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KARL R. POPPER
X HI M V
NHNG K TH CA N
2 Hegel v Marx
X HI M V
NHNG K TH CA N
KARL R. POPPER
Tp II
CAO TRO TIN TRI:
HEGEL, MARX
V HU QU
Volume II
THE HIGH TIDE OF
PROPHECY:
HEGEL, MARX
AND THE AFTERMATH
MC LC
TP II: CAO TRO TIN TRI
S NI LN CA TRIT HC TIN TRI . 1
Chng 11: Cc Ngun gc Aristotlian ca hc thuyt Hegel 1
Chng 12: Hegel v Ch ngha B lc Mi. 27
PHNG PHP CA MARX 81
Chng 13: Quyt nh lun x hi hc 81
Chng 14: Tnh c lp ca x hi hc. .. 89
Chng 15: Ch ngha lch s kinh t. 100
Chng 16: Cc giai cp. . 111
Chng 17: Cc H thng php l v h thng x hi. ... 118
LI TIN TRI CA MARX .. 135
Chng 18: S ra i ca ch ngha x hi. 135
Chng 19: Cch mng x hi. 146
Chng 20: Ch ngha t bn v s phn ca n . 166
Chng 21: Mt s nh gi 193
O C HC CA MARX ... 199
Chng 22: L thuyt o c ca ch ngha lch s .. 199
HU QU ... 212
Chng 23: X hi hc tri thc. ... 212
Chng 24: Trit hc tin tri v cuc ni lon chng li l tr.. 224
KT LUN . 259
Chng 25: Lch s c bt c ngha g? ... 259
CH THCH .. 281
PH LC (1961, 1965) . 369
CH MC V TN 397
CH MC NI DUNG ... 405
X HI M V NHNG K TH CA N
Tp II
CAO TRO TIN TRI
S NI LN CA TRIT HC SM TRUYN
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I
vi tc phm mun nht ca Plato, ta c th thy mt ting vng ca
cc din bin chnh tr ng thi Athens- ca s cng c nn dn ch.
C v ngay c Plato bt u nghi ng liu dng no ca nn dn ch
khng tn ti hay khng. Aristotle, ta thy cc ch bo l ng khng
cn nghi ng na. Mc d khng l bn ca dn ch, ng chp nhn n
nh khng th trnh khi, v ng sn sng tho hip vi k th.
Mt thin hng tho hip, c trn ln vi mt thin hng ch
trch cc bc tin bi ca ng v nhng ngi ng thi (v c bit l
Plato), l mt trong cc c im ni bt ca cc tc phm bch khoa ca
ng. N khng cho thy du vt vo ca xung t bi thm v kch ng
ci l ng c ca tc phm ca Plato. Thay cho cc lo sng thu hiu
su sc ca Plato, ta thy s h thng ho kh khan v tnh yu, c rt
nhiu nh vn xong ca thi sau chia s, gii quyt bt c vn no
bng a ra mt phn xt hp l v cn i mang cng bng cho mi
ngi; iu, ng thi, c ngha l, b qua im ct yu mt cch cng
phu v long trng. Xu hng gy bc tc ny c h thng ho trong
hc thuyt chit trung ni ting ca ng l mt trong cc ngun ca s
ph bnh thng rt gng go v thm ch ngu ngc ca ng i vi
Plato1. Mt th d v s thiu thu hiu ca Aristotle, trong trng hp
ny l s thu hiu lch s (ng cng l mt s gia), l s thc rng ng
ng vi s cng c dn ch r rng ng vo khi n b ch qun
ch Macedon hng hch thay th; mt s kin lch s xy ra tut khi s
ch ca ng. Nh b ng l, Aristotle l mt cn thn ca triu nh
Macedon, c Philip la chn lm thy gio ca Alexander i , c
v nh gi thp nhng ngi ny v k cc hoch ca h; c l ng
ngh ng bit h qu k. Aristotle ngi xung n ti vi nn Qun ch
m khng thc c v vic , l li bnh thch hp ca Gomperz.2
T duy ca Aristotle hon ton b t duy ca Plato chi phi. Hi min
cng, ng theo ngi thy v i ca mnh st mc tnh kh ng
cho php, khng ch cch nhn chnh tr ni chung m hu nh mi
ni. Nh th ng tn thnh, v h thng ho l thuyt t nhin ch
ngha ca Plato v n l3: Do t nhin mt s ngi l t do, v nhng
ngi khc l n l; v cho nhng ngi sau, tnh trng n l hp chng
khc g chnh ng Mt ngi do t nhin khng l ca ring mnh,
m l ca ngi khc, l mt n l do t nhin Ngi Hy Lp khng
thch gi mnh l n l, m hn ch t ny cho nhng ngi man r
N l hon ton khng c bt c nng lc l tr no, cn n b t do ch
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II
Mi nguy him chnh i vi trit hc ca chng ta, ngoi tnh
li bing v tnh m h, l tnh kinh vin [scholasticism],
cp ci m h c nh l n chnh xc...
F. P. RAMSEY
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ny, theo ngha m n ng tnh cui cng; trong khoa hc, chng ta
khng bao gi c l do tin rng chng ta t chn l. Ci m
chng ta thng gi l tri thc khoa hc, thng thng, khng l tri
thc theo ngha ny, m ng hn l thng tin v cc gi thuyt cnh
tranh khc nhau v cch trong chng ng vng i vi cc kim
nghim khc nhau; n l, dng ngn ng ca Plato v Aristotle, thng tin
v kin khoa hc mi nht v c kim chng tt nht. Cch nhn
ny, hn na, cn c ngha l chng ta khng c cc chng minh trong
khoa hc (tr, tt nhin, ton hc thun tu v logic). Trong cc khoa hc
thc nghim, m ch ring chng c th cung cp cho chng ta thng tin
v th gii trong chng ta sng, khng c cc chng minh, nu chng
ta hiu chng minh l mt l l xc lp mt ln v cho mi mi s ng
n ca mt l thuyt. (Ci c th xy ra, tuy vy, l s bc b cc l
thuyt khoa hc). Mt khc, ton hc thun tu v logic, cc mn cho
php cc chng minh, khng cho chng ta thng tin v th gii, m ch
pht trin cc cng c m t n. Nh th chng ta c th ni (nh ti
ch ra ni khc35): trong chng mc m cc khng nh khoa hc
ni n th gii kinh nghim, chng phi c th b bc b; v trong
chng mc chng khng th b bc b, chng khng ni n th gii
kinh nghim. Nhng, tuy chng minh khng ng vai tr no trong cc
khoa hc thc nghim, l l vn c ng vai tr36; tht vy, vai tr ca n
t nht cng quan trng nh vai tr ca quan st v th nghim.
Vai tr ca cc nh ngha trong khoa hc, c bit, l cng rt khc
vi ci Aristotle ngh n. Aristotle dy rng trong mt nh ngha
chng ta u tin ch ra bn cht c l bng t tn cho n v sau
chng ta m t n vi s gip ca cng thc nh ngha; ng nh
trong mt cu bnh thng ging nh Con ch con ny l nu, u tin
ta ch ra mt s vt nht nh bng cch ni con ch con ny, v sau
m t n nh l nu. V ng dy rng bng cch m t bn cht nh
vy cho t cn c nh ngha, chng ta cng xc nh hay gii thch
ngha37 ca t y. Cho nn, nh ngha c mt thi tr li cho hai cu hi
quan h rt mt thit vi nhau. Mt cu hi l N l g?, th d, con
ch con l g?; n hi bn cht no c biu th bi t c nh
ngha. Cu hi khc l N c ngha g?, th d, con ch con ngha l
g?; n hi v ngha ca ca mt t (c th l, ca t biu th bn
cht). Trong ng cnh hin ti, khng cn thit phn bit hai cu hi
ny; ng hn, quan trng thy chng c g chung; v ti mun, c
bit, lu n s thc rng c hai cu hi c nu ln bi t ng
bn tri v c tr li bi cng thc nh ngha ng bn phi trong
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IV
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kinh t. Theo cng cch, ch ngha chng tc thay Tinh thn ca Hegel
bng khi nim bn-sinh hc, vt cht no v Mu hay Chng tc.
Thay cho Tinh thn, Mu l bn cht t-pht trin; thay cho Tinh
thn, Mu l Quyn ti cao ca th gii, v ph trng mnh trn Sn
khu Lch s; v thay cho Tinh thn ca n, Mu ca mt dn tc quyt
nh vn mnh c bn ca n.
S ho th ca ch ngha Hegel thnh ch ngha chng tc hay ca
Tinh thn thnh Mu khng thay i lm xu hng chnh ca ch ngha
Hegel. Ch cho n mt v sinh hc v tin ho ch ngha hin i. Kt
qu l mt tn ngng duy vt v ng thi thn b v mt bn cht sinh
hc t-pht trin, gi li rt gn vi tn ngng v tin ho sng to (m
ngi xng l Bergson theo phi Hegel66), mt tn ngng m G. B.
Shaw mt ln m t c trng, mt cch tin tri hn l thm thu, nh
mt nim tin tun th iu kin hng u ca mi tn ngng tng
nm nhn loi trong tay: c th, n phi l .. mt siu-sinh hc [metabiology]. V qu thc, tn ngng mi ny v ch ngha chng tc cho
thy r rng mt thnh t-siu v mt thnh t-sinh hc, c th ni nh
vy, hay siu hnh hc thn b Hegelian v sinh hc duy vt Haeckelian.
Ngn y v s khc bit gia ch ngha ton tr hin i v ch ngha
Hegel. Bt chp tm quan trng ca n t quan im i chng, s khc
bit ny l khng quan trng chng mc lin quan n cc xu hng
chnh tr chnh ca chng. Song nu quay sang cc im tng t, th ta
c mt bc tranh khc. Gn nh tt c cc t tng quan trng hn ca
ch ngha ton tr hin i c k tha trc tip t Hegel, ngi thu
thp v bo tn ci A. Zimmern gi67 l kho tng v kh cho cc phong
tro c on. Mc d hu ht cc v kh khng phi do bn thn Hegel
rn ra, song c ng khm ph ra cc kho tng chin tranh c khc
nhau ca cuc ni lon mun thu chng li t do, khng nghi ng g n
lc ca ng ti khm ph ra v a chng vo tay cc mn hin i
ca ng. y l mt danh mc ngn ca mt vi t tng qu nht trong
s cc t tng ny. (Ti b qua ch ngha ton tr v ch ngha b lc
Platonic, c tho lun ri, cng nh l thuyt v ch nhn v n l).
(a) Ch ngha dn tc, dng t tng lch s ch ngha cho rng nh
nc l s hin thn ca Tinh thn (hay by gi, ca Mu) ca dn tc
(hay chng tc) lp quc; mt dn tc c chn (by gi, chng tc
c chn) c d nh cho vic thng tr th gii. (b) Nh nc nh
k th t nhin ca tt c cc nh nc khc phi khng nh s tn ti
ca n trong chin tranh. (c) Nh nc c min tr mi loi ngha v
o c; lch s, tc l, thnh cng lch s, l thm phn duy nht; s v
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miu ny c th c gi l s lu c ca l tr - rng n cc
nim say m hot ng cho chnh nng, nim say m l t khng
hon ton thch hp cho ci ti mun by t. ti mun ni y ch l
hot ng ca con ngi do cc li ch ring c bit, hay nu bn
mun, do cc nh t t t li - vi s hn ch l ton b nng lc ca
ch v c tnh c dnh ht cho vic t chng Cc nim say m,
cc mc tiu ring, v s tho mn cc dc vng ch k l .. cc ng c
hu hiu nht ca hnh ng. Sc mnh ca chng nm s thc rng
chng khng tn trng hn ch no m cng l v o c c th p t
ln chng; v rng cc xung lc t nhin ny c mt nh hng trc tip
ln cc ng bn ca h hn l k lut nhn to v chn ngt hng v
trt t v t-kim ch, lut v o c. K t Rousseau, trng phi
Lng mn v t duy nhn ra l con ngi khng hon ton duy l.
Nhng trong khi cc nh nhn o ch ngha bm vo tnh duy l nh
mt mc tiu, s ni lon chng t do li dng s thu hiu tm l ny
i vi tnh phi l ca con ngi cho cc mc tiu chnh tr. S cu khn
pht xt n bn tnh con ngi l s ku gi n cc nim say m ca
chng ta, n cc nhu cu b n tp th ch ngha, n con ngi khng
c bit. Chp nhn cc li va c trch ca Hegel, li cu khn ny
c th c gi l s lu c ca s ni lon chng l tnh. Song nh cao
ca s lu c ny c Hegel t ti s bp mo mang tnh bin chng
to bo nht ny ca ng. Trong khi ch kho mm vi ch ngha duy l,
trong khi ni sung v l tnh m hn bt k ai trc ng, ng kt thc
ch ngha phi l; mt s phong thn khng ch nim say m, m c v
lc tn bo: Chnh, Hegel vit, li ch tuyt i ca L tnh m ci
Ton th o c ny (tc Nh nc) phi tn ti; v y c s bin
minh v cng trng ca cc anh hng, nhng ngi sng lp ra Nh
nc- d cho h c th c c n u Nhng ngi nh vy c th
gii quyt cc li ch ln v thm ch thing ling khc khng thn
trngNhng mt tinh thn phi thng nh vy phi gim nt nhiu hoa
v ti; n phi nghin vn nhiu th l lng trn con ng ca n.
(f) Quan nim v con ngi khng phi nh sinh vt duy l m nh
mt th vt qu cm khng phi do s ni lon chng li l tnh sng ch
ra; n l mt l tng b lc ch ngha in hnh. Chng ta phi phn bit
gia l tng ny v Ngi Anh hng v mt s knh trng hp l hn
vi ch ngha anh hng. Ch ngha anh hng l, v lun lun s l, ng
ca tng; nhng s khm phc ca chng ta phi ph thuc, ti ngh, rt
nhiu vo s nh gi ca chng ta v s nghip m ngi anh hng
hin dng bn thn mnh. Yu t qu cm trong hnh ng k cp, ti
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Robert Falcon Scott, cng nhm thm him Nam cc ca ng hi sinh anh dng sau
khi n Nam cc nm 1912.
