
.

u e

33

fro m Ne ro

Chu rch H i sto ry

Co n stan ti n e

to

and entered Rom e wi th hi s vic t ori ous army

M aximin o n heari ng the new s thought it
pruden t t o s t op hi s persecution and is sued
hi s o w n Edic t o f Tole ra t ion Tha t was before
th e end of A D 3 1 2 I n Ja n uary o f the next
year Constantine met Licin ius at M ilan and
t oge t her they issued the Edict o f M ilan The
edict i s lost but it seem s to h ave granted
u niversal toleration T hi s edict did n o t cover
the East Bu t M aximi n was defea t ed by Licinius
i n A D 3 1 3 and died Lici nius issued an edict
from Nicomedia i n J
une A D 3 1 3 wh ich repeated
th e provi s ions O f t he Edic t O f M ilan and restored
their lands and buildings t o the C hu rch
A similar rescript to An u l i n u s Procons ul o f
Africa ordered the restoration o f houses and
lands to the Catholic C hurch o f the C hri stian s
to the exclusion o f heretical bodie s
The long s trugg l e was over and th e victory
was won The Galilea n had con q uered but at
a heavy cos t Si r William Ram say j udging by
the i nscrip t ion s fou nd i n s outh -west Ph rygia
belongi ng to the third cen t ury and th e sudde n
ness with whic h they break O ff thinks that the
C hurch and S t ate i n the Eas t never recovered
from the destruction of the e n ergetic an d p ro
re s s i v e elements i n th e popu l atio n wh ich took
g
place H e draw s a poignan t contrast between th e
ric h political and in t ellectual life o f C hris t ian s
o f the
third century and the pa t he t ic silence
which succeeded There are also moral losses
to which Eusebiu s alludes bu t h e very honestly
.

The Fi n al S truggle ,

0
3 3

3 1 3

333

l e t s us know that it i s no part of hi s purpose to

en l arge on scanda l s I t is a travesty o f j ustice
on the part of Gibbon to accuse him of de l iber
ately concea l ing the truth We learn that many
unsuitab l e persons were ordained during th e
t roub l es t hat ambi t ious people asp i red to o f ce
and that quarre l s took p l ace among the co n fe s
sors After all this was inevitable T he C hurch
was to a great ex t en t deprived o f i t s rulers and
ecc l esias t ica l di scip l ine was re l axed and it must
have been very hard fo r those who had endured
m uch not to exhibi t some degree O f pride and
contempt in their attitud e to t hose who had
endured less as we l l as to those w ho had failed
a l together These quarrels were to bear their
evi l fruits when peace was estab l ished
I t is not however proposed to carry o n this
history beyond the age o f persecu t ion That
age form s a distinct epoch during which the
C hurch had to face tria l s and di f cu l ties of an
exceptiona ll y intim idating character though l ess
dangerou s to i ts spiritual welfare than the pa t ron
age O f the State and th e inu x o f horde s o f
unconverted barbarians afterwards proved to be
T o thi s epoch the inquirer must turn who wishes
to know what th e C hurch was like an d for
what principles it s t ood when it was nearer to the
C hurch of the Ne w Testament i n i ts doc t rine
and its l ife than it has ever been sin ce When
the age of persecution was over the Ne w T esta
men t condition s were altered
T h e C hurch
was no l onger despised and disregarded but
.

Chu rch H i sto ry

334

fro m Ne ro

to

Co n stan ti n e

domi nan t and e nvied I ts danger was no long e r

i n the e nmity but i n t he friendsh ip o f the world
There i s no such break i n the history of the
T he
C hurch until we com e t o t he Reformation
point therefore at which i t began to take e ffect
seem s to a fford an app ropriate term inus for this
work
.

B elo w i s

l i st

f m o de rn

the chi e

au tho ri ti e s

co n s u l te d

Ni c e n e

C hr i t i a

n te -

o n al dso n
D
J

i brary

it d

b rt

b y A Ro

an d

An o n T h e W o r ks o f Ap u l e u s , tr an sl at e , p u l h e 1 8 5 3 b y
H G B o hn

atho li c s m
l
P ri rn i ti u e
a
t
i
f
f
o
P
B
,

P hi lo s tratu s Ap o llo n u s of Ty an a
B e rw ck, E

n
W
a
E
r
e
B n on,
yp

B gg, C
The hr st an lato n sts of A le x an ri a ,1 hi ey A n c e n t

h lo sop h es The hu rch s Tash u n e r the Ro m an mp re

T e rm s o f o m m u n o n
i
n
h
ar y
B r gh tm an , F E
e
T
(
sto r
of the
u rch an d the M n str )
h
y
y

C ab ro l , F , L e cl e rcq , H
M o n u m en ta Eccles ae L tu rg ca,

H
T
h
a
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r
r
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t
n
h
ch
o n o ll , R
u
gy p
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i
n Te x ts an d Stu
s,
e
(
hr st an ty
C o n y b e are , F C M o n u m e n ts of ar y
of the
hu rch Li he r P o n ti cali s ,
D u ch e n e , L
sto r
8 arly
w th I n tro uct o n an d Co m me n tary

r n at o n S e r ce
arly
F re r e , W H
J
u rn al o
o
(
f
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r
The ologi cal Stu es,
F
na
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i
h
t on,
n
T
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a
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E
(
y
)
F r e l an e r, L -Ro m an L fe an d M an n e rs
F u n k, F X
D ascal a e t Co n sti tu ti o n es Ap o sto lo ru m
m re
G
o n , E Decl n e an d F all ofthe ? m an
p
Q

D
scal a A o s to lo ru m , t r an s
o n , M s M argar e t Du n l o
a
G
p
p
n ew e
The hu rch an d the M n stry
G o re , C
t o n , re
se
by C
T u rn e r
hu rch
sto r
M 8 ar
G w at ki n ,
arn ac k, A The Ex an s o n of the Ch u rch
p
au l e r, E D ascal ae Ap osto lo ru m F rag m e n ta Vero n e n si a L at n a
H am l t o n ,
o
F
G
The e op le a
d
f

H arr s,
R
Ap o l o gy o f Ar s t e s, ( i n Tex ts an d Stu es ) ,
o r n e r, G
The Statu tes of the Ap ost e s , o r an o n es ccle s ast ci
.