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trong thc tin (vi t cch mt nh nh nguyn thc tin) rng chng ta
l tinh thn v xc tht, v, mt cch kh thc t, rng xc tht l ci c
bn trong hai th ny. y l v sao ng quay sang chng Hegel, v v
sao ng ni rng Hegel t cc th ln u ui. Nhng mc d ng tha
nhn rng th gii vt cht v cc tnh tt yu ca n l c bn, ng
khng cm thy bt c tnh yu no cho vng quc ca tt yu, nh
ng gi mt x hi trong cnh l thuc vo cc nhu cu vt cht ca n.
ng yu mn th gii tinh thn, vng quc ca t do, v mt tinh thn
ca bn tnh con ngi, cng nhiu nh bt c nh nh nguyn C c
no; v cc tc phm ca ng thm ch c cc du vt v s cm ght
v khinh mit vt cht. Ci tip theo c th chng t rng din gii ny
v cc quan im ca Marx c th c vn bn ring ca ng xc nhn.
Trong mt on ca tp ba ca T bn7, Marx m t rt ng mt vt
cht ca i sng x hi, v c bit mt kinh t ca n, mt sn xut v
tiu th, nh mt s ko di ca s trao i cht ca con ngi, tc l s
trao i ca con ngi v vt cht vi t nhin. ng tuyn b r rng
quyn t do ca chng ta phi lun b gii hn bi cc tt yu ca s trao
i cht ny. Tt c ci c th t c theo hng lm cho chng ta t
do hn, ng ni, l tin hnh s trao i cht ny mt cch hp l, .. vi
tiu ph ti thiu v nng lng v di cc iu kin xng ng v thch
ng nht vi bn tnh con ngi. Th nhng n vn l vng quc ca
tt yu. Ch c ngoi v vt xa n th s pht trin ca cc ti nng
con ngi mi bt u ci bn thn n to thnh mt mc ch vng
quc ca t do tht s. Nhng iu ny c th hng thnh ch trn mnh
t chim gi bi vng quc ca s tt yu, ci vn l c s ca n ..
Ngay trc on ny, Marx ni: Vng quc ca t do tht s bt u
ch ni cng vic vt v cc nhc, do gian kh v cc mc ch bn
ngoi p buc, chm dt; n nh th, kh t nhin, nm ngoi lnh vc
sn xut vt cht tht s. V ng kt thc ton on bng rt ra mt kt
lun thc tin cho thy r rng rng mc tiu duy nht ca ng l i m
ng vo vng quc phi-vt cht ca t do cho tt c mi ngi
u nhau: Vic ct ngn ngy lao ng l iu kin tin quyt c bn.
Theo ti on ny khng li nghi ng g v ci ti gi l ch
ngha nh nguyn ca quan im thc tin ca Marx v i sng. Ging
Hegel ng ngh rng t do l mc tiu ca s pht trin lch s. Ging
Hegel ng ng nht vng quc ca t do vi vng quc ca i sng
tinh thn ca con ngi. Song ng tha nhn rng chng ta khng l cc
sinh vt tinh thn thun tu; chng ta khng hon ton t do, cng khng
c kh nng c bao gi t c t do hon ton, khng th v chng ta
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bnh nhn, v phi th nhn rng ng khng bit cc triu chng cng
chng bit g khc v chng bnh - ch bit rng n s bin thnh mt
chng bnh cht ngi. (Nu bnh nhn khng cht, th n vn cha l
chng bnh cht ngi; v nu mt cuc cch mng khng dn n ch
ngha x hi, th n vn cha l cch mng x hi). Chng ta cng c
th cho ph phn ny hnh thc n gin rng chng trong bc no ca
ba bc ca l l tin tri chng ta phi gi thit bt c ci g c suy ra
ch mt bc mun hn.
Nhng cn nhc ny chng t rng, khi phc ng n l l ca
Marx, chng ta phi tm mt m t c trng v cch mng x hi m m
t khng dn chiu n ch ngha x hi, v cho php cch mng x
hi ng vai tr ca mnh trong l l ny cng kho cng tt. Mt m t
c trng tho mn cc iu kin ny c th l th ny. Cch mng x hi
l mt n lc ca mt giai cp v sn phn ln thng nht ot quyn
lc chnh tr, c thc hin vi quyt tm vng chc khng chn bc
trc vic dng v lc nu v lc l cn thit t mc tiu ny, v
chng li bt c n lc no ca cc i th ca n nhm ly li nh
hng chnh tr. M t c trng ny khng b nhng kh khn va ni
n; n khp vi bc th ba ca l l chng mc bc th ba ny l
hp l, cn c vo mc hp l m bc ny r rng c; v, nh s
c chng t, n ph hp vi ch ngha Marx, v c bit vi xu hng
lch s ch ngha ca n trnh mt tuyn b dt khot10 v liu v lc
s thc s c dng hay khng trong giai on ny ca lch s.
Nhng cho d c coi nh mt tin tri lch s, s m t c trng
ny l bt nh v vic s dng v lc, quan trng nhn ra rng n
khng vy nhn t quan im o c hay php l. Xem xt t quan im
nh vy, m t c trng v cch mng x hi c kin ngh y r
rng bin n thnh mt cuc khi ngha bo lc; v vn liu v lc c
thc s c dng hay khng l t quan trng hn nh; v chng ta
gi s mt quyt tm vng chc khng chn bc trc vic dng v lc
nu v lc l cn thit t cc mc tiu ca phong tro. Ni rng quyt
tm khng chn bc trc vic dng v lc c tnh quyt nh cho c
tnh ca cch mng x hi nh mt khi ngha bo lc l ph hp khng
ch vi quan im o c hay php l, m cng ph hp vi quan im
bnh thng v vn . V nu mt ngi quyt tm dng v lc nhm
t cc mc tiu ca mnh, th chng ta c th ni rng anh ta hu nh
chp nhn mt thi hung d, bt lun v lc c thc s c dng hay
khng trong mt trng hp c bit. Phi tha nhn, khi th tin on
hnh ng tng lai ca con ngi ny, chng ta phi khng dt khot
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loi my mc, mt loi cho m rng n thun, v loi khc cho cng
sn xut). Nhng s sa i ny khng cn thit gy ra s nghi ng
ca cc nh Marxist; v ti s khng ph phn l thuyt mt cht no.
L thuyt c sa i v dn c d tha v v chu k thng mi c
th c phc ho nh sau. S tch t t bn c ngha rng nh t bn
tiu mt phn li nhun ca mnh cho my mc mi; iu ny cng c
th c trnh by bng ni rng ch mt phn ca li nhun thc ca
ng ta l hng ho cho tiu dng, trong khi mt phn ca n l my
mc. Cc my mc ny, ln lt, c th dnh hoc cho m rng ngnh
kinh doanh, cho cc nh my mi, v.v., hay chng c th c dnh cho
tng cng sn xut bng lm tng nng sut lao ng trong cc ngnh
kinh doanh hin tn. Loi my mc trc lm cho mt s tng cng n
vic lm l c th, loi sau c tc ng lm cho cc cng nhn tr nn
khng cn thit, lm cho cc cng nhn rnh rang nh qu trnh ny
c gi trong thi ca Marx. (Ngy nay n i khi c gi l tht
nghip v mt cng ngh). By gi c ch sn xut t bn ch ngha,
nh c l thuyt Marxist c sa i v chu k thng mi hnh
dung, hot ng i th nh th ny. Nu chng ta gi s, khi ng,
rng v l do no hay l do khc c mt s m rng ngnh, th mt
phn ca i qun d b cng nghip s c hp thu, p lc ln th
trng lao ng s c nh bt, v lng s cho thy mt chiu hng
tng ln. Mt thi k hng thnh bt u. Nhng thi im lng tng
ln, nhng ci thin c kh no nhng ci tng cng sn xut v
trc y khng sinh li v lng thp c th tr thnh sinh li (cho d
chi ph ca my mc nh vy s bt u tng ln). Nh th nhiu my
mc hn, thuc loi lm cho cc cng nhn rnh rang, s c sn xut.
Chng no cc my mc ny vn cn trong qu trnh c sn xut, s
hng thnh tip tc, hay tng ln. Nhng mt khi bn thn cc my mc
mi ny bt u sn xut, bc tranh thay i. (S thay i ny, theo
Marx, c lm ni bt bi mt s st gim t sut li nhun, s c
tho lun mc (V), di y). Cc cng nhn s b lm cho rnh rang,
tc l b buc phi i. Nhng s bin mt ca nhiu ngi tiu dng
phi dn n mt s suy sp ca th trng trong nc. Hu qu l, s
lng rt ln cc my mc trong cc nh my c m rng tr thnh v
dng (u tin l my mc t hiu qu), v iu ny dn n mt s tng
tht nghip thm na v mt s suy sp hn na ca th trng. S thc
rng nhiu my mc by gi nm v dng c ngha l phn ln t bn tr
thnh v gi tr, rng nhiu nh t bn khng th thc hin cc ngha v
ca h; nh th bc l mt khng hong ti chnh, dn n s tr tr hon
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ton v sn sinh ra t liu sn xut, v. v. Nhng trong khi suy thoi (hay,
nh Marx gi n, l khng hong) tin trin nh thng l, cc iu
kin chn mui cho mt s phc hi. Nhng iu kin ny ct s tng
trng ca i qun d b cng nghip v s sn sng ca cc cng nhn
chp nhn ng lng cht i nh hu qu. Vi ng lng rt thp,
sn xut tr nn c li ngay c vi gi c thp ca th trng b suy thoi;
v mt khi sn xut khi ng, nh t bn li bt u tch t, mua my
mc. V lng l rt thp, ng ta thy rng vn cha sinh li dng
my mc mi (c l c sng ch ra gia chng) thuc loi lm cho cc
cng nhn rnh rang. u tin ng hn ng ta s mua my mc vi k
hoch m rng sn xut. iu ny dn dn dn n mt s m rng cng
n vic lm v n mt s phc hi ca th trng trong nc. S hng
thnh li n mt ln na. Nh th chng ta quay tr li im khi u
ca mnh. Chu k khp kn, v qu trnh c th bt u mt ln na.
y l l thuyt Marxist c sa i v tht nghip v v chu k
thng mi. Nh ti ha, ti s khng i ph phn n. L thuyt v
cc chu k thng mi l mt vn rt kh, v chng ta chc chn vn
khng bit v n (t nht ti khng bit). Rt c th l l thuyt c
phc ho l khng y , v, c bit, l cc kha cnh nh s tn ti
ca mt h thng tin t da mt phn trn h thng tn dng, v cc tc
ng ca tch tr, khng c tnh n mt cch tho ng. Nhng du
cho iu ny c th ra sao, chu k thng mi l mt s thc khng th b
pht l mt cch d dng, v n l mt trong nhng cng trng v i
nht ca Marx nhn mnh tm quan trng ca n nh mt vn x
hi. Nhng mc d tt c iu ny phi c tha nhn, chng ta c th
ph phn li tin tri m Marx c gng t c s trn l thuyt ca ng
v chu k thng mi. Trc ht, ng khng nh rng cc cuc suy thoi
s tr nn ngy cng ti t, khng ch qui m ca chng m c cng
ca s au kh ca cc cng nhn. Nhng ng khng a ra l l no
h tr cho iu ny (ngoi, c l, l thuyt v s suy gim t sut li
nhun, s c tho lun ngay by gi). V nu chng ta ng ti cc din
tin thc t, th chng ta phi ni rng d cc tc ng, c bit l cc tc
ng tm l ca nn tht nghip trong cc nc m hin nay cc cng
nhn c bo him chng li n, c kinh khng n u, khng c nghi
ng g rng trong thi ca Marx s au kh ca cc cng nhn ti t
hn mt cch khng th so snh ni. Nhng y khng phi l im
chnh ca ti.
Trong thi ca Marx, chng c ai bao gi ngh v k thut ca s
can thip nh nc m by gi chng ta gi l chnh sch phn chu k-
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183
184
185
Nhm chng minh Marx hon ton sai ra sao trong cc li tin tri
ca ng, v ng thi ng c bin minh th no v s phn i si
ni ca ng chng li a ngc ca mt ch ngha t bn v cng nh
v i hi Nhng ngi lao ng, lin hip li! ca ng, ti s trch vi
on t mt chng ca T bn trong ng tho lun Qui lut Chung
ca Tch t T bn Ch ngha35. Trong cc nh my .. cc cng nhn
nam tr a s c dng cho n kit sc trc khi h n tui trng
thnh; sau , ch c mt phn rt nh cn hu ch cho cng nghip, cho
nn h lin tc b sa thi vi s lng ln. Sau h to thnh mt phn
ca dn c d tha l lng tng ln vi s tng trng cng nghip ..
Sc lao ng b t bn vt kit nhanh n mc cng nhn tui trung nin
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vn xy ra y nh c mt tng lp qu tc t sn v mt giai cp v sn
t sn cnh nhau vi giai cp t sn. M s thay i chiu ny pha
Engels t nht cng ni bt nh s tr mt khc ca ng m ti nhc
ti chng trc39; v ging vic , n c tin hnh di nh
hng ca mt din tin x hi ci ho ra l mt s gim ngho kh.
Marx trch ch ngha t bn v v sn ho tng lp trung lu v giai
cp t sn bc thp, v v lm cho cc cng nhn thnh nhng ngi
cng kh. Engels by gi li cho h thng n vn b trch mc- v
bin cc cng nhn thnh t sn. Nhng chi tit th v nht trong li phn
nn ca Engels l s cm phn khin ng gi ngi Anh, nhng ngi
c x thiu thn trng n vy chng minh cc li tin tri Marxist l
sai, l ngi t sn nht trong mi quc gia ny. Theo hc thuyt
Marxist, chng ta phi ch i t ngi t sn nht trong mi quc gia
mt s m rng ngho kh v cng thng giai cp n mt mc khng
th chu c; thay vo , chng ta nghe rng iu ngc li xy ra.