C i
C i i P
i
C

Pi

Hi

di

s
i

d i

v iii

Hi

i i

id

ii

Hi

335

Od

O di
ii y

E i

di i

vi d

vi s

E i
E l
.

E l C i i i
C

dE

E
O di
di xvi
i
ly Hi
i d d
i
id i
i bb
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C
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H
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i
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P
i
i

H
.

b is d

id

ii

di

i i

Church H i sto ry

6
33

n ge ,

L ght fo o t,
en e
p

dd

fro m Ne ro

Th

Co nstan ti n e

to

Thi lo sop hy of Tlo ti n us

D i sse rtati o n o n the
hri sti an M i n i stry , ( ap
B

t o The Ep i st es to the T hi hpp i ans)

The Ap osto i c
e

n ci e n t Chu rch O rde rs

T
h
e
A
J

S
h
il
l
i
m
e
?hi lo strat s i n Ho n o u r of Ap o llo n i u of Ty an a
P
or
Ram ay S i r W i ll i am Th C h u rch i n the Ro m an E mp i re
r
e
s
a
n
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h
o
i
c
h
h
i
s
P
r
y
i
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s
a
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p
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T h e P as i o o f S P e rp e t u a an d h e r Co m
R b i so n
A

i
T
h
a
i
s
n d Stud ies
i
e C hr i t i a
o
t
s
a
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T
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p
(
)

M i i try i t h Ap o to l i c a d su b -Ap o t l i c P e r i o d
t
i
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a
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H
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s
t
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T urn e r C H
Ap o sto l i S u cc ss i o
i
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y
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(
nd
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a
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the M i i try ( G r )
M acl e an , A

n s

n s

n s

s,

s o

C H RO NO L O G I CAL T ABLE

E M PE R O R
Ne

ro

P PE
O

RI TER S

E VE NTS

B ur nin g o f Rom
B g inn i n g o f P rs c u ti o n
M r tyrdom o f S P u l ?
M rtyrdom o f S P t r
F li gh t of C hur c h o f J ru
s l m t P ll
e

Gal b

L i n us

O tho
V i t lli us
V sp s i n

ae

a a

Gosp l o f S
M rk ( t
l t r th n )
Gosp l o f S

80

81

85

90

Ti tus

n o

a e

75 8 0

l l of J rus l m

Fa

L u k e an d Ac ts ?
.

D om i ti n
a

An e n c l e tu s
et

or C l us

Gosp l o f 8 Bi rth o f Pol ycarp

M tth w ?
Gosp l a d
E p i stl s o f S
Joh n
R n w d ou tbr k o n r
ti
E x c u t i o n o f F l av i u s
C l m n s c o n su l A 95 d
b ni shm n t o f h i s w i f
D om i ti lla o n ch arg o f
A th i sm
A po cal yps P
Cl m nt
E p i s tl
t
Cor in th i an s
R cal l o f D m i ti a x il s
Su to ni us a d
T c itus wro t
duri ng th i s
r ig n
Di d ch
T r aj an
t D c i an Wa
l av s Rom
R tur n a d T ri umph o f
T raj an
I v n al m t M rty rdom o f Sy m o n o f
Sati r
J rusal m
e

Cl m n t

91
94 95

ea

s e cu

o n

an

Ne

rv

Tr j n
a a

P
.

n s e

E vare s tu s

Is

3 37

2 X

Chu rch H i sto ry

8
33

E AR

E MP ER OR

P OP

1 1

to

R I TER S

Al

-1 1
3
7

nd r

e xa

E ENTS
V

ee

e,

aa

es

e,

e n e,

Ep i s tl s o f
I g n ti us
E p i s tl o f
P o l yc arp

s rr

a e

an

a an

an

oe

aa

aa

ea e

1 0 7-1 1 6

D c i n Wa T r j n
l v s Rom
P lin y g s t Bi th y ni
T r j n s t rts f or E s t d
W i n t rs t A n ti o h in v d s
Arm ni d M sopo tam i
d
d v n c s t P rs i n
Gu l f P r th i n W a R i s in g
o f w who m s s c r
in gy p t Gr c Cyr n
O
h
suppr ss d by
Lus in s T r j n d i i n
C ili c i o n w y bac k t
I t ly
M art yrdom o f I gn ti us 9
2nd

Co n stan ti n e

E pi s tl o f
Bar n bas

1 0 5 -1 07
1 1

Ne ro

om
r
f

I I

dr i n

Ha

S i x tus or
X y s tus

dr i n v i s i ts A th n s
B u dd i n g o f A li a C pi tol in
o n s i t o f J rusal m b g n
R scri pt t M i i
F
da
J w i sh r b ll io n u n d r B a
G oc h h
C hri sti n s p rs c u t d by
J ws for r f us in g t j o in
M ar tyrdom o f T l sphoru ?
M arc i o n arri v s in Rom
Jus tin arr i v s in Rom P
Ha

1 25

T l sphor

1 27

e e

us ?

1 3 2 -1

35

un

n uc

us

n us

S7
1 38
I

An to n n u
Pi us
i

Hygi n us

A po l ogy of
A r i s ti d s
Sh ph rd o f
H rm s

45
1

45

Pi us

46

I5

A ni c tus

A po l ogy o f
.

54

L u c i n s p r i od
of gr t st
l i t r r y pro
a

161
1

1 67
63
165
1

67

M ar c us
A ur li u
e

S tr
o

an d

Rom

Po l y rp v i s i ts Rom
B g inn i n gs o f Mo n t ni sm
e

a e

d uc ti ve n ess
s.

v i s i t C or in th

ca

0
1 75
5

He ge s i p p us

Jus tin

P
I st

52

e e

P rth i n W
C ptur of S l u c i
C t s i pho n
M rty rdom o f Jus ti n
a

ar

e e

an d

Chro n o logi cal Tahle

Y

ER
A

E PE R R
M

P PE
O

RI T E RS

33 9

E E TS
W
g in s t G rm n s
C m p i g n g in s t t h
Q d
I n c i d n t o f th Thu n d rin g
L gion
N

ar a a

T ru W ord
o f C l sus
A po l og y o f
P rs c u ti o n in Lyo n s d
A th n gor s V i nn
M r tyrdoms in M d ur
d Sc i l i
I r n us
D th of M rcus A ur li us
g in s t H r
M r ch 7 dur in g
t V i nn
sl s
c mp i g n g in s t M rc om
Oc t v i us o f
d Qu d i
nni
Mi
i F li
P c w i th M r com nni
d Qu d i
M r tyrdom o f Apo ll o ni us
t Rom
Bi rth o f O ri g n d Ph il o
s tr tus
A m n s ty t x il d C hri s
ti n s
A s s s s i n t i o n o f C om
modus
P r in x murd r d Emp i r
s l d t D Ju li n us

Th e

E l e u the ru s

a a

H e ge s i p p u s

ua

an

C ommodus

a a

an

ae

ea

a a

e e

n uc us

a,

a a

an

ea e

an

85

V c tor

Ju li n us
S
S v rus

e
e

Didi u s
a

an

P rtin ax

93 1 9
7

A po l ogy o f

T rtu ll i n
a

C i v il Wa
S v rus d f ats Ni g r a d
th
arm y o f S y r i a o n t h
H ll spo n t a d in C ili c i a
a d A l b in us th
arm y o f
Br i tain at L yo n s B y a
r

e e

i um surr n d r d forti
d i sm n l d
ph y in u ?
P r hi ns d f d
C s i pho n n by S v r s
C l m n t s S trn M r
o f P rp tu
m t is P
comp ni o n s
Dio C s s i u s
H i s tor y w r i t
t
P rs c u ti o n t A l x n dr i
C l m n t f orc d t
O ri g n t k s c h rg o f
C t c h ti c l Sc hoo l
z

t
e
e e
an d
cati o n s
a t e
a t a
e e ate
te
tak e
e
a t rd o m
e
an d
er
a

Ze

2 00 -2 2 2

a e

'

en

2 02

'

2 03

e u

a e

ee

fro m Ne ro

Chu rch H i sto ry

0
34

EAR

P PE

E M P ER O R

RI T E RS

to

Co n s tan ti n e

E E NT S
lli a b c m
V

2 07

e r tu

Mo

es 3

tam s t
C a e o n an W ar
e at
o f e e ru s at
ur e r o f
e ta

ld i

2 08
2

e ta

D h Sv
Y k
M d
G by C a
c ll
D th f Cl m t f A l x
a d ia

an d

Caracall a

o r

ar

a a

ea

213

en

P h i l o s t r atu s
te
On
l
u

T a a

2 1 4-2 1 5

wri s
A po l o ni s o f
y n
Ju
l
i
a D om n a at A n ti c h
A
po
ll
o
ni
us
o
f
i
l
t
l
C
a
M
i
a
7
T y n a pu b li sh Murd o f Caracall a
Su i c i d of u lia
d at T yr
R vo l t
Sy ri an arm y
3
H l i ga
D f at a d d ath o f M a
bal us

a
A l an d r S v rus d c lar d
S v rus
U r ban us
C a sar
A l xan d r
Murd r o f E l agabal us by
Pra tori an s
A ppro i mat
5
d at o f
call d E g y p
Church
t i an
Ord r
A ta
f P
ia f
6
d
f d y a ty f Sa a
i d v th w Pa th i a
A
ta
d
l
a d
w
a
P
o
n
ti
n
us
a
3
agai
t R m a E pi
i
g
m v
f
O
C
a
3
a a t A l xa d i a
P
p
h
y
y
b
33
i
H
l
t
P
i
t
d
a
a
E
O
r
i
n
s
A
n
t
ro
i
p
M
a
m
i
p
g
35
il d t Sa d i i w g
t at i n t
h
T hra
th y b th d i
M ar tyrs
Sv
Al a d a d
d d by
Ma m a a
l d i at M ai
F abi an
36
B od i s of Po n ti an s a d
A ugus t
i
p
p
o
l
y
s
b
ur
i
d
i
n
t
H
or
37
Rom
8
3
1
k i l l d by
a im i
M
8
3
d i rs
D
f
at a d d ath of Gor
Gord
n
I
8
i
a
3
d i an s
d
Murd r o f M xi m in
Gord i n II
.