Nhng tc ca ngi Marxist tt bng dng ngc ln khi anh ta nghe v
tnh c hi khng th tin c ca mt h thng t bn ch ngha, h
thng bin nhng ngi v sn tt thnh cc t sn xu xa; hon ton
quyn mt l Marx chng t rng tnh c c ca h thng ct duy
nht trong s thc rng n hot ng theo cch ngc li. Nh th chng
ta c phn tch ca Lenin40 v cc nguyn nhn xu xa v cc kt qu
khng khip ca ch ngha quc Anh hin i: Cc nguyn nhn: (1)
nc ny bc lt ton th gii; (2) a v c quyn ca n trn th trng
th gii; (3) s c quyn thuc a ca n. Cc kt qu: (1) t sn ho
mt phn giai cp v sn Anh; (2) mt b phn ca giai cp v sn t
mnh b lnh o bi nhng ngi b giai cp t sn mua, hay ch t
c n tr tin. Sau khi gn mt ci tn Marxist p nh vy, t
sn ho giai cp v sn, cho mt khuynh hng ng cm ght ng
cm ght ch yu bi v n khng khp vi cch th gii phi din ra
ph hp vi Marx- Lenin hin nhin tin rng n tr thnh mt xu
hng Marxist. Bn thn Marx cho rng ton b th gii c th tri
qua giai on lch s tt yu v cng nghip ho t bn ch ngha cng
nhanh cng tt, v ng v th c thin v ng h41 cc din tin
quc ch ngha. Nhng Lenin i n mt kt lun rt khc. V s
chim hu thuc a ca nc Anh l l do v sao cng nhn trong nc
li i theo cc nh lnh o b giai cp t sn mua thay cho nhng
ngi Cng sn, ng thy ch thuc a mt ci c sng hay kp n
tim nng. Mt cuc cch mng s lm cho qui lut v s ngho kh
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CHNG 21: MT NH GI
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CHNG 21: MT NH GI
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O C HC CA MARX
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O C HC CA MARX
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202
O C HC CA MARX
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O C HC CA MARX
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O C HC CA MARX
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hi ca tri thc, hay ng hn, ca phng php khoa hc. N coi khoa
hc hay tri thc nh mt qu trnh trong tr c hay thc ca c nhn
nh khoa hc, hay c l nh sn phm ca mt qu trnh nh vy. Nu
c xem xt theo cch ny, ci m chng ta gi l tnh khch quan khoa
hc phi qu thc l hon ton khng th hiu c, hay thm ch khng
th c c; v khng ch trong cc khoa hc x hi v chnh tr, ni cc
li ch giai cp v cc ng lc n giu c th ng mt vai tr, m cng
ng th trong cc khoa hc t nhin. Bt c ai ngi c nim l m
v lch s cc khoa hc t nhin u bit v s kin quyt mnh lit c
trng cho nhiu trong cc cuc tranh ci ca n. Khng c mc thin v
chnh tr no c th nh hng n cc l thuyt chnh tr mnh hn tnh
thin v ca cc nh khoa hc t nhin no ng h cho a con tr
tu ca h. Nu gi nh tnh khch quan, nh l thuyt x hi hc tri thc
gi thit mt cch u tr, da trn tnh v t hay tnh khch quan ca c
nhn nh khoa hc, th chng ta phi cho t bit n. Thc vy, chng
mc no y chng ta phi hoi nghi trit hn x hi hc tri thc; v
khng nghi ng g rng tt c chng ta u chu au kh di h thng
cc thnh kin (hay cc thc h ton b, nu thch t ny hn) ca
chnh chng ta; rng tt c chng ta u coi nhiu th l hin nhin, rng
chng ta chp nhn chng mt cch khng ph phn v thm ch vi
nim tin u tr v cc k kiu ngo rng ph phn l hon ton khng cn
thit; v cc nh khoa hc khng l ngoi l i vi qui tc ny, cho d
h c th thanh lc mnh mt cch hi ht khi mt s thnh kin ca
h trong lnh vc c bit ca h. Song h khng thanh lc mnh bng
phn tch x hi hay bt c phng php tng t no; h khng th
leo ln mt bnh din cao hn m t h c th hiu, phn tch x hi,
v ct b nhng iu ng ngn thc h ca h. V bng lm cho u c
h khch quan hn, h c l khng th t ci m chng ta gi l tnh
khch quan khoa hc. Khng, ci chng ta thng hiu di t ny da
vo cc c s khc8. N l mt vn v phng php khoa hc. V, kh
ma mai, tnh khch quan gn cht ch vi kha cnh x hi ca phng
php khoa hc, vi s thc rng khoa hc v tnh khch quan khoa hc
khng (v khng th) l kt qu t cc c gng ca mt c nhn nh khoa
hc l khch quan, m t s hp tc thn thin-th ch ca nhiu
nh khoa hc Tnh khch quan khoa hc c th c m t nh tnh linch quan (inter-subjectivity) ca phng php khoa hc. Nhng kha
cnh x hi ny ca khoa hc hu nh b sao lng hon ton bi nhng
ngi t gi mnh l cc nh x hi hc tri thc.
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chng ta; lun chnh chng ta l ngi ra quyt nh. Nhng mt phn
tch v cc hu qu c th, v s nhn thc r chng trong ci chng ta
gi l s tng tng ca chng ta, to s khc bit gia mt quyt
nh m qung v mt quyt nh c a ra vi con mt m; v v ta
dng tr tng tng ca mnh rt t11, chng ta qu thng xuyn quyt
nh mt cch m qung. iu ny c bit vy nu ta b u c bi
mt trit hc sm truyn, mt trong cc cng c hng mnh nht v lm
in u chnh chng ta bng cc li ni dng cch din t ca Shaw.
Phn tch duy l v sng to v cc hu qu ca mt l thuyt o c
c s tng t nht nh trong phng php khoa hc. V c trong khoa
hc na, chng ta khng chp nhn mt l thuyt tru tng bi v t
thn n l thuyt phc; ng hn chng ta quyt nh chp nhn hay
loi b n sau khi chng ta iu tra nghin cu cc hu qu c th v
thc tin c th c kim nghim trc tip bng th nghim. Nhng c
s khc bit c bn. Trong trng hp ca mt l thuyt khoa hc, quyt
nh ca chng ta ph thuc vo cc kt qu th nghim. Nu chng xc
nhn l thuyt, chng ta c th chp nhn n cho n khi tm ra mt l
thuyt tt hn. Nu chng mu thun vi l thuyt, ta loi b n. Nhng
trong trng hp ca mt l thuyt o c, chng ta ch c th i chiu
cc hu qu ca n vi lng tm ca chng ta. V trong khi li phn
quyt ca cc th nghim khng ph thuc vo bn thn chng ta, li
phn quyt ca lng tm chng ta ph thuc v bn thn chng ta.
Ti hi vng ti lm r theo ngha no s phn tch cc hu qu c
th nh hng n quyt nh ca chng ta m khng xc nh n. V
trong trnh by cc hu qu ca hai la chn kh d m chng ta phi
quyt nh, ch ngha duy l v ch ngha phi duy l, ti cnh bo bn c
l ti s thin v. Cho n y, khi trnh by hai la chn kh d ca
quyt nh o c trc mt chng ta theo nhiu ngha, n l quyt
nh c bn nht trong lnh vc o c ti c gng khng thin v,
mc d ti khng che giu cm tnh ca ti. Nhng by gi ti sp trnh
by nhng cn nhc v cc hu qu ca hai la chn kh d m chng t
ra vi ti l ch ng nht, v chng nh hng n ti trong loi b
ch ngha phi duy l v chp nhn nim tin vo l tr.
u tin hy kho st cc hu qu ca ch ngha phi duy l. Nh phi
duy l khng khng rng cc xc cm v ham m hn l l tr l cc ng
lc chnh ca hnh ng con ngi. i vi cu tr li ca nh duy l
rng, tuy iu ny c th nh vy, phi lm ci chng ta c th cu
cha n, v phi c lm cho l tr ng vai tr cng ln cng tt, nh phi
duy l s ci li (nu anh ta h c cho vic tho lun) rng thi ny l
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phi duy l theo cch khc. ng ta c th cho rng nh phi duy l ngi t
ho v s knh trng cc b n su sc ca th gii v s hiu bit ca h
v chng (tri vi nh khoa hc ch co b mt ca n) thc ra khng
knh trng cng chng hiu cc b n, m t mn vi s duy l ho r tin.
V thn thoi l ci g nu khng phi l mt n lc duy l ho ci phi
duy l? V ai chng t s tn knh ln hn i vi b n, nh khoa hc
hin dng bn thn mnh cho khm ph n tng bc mt, lun sn sng
phc tng s tht, v lun thc rng ngay c thnh qu to bo nht ca
mnh chng bao gi nhiu hn mt bn p cho nhng ngi n sau
mnh, hay nh thn b khi phi duy tr bt c th g bi v ng ta khng
cn s bt c kim nghim no? Nhng bt chp quyn t do ng ng
ny, cc nh thn b lp li cng th mt cch bt tn. (N lun l huyn
thoi v thin ng b lc mt, s t chi cung lon mang cy
thnh gi ca nn vn minh29). Tt c cc nh thn b, nh F. Kafka, nh
th thn b, vit30 trong tuyt vng, bt u ni .. rng ci khng th hiu
ni l khng th hiu ni, v chng ta bit iu t trc. V nh
phi duy l khng ch th duy l ho ci khng th duy l ho, m ng ta
cng c ngh hon ton lm. V n l c nhn c bit, duy nht v c
th, ci khng th tip cn c bng cc phng php duy l, v khng
phi l ci chung [universal] tru tng. Khoa hc c th m t cc loi
chung ca phong cnh, th d, hay ca con ngi, nhng n khng bao
gi vt cn mt phong cnh ring bit c nht, hay mt ngi ngi
ring bit c nht. Ci chung, ci in hnh, khng ch l lnh vc ca l
tr, m n cng ch yu l sn phm ca l tr, chng mc n l sn
phm ca s tru tng ho khoa hc. Nhng c nhn n nht v cc
hnh ng v kinh nghim n nht v quan h vi cc c nhn khc ca
anh ta chng bao gi c th c duy l ho hon ton31. V c v l
chnh vng quc phi duy l ny v tnh cht c nhn n nht l ci lm
cho cc quan h con ngi l quan trng. Hu ht ngi dn s cm thy,
th d, rng ci lm cho cuc i h ng sng s b ph hu phn ln
nu bn thn h v i h, khng n nht theo bt c ngha no m
trong tt c v mi kha cnh l in hnh ca mt giai cp, cho h lp
li chnh xc tt c cc hnh ng v kinh nghim ca tt c nhng ngi
khc thuc giai cp ny. Chnh tnh n nht ca cc kinh nghim ca
chng ta, theo ngha ny, l ci lm cho i chng ta ng sng, kinh
nghim n nht v mt phong cnh, v mt hong hn, v s din cm
ca mt khun mt ngi. Song k t thi Plato, l c trng ca mi
ch ngha thn b rng n chuyn cm gic ny v tnh phi duy l ca c
nhn n nht, v ca cc quan h n nht ca chng ta vi cc c nhn,
246
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thng thi ny, nh ang thi thng ngy nay. V ti hon ton tho
mn rng con ng sai c chn; rng cc phng php c chp
nhn phi lm tng bt tn nhng iu nc ci v ng ngn ny; v rng
thm ch s tiu hu hon ton nhng thnh tu k cc ny c l cng
khng tai hi nh khoa hc h cu ny vi s mu m ng ght ca n.
Th d th hai v ch ngha phi duy l ng i m ti c nh
cp y l A Study of History [Mt Nghin cu Lch s] ca A. J.
Toynbee. Ti mun lm r l ti coi cun sch ny l mt cun sch xut
sc v l th nht, v ti chn n bi v tnh hn hn ca n so vi tt
c cc cng trnh phi duy l v lch s ch ngha ng thi khc m ti
bit. Ti khng c trnh nh gi cc cng trng ca Toynbee
vi t cch mt nh s hc. Nhng tri vi cc nh trit hc lch s ch
ngha v phi duy l ng thi khc, ng c nhiu ci ni nhng ci
rt kch thch v thch thc; ti ch t thy ng nh vy, v ti hm n
ng nhiu gi c gi tr. Ti khng buc ti ng v ch ngha phi duy l
trong lnh vc nghin cu lch s ring ca ng. V ni m cu hi l v
so snh chng c ng h hay chng li mt din gii lch s no y,
ng khng lng l dng phng php lp lun v c bn l duy l. Ti
ngh n, th d, nghin cu so snh ca ng v tnh xc thc ca cc
Sch Phc m vi t cch cc t liu lch s, vi cc kt qu ph nh42;
mc d ti khng c kh nng nh gi bng chng ca ng, tnh duy l
ca phng php l khng th nghi ng, v iu ny cng ng ngng
m hn v s ng cm chung ca Toynbee vi tnh C c chnh thng
c th lm cho ng kh bo v mt quan im m, ni t nht, l
khng chnh thng43. Ti cng ng vi nhiu xu hng chnh tr c
trnh by trong cng trnh ca ng, v dt khot nht l s tn cng ca
ng ln ch ngha dn tc hin i, v cc xu hng b lc ch ngha v
c, tc l cc xu hng phn ng v vn ho, gn lin vi n.
L do v sao, bt chp tt c iu ny, ti li la chn tc phm lch s
ch ngha s ca Toynbee ra nhm buc ti n vi tnh phi duy l, l
ch khi chng ta thy cc nh hng ca thuc c ny trong mt cng
trnh c gi tr nh vy th chng ta mi nh gi y tnh nguy him
ca n.
Ci ti phi m t nh ch ngha phi duy l ca Toynbee t biu l
theo nhng cch khc nhau. Mt trong s chng l ng to ra mt mt
ph bin v nguy him ca thi i chng ta. ti mun ni n mt
khng coi l l mt cch nghim tc, v gi tr danh ngha ca n, ch t
mt cch ngp ngng, m nhn thy chng khng g ngoi mt cch
trong cc ng c v xu hng phi duy l su hn t bc l. N l thi
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255
256
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258
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KT LUN
260
KT LUN
261
262
KT LUN
nhim v lin kt vi nhau. Chng gip thng nht khoa hc, v chng
gip gii thch cng nh tin on cc s kin. V gii thch v tin on,
c l ti c th trch t mt trong cc tc phm ca chnh ti7: cho
mt gii thch nhn qu ca mt s kin no c ngha l suy din ra
mt mnh (s c gi l mt d on) m t s kin , dng cc
qui lut ph qut cng vi cc cu n nht hay c th no m ta c
th gi l cc iu kin ban u nh cc tin ca suy din. Th d, c
th ni rng chng ta cho mt gii thch nhn qu v s t ca mt
si dy no nu ta thy rng si dy ny ch c kh nng chu mt
pound, v mt vt nng hai pound c t ln n. Nu phn tch gii
thch nhn qu ny, th chng ta thy rng n dnh n hai yu t. (1) Ta
gi s cc gi thuyt no v tnh cht ca cc qui lut ph qut ca t
nhin; trong trng hp ny, c l l: Mi khi mt si dy no chu
mt sc cng vt qu mt sc cng cc i no c trng cho si
dy c bit , th n s t. (2) Chng ta gi s cc mnh c th (cc
iu kin ban u) gn vi s kin c bit c ni n; trong trng
hp ny, ta c th c hai mnh : i vi si dy ny, sc cng c
trng cc i ti n nht thit t l bng vi trng lng mt pound
v Trng lng t ln si dy ny l hai pound. Nh th ta c hai loi
mnh khc nhau, cng nhau chng mang li mt gii thch nhn qu
y , l: (1) cc mnh ph qut v c tnh ca cc qui lut t
nhin, v (2) cc mnh c th gn vi trng hp c bit c ni
n, cc iu kin ban u. By gi t cc qui lut ph qut (1), vi s
gip ca cc iu kin ban u (2) ta c th suy din ra mnh c
th sau (3): Si dy ny s t. Kt lun (3) ny cng c th c gi
l mt d on c th. Cc iu kin ban u (hay chnh xc hn, tnh
hnh c chng m t) thng c gi l nguyn nhn ca s kin
c ni n, v d on (hay ng hn, s kin do d on m t) l
kt qu: th d, ta ni rng t mt vt nng hai pound ln mt si dy
ch c kh nng chu mt pound l nguyn nhn ca s t ca si dy.