21

cr n u s

s us

er

21

e e

nu

2 22

ex

22

so

22

er o

es , o

2 0

e rs

x erx e s o

er

o un

ss

re

xe rxe s

ec

re

ns

ns

en

es

re

o r

2
2

n us

'

o r

n us

o n

ex

us

n a

er

m u r e re
nz

e rs

so

es

ex

e ru s

ro m

o rn

re

e e

an

n us

80

C/z ro n o logi cal Ta l e

Y

EAR

23 8

E M P ER O R
Pu p i e n u s
an d
B al b i n u s
o r
an I I I

G di

POP E

R ITE S
R

E ENTS
V

M d
ur

Sp
cc d A tax x
Ki g f P
i
P i W
V i ct y v
P ia
f G di
M d
III
a o r su
n

Ph ili p th
A bi
ra

an

P l ti b ga
t
l ct i
R
o

o m e

ig
l

u re

gi

us

Di

an

Co rn e

li

re

us

L ci
St ph
X y t
II
S i xt
us

25 7

en

s us

o r

25

260

lli

Ga

Di y i
o n

e n us

s us

an

a an

an

o n

su

n ue

ea e

an

e ea s

an u s

an

e ea s

a
an

s a s

e ea e

u rn

an

o n

s u s,

ex

r a

ea

e rs e

en

re

a e r an

o n o

S i xt
S Cyp ia
Val i a d f at d a d
d
pi
by S p w h
i v d d C pp d c i
P
i
R
a iv
p hy
i
l ft P l ti
tt c h
Ed i c t f T l ti
O d ath
pp i t d A
g t by th S t
Al
i i v d I tal y
G th i v d G c af t
av g i g P
t
d B i th
M a ty d
M a ty d

f
om of

er

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r o

26 2

a e

rr

es

m se

s ns

di

r a

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e

an

em

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an n
n

a e

m e,

n us

ena e

a e

re e

o n us

es

ma e

e ra o n

us

us us

De ath o fDi o n y

a o

en

a o r,

o r

a a

us

r so n e r

26 5

us

25

m a es

a m en

o n

o m e

so

an

ar

e rs

em

2 47-2 6 4

e ea e

n ua

25 3

us

er

n n

o n

a us

Val i a

an

an ,

e rs e

252

a e

3
254
25 8
26 0

m ar

us

ns

r a

e rse

us

e rs

or

Iooo

25 0

er

i Bi h p f Al x
di
th A
iv
f
y
F di g f R
Cyp i
Bi h p f
C th g
P c ti b g F b i
ty d
D ci d f t d d l i
i b ttl W th G th
P c ti c ti d
k
G ll
p c w i th
G th by p y t f
l b i dy
A
ili
d f t G th
Al d f t d l y G l
l
I
df td d
t
k ill d
D i y i B i h p f Al
di
D th f O i g i Ty
P c ti f V l i
ar

G ll

o n y s us,

25

ar

o un

25 1

er o

ur

er e s

Or e n a a n s t
Ce s u s

47

D ci

n us

e rs a

o r

ee

e rs an

2 42

2 48

as

f P u p i e n u s an d

B al b i n u s

2 40

2 44

er

an

er

C/z u rcb Hi sto i y

2
4

AR

E MPE ROR

26 7

l di
A li

2 68
26

C au

2 7o

R ITE S
R

E ENTS
V

us

F li x

e ea o

A pp x d
D id c li

273

ro

at e o

as a a

am

o n

us

an d

us

2 76

ro

2 77

an

au m

am

Zen o

bi a

an u s

us

G
d f td i G
by P b w h i v d
d
G
y
i p
p c
d f t S ti
C
d i v d
P i wh
h di d

C aru s
C ari n u s

Nu m e ri an

D i c l ti a

Gi

a us

8 4-3 05
8 5 -3 0 5

M axi m i an

- 06
93 3

i
n th e
(
w e s t)
Co n s tan ti u s

au l

a es

o se s

us,

an

an
.

an

arm a an s

e ea s

aru s

e ea e

e rm an s

ea e

e x erm

es

capt

e rm

28 3

ro

28 2

e m an n

or

u re s

E u ty ch i

re

us

ea e

e r arm

o se

an u e an

a es

u re

Tac i t
P b

e ea s

ea

2 75

o sa

us

au

an m a e s

u re

ur

ena

o n o

a ru e s a o n e

eno

A i ti fO d th
Z
bi l l
D f t fG th by C l d i
Pa l f S
t d p
d
A li
k
p c w i th
i
G th za d d f t A l
b d t i
th D
y i It ly
t
th i
D th f G g y Th a
t g
A l i tak P l y a
s sas s n a

an

u re

OP E

Ne ro to Co n stan ti n e

ro m

a es

e rs

a,

er e

2 86

G l
d B it i

(i n

au

an

an)

by R
gi

P i
Rvl

28 7-2

94

Ma c lli

6
29

r e

e e

er

II

G all e ri u s

ee s

er us

e rs

ns

"

e rs

rse s.

o n

es re s o re

ro

o se

r s

er s

o r

e i

a ms

29
3 3

d by

R b lli
E gyp
p
d by D i c l t a
Ed ct ag t M a i ch
Wa w i th P i a G al i
d f at d
P i a P ac
V ict y v
i p d Na
Ti i
d at
d t A m ia
t
f c
vd
C h i ti a
f m th a m y b y Gal i
i

97

pp

re ss e

ig

N
Bi i
.