T phn tch ny v gii thch nhn qu, chng ta c th thy nhiu
th. Mt l chng ta khng bao gi c th ni v nguyn nhn v kt qu
mt cch tuyt i, m rng mt s kin l mt nguyn nhn ca mt s
kin khc, kt qu ca n, tng i vi qui lut ph qut no . Tuy
vy, cc qui lut ph qut ny rt thng l ht sc tm thng (nh
trong trng hp ca chng ta) m thng thng chng ta coi l d
nhin, thay cho s dng chng mt cch c thc. im th hai l, vic
dng mt l thuyt cho mc ch tin on s kin c th no li ng
l mt kha cnh khc ca vic s dng n cho mc ch gii thch mt
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KT LUN
Rt him khi chng ta thy mnh phi lo lng v cc qui lut ph qut
dnh lu n mt gii thch nh vy. N xy ra ch khi ta quan st mt
loi s kin mi hay l no , nh mt phn ng ho hc bt ng. Nu
mt s kin nh vy gy ra vic xy dng v kim nghim cc gi thuyt
mi, th n l l th ch yu t quan im ca khoa hc khi qut no .
Song thng l, nu quan tm n cc s kin c th v s gii thch
chng, chng ta coi tt c cc qui lut ph qut m ta cn l d nhin.
M cc khoa hc c mi quan tm ny n cc s kin c th v n
s gii thch chng c th c gi l cc khoa hc lch s phn bit
vi cc khoa hc khi qut.
Cch nhn ny v lch s lm r v sao c nhiu n vy cc nh
nghin cu lch s v phng php ca n li c nht nh rng chnh s
kin c bit l ci h quan tm, v khng phi bt c ci c gi l qui
lut lch s ph qut no. V t quan im ca chng ta, khng th c qui
lut lch s no. Khi qut ho n gin thuc v mt phm vi quan tm
khc, c phn bit rch ri khi mi quan tm n cc s kin c th
v s gii thch nhn qu ca chng m vic ny l vic ca lch s.
Nhng ngi quan tm n qui lut phi quay sang cc khoa hc khi
qut (th d, x hi hc). Cch nhn ca chng ta cng lm r v sao lch
s li rt hay c m t nh cc s kin ca qu kh nh chng thc
s xy ra. M t ny lm ni bt kh tt mi quan tm c th ca
nh nghin cu lch s, tri vi mt nh nghin cu khoa hc khi qut,
cho d chng ta s phi nu ra cc phn i nht nh chng li n. V
cch nhn ca chng ta gii thch v sao, trong s hc, chng ta li i
mt vi cc vn v ch v tn ca n nhiu hn nhiu so vi cc
khoa hc khi qut. V cc l thuyt hay cc qui lut ph qut ca khoa
hc khi qut a vo s thng nht cng nh mt quan im; i vi
mi khoa hc khi qut chng to ra cc vn ca n, v cc trung tm
ca s ch cng nh ca nghin cu, ca kt cu logic, v ca s trnh
by ca n. Nhng trong lch s hc chng ta khng c cc l thuyt
thng nht nh vy; hay, ng hn, hng lot cc qui lut ph qut tm
thng chng ta dng c coi l d nhin; chng hu nh l khng ng
quan tm, v hon ton khng c kh nng mang li trt t cho ch .
Nu chng ta, th d, gii thch s phn chia Ba Lan ln th nht nm
1772 bng ch ra rng n c l khng th khng c sc mnh kt hp ca
Nga, Ph, v o, th chng ta ngm s dng qui lut ph qut tm
thng no nh: Nu hai qun i c trang b v ch huy gn
ngang nhau, mt c tnh hn hn v qun s, th qun i kia chng bao
gi thng. (D y chng ta ni chng bao gi hay hu nh khng
265
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270
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Jesus au kh. Bi th Ngi khng chinh phc. Ngi khng chin thng.
Ngi khng c thnh cng .. Ngi chng ginh c g tr .. s ng inh
trn thnh gi. C th ni cng vy v quan h ca Ngi vi nhn dn v
cc mn ca Ngi. nh ca ti khi trch dn Barth l chng t
rng khng ch t quan im duy l hay nhn o ca ti m s sng
bi thnh cng lch s t ra khng tng hp vi tinh thn o C c.
Ci c ngha vi o C c khng phi l cc chin cng lch s ca
nhng k xm chim La M m (dng li ni ca Kierkegaard14) l ci
vi ng dn cng hin cho th gii. Th m mi din gii hu thn v
lch s c thy s biu l ch ca Cha trong lch s nh n c ghi
chp, tc l trong lch s v quyn lc, v trong thnh cng lch s.
i vi s tn cng ny ln hc thuyt v s thin khi ca Cha
trong lch s, c l c tr li rng n l thnh cng, thnh cng ca
Ngi sau ci cht ca Ngi, theo cuc sng khng thnh cng ca
Christ trn tri t cui cng c thin khi cho nhn loi nh thng
li tinh thn v i nht; rng n thnh cng, cc thnh qu ca gio
hun ca Ngi chng minh v bin h cho n, v theo li tin tri K
cui cng s l k u tin v k u tin l k cui cng c xc
minh. Ni cch khc, chnh thnh cng ca Gio hi C c l ci qua
ch ca Cha hin l. Song y l cch bin h nguy him nht. Ng
ca n rng thnh cng th tc ca Gio hi l mt l l ng h o C
c r rng tit l s thiu nim tin. Nhng ngi C c ban u
khng h c nim c v th tc thuc loi ny. (H tin rng lng tm
phi phn x quyn lc15, ch khng phi ngc li). Nhng ai cho rng
lch s v thnh cng ca gio hun C c tit l ch ca Cha phi
hi chnh mnh liu thnh cng ny c tht l mt thnh cng ca tinh
thn C c hay khng; v liu tinh thn ny khng chin thng thi
k khi Gio hi b ngc i, hn l thi k khi Gio hi chin thng.
Gio hi no kt hp cht ch tinh thn ny thun khit hn, Gio hi
ca nhng ngi t v o, hay Gio hi chin thng ca To d gio?
Dng nh c nhiu ngi tha nhn iu ny lm, khng khng nh
h tha nhn rng thng ip ca o C c l cho nhng k nhu m,
nhng vn tin rng thng ip ny l ca ch ngha lch s. Mt i din
li lc ca quan im ny l J. Macmurray, trong The Clue to History
[Manh mi Lch s], ng thy bn cht ca gio hun C c trong tin
tri lch s, v ng coi nh sng lp ca n l ngi khm ph ra mt qui
lut bin chng v bn tnh con ngi. Macmurray cho rng16, theo qui
lut ny, lch s chnh tr phi sinh ra mt cch khng th trnh khi
cng ng x hi ch ngha th gii. Qui lut c bn v bn tnh con
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sinh c th c ngha nhiu ng nh, hay thm ch nhiu hn, khi hi sinh
n danh. Gio dc o c ca chng ta phi i theo cch ngi trc
lm. Chng ta phi c dy lm cng vic ca mnh; hi sinh v
cng vic ny, v khng phi v li khen hay trnh khin trch. (S
thc l tt c chng ta u cn s khch l, hi vng, li khen, v thm ch
khin trch no , li l vn hon ton khc). Chng ta phi tm thy
s bin minh ca mnh trong cng vic, trong ci bn thn chng ta lm,
ch khng phi trong mt ngha lch s h cu.
Lch s khng c ngha no, ti dm chc vy. Nhng lun im
ny khng ng rng tt c nhng ci chng ta c th lm v n l kinh
hi nhn lch s chnh tr quyn lc, hay rng chng ta phi ng nhn n
nh mt chuyn l bch tn c. Chng ta c th din gii n, vi con mt
hng vo cc vn chnh tr quyn lc m chng ta chn li gii ca
chng th trong thi i chng ta. Chng ta c th din gii lch s
quyn lc chnh tr t quan im ca cuc u tranh ca chng ta v x
hi m, v mt nguyn tc ca l tr, v cng l, t do, bnh ng, v v
kim sot ti phm quc t. Mc d lch s khng c cc mc ch,
chng ta c th p t cc mc ch ny ca chng ta ln n; v du cho
lch s khng c ngha no, chng ta c th cho n mt ngha.
Ta li gp y vn v t nhin v quy c23. C t nhin ln lch
s khng th bo chng ta ci chng ta nn lm. Cc s thc, bt lun l
cc s kin v t nhin hay lch s, khng th a ra quyt nh cho
chng ta, chng khng th xc nh cc mc ch m chng ta s chn.
Chnh chng ta l ngi a nh v ngha vo t nhin v lch s.
Con ngi l khng ngang nhau; nhng chng ta c th quyt nh
u tranh v cc quyn bnh ng. Cc th ch ca con ngi nh nh
nc l khng duy l, nhng chng ta c th quyt nh chin u lm
cho chng duy l hn. Bn thn chng ta v ngn ng thng thng ca
chng ta, nhn tng qut, mang tnh xc cm hn l duy l; nhng chng
ta c th th tr nn duy l hn mt cht, v chng ta c th rn luyn
mnh dng ngn ng ca chng ta nh mt cng c khng phi ca
t-biu l (nh cc nh gio dc lng mn ca chng ta ni) m ca
truyn thng duy l24. Bn thn lch s - ti mun ni n lch s chnh
tr, tt nhin, khng phi lch s khng tn ti v s pht trin ca nhn
loi khng c mc ch no cng chng c ngha no, song chng ta
c th quyt nh cho n c hai. Ta c th bin n thnh cuc chin u
ca chng ta v x hi m v chng li cc k th ca n (nhng k, khi
ni kn o, lun lun cam oan cc tnh cm nhn o ca h, ph
hp vi li khuyn ca Pareto); v chng ta c th din gii n mt cch
279
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1
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phng tin khc vi s chim hu tha k rung t. Xem c Republic, 495e v 590c.
Song nu nh li truyn thuyt rng Socrates l mt th xy; v tiu s ca Xenophon
(Mem. II, 7); v vic Antisthenes ca ngi cng vic nng nhc; v thi ca cc
Cynic; th c v khng chc l Socrates ng vi nh kin qu tc rng kim tin
phi l hn h. (Oxford English Dictionary ngh din t banausic nh my mc
thun tu, ph hp vi mt th my, v trch Grote, Eth. Fragm., vi, 227 = Aristotle,
2nd ed., 1880, p. 545; song din t ny l qu hp, v on ca Grote khng bin h cho
din gii ny, iu c th lc u da vo mt s hiu lm ca Plutarch. L th l trong
v Midsummer Nights Dream ca Shakespeare t my mc thun tu c dng
chnh xc theo ngha v nhng ngi tm thng; v vic s dng ny c th gn k
vi mt on v Archimedes trong bn dch ca North ca cun Life of Marcellus ).
Trong Mind, vol. 47, c mt tho lun l th gia A. E. Taylor v F. M. Cornford,
Taylor (pp. 197 ff.) bo v quan im ca mnh rng Plato, khi ni v thn mt
on no ca Timaeus, c th ngh n mt nng dn lm rung ngi phc
v bng lao ng th xc; mt quan im b Cornford (pp. 329 ff.) ph phn, ti ngh
rt thuyt phc. Thi ca Plato vi mi cng vic tm thng, v c bit vic chn
tay, c lin quan n vn ny; v khi (p. 198, ct.) Taylor dng l l rng Plato so snh
cc thn ca ng vi nhng ngi chn cu hay ch-chn cu ph trch mt n cu
(Laws, 901e, 907a), th ta c th ch ra rng cc hot ng ca dn du c v dn i sn
c Plato coi kh nht qun l cao qu thm ch siu phm; nhng nng dn lm
rung ru r nh l tm thng v sa o. So ct. 32 ch. 4, v vn bn.
5
Hai on tip theo l t Politics (1337b, 4 v 5).
6
Bn in 1939 ca T in b ti Pocket Oxford Dictionary vn ni: t do .. (v gio
dc) thch hp cho mt ngi qu phi, v vn hc chung hn l loi k thut. iu ny
cho thy rt r sc mnh dai dng ca nh hng ca Aristotle.
Ti tha nhn l c vn nghim trng v gio dc ngh nghip, v tnh hp hi.
Song ti khng tin mt s gio dc vn hc l thuc cu cha; v n c th to ra loi
k d ring v tnh hp hi, tnh hm mnh k l. V ngy nay khng ai c coi l c
gio dc nu khng quan tm n khoa hc. S bin h thng thng, rng mt s quan
tm n in hc hay a tng hc khng cn thit lm sng t hn s quan tm n
cng vic con ngi, ch l mt s thiu hiu bit hon ton v cng vic con ngi.