n us

d A
d iv

rm e
T i ri date s re s to re to
r
en
o m an s b u t
n ia
ars e s , K n
o ut a a n by
o f
e rs a
u n er
r ta n
e o t o f
re ss e
Carau s i u s s u
Co n s tan t u s
t su p
o n
in
e e

en

re m o

e r as

Chro n o l og i cal Ta l e

AR

E M P ER O R

POP E

WR

3 00
3 02

ITER S

3 43

E ENTS
D ath f P p hy y
A ll C h i ti
d d t
c i c l
my
th
D i c l ti t d i c t f
p c ti i d F b 4
S c d d ict d i g i
pi
t f th c l gy
Th i d d i c t p i tti g
V

sa r

3 03

or

r s

an s

an s

e as e

o r

ai n

im

ri a

re

n s tan

B i tai
r

ne

re s

M a c ll
r e

us

an

o n

o n

ri a

ea

a es

b ti t ti g m tilati
m i
f p b li c x c
n

or

ne

o n an d

n es

e rs e

Af c
S
p t t d th
F f th d i ct i P l ti

su

I t ly
L ici i i
Ill y i ( i
pl c f

o m es

e rs e

in

a es

e v e ru s

M ax e n ti u s

ra

an d

3 07
3 08

3 09

a so

an

no

a o na

au

e ars

a es n

iu s

o ur een

n e ss

an

us us

e r

ea

re a

an a

Co
in

an

o ns

an o

o n

ax m an

an

e rso n s

o n

ax m an ,

ra e s

er n

an

az a n

3 06

ci

sa r

e e

o m e

sa r

re

an

ar

r ca,

o ur

e v e ru s

o n

er

ov

r um

S
i
I t l y Af i
Sp
Mx i
D
i
E gypt d
Sy

er

c l gy

er n

e rm

3 05

igN
D i cl ti
clb t
t i
ph t R
F th d i c t by M i i
t
d i g ll p
c i fi c
p i f d th
i
D i c l ti
pp
M ch f t f t
th
ick
D i c l ti bd i c t i M y
d
ti
t S l
l bd i c t
M i i
A g
bc
C
t t
c ti
t
E d fp
i G
l d B it i
Sy d f E lvi
E d fp
c ti i I t l y

ho

3 04

o r

r so n m e n

ar

ssu e

o n

e re

o r

rs

o n

e ave

e rs e

e o r

u ti o n

n us

r a

a e o

Sv
e

310
3I 1

e ru s

E bi
M il ti d

us

u se

es

Ed i c t f T l

i by G l
i
E d fp
c ti i A i
i
i i f th
t
C
o

er us

312

o ns

s a

an t n e s v s o n o

e rs e

o n

Sx Rb
Ed i c M il
M xi i d f
p c i
Sy
E gyp D h M x i i
Ed i c
T l i by L i c i i
Nic i
.

'

3 I4

Silv

e s te r

D e e ats M axe n ti u s
C ro s s
at a a u ra
an
t of
e e at
En d o f
a m n s
in
r i a an d
e rs e u t o n
a m n
e at o f
t
in J
t of
une
Ne w
n u s p ub
o e rat o n
l i s h e d at
o m ed a
.

313

e rat o n

IN DE X

i l i Gl b i
l

Ac u s
a r o , de ath o f, 2 1 -2
Aco y te s, 2 7 1
Ae de si u s, m arty rdo m o f, 3 2 8
Agap e , 2 3 2
8
A m sg n g , 2 4 3
9
An ce tu s,
sho
o f Ro m e , 3 0 ,
p

1 2

2 07

An to n

Ch

Bi

Pi

u rch o

u s,

f,

li

- 0
93

An u li n u s, 3 3 2
Ap o ll o n u s, m arty rdo m o f, I I 5
Ap o ll o n u s o f T y an a, 1 6 0
8
Ap o l o g e s, 6 8
72
Ap p h i an u s , m arty r, 3 2 7
8
Ap u l e u s, Go lde n A1 : o f, 5 - 6 ,
.

i
i

75
Ar st de s, Ap o l o gy o f, 6 8
9
Arm e n i a, co n ve rs i o n o f, 3 I 3 - 1 5
Arr u s An to n n u s, I I 5
Ath e n ago ras, p l e a fo r t he hr s
t an s b y , 3 9
Au re l an , E m p e ro r, 3 0 6
1

i i

B ap ti

C
C

222

6
2
9

bl

by

o o

Cl

"

345

C
C
C
C

1 03

i
lC

vi

se r

ce ,

il

03 ;
1
99

Sp re ad

1 7
8
:
3
9
F l avi u s, d e ath

f,

e m e n s,

f,

2 1

fA e x an dr a, 1 3 3
42
e n t o f Ro m e , 6 1
e

1 6
s
1
o
d
u
I
o
,
4
fas t n g, 2 2 9
un o n
o
fre q u e n cy o f,
rs t, 2 2 7
2 2 9; o f s c k , 3 0 1
1
o n fe sso rs, c a m s o f
,
93 7
e

Bl i
B il C i i

i l i ta y

y
1 4;

Cl m
Cl m
C mm
C mm

B i
Bi

3; m

22

B arn o oar, Ep i rtle of; 6 2 3

B asi l i de s,
n o st c,
8
4 9
B as i l i de s, m arty r, I 1 8
e g g n g, 2 6 4 7

sho
27 5,
2
1
6
2
2
,
,
,
,
3
3
3
7
p
59
27 - 8
99
an d n a, m arty rdo m o f, 4 3
5
hr s t an , 2 4 2
ur a,

l i

ii
li

lv

b li

s a er

d,

C i

i i

2 1

sm

C arp o crat e s, 49

e su s, 5 3 , 1
2
6
0
5
C e ri n t hu s, 47 - 8
har sm at c th e o ry o f m n stry ,
-8
279
3
h ar ty , o rgan z at o n o f, 2 4 3 -9

e efo f
h u rch :
1
1
1 2 , 5 4,
,
6 6
225
cre at o n o f, b
,
9
y
1
e su s, 1 0
1
ca
o
h u rche s,
J
1 2
I t s re at o n t o am u se

m e n ts, 9
b
s
i
n
s
u
s
o
e
3 5;
, 9
3;

c t z e n sh
a
f
m
,
5
p
9 9
y
fe , 8 5
0
m
a
r
r age , 2
2
9
4

2 1

t o w ard s

I 28

E m p e ro r,

Cl

n us

f Ro m e ,

r c

ivi

C a a all a

Bi h

C al l i stu s,

o n

en

to

rm

o n st an

o n stan

o rn e

li

i
l i

at o n , 2 2 6

i
ti
t

n e,

u s,

C o n y b e are ,

u s,

2
6
,
3

33

1
2
6
8
,
3
3 5
C , 8 4, 1 1 5
sh o
o fRo m e , 2 1 3
p

Bi

2 Y

6
34

I n dex

Cy p i a
r

D ea o
D a
D i

89
,

95

G r go ry
G g ry
re

'

I ll

t he

re g o r

Di o do o no , 7 4
Didao ne , 6 1 2 , 2 1 8 ,
Di n o crate s, 1 2 3

f Ny ss a, 3 0 7 , 3 1 0
T hau m at u rgu s , 3 0 6

85

e c u s,

7 9

26

c o n s,

202
99

275

n e ss,

n,

um

ato r,

3 3
1

'

80

H adri an , p o l i cy

1
2
3 7
5

D i l tia
Di y i
oc e
o n

n,

t an s, 2 8

ex

97

H e al i n g , g i ft o f, 2 4 1
H e ge s i p p u s, Hyp o m n em ata

l a dri a
3 0 3

fA

s us o

C hri

t o w ards

f,

D i i p l i 1 93 - 6
D t 2 2
D m i tia
0- 2
D m i ti ll a b a i hm
sc

n e,

o c o r,

- 8
49 5

n s

en

t o

f,

2 1

E as te r, date o f, 2 0 7 I o
n
Eg yp ti an
rde r,
ro e
C urrn
rde rs,
hu rch
E ag a a u s, 1 2 9
E l e u t he ru s ,
sho
o f Ro m e ,
p
.

bl

208

Em p

Bi

Ro m an

re ,

in ,

t o n

E u c har

st ,

22

co m m u n i ca

re

2 38
40

F l i i ta
e

s,

f,

f,

Ig
I
I

f, 3 2 4

2 1

at i

u s,

o rt u n at u s,

o s

i ti

G
G

32
e rm

n o st c s,

0
4
54

6
4 7

f,

8
7

o n

1 8 -2 0 ,

f, 7
8 ; op
h r s t an ty o f,
e rat e d b y E m

e rs

to

o n

34 ;

C i i i
t l
o

6 1 2

1 1

1 28

7,

us

o es

s o
re

0
4

9
1
8
l
i
a
M
a
J
f
i
m a ty rd m
t
J
7 0
f 69
w iti g
L ap d t atm t o f
se

an i c u s ,

a sm
.

re ,

1 5
i
p
m na
l
i
D
a
J
1

E m p e ro r,

f, 6 4
7

n um

G al e ri u s ,

95

0
1
9

1 1

20
5

Ap o sto l
8 , 2 93 - 5
s u cce ss o n , 2 0 7
1
o f
s , w o rs h
,
74 7
p

p
f,

2 1 0- 1 2 ,

li

74 5

at o

re n ae u s,

ews
J

m arty rdo m

e t te rs o

n te rn

H i pp o l y tu s,
H o sp i tal i ty ,

4
arty rdo m

u s,

f, 3 0 1 , 3 0 2
H i l ari an u s, 1 2 1
o

Ii

g,
F e l i c i ss i m
s

o n

F a ti

l ig i

7 9; v al i d i ty

d
a
l
22
,
9
9
y
E u m e n e s , de stru c t o n
E xo rc sm , 2 2 3 -4
1

H e racl as, 3 0 0
H e rm e s, Snap /l o rd o f, 7 2
H e ro d , 3 2
H i g h e r C ri t i c i s m , an t i c i p at i o n :
.

en

2 :

6
93

I n dex
1
f
La
m a ty d m
L t gg t d i g i f
L id I 1 8
Li i i 3 6 3 3
f
Li ght
m
b
i
i
g
y
en

e s,

eo n

in

L ia
L ia
uc

Ne rv a 2 2
Ni ce t e s 3 2
Ni co l ai t an e s, 4 8
Ni co m e d i a, 3 1 8 , 3 2 0

1
o
v
i
1
2
2
1 3
N at an , 96
No vat u s, 1 96 , 2 1 3

r n

o n
.

the

C f
Phil

t he

e sso r,

o n

6
34

f,

uc

ce re

s,

20

u s,

c n

o r

es e

su

u re n ce ,

3 47

94 5

Odr C
O ig 1 1 8
O rp ha ar

o so p h e r, 4 6 ,

2.

e s,

hu rch, 6 2 ,

en

1 2

n s, c

M an e s

6
1

M an i che e i sm , 3 1 5

an d

P aga i

s,

93

f,

M ax e n t i u s 3 2 5 , 3 2 6
M ax i m i an , 3 1 8 , 3 1 9, 3 2 5
M ax i m i l l a, 5 7
M ax i m i n u s , 1 3 0
M ax i m i n Daz a, 3 2 5 , 3 2 6 ,
.

1
0
33

2
8
,
3

M i n u ci u s

2
3

9
.