V khoa hc khng ch l mt su tp cc s kin v in, v.v.; n l mt trong cc hot
ng tinh thn quan trng nht ca thi i chng ta. Bt c ai khng c t mt s hiu
bit v hot ng ny t ct mnh khi s pht trin ng ch nht trong lch s v
cng vic con ngi. Ci gi l cc Khoa Vn ca chng ta, da vo l thuyt rng bng
cc phng tin gio dc vn hc v lch s chng a sinh vin vo i sng tinh thn
con ngi, v th tr nn li thi dng hin ti ca chng. Khng th c lch s v
con ngi no loi tr mt lch s v s vt ln v cc thnh tu tr tu ca con ngi;
v khng th c lch s t tng no loi tr lch s cc t tng khoa hc. Song gio
dc vn hc thm ch c mt kha cnh h trng hn. Khng ch n tht bi gio dc
sinh vin, ngi thng tr thnh thy gio, mt s hiu bit v hot ng tinh thn ln
nht ca chnh thi i mnh, m n cng thng tht bi gio dc anh ta s trung thc
tr tu. Ch nu sinh vin tri nghim vic d sai lm n th no, v kh ra sao c
c thm ch s tin b nh trong lnh vc tri thc, ch khi anh ta c c mt cm
nhn v cc tiu chun trung thc tr tu, s tn trng chn l, v s coi thng quyn
uy v tnh t ph. Song ngy nay chng g cn thit hn s truyn b cc c hnh tr
tu khim tn ny. Nng lc tr tu, T. H. Huxley vit trong A Liberal Education, ci
284
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Plato v thuyt i xung ny bng s tha ho, s dng l thuyt Orphic v Pythagorean
v s lun hi ca linh hn. Tt c iu ny (v s thc quan trng l cc thuyt tin
ho a ra cc dng thp hn trc cc dng cao hn l mt thi thng t nht t
thi Empedocles) phi nh khi ta nghe t Aristotle rng Speusippus, cng vi cc nh
Pythagorean no , tin vo thuyt tin ho theo k gii v siu phm nht, ng
hng u, n sau cng theo th t thi gian pht trin. Aristotle ni (Met., 1072b30)
v nhng ngi, cng vi cc Pythagorean v Speusippus, cho rng ci p v ci thin
ti cao khng hin hu lc ban u. T on ny c l ta c th kt lun rng cc nh
Pythagorean no dng huyn thoi lun hi (c l do nh hng ca Xenophanes)
nh phng tin ca mt l thuyt i ln. Phng on ny c Aristotle ng h, ng
ni (Met., 1091a34): Cc nh thn thoi hc c v ng vi mt s nh t tng thi
nay (mt m ch, ti tin, n Speusippus) .. nhng ngi ni rng ci thin cng nh
ci p xut hin trong t nhin ch sau khi t nhin c tin b no . Cng c v
c nh Speusippus dy rng th gii trong tin trnh pht trin ca n s tr thnh ci
Mt Parmenidian ci ton b c t chc v hon ton hi ho. (So Met., 1092a14,
ni mt nh t tng cho rng ci hon ho hn lun n t ci khng hon ho, c
trch nh ni rng bn thn ci Mt vn cha tn ti; so c Met., 1091a11). Bn thn
Aristotle by t mt cch nht qun, cc ch c trch, s phn i ca ng i vi
cc thuyt i ln ny. L l ca ng rng chnh mt ngi hon chnh to ra con ngi,
v rng ci ht cha y l khng c trc con ngi. Cn c vo thi ny, Zeller
kh c th ng khi gn cho Aristotle ci trn thc t l l thuyt Speusippian. (So
Zeller, Aristotle, etc., vol. II, 28 f. Mt din gii tng t c H. F. Osborn, From the
Greeks to Darwin, 1908, pp. 48-56, xut). C th ta phi chp nhn din gii ca
Gomperz, theo Aristotle dy v tnh bt dit v bt bin ca loi ngi v t nht ca
cc ng vt bc cao hn. Nh th cc trt t hnh thi hc ca ng phi c din gii
khng theo th t thi gian cng khng theo ph h. (So Greek Thinkers, cun 6, ch.
11, 10, v c bit ch. 13, 6 f., v cc ct. cc trang ny). Nhng, tt nhin, vn cn
kh nng l Aristotle khng nht qun v im ny, nh ng th nhiu im
khc, v cc l l ca ng chng li Speusippus l do ng mun khng nh s c lp
ca mnh. Xem c ct. 6 (7) ch. 3, v cc ct. 2 v 4 ch. 4.
12
ng lc u tin ca Aristotle, tc l, Thng , l c trc trong thi gian (tuy
ngi l vnh cu) v c thuc tnh thin. V chng c lin quan n s ng nht mc
ch hnh thc v cui cng c nhc ti on vn ny, xem ct. 15 ch. ny.
13
V mc ch lun sinh hc ca Plato xem Timaeus, 73a-76e. Gomperz bnh lun
ng (Greek Thinkers, cun 5, ch. 19, 7; bn ting c, vol. II, 495 f.) rng mc ch
lun ca Plato ch c th hiu c nu ta nh li rng cc ng vt l nhng ngi b
thoi ho, v rng s cu to ca chng v th biu l cc mc ch m ban u ch l
cc mc ch ca con ngi.
14
V phin bn Plato ca l thuyt v cc v tr t nhin, xem Timaeus, 60b-63a, v
c bit 63b f. Aristotle chp nhn l thuyt vi cc thay i nh v ging Plato gii
thch tnh nh v nng ca thn th bng hng ln v xung ca chuyn ng t
nhin n cc v tr t nhin; so th d Physics, 192b13; c Metaphysics, 1065b10.
15
Aristotle khng lun lun hon ton r rng v nht qun trong cc tuyn b ca
ng v vn ny. V th ng vit Metaphysics (1044a35): Mc ch hnh thc (ca
con ngi) l g? Bn cht ca anh ta. Mc tiu cui cng? Mc ch ca anh ta. Nhng
c l hai th ny l nh nhau. cc phn khc ca cng tc phm ng c v chc chn
hn v s ng nht gia Hnh thc v mc ch ca s thay i hay chuyn ng. V
286
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288
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chng dnh cho phn tch Anal. Post., Cun II ca Aristotle. cun th hai, Aristotle
quay sang coi chng minh nh cng c nh i ti nh ngha. (Ross, Aristotle, 2nd
ed., p. 49). iu ny c th i snh vi: nh ngha khng bao gi c th c chng
minh, v n ch tuyn b bn cht ca ch th ..; cn Chng minh gi s bn cht l
bit .. (Grote, Aristotle, 2nd ed., 241; xem c 240/241. So c cui ca ct. 29 di y).
28
So Metaphysics ca Aristotle, 1031b7 v 1031b20. Xem c 996b20: Chng ta c
tri thc v mt s vt nu chng ta bit bn cht ca n.
29
Mt nh ngha l mt tuyn b m t bn cht ca mt s vt (Aristotle, Topics, I,
5, 101b36; VII, 3, 153a, 153a15, etc. Xem c Met., 1042a17) nh ngha .. tit l bn
tnh c bn. ( Anal. Post., II, 3., 91a1). nh ngha l .. mt tuyn b v bn tnh ca
s vt (93b28). Ch cc s vt c bn cht m cng thc ca chng l cc nh
ngha. (Met., 1030a5 f.) - Bn cht, m cng thc ca n l mt nh ngha, cng
c gi l thc cht ca mt s vt. (Met., 1017b21) R rng, khi , nh ngha l
mt cng thc ca bn cht .. (Met., 1031a13).
V cc nguyn l, tc cc im xut pht hay cc tin ca cc chng minh, phi
phn bit hai loi. (1) Cc nguyn l logic (so Met., 996b25 ff.) v (2) cc tin m t
chng minh c tin hnh v n lt khng th c chng minh nu mun trnh
mt hi quy v tn (so ct. 27 ch. ny). Nhng ci sau l cc nh ngha: Cc tin
c bn ca cc chng minh l cc nh ngha ( Anal. Post., II, 3., 90b23; so 89a17,
90a35; 90b23). Xem c Ross, Aristotle, p. 45/46, bnh lun v Anal. Post., I, 4., 2074a4: Ta c bo, cc tin ca khoa hc, Ross vit (p. 46), per se [thc cht]
hoc theo ngha (a) hay ngha (b). trang trc ta nghe thy: mt tin tt yu per se
(hay tt yu c bn) theo ngha (a) v (b) nu n da vo mt nh ngha.
30
Nu n c mt ci tn, th s c mt cng thc v ngha ca n, Aristotle ni
(Met., 1030a14; xem c 1030b24); v ng gii thch rng khng phi mi cng thc v
ngha ca mt ci tn l mt nh ngha; nhng nu tn l mi loi [species] ca mt
ging [genus], th cng thc s l mt nh ngha.
Quan trng lu rng trong cch s dng ca ti (ti theo cch s dng hin i
ca t) nh ngha lun ni n ton b cu nh ngha, trong khi Aristotle (v cc
ngi theo ng v vn ny, th d Hobbes) i khi dng t nh mt t ng ngha
cho cc t nh ngha.
Cc nh ngha khng phi l ca cc ci ring, m ch l ca cc ci chung (so Met.,
1036a28) v ch ca cc bn cht, tc l ca ci g l loi ca mt ging (tc l mt
du hiu phn bit c trng cui cng [last differentia]; so Met., 1038a19) v mt
dng khng th chia c, xem c Anal. Post., II, 13., 97b6 f.
31
Rng lun bn ca Aristotle l khng rt sng sa c th thy t cui ca ct. 27
ch. ny, v t mt so snh na v hai din gii ny. S ti ngha ln nht l lun bn
ca Aristotle v cch trong , bng qu trnh quy np, chng ta tin n cc nh ngha
l cc nguyn l; so c bit Anal. Post., II, 19, pp. 100a f.
32
V hc thuyt ca Plato, xem cc ct. 25-27 ch. 8, v vn bn.
Grote vit (Aristotle, 2nd ed., 260): Aristotle tha k t Plato hc thuyt v mt L
tr hay Tr tu khng th sai, hon ton c min tr khi sai lm. Grote tip tc nhn
mnh l, tri vi Plato, Aristotle khng coi khinh kinh nghim, m ng hn gn cho L
tr ca ng (tc l trc gic tr tu) mt v tr nh trm cui v tng quan vi qu trnh
Quy np (loc. cit., xem c op. cit., p. 577). iu ny l vy; nhng kinh nghim quan
st hnh nh ch c chc nng bi b v pht trin trc gic tr tu ca chng ta cho
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289
nhim v ca n, trc gic v bn cht chung; v, qu thc, khng ai tng gii thch
cc nh ngha, vt qu sai lm, c th t c bng quy np ra sao.
33
Quan im ca Aristotle rt cuc cng nh ca Plato chng mc c hai, cui
cng, khng c s ku gi kh d n l l. Tt c ci c th lm l khng nh mt cch
gio iu v mt nh ngha no rng n l mt m t ng v bn cht ca n; v
nu c hi v sao m t ny ch khng phi m t khc l mt m t ng, tt c vn
l mt s vin dn n trc gic v bn cht.
Aristotle ni v quy np ch t theo hai ngha mt ngha heuristic [t pht hin] hn
v phng php dn n trc cm nguyn l chung (so An. Pri., 67a22f., 27b25-33,
Anal. Post., 71a7, 81a38-b5, 100b4 f.) v mt ngha kinh nghim hn (so An. Pri.,
68b15-37, 69a16, Anal. Post., 78a35, 81b5 ff., Topics, 105a13, 156a4, 157a34).
Mt trng hp mu thun hin nhin, tuy vy, c th c gii quyt, l 77a4, ni ta
bit rng mt nh ngha khng l chung cng chng l ring. Ti gi rng gii php
khng phi l mt nh ngha khng hon ton l mt phn xt cht no (nh G. R. G.
Mure gi trong bn dch Oxford), m rng n khng n gin l chung m l xng
vi-commensurate, tc l chung v cn thit. (So 73b26, 96b4, 97b25).
V l l ca Anal. Post. c ni n vn bn, xem 100b6 ff. V s ho hp thn
b ca s hiu bit v ci c bit trong De Anima, xem c bit 425b30 f., 430a20,
431a1; on quyt nh cho mc ch ca chng ta l 430b27 f.: S lnh hi trc gic
v nh ngha .. ca bn cht l khng bao gi sai .. ht nh .. vic thy mt i tng
nhn khng bao gi c th sai. V on thn hc ca Metaphysics, xem c bit
1072b20 (tip xc) v 1075a2. Xem c cc ct. 59 (2) ch. 10, 36 ch. 12, v cc ct. 3,
4, 6, 29-32, v 58 ch. 24.
V ton b khi s thc ni ti on vn tip, xem cui Anal. Post.(100b15 f.).
ng l cc quan im ca Hobbes (mt nh duy danh song khng duy danh
phng php) ging th no vi bn cht lun phng php ca Aristotle. Hobbes cng
tin rng cc nh ngha l cc tin c bn ca mi tri thc (tri vi kin).
34
Ti trnh by quan im ny v phng php khoa hc Logic of Scientific
Discovery; xem th d pp. 278 ff. v pp. 315 ff., v mt bn dch y hn t
Erkenntnis, vol. 5 (1934) ni ti ni: Ta phi lm quen vi vic din gii cc khoa hc
nh cc h thng cc gi thuyt (thay cho khi tri thc), tc l cc d on khng th
c xc minh, nhng ta dng chng chng no chng c cng c, v v n ta khng
c quyn ni rng chng l ng hay t nhiu chc chn hay thm ch c kh
nng.
35
Trch dn l t ch thch ca ti trong Erkenntnis, vol. 3 (1933), by gi c dich
li Logic of Scientific Discovery, pp. 312 ff.; n l mt bin th v khi qut ho ca
mt khng nh v hnh hc do Einstein a ra Geometry and Experience.
36
Tt nhin, khng th nh gi liu cc l thuyt, l l, v lp lun, hay quan st v
th nghim, c tm quan trng ln hn cho khoa hc; v khoa hc lun l l thuyt c
kim nghim bi quan st v th nghim. Nhng chc chn l tt c cc nh thc
chng ngi th chng t rng khoa hc l tng cc quan st ca chng ta, hoc rng
n mang tnh quan st hn l thuyt, l hon ton sai lm. Vai tr ca l thuyt v l l
trong khoa hc hu nh khng c nh gi qu cao. - V quan h gia chng minh v
l l logic ni chung, xem ct. 47 ch. ny.
37
So th d Met., 1030a, 6 v 14 (xem ct. 30 ch. ny).
38
Ti mun nhn mnh l y ti ni v thuyt duy danh i li bn cht lun theo
cch phng php lun thun tu. Ti khng bn n bt c lp trng no n vn
290
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42
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291
292
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294
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296
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298
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300
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302
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303
304
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306
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308
24
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310
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312
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V quan im ca Hegel rng Tinh thn Tuyt i t biu l trong lch s th gii,
xem Phil. of Law, 259L. V s ng nht Tinh thn Tuyt i vi Tinh thn Th
gii ca ng, xem op. cit., 339L. V quan im rng s hon ho l mc tiu ca
Thng , v v s tn cng ca Hegel ln quan im (Kantian) rng k hoch ca
Thng l kh hiu, xem op. cit., 343. (V cc phn cng l th ca M. B. Foster,
xem ct. 19 ch. 25). V cch Hegel dng tam on lun (bin chng), xem c bit
Encyclopdia, 181 (tam on lun l duy l, v mi th duy l); 198, ni nh nc
c m t nh mt b ba ca tam on lun; v 575 n 577, ni ton b h thng
ca Hegel c trnh by nh mt b ba ca tam on lun. Theo on cui ny, ta c
th suy ra rng lch s l lnh vc ca tam on lun th hai ( 576); so Selections,
309 f. V on u (t mc III ca Dn nhp cho Philosophy of History), xem
Selections, 348 f. - V on tip (t Encyclopdia) xem Selections, 262 f.