Fel i x

t he

f, 7 1
M i n u ci u s F u n dan u s,
H adr an to , 2 9
M thra sm , 1 7 7 -8 4
o

M o n tan u s
-6 0

i pt

re scr

an d

M o n tan i sts , 5 4

Ne o cae sare a,
~

O ctavi a

i i

ss o n

ary

e t u a,

1 3 ;

co n

Ne o p l ato n i sm
Ne ro , 1 7 1 9

v i

e rs o n o

7 2
69

f, 3 0 7

viv

e,

e,

20
9

s o

f,

f,

f,
1 86

ia

cau se s o

dr

C a th ag

5 17

93

2 0 1 ; E g y p t,
89

s
e
n
L
V
i
a
o
d
3 4
y
P
2 ; P hr gi a 3 2
4
4
5
y
32

n e,

o n

Ro m e , 1 7
2 2 , 2 0 1 ; Sy r a, 3 2 4 U n de r
3 6 ; Car
An to n n u s P u s, 2 9
o m m o d u s, I 1 4
aca a, 1 2 8 ;
1 6 ; e c u s, 1 8 5 93 ; Di o
25
o m t an ,
cl e t i an , 3 1 7

a
l
i
20 2
G e r u s, 3 1 9 3 2
rcu s
H adr an , 2 8
M
a
9
n,
M
i
i
a
Au re u s, 3 6
a
x
m
45

t u s,

1 1

5 ;

32

e ru s,

i
C

D i

i
li

3 20

1 2

ll

re

f,

fe ct o
ef

e x an

o u rn e

27
9

1 1

In A

D i sc i p l i n e

e rse cu t o n :

1 1 2

5 1

0
3 4

: m art rdo m o
y

e n an c e , see
er

1 9

M e l i to , 7 1
M i l an , Ed i c t o f, 3 3 2
M i n e s, C hri st i an s co n de m n e d
to

P
P
P

t
s to
p

o sata,

P au l , S

P ap i a 6 3-4
P a l f Sam

0
33

atte m

21

4
of
2 7 8
,
4

n sm ,

5 I
M arc i o n , 49
0
M arcu s Au re l i u s , 3 6
4
M arri age , 2 42
3
M arty rs, co m m e m o rat i o n

ii

M ax i m i n Daz a, 3 2 5
Ne ro , 1 7 - 1 9; S e v

1 1

2
8
7

l ia

Va e r

T raj an ,

02
2
7
9

22

34

I n dex

e te r,

f,

1
3
4

vi i t

rst

203

Ro

to

4 ;

m arty r

2 0
do m o f, 1 9
P h i lo m e l i u m , l e t te rfro m Ch u rch
0f Sm
rn a t o
h
u rc h at,
1
y
3
Ph i lo strat u s, 1 6 2 , 1 6 8
P l agu e , b e ha o u r du r n g, 2 48
.

vi

li

l
d
g
,

o un
y

as

im m

e r, 0n

a
s
e
r
,
g

e rs e c u t o r,

li

o rt a t

22

P l t i u 1 6 97 2
P l y a p m a ty d
6
vi i t to R m
o

s,

0
3

f, 3 1

0
3 ,

e,

20

Bi

ho p

f Ro m e ,

o r

s,

es

sc

o n

6
45

54

e t s,

8 0 -2

P u de

6
4 ,

59

1 23

n s,

in ,

Pro p h
'

-6

v
v

i i

C i i

i
i

Cl
.

i
i
S l av
Ch
S l di

ii

s t o n
o
p

u rch ,

e rs ,

Bi

t e r,

1 03

Ch i ti a
r s

ho p

f,

t he

in

22 1

319

f Ro m e ,

2 0 5 -6 ,

Bi

ho p

f Ro

e,

2 1

4,

S u de aco n , 2 7 0 1
S u cce ss o n , Apo sto c do c tr n e
-8
0
o f
2
,
9
S u ffe r n g, n d ffe re n ce o f hr s

li

i i

45

C i

T at an , 4 8
T e rt u ll an :

7 0
Re ade r, 2 6 9
Re -b ap t z n g he re t cs, q u e st o n
0
2
1
1
6
0
o f
,
,
3
5
Re l g o n , de m an ds o f, 1 7 3
4
hu rc h o f, 2 0 3
Ro m e ,
1 7
Ru st cu s,
hr st an , 1 2 7
Ru st cu s, P re fe ct o fRo m e , 40
2
S al o n a, 3 2 5

i
i

Se cu n du l u s, m arty rdo m o f, I 1 9
2 8
S e e ru s, A e x an de r, 1 2 9
S e e ru s, S e p t i m i u s,
1 1 7 1 8,
1 2 7
8
S c k , care o f, 2 4 1 -2
S m e o n , so n o f
s, m ar
eo
h
a
p
ty rdo m o f, 2 7
S m o n M agu s, 4 7 , 2 04
S x t u s, m arty rdo m o f, 2 0 1

t o n s to

Q u adrat u s, Apo l o gy o f, 6 8
Q u i n tu s, apo stasy o f 3 1

i i

2
3

S te p he n ,

207

So

8
4

e s,

P p hy ry 1 7 02
P th i u 44
Pr by t rs 2 6 3- 7
P ri i ll a 5 7
f
m
a
Pri s
u
rt
rt r
y
pp
o

n i u s, 1 2 2 .

o n t an u s ,

2 1 0

o m

o u t h,

P o m po

c r

y, 3 ;
4

n o st c,

S at u rn i n u s, m arty rdo m o f, 1 1 9
28
Se at n g o f co n gre g at o n , 2 2 9

S atu rn i n u s,

Apo l o gy o f, 7 2
n
t
a
n
i
s
m
6
2
8
n
M
o
0
0
,
,
,
5
9
w r t n gs o f, 7 5 3
83
2 39
T he o p h l u s, 7 0

o
n
0
e
e
T hu n d r n g
,
39 4
g
T i ri date s, 3 1 3 1 4
hr st an s,
T rad e s fo rb dde n t o

ii

L i

22 1

C i i

T raj an , p o l cy

t o w ards

Ch

ri s

I n dex

2 26, 2 2

U n ct o n , 2 2 4,
U r an u s, 3 2 7

7,

en

er

n u s,

e ro r,

c o r,

V i rg i

Wi d

w s,

de r

o r

f,

2 41

27 1

1
2
V al t i
5
01
Val i a E m p
1 9
2
7
08
Bi h p f Ro m
Vi t
1 0

3 49

e,

s t u s, see

-8
6
7

x tu s

Z e n o a, 3 0 5
6
Z e p hy r n u s,
s ho
p

bi

2 1 0

n s, 2

Xy

Bi

f Ro m

e,

P R I NTE D

BY

LO N DON

M O W B R A Y 8c C o
A ND

O FO RD
X

LT D

AD V E

R T I S E M E NT

S E COND E D I TI ON , R E VI S E D

A DIC TIO NARY O F

E NG L I S H

C HU R C H

E d i te d b y t h e R e v J L

H I S T O RY
O l l ard . M A

R e cto r

o f B ai n to n

E x am i n i n g Chapl ai n to t h e A r chbi s hop

an d

Ho n

Ne w Co l l eg e , Ox fo r d ,

of

an d

Cl o t h ,

Yo r k,

at L aw

T hre e M a p s

an d

I n n , B ar ri s te r

C ro s s e , M A

L i n co l n

A p p e n di x

an

Wo rces te r

Can o n

A s s i s te d b y G o rd o

W i th

n e t.

I n th e n e w e d i ti o n s o m e ar ti cle s h a ve b e e n re w ri tte n an d o th e
re v i s e d a n d s u c h e v e n ts a s th e c re a ti o n o
n e w d i o ce s e s s i n c e th
f

D i c ti o n ary
w as rs t p u b l i s h e d a re re c o rd e d i n an A D e n d i
A n e w m ap s h o w s th e e /fe c t o f th e s e ch an g e s o n th e
i o ce s a
b o u n d ar i e s
,

a
d
O P US Th w a m t
at l ati
t a
ad m i abl
p d ti
b k It i
f thi l a
a
m a k abl
f A gli a
la h p a d a b
i ll t ati
k f wh
h Ti m
th E g l i h C h
d Ch
h m ay w ll b p
Th w k h a b
It i
b i g htl y w i tt th
w ll d
w
f l
f
ti
i t w i ll b
ly f
b t f
d
t
ad i g a
h av
b n f t at i
i g a
w ll
Th
di t
Th Ti m
ll t l i t f t i b t
It
th
l t f th i l ab u
di t
a
t
b
at l at d
w hi h
l d a ab l
tai
a m
h i f m at i a
p ct t d i
k Th a ti l a f t h m t p a t h
h aw
th y a
v i m m d at l y l g ; a d i p t f th fa t th at th
tai
al w ay
th y a
a g
i a v y m all p a
at d al
f m att
-E
ad abl
w
l
i
i
h
H
i
t
i
a
l
R
g

A M AG NU M
n ce rn e d i n t h e

co
re

re

e x ce

us r

o r

ee

s u re

o rs

co n

re

co n

ns

co n

n suc

o r

rs

o o

ic

en

n uo

o r co n

o r un

o n

o n

c es

o o

s e cu r n

e r.

n o r

es .

o r re e r e n ce
ee

ue

re

s so

u re

uc

o rs

u o rs .

sc

o n

no

ro u

o ne

u se

o ns

een

e x

o n

o n

en
s

uc

u rc

ro

co n

es

re s u

o ne

co u

o r

re

e r
re

o s

so n

o r

co n
re

re

ne

er

re

e.

M a ga
r

re t

o n

er

s or c

A
28

er

ev e

er

r us,

ce

re

M O WB RAY
d
L
d Ci c

S tre e t , O xfo r

on

CO
o n,

LT D

9H i g h S tre e t, O x fo rd

A DV E R T I S E M E NT S

Th e Art

B y th e R e v P
.

P r ofe s s o r

W o rs h i p

f P u b li c

D e ar m

e rc y

E ccl es i as ti cal A r t , K i n g
'

Cl o t h ,

Co l l eg e , L o n do n

F o u n de r

an d

Je l e c te d

f Ri c h ard M e u x B e n s o n

F i r s t S up e r i o r of the S o ci e ty
an d A r r a n g e d b
a n d th e R e v
.

Wi th M e m o i r

o hn

the

t h e l ate R e v G
.

Lo

n g r id

ge.

E van g e l i st, Co w l ey

R e m i n i s ce n ces by B I S H OP H A L L , B I S H O
D R D A R WE L L S T ONE , an d o th e rs
.

Cl o t h , 6 /

n e t.

S i x tee n th Th o u s an d

Hi s t o ry

v e ry m an s

B y th e R e v

e rcy

ft h e P ray e r B o
D e arm

P ap e r b o ard s ,

n et

; C l o t h b o ard s , 3 /

b o ard s , g i l t ,

F { y

-s i x th

m an s

ne

t ; Cl o t h

n et.

Tho u s an d

Hi s t o ry

e r,

Wi th Ni n e ty -nine I ll ustrations

f th e

En g lis

C h u rc h
B y th e R e v P
.

W ith
n e

A
28

C o n g re ve , M
M A

an d

G OR E ,

Ev e ry

n e t.

S e co n d I m p res s i o n

L e tte rs

e r,

e rcy

1 1 2

t ;

D e arm

e r,

I ll ustrations

Clo t h , 3 /

M OWB R AY

CO

M ai gare t S tre e t, O x fo rd C i i cu s , L o n d o n ,

n e

LT D
1

9H i g h S tre e t O x fo rd
,