47
So Selections, 442 (on vn cui = WW, xi, 119-20). Trch dn cui on vn
ny l t cng ch.
V ba bc, so Selections, 360, 362, 398 (= WW, xi, 44, 46, 79-80). Xem c Hegel,
Philosophy of History (J. Sibree dch, 1857, trch t ln xut bn 1914), p. 110: Phng
ng ch .. bit rng Mt l t do; Th gii Hy Lp v La M, mt s l t do; Th gii
c, Tt c l t do. Hnh thc chnh tr m chng ta quan st thy trong Lch s v th
u tin l ch Chuyn quyn, th hai l Dn ch v Qu tc, v th ba l Qun ch.
(V x l thm ca ba bc, so op. cit., pp. 117, 260, 354).
48
V ba trch dn tip so Phil. of History, 429; Selections, 358, 359 (=WW, xi, 43-44).
Trnh by vn bn n gin ho vn i mt cht; v Hegel u tin chia (Phil. of
Hist., 356 ff.) Th gii c ra lm ba giai on c ng m t (p. 358) nh Vng
quc ca Cha, Con v Thnh thn; v vng quc ca Thnh [Tinh] thn li c chia
thnh ba giai on c ni ti trong vn bn.
49
V ba on tip theo, so Phil. of History, pp. 354, 476, 476-7.
50
Xem c bit vn bn cho ct. 75 ch. ny.
51
So c bit cc ct. 48-50 ch. 8.
52
So Phil. of History, p. 418 (Dch gi vit: Nhng ngi Slave c ho).
53
Masaryk i khi c m t l mt vua trit gia. Song chc chn ng khng
l mt nh cai tr thuc loi Plato mun; v ng l mt nh dn ch. ng rt quan tm
n Plato, song ng l tng ho Plato v din gii ng ta mt cch dn ch. Ch ngha
dn tc ca ng l mt phn ng i vi p bc dn tc, v ng lun u tranh chng s
thi qu dn tc ch ngha. C th lu rng tc phm c in u tin ca ng bng
ting Czech l mt bi bo v ch ngha yu nc ca Plato. (So K. Capek, tiu s
Masaryk, ch. v giai on Sinh vin i hc ca ng). Czechoslovakia ca Masaryk c
l l mt trong cc nh nc tt nht v dn ch nht tng tn ti; nhng bt chp tt
c iu , n c xy dng trn nguyn l ca nh nc quc gia, trn mt nguyn l
khng th p dng c trong th gii ny. Mt lin bang gia cc dn tc lu vc
Danube c th ngn cn nhiu.
54
Xem ch. 7. V trch dn t Rousseau, mun hn on vn, so Social Contract,
book I, ch. VII (cui on hai). V quan im ca Hegel v hc thuyt ch quyn ca
nhn dn, xem on t 279 ca Phil. of Law c trch vn bn cho ct. 61 ch. ny.
55
So Herder, do Zimmern trch, Modern Political Doctrines (1939), p. 165 f. (on
trch vn bn khng c trng cho thi so rng ca Herder, b Kant ph phn).
56
So ct. 7 ch. 9.
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314
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mo danh bt lng; tuy ti thy nhiu lch s trit hc c thanh minh cc li buc ti
ca Schopenhauer, th d, bng m ch rng ng ghen t.
Song cc li buc ti ca Kant v Schopenhauer khng h n l. A. von Feuerbach
( mt l th ngy 30-1-1799; so Schopenhauers Works, vol. V, 102) din t mnh m
nh Schopenhauer; Schiller i n kin tng t, v Goethe cng vy; v Nicolovius
gi Fichte l mt k xu nnh v mt k la gt. (So c Hegemann, op. cit., pp. 119 ff).
Tht kinh ngc thy l, nh s thng ng ca ting n, m mt ngi nh Fichte
li thnh cng xuyn tc gio hun ca thy ng, bt chp s phn i ca Kant, v
trong khi Kant cn sng. Vic ny mi ch xy ra mt trm nm trc v c th c
kim tra d dng bi bt c ai b cng c cc th ca Kant v Fichte, v cc tuyn b
cng khai ca Kant; v n chng t rng l thuyt ca ti v Plato xuyn tc gio hun
ca Socrates khng h k qui nh n c v vi cc nh Platonist. Socrates cht, v
ng khng li l th no. (Gi nh s so snh khng phi l ci mang li qu nhiu
vinh d cho Fichte v Hegel, ta c th b cm d ni: khng c Plato, chc khng c
Aristotle; v khng c Fichte, khng c Hegel).
59
So Anderson, op. cit., p. 13.
60
So Hegels Phil. of History, 465. Xem c Phil. of Law, 258. Vi li khuyn ca
Pareto, so ct. 1 ch. 13.
61
So Phil. of Law, 279; v trch dn tip, xem Selections, 256 f. (= Encycl. 1870, p.
446). Tn cng ln nc Anh, di na trong on vn, tip theo p. 257 (= Encycl.
1870, p. 447). V m ch ca Hegel n ch c, so Phil. of History, p. 475 (xem c
ct. 77 ch. ny). -Mc cm t ti, c bit trong quan h vi Anh, v mt s ku gi
thng minh n cc mc cm nh vy, ng mt phn ng k trong cu chuyn ni ln
ca ch ngha dn tc; so c cc ct. 57 v 70 ch. ny. V cc on khc v nc Anh,
xem ct. tip v ct. 70 ch. ny v vn bn (Ti nhn mnh t ngh thut v khoa hc).
62
S dn chiu mit th ca Hegel n cc quyn hnh thc n thun, n quyn t
do hnh thc n thun, n hin php hnh thc n thun, v.v., l ng quan tm,
v n l ngun ng ng ca ph phn Marxist hin i v cc nn dn ch hnh thc
n thun ch a ra quyn t do hnh thc n thun. So ct. 19 ch. 17 v vn bn.
C th trch vi on c trng trong Hegel ln n quyn t do hnh thc n
thun, v.v. Chng u c ly t Philosophy of History (p. 471): Ch ngha t do
bt u phn i tt c iu ny (tc l s phc hi Ph chnh th lun), nguyn l
nguyn t lun khng khng v s thng tr ca ch c nhn, cho rng mi chnh ph
phi .. c s tha nhn dt khot ca h (ca nhn dn). Nh th khng nh mt
hnh thc ca Quyn t do -y l s tru tng n thun - ng c ni n kin
quyt lm cho khng th thit lp bt c t chc chnh tr no.- (p. 474): Hin php
Anh l mt m phc tp ca cc quyn c bit n thun v cc c quyn c bit, .. V
cc th ch c c trng bi quyn t do thc s (ngc vi quyn t do hnh thc
n thun) khng u c t hn nc Anh. V mt cc quyn t nhn v quyn t
do v s hu chng biu th mt thiu st khng th tin c: bng chng c ban
cho cc quyn trng nam l cn thit b nhim (bng mua hay cch khc) cc chc
v qun s hay tu s i vi cc con th ca tng lp qu tc. Xem thm tho lun v
tuyn b Nhn Quyn ca Php v cc nguyn l ca Kant pp. 462 ff. vi s dn chiu
ca n n khng g hn ch hnh thc v nguyn l v Quyn t do ci vn ch l
hnh thc; v tng phn vic ny, th d, vi cc nhn xt p. 354, chng t rng
Tinh thn c l quyn t do ch thc v tuyt i: Tinh thn c l Tinh thn
ca Th gii mi. Mc tiu ca n l thc hin Chn l tuyt i nh s t quyt v hn
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316
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317
Kolnai, op. cit., 438.- V cc on t Hegel, so Selections, 365 f., ti nhn mnh
mt phn; so c vn bn cho ct. 84 ch. ny. v E. Krieck, so Kolnai, op. cit., 65 f., v
E. Krieck, National-Political Education (ting c, 1932, p. 1; c trch Thus Spake
Germany, p. 53).
83
So Selections, 268 (= Encycl. 1870, p. 456); v Stapel, so Kolnai, op. cit., 292 f.
84
V Rosenberg, so Kolnai, op. cit., 295. V quan im ca Hegel v d lun, xem c
vn bn cho ct. 76 ch. ny; v cc on c trch y, xem Phil. of Law, 318L,
tc Selections, pp. 461 (ti nhn mnh), 375, 377, 377, 378, 367/368, 380, 368, 364,
388, 380 (= WW, xi, 59, 60, 60, 60-61, 51-2, 63, 52, 48, 70-1, 63). (Ti nhn mnh mt
phn). Hegel ca ngi xc cm, am m v t li, xem c vn bn cho ct. 82 ch. ny.
85
V Best, so Kolnai, op. cit., 414 f. - V cc trch dn t Hegel, so Selections, 464 f.,
464, 465, 437 (= WW, xi, 115, ging ni bt vi Bergson), 372. (Cc on t Phil. of
Law l t 324, 324L, 327L). -V nhn xt v Aristotle, so Pol., VII, 15, 3 (1334a).
86
V Stapel, so Kolnai, op. cit., 255-257.
87
So Selections, p. 100: Nu ti b mi s xc nh ca mt i tng, th cn li
khng g. -V What is Metaphysics ca Heidegger, so Carnap, Erkenntnis, 2, 229. V
quan h ca Heidegger vi Husserl v Scheler, so J. Kraft, From Husserl to Heidegger
(2nd, German ed., 1957). Heidegger tha nhn cc cu ca ng l v ngha: Cu hi v
tr li v h v bn thn chng l v ngha, ng vit (so Erkenntnis, 2, 231). C th
ni g, t quan im ca Tractatus ca Wittgenstein, chng li loi trit hc ny, loi
tha nhn rng n ni v v ngha nhng ci v ngha ht sc quan trng? (So ct. 51
(1) ch. 11). G. Schneeberger, Nachlese zu Heidegger, 1962, cha mt su tp cc t
liu v hot ng chnh tr ca Heidegger.
88
V cc trch dn ny t Heidegger, so Kolnai, op. cit., 221, 313.- V li khuyn ca
Schopenhauer cho ngi bo v, so Works, vol. V, p. 25 (note).
89
V Jaspers, so Kolnai, op. cit., 270 f. Kolnai (p. 282) gi Jaspers l em Heidegger.
Ti khng ng . V, tri vi Heidegger, Jaspers r rng vit cc sch cha nhiu l
th, thm ch cc sch y da vo kinh nghim, th d cun General Psycho-Pathology
ca ng. Nhng ti c th trch y vi on t mt cng trnh sm hn, Psychology
of World-Views ca ng (xut bn ln u 1919; ti trch t ln xut bn th ba ting
c, 1925), cho thy th gii quan ca Jaspers l kh tin tin, d sao i na, trc khi
Heidegger bt u vit. hnh dung cuc sng ca con ngi, ta phi xem anh ta
sng ra sao By gi. Ci By gi l thc ti duy nht, n l bn thn thc ti, trong cuc
sng ca linh hn. Ci By gi c sng l ci Cui cng, ci Mu Nng, ci Tc
th, ci Sng, ci Hin ti-Th xc, ci Ton b Thc, ci S Vt C th duy nht
Con ngi tm thy Tn ti v ci Tuyt i cui cng ch By gi. (p. 112) (T
chng v Thi Nhit tnh, p. 112): u Nhit tnh l ng c ch o tuyt i,
tc l u ta sng trong Thc ti v v Thc ti, v vn dm v liu tt c, ta c
th ni v Ch ngha Anh hng: v Tnh yu anh hng, Xung t anh hng, Cng vic
anh hng, v.v. 5. Thi Nhit tnh l Tnh Yu .. - (Tiu mc 2, p. 128): Lng
thng khng phi l Tnh Yu .. (p. 127): y l v sao Tnh Yu li tn c, tn
nhn; v v sao n c Ngi Yu chn tht tin, ch nu n nh th. (pp. 256 ff.):
III. Cc Tnh th Bn l n l (A) Xung t. Xung t l dng c bn ca mi Tn
ti Cc phn ng vi cc Tnh th Bn l ca Xung t l nh sau: .. 2. S thiu hiu
bit ca con ngi v s thc rng Xung t l Cui cng: Anh ta ln trnh .. V v.v.
Ta lun thy cng bc tranh: Mt ch ngha lng mn cung lon, kt hp vi mt s
d man tn bo v v thng thi rm chuyn nghip ca cc tiu mc v tiu-tiu mc.
318
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320
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321
H.o.M., p. 757 f. (= Lenin, State and Revolution, L.L.L., vol. 14, 77-9), ni Lenin nhn
mnh tnh n gin ca cc vn t chc v cai qun trong cc pha khc nhau ca x
hi C.S. ang tin trin. Tt c ci cn n, ng vit, l h phi lm vic ngang nhau,
phi lm phn vic ca h u n, v c nhn lng bng nhau. Vic k ton v
kim sot cn thit cho vic ny c n gin ho (nhn mnh ca bn gc) bi
ch ngha t bn n mc ti a. Chng nh vy c th c cc cng nhn tip qun
mt cch n gin, v cc phng php kim sot ny nm trong tm tay ca bt c ai
bit c bit vit, v bit bn quy tc u tin ca s hc. Cc tuyn b ngy th ng
kinh ngc ny l tiu biu. (Ta thy cc quan im tng t c v Anh; so ct. ny,
(2) di y). Chng phi c tng phn vi cc bi ni ca Lenin vi thng sau.
Chng cho thy nh x hi ch ngha khoa hc tin tri khng b rng buc n th
no bi bt c im bo trc no v cc vn v tai ho pha trc. (Ti mun ni
n tai ho ca thi k ch ngha cng sn-thi chin, giai on l kt qu ca ch ngha
Marx tin tri v phn-cng ngh ny). Nhng chng cng cho thy nng lc ca Lenin
tm ra, v tha nhn vi mnh, cc sai lm mc phi. ng t b ch ngha Marx
trn thc tin, tuy khng trong l lun. So c ch. V, mc 2 v 3 ca Lenin, H.o.M., pp.
742 ff. ( = State and Revolution, 67-73), cho c im thun lch s ch ngha, tc l
tin tri v phn-cng ngh (phn-Khng tng; Lenin c th ni; so p. 747 = State
and Revolution 70-71) ca ch ngha x hi khoa hc ny trc khi n ln nm quyn.
Song khi Lenin th nhn rng ng chng bit cun sch no cp n cc vn c
tnh xy dng ca k thut x hi, th ng ch chng minh rng cc nh Marxist, trung
thnh vi cc iu rn ca Marx, thm ch khng c ci Khng tng ca cc
nh x hi gh bnh chuyn nghip th lm phn u vi chnh cc vn ny; ti
ngh n vi trong s cc nh Fabian Anh v A. Menger (th d, Neue Staatslehre, 2nd
ed. 1904, c bit pp. 248 ff.) v J. Popper-Lynkeus o. Ngi sau, ngoi nhiu gi
khc, pht trin mt cng ngh v trang tri tp th, v c bit cc trang tri khng
l thuc loi mun hn c a vo Nga (xem Allgemeine Nhrplicht, 1912; so pp.
206 ff. v 300 ff. ca 2nd ed., 1923). Nhng ng b cc nh Marxist ui ra nh mt k
na-x hi ch ngha. H gi ng l k na-x hi ch ngha v ng d tnh mt khu
vc t nhn trong x hi ca mnh; ng gii hn hot ng kinh t ca nh nc cho
vic lo cc nhu cu thit yu ca mi ngi cho ci ti thiu c m bo ca s
tn ti. Mi th vt qu iu ny c cho mt h thng cnh tranh nghim ngt.
(2) Quan im ca Lenin trong State and Revolution c trch trn (nh J. Viner
ch ra) rt ging quan im ca John Carruthers, Socialism and Radicalism (so ct. 9
ch. 9); xem c bit pp. 14-16. ng ni: Cc nh t bn sng ch ra mt h thng ti
chnh tuy phc tp song n gin hot ng mt cch thc tin, n ch dn mi
ngi y cch qun l tt nht nh my ca mnh. Mt [h thng] ti chnh rt ging
tuy n gin hn nhiu theo cng cch c th ch dn mt gim c c bu ca mt
nh my x hi ch ngha cch anh ta phi qun l n ra sao, v anh ta khng c nhiu
nhu cu xin ch bo t mt nh t chc chuyn nghip hn l mt nh t bn cn.
8
Khu hiu t nhin ch ngha u tr ny l nguyn l ca ch ngha cng sn ca
Marx (Marx ly t bi Lorganisation de travail ca Louis Blanc, nh Bryan Magee
vui lng ch cho ti). Gc ca n l Platonic v C c ban u (so ct. 29 ch. 5; Acts,
2, 44-45, v 4, 34-35; xem c ct. 48 ch. 24 v cc ch dn cho ). N c Lenin
trch State and Revolution; xem H.o.M., 752 (= State and Revolution, 74). Nguyn l
ca ch ngha x hi, c kt hp vo Hin php Mi ca Lin X (1936), l yu hn
mt cht song ng k; so iu 12: Lin X nguyn l ca ch ngha x hi c
322
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thc hin: Lm theo nng lc, hng theo lao ng. Thay lao ng cho t C c
ban u nhu cu bin mt thnh ng t nhin ch ngha lng mn v kh mp m v
mt kinh t thnh mt nguyn l kh thc tin nhng tm thng v thnh ci ngay c
ch ngha t bn cng c th cho l ca mnh.
9
Ti m ch n nhan ca mt cun sch ni ting ca Engels: S Pht trin ca
Ch ngha X hi T Khng tng n Khoa hc. (c xut bn bng ting Anh
di nhan : Socialism: Utopian and Scientific).
10
Xem The Poverty of Historicism ca ti (Economica, 1944: nay c xut bn
ring ra [xem c bn dch ting Vit S khn cng ca ch ngha lch s].
11
y l lun cng th mi mt ca Theses on Feuerbach (1845), so H.o.M., 231
(= F. Engels, Ludwig Feuerbach und der Ausgang der Klassischen deutschen
Philosophie, J. W. Dietz, Nachf. Berlin 1946, 56). Xem c cc ct. 14-16 ch. ny, v
cc mc 1, 17 v 18 ca S Khn cng ca Ch ngha Lch s.
12
Ti khng c nh tho lun chi tit y vn siu hnh hay phng php lun
ca quyt nh lun. (C vi nhn xt thm v vn ch. 22 di y). Song ti mun
ch ra rng t tho ng n th no nu quyt nh lun v phng php khoa hc
c coi l cc t ng ngha. iu ny vn c lm, thm ch bi mt tc gi xut sc
v sng sa nh Malinowski. So th d, bi bo ca ng trong Human Affairs (ed. by
Cattel, Cohen, and Travers, 1937), ch. XII. Ti hon ton ng vi cc xu hng
phng php lun ca bi bo ny, vi li cu khn dng phng php khoa hc trong
khoa hc x hi ca n cng nh vi s ln n ti ba ca n v cc xu hng lng mn
trong nhn hc (so c bit pp. 207 ff., 221-4). Song khi Malinowski l l ng h quyt
nh lun trong nghin cu vn ho con ngi (p. 212; so, th d, c p. 252), ti khng
thy ci ng hiu bng quyt nh lun nu khng n gin l phng php khoa
hc. S nh ng ny, tuy vy, khng th ng vng, v n cha cc mi nguy him
trm trng, nh c chng t trong vn bn; v n c th dn n ch ngha lch s.
13
V mt ph phn ch ngha lch s, xem S Khn cng ca Ch ngha Lch s.
Marx c th b ln n v gi nim tin sai lm l c mt qui lut t nhin v pht trin
lch s; v vi trong cc nh khoa hc gii nht thi ng (th d T. H. Huxley; so Lay
Sermons, 1880, p. 214 ca ng) tin vo kh nng tm ra mt qui lut tin ho. Song
khng th c qui lut tin ho kinh nghim. C gi thuyt tin ho c th, cho rng
s sng trn tri t tin trin theo cc cch no . Song mt qui lut ph qut hay
t nhin v tin ho phi a ra mt gi thuyt v din tin ca s pht trin s sng
(ch t) trn mi hnh tinh. Ni cch khc, u ta b gii hn quan st mt qu trnh
n nht, ta khng th hi vng tm thy, v kim chng, mt qui lut t nhin.
(Tt nhin, c cc qui lut tin ho gn vi s pht trin ca cc c th non, v.v.).
C th c cc qui lut x hi hc, v thm ch qui lut v vn tin b; th d, gi
thuyt rng, u quyn t do t tng, v t do truyn t t tng c bo v mt
cch hiu qu bi cc th ch php l v cc nh ch m bo tnh cng khai ca tho
lun, th s c tin b khoa hc. (So ch. 23). Song c cc l do gi quan im l
tt hn nu khng ni v cc qui lut lch s cht no c. (So ct. 7 ch. 25 v vn bn).
14
So Capital, 864 (Li ni u cho ln Xut bn u tin). V mt nhn xt tng t
ca Mill, xem ct. 16 di). cng ch, Marx cng ni: Mc tiu cui cng ca cng
trnh ny l bc trn qui lut kinh t v vn ng ca x hi hin i. (V im ny, so
H.o.M., 374, v vn bn cho ct. 16 ch. ny). S ng gia ch ngha thc dng ca
Marx v ch ngha lch s ca ng tr nn kh r nu ta so cc on ny vi lun cng
th 11 ca Cc Lun cng v Feuerbach ca ng (c trch vn bn cho ct. 11
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324
3
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12
325
326
2
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Lenin i khi cng dng t Marxist th tc, song theo ngha hi khc. Ch ngha
Marx th tc c t ci chung ra sao vi cc quan im ca Marx c th thy t phn tch
ca Cole, op. cit., xx, v t vn bn cho cc ct. 4 v 5 ch. 16, v ct. 17 ch. 17.
3
Theo Adler, kht vng quyn lc, tt nhin, thc s khng l g ngoi s thi thc
n b cho cm gic thp km ca mnh bng chng t tnh u vit ca mnh.
Mt s nh Marxist th thc thm ch cn tin rng Einstein, ngi, h ngh, khm
ph ra tnh tng i hay thuyt tng i, a thm nt v kt thc cho trit hc
ca con ngi hin i, tc l mi th u tng i.
4
J. F. Hecker ( Moscow Dialogues, p. 76) vit v ci gi l ch ngha duy vt lch
s ca Marx: Ti thch gi n l ch ngha lch s bin chng hay .. ci g thuc
loi y. Ti li lu bn c n s thc rng cun sch ny ti khng cp n
php bin chng ca Marx, v ti cp n n ni khc. (So ct. 4 ch. 13).
5
V khu hiu ca Heraclitus, so c bit vn bn cho ct. 4 (3) ch. 2, cc ct. 16/17
ch. 4, v ct. 25 ch. 6.
7
Cc trch dn sau ly t Das Kapital, vol. III/2 (1894), p. 355; tc ch. 48, sec. III.
8
So Das Kapital, vol. III/2, loc. cit.
9
V cc trch dn on vn ny, so F. Engels, Anti-Dhring; xem H.o.M., 298, 299
(= F. Engels, Herrn Eugen Duehrings Umwaelzung der Wissenschaft, GA special
volume 294-5).
10
Ti ngh n vn , th d, nh hng ca cc iu kin kinh t (nh nhu cu o
c t) ln s pht trin hnh hc Ai Cp, v hnh hc Pythagorean ban u Hy Lp.
11
So c bit trch dn t Capital trong ct. 13 ch. 14; c cc on y t Li ni
u cho A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy, ch c trch mt phn
trong vn bn cho ct. tip. V vn bn cht lun ca Marx, v s phn bit gia thc
ti v b ngoi, xem ct. 13 ch. ny, v cc ct. 6 v 16 ch. 17.
12
Song ti thin v ni l n tt hn ch ngha duy tm nhn Hegelian hay Platonic;
nh ti ni What is Dialectic?, nu gi nh ti buc phi chn, may l ti khng
phi, ti s chn ch ngha duy vt. (So p. 422 ca Mind, vol. 49, hay Conjectures and
Refutations, p. 331, ni ti cp cc vn rt ging cc vn y).
13
V trch dn ny v cc trch dn sau, so Li ni u ca Marx cho A Contribution
to the Critique of Political Economy, H.o.M., 372 (= Zur Kritik der politischen
Oekonomie, LV).
Quan st Th hai ca phn II ca Poverty of Philosophy ca Marx (so H.o.M., 354 f.
= GA, Series I, vol. vi, 179-80) ri mt cht nh sng na ln cc on ny (v ln vn
bn cho ct. 3 ch. 16); v y Marx phn tch x hi rt r thnh ba lp, nu c th
gi chng nh vy. Lp th nht tng ng vi thc ti hay bn cht, lp th hai v
th ba vi hnh thc b ngoi ch yu v th yu. (iu ny rt ging s phn bit ca
Plato v cc nim, cc s vt cm nhn c, v hnh nh ca cc s vt cm nhn
c; v vn bn cht lun ca Plato so ch. 3, v cc nim tng ng ca Marx so
c cc ct. 8 v 16 ch. 17). Lp u tin hay c bn (hay thc ti) l lp vt cht, b
my v t liu sn xut khc tn ti trong x hi; Marx gi lp ny l lc lng sn
xut vt cht, hay s sn xut vt cht. Lp th hai ng gi l quan h sn xut hay
cc quan h x hi; chng ph thuc vo lp th nht: Cc quan h x hi gn b mt
thit vi lc lng sn xut. Khi t lc lng sn xut mi con ngi thay i phng
thc sn xut ca h; v khi thay i phng thc sn xut, h thay i cch kim sng
- h thay i mi quan h x hi ca h. (V hai lp u, so vn bn cho ct. 3 ch. 16).
Lp th ba c to nn bi cc thc h, tc l cc tng php l, o c, tn gio,
CHNG
/CH THCH
327
So Marx- Engels, Tuyn ngn C.S.; xem H.o.M., p. 12 (= GA, Series I, vol. vi, 525).
Nh ch. 4 ch ra (xem vn bn cho cc ct. 5/6 v 11/12), Plato c cc tng rt ging.
2
So vn bn cho ct. 15 ch. 14.
3
So Marx, The Poverty of Philosophy, H.o.M., 355 (= GA, Series I, vol. vi, 179).
(Trch dn t cng ch nh ch m cc on trch trong ct. 13 ch. 15 c ly).
4
So li ni u cho A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy; so Capital,
xvi, v H.o.M., 371 f. (= Zur Kritik der politischen Oekonomie, LIV-LV. Xem c ct. 20
ch. 13, ct. 1 ch. 14, ct. 13 ch. 15, v vn bn). on c trch y, v c bit
328
CHNG
/CH THCH
CHNG
/CH THCH
329
330
CHNG
/CH THCH
CHNG
/CH THCH
331
tranh hon ho gia cc ngi mua trn cc th trng lao ng c thc t cht no
khng? Chng ng l, th d, trn nhiu th trng lao ng a phng ch c mt
ngi mua ng k ? V li, ta khng th gi s l cnh tranh hon ho s t ng loi
b vn tht nghip, nu khng v l do khc th v lao ng khng th d di chuyn.
22
V vn s can thip kinh t ca nh nc, v v m t c im ca h thng
kinh t hin ti ca chng ta nh ch ngha can thip, xem ba chng tip, c bit ct. 9
ch. 18 v vn bn. C th lu rng ch ngha can thip nh c dng y l phn
b kinh t ca ci ti gi l ch ngha bo h chnh tr ch. 6, vn bn cho cc ct.
24-44. (L r v sao t ch ngha bo h khng th c dng thay ch ngha can
thip). Xem c bit ct. 9 ch. 18, v cc ct. 25/26 ch. 20, v vn bn.
23
on c trch y hn vn bn cho ct. 14, ch. 13; v mu thun gia hot
ng thc tin v quyt nh lun lch s ch ngha, xem ct. , v vn bn cho cc ct. 5
ff. ch. 22.
24
So mc II ca ch. 7.
25
Xem Bertrand Russell, Power (1938); so c bit pp. 123 ff.; Walter Lippmann,
The Good Society (1937), so c bit pp. 188 ff.
26
B. Russell, Power, pp. 128 f. Ti nhn mnh.
27
Cc lut bo v dn ch vn trng thi pht trin kh s ng. C th v phi
lm rt nhiu. Quyn t do ngn lun, chng hn, c i bi v mc tiu chnh l phi
a thng tin ng cho dn chng; song nhn t lp trng ny, rt thiu m bo th
ch t mc tiu ny. Ci m cc t bo tt thng lm hin nay do sng kin ring
ca h, y l, cung cp cho dn chng mi thng tin quan trng sn c, c th c thit
lp nh bn phn ca h, hoc bi cc lut c b cc cn thn, hay bi thit lp mt quy
tc o c, c cng chng tha nhn. Cc vn , th d, nh l th ca Zinovief
[vic tch thu n London lm thay i din tin bu c , N.D.], c l c th
c kim sot bi mt lut lm cho c th hu kt qu thng c bng cc phng tin
khng thch hp, v buc nh xut bn sao lng bn phn ca mnh v tm hiu chc
chn s tht ca thng tin c xut bn cn thn mc c th phi chu trch nhim v
tc hi gy ra; trong trng hp ny, v chi ph cho mt cuc bu c mi. Ti khng th
i vo chi tit y, song nim tin chc chn ca ti l ta c th d dng khc phc cc
kh khn cng ngh ngng ng chng ta t cc mc ch nh vy nh tin hnh cc
chin dch bu c ch yu bng ku gi n l tr thay cho s say m. Ti khng thy v
sao ta li khng, th d, chun ho kch thc, loi, v.v. ca cc ti liu [pamphlet] vn
ng bu c, v loi b p phch c ng. (Vic ny khng nht thit gy nguy him
cho quyn t do, ht hp l nh cc hn ch p t ln nhng ngi bin h trc to l
bo v quyn t do hn l gy nguy him cho n). Cc phng php tuyn truyn
hin nay l s lng m cng chng cng nh ng vin. Tuyn truyn loi c th kh tt
cho bn x phng khng c dng trong cc vn c hu qu nh vy.
28
*So Kim sot Th tc Thu mn Anh, 1947. S thc rng th tc ny hu nh
khng c dng (n r rng khng b lm dng) cho thy lut thm ch c tnh cht
nguy him nht c ban hnh m khng c nhu cu cp bch - hin nhin v khng c
hiu bit thch ng v s khc bit c bn gia hai loi lp php, tc l mt loi thit
lp cc quy tc ng x chung, v mt loi cho chnh ph quyn t do lm theo mnh.*
29
* V s phn bit ny, v v s dng t khung php l, xem F. A. Hayek, The
Road to Serfdom [c bn ting Vit] (ti trch t Ln xut bn u Anh, 1944). Xem,
th d, p. 54, ni Hayek ni v s phn bit .. gia vic to ra mt khung lut php lu
di trong quyt nh c nhn hng dn hnh ng sn xut, v s ch huy hot ng
332
CHNG
/CH THCH
kinh t bi nh chc trch trung ng no . (Ti nhn mnh). Hayek nhn mnh tm
quan trng ca tnh c th d on c ca khung php l; xem, th d, p. 56*
30
Bi ph bnh, ng trn European Messenger ca St. Peterburg, c Marx trch
trong Li ni u cho ln xut bn th hai ca Capital. (Xem Capital, 871).
cng bng vi Marx, chng ta phi ni rng ng khng lun coi h thng ca
ring ng qu nghim tc, v rng ng hon ton sn sng i trch mt cht khi s
c bn ca mnh; ng coi n nh mt quan im (v vi t cch nh th n chc
chn cc k quan trng) hn l mt h thng cc gio iu.
Nh th chng ta c, hai trang lin tip ca Capital (832 f.), mt tuyn b nhn
mnh l lun Marxist thng thng v tnh cht th yu ca h thng php l (hay c
tnh nh mt mt n, mt b ngoi), v mt tuyn b gn mt vai tr rt quan trng
cho sc mnh chnh tr ca nh nc v nng n dt khot ln a v ca mt lc lng
kinh t trng thnh. Tuyn b u l, Tc gi nhc li rng cc cuc cch mng khng
c tin hnh bng cc lut, ni n cch mng cng nghip, v n mt tc gi i
hi cc o lut theo n c thc hin. Tuyn b th hai l mt bnh lun (v chnh
thng nht t quan im Marxist) v cc phng php tch lu t bn; tt c cc phng
php ny, Marx ni, u s dng quyn lc nh nc, c tp trung sc mnh chnh
tr ca x hi. Sc mnh l b cho mi x hi c mang thai mt x hi mi. Bn thn
n l mt lc lng kinh t. Cho n cu cui, m ti nhn mnh, on ny r rng l
chnh thng. Nhng cu cui ph v tnh chnh thng ny.
Engels gio iu hn. Phi so snh c bit mt trong cc tuyn b ca ng AntiDhring (H.o.M., 277), ni ng vit, Vai tr do sc mnh chnh tr ng trong lch s
tng phn vi s pht trin kinh t by gi l r rng. ng cho rng mi khi sc
mnh chnh tr i ngc s pht trin kinh t, th thng thng, n thua, ch vi t
ngoi l; cc ngoi l t i ny l cc trng hp c lp ca s xm chim trong
nhng k xm chim man r .. b ph .. cc lc lng sn xut m h khng bit s
dng th no. (So, tuy vy, cc ct. 13/14 ch. 15, v vn bn).
Ch ngha gio iu v ch ngha c on ca hu ht cc nh Marxist l hin tng
tht s ng kinh ngc. N ch chng t l h dng ch ngha Marx mt cch phi duy l,
nh mt h thng siu hnh hc. C th thy gia nhng ngi cp tin v nhng ngi
n ho nh nhau. E. Burns, th d, a ra ( H.o.M., 374) tuyn b u tr ng ngc
nhin l nhng li bc b .. chc hn bp mo cc l thuyt ca Marx; iu c v ng
rng cc l lun ca Marx l khng th bc b c, tc l phi khoa hc; v mi l lun
khoa hc u c th b bc b, v c th b thay th. Mt khc, L. Laurat, trong Marxism
and Democracy, p. 226, ni: Nhn vo th gii chng ta sng, chng ta sng st v s
chnh xc gn nh ton hc m cc tin on c bn ca Karl Marx c thc hin.
Bn thn Marx c v ngh khc. Ti c th sai v iu ny, song ti tin vo tnh
chn tht ca tuyn b ca ng ( cui Li ni u ca ln xut bn u ca Capital;
xem 865): Ti hoan nghnh ph phn khoa hc, d tn nhn n u. Nhng i mt
vi cc thnh kin ca ci gi l d lun, ti s bm cht vo chm ngn ca mnh ..:
Hy theo ng ca mnh, v c h huyn thuyn!
CH THCH CHO CHNG 18
1
CHNG
2
/CH THCH
333
334
CHNG
/CH THCH
CHNG
/CH THCH
335
n cng nghip ho v kim sot quan liu v cng nghip; n s san bng kinh t v
tm l ca cc cng nhn qua tiu chun ho cc nhu cu v mong mun. Phn : S
ngho kh gia tng ca ng o qun chng; thc giai cp tng ln ca h do hu
qu ca (a) u tranh giai cp, v (b) s hiu r tng ln ca h v tm quan trng tt
bc ca h mt x hi nh x hi cng nghip ni giai cp lao ng l giai cp sn
xut duy nht, v v vy l giai cp c bn duy nht. (So c ct. 15 ch. 19, v vn bn).
Hu nh khng cn ch ra hp Marxist ni ln ra sao; nhng c th cn khng nh
rng mt s nhn mnh c i i cht t trong m t xu hng i khng c th dn
n cc hp rt khc; thc ra, n bt c hp no ngi ta mun bo v. Th d,
c th d trnh by ch ngha pht xt nh mt hp tt yu; hay c l ch k tr;
hay khc i, mt h thng ca ch ngha can thip dn ch.
6
* Bryan Magee vit v on ny: y l tt c ci m The New Class [Giai cp
Mi] ca Djilas ni v: mt l thuyt c vch ra y v nhng thc t ca cch
mng Cng sn, c vit bi mt ngi Cng sn ngoan c.*
7
Lch s phong tro giai cp lao ng y tri ngc. N cho thy cng nhn sn
sng cho nhng hi sinh to ln nht trong cuc chin u ca h v s gii phng giai cp
h, v hn th, gii phng loi ngi. Nhng cng c nhiu chng k mt cu chuyn
bun v tnh ch k kh bnh thng v v s theo ui li ch ngnh lm hi n tt c.
Chc chn c th hiu c l mt nghip on nhn c li th ln cho thnh vin
ca n qua s on kt v mc c tp th s c loi cc ngi khng sn sng tham gia
nghip on khi cc li ch ny; th d, bng a vo cc hp ng tp th ca h iu
kin rng ch c thu cc on vin cng on. Song l vn khc, v khng th
bin h c, nu mt nghip on theo cch ny nhn c s c quyn khp danh
sch thnh vin li, nh th khng cho cc bn cng nhn mun vo c tham gia, m
thm ch khng thit lp mt phng php cng bng v nhn cc thnh vin mi (nh
phi tham gia nghim ngt vo mt danh sch ch). Rng cc vic nh vy c th xy ra
cho thy s thc rng mt ngi l cng nhn khng lun lun ngn cn anh ta khi
vic qun ht s on kt ca nhng ngi b p bc v khi vic s dng y cc
c quyn kinh t m anh ta c th c, tc l khi bc lt cc ng bn cng nhn.
8
So Tuyn Ngn C.S. (H.o.M., 47 = GA, Series I, vol. vi, 546); on c trch y
hn ct. 4 ch. ny, ni cp n ch ngha lng mn ca Marx.
9
T ch ngha t bn l qu m h dng nh mt ci tn ca mt giai on lch
s xc nh. T ch ngha t bn ban u c dng theo mt ngha mit th, v n
gi ngha ny trong cch dng ph bin (h thng ng h li nhun ln do nhng k
khng lm vic kim c). Song ng thi n cng c dng theo ngha khoa hc
trung lp, nhng vi nhiu ngha khc nhau. n chng mc m, theo Marx, mi s
tch lu t liu sn xut c th c gi l t bn, thm ch chng ta c th ni rng
ch ngha t bn theo ngha no l ng ngha vi t chc cng nghip. Theo
ngha ny ta c th m t hon ton ng mt x hi cng sn, ni nh nc s hu tt
c t bn, l ch ngha t bn nh nc. V cc l do ny, ti gi dng tn ch ngha
t bn v [unrestrained] cho giai on m Marx phn tch v t tn l ch
ngha t bn, v dng tn ch ngha can thip cho giai on ca chng ta. Tn ch
ngha can thip qu thc c th bao ph ba loi chnh ca k thut x hi thi i
chng ta: ch ngha can thip tp th Nga; ch ngha can thip dn ch ca Thu in
v Cc Nn dn ch Nh, v New Deal [Chnh sch Kinh t X hi Mi] M; v
thm ch cc phng php pht xt ca nn kinh t qun s ho. Ci Marx gi l ch
ngha t bn - tc ch ngha t bn v - hon ton teo i trong th k hai mi.
336
10
CHNG
/CH THCH
CHNG
/CH THCH
337
r rng b bc b bi s pht trin ging nh s pht trin cc nn Dn ch Nh phi quc, s c tho lun y hn ch. 20 (vn bn cho cc ct. 37-40).
Nhiu nh dn ch x hi din gii cch mng Nga, theo s ca Marx, nh mt
cuc cch mng t sn n mun, nht quyt l cuc cch mng ny gn vi mt s
pht trin kinh t ging cch mng cng nghip cc nc pht trin hn. Song din
gii ny, tt nhin, cho rng lch s phi tun theo s Marxist. Thc ra, mt vn
bn cht lun nh, liu cch mng Nga c l mt cch mng cng nghip n chm hay
l mt cch mng x hi cha chn mui, ch mang tnh ngn t; v nu n dn n
cc kh khn bn trong ch ngha Marx, th iu ny ch chng t l c cc kh khn
ngn t trong m t cc s kin khng c cc nh sng lp nhn thy trc.
18
Cc lnh t c kh nng truyn cho nhng ngi theo h mt nim tin nhit tnh
vo s mng ca h - gii phng loi ngi. Song cc lnh t ny cng chu trch nhim
v s tht bi cui cng ca hot ng chnh tr ca h, v s v ca phong tro. S
tht bi ny, ch yu, l do s v trch nhim tr tu. Cc lnh t cam oan vi cc
cng nhn rng ch ngha Marx l mt khoa hc, v rng pha tr tu ca phong tro
nm trong cc bn tay gii nht. Nhng h chng bao gi chp nhn mt thi
khoa hc, tc ph phn, i vi ch ngha Marx. Chng no h cn c th p dng n
(v c g d hn iu ny?), chng no h cn c th din gii lch s trong cc bi bo
v din thuyt, h tho mn v tr tu. (So c cc ct. 19 v 22 ch. ny).
19
Nhiu nm trc khi ch ngha pht xt ni ln Trung u c th thy mt thuyt
ch bi rt r rt gia hng ng cc lnh t dn ch x hi. H bt u tin ch ngha
pht xt l mt giai on khng th trnh khi trong s pht trin x hi. Tc l, h bt
u sa s ca Marx, song h khng bao gi nghi s ng n ca cch tip cn lch
s ch ngha; h chng bao gi thy mt cu hi nh Ch ngha pht xt c l mt giai
on khng trnh khi trong s pht trin ca nhn loi? c th l hon ton lm lc.
20
Phong tro Marxist Trung u c t tin l trong lch s. N l mt phong tro, bt
chp s thc l n rao ging thuyt v thn, c th tht s c gi l mt phong tro
tn gio ln. (C l iu ny c th gy n tng cho cc tr thc nhng ngi khng
coi nghim tc ch ngha Marx). Tt nhin, v nhiu mt, n l mt phong tro tp th
v thm ch b lc. Nhng n l mt phong tro ca cc cng nhn t o to mnh
cho nhim v v i ca h; gii phng chnh h, nng trnh ca cc mi quan
tm v tiu khin ca h; thay cho leo ni v ru, nhc c in nhn nhy, v
sch nghim tc li k. S gii phng giai cp lao ng ch c th c thc hin bi
bn thn nhng ngi lao ng l nim tin ca h. (V n tng su do phong tro ny
gy ra cho mt s nh quan st, xem, th d, G. E. R. Gedye, Fallen Bastions, 1939).
21
Trch dn l t Li ni u ca Marx cho ln xut bn th hai ca Capital, (so
Capital, 870; so c ct. 6 ch. 13). N cho thy Marx may mn th no trong con mt
ca cc nh ph bnh ca ng (so c ct. 30 ch. 17, v vn bn).
Mt on cc k l th khc, ni Marx by t ch ngha Phn-Khng tng v ch
ngha lch s ca ng, c th thy Ni chin Php (H.o.M., 150, K. Marx, Der
Buergerkrieg in Frankreich, A. Willaschek, Hamburg 1920, 65-66), ni Marx ng tnh
ni v Cng x Paris 1871: Giai cp lao ng khng k vng cc php mu t Cng x.
H khng c cc iu Khng tng c lm sn, a vo bng sc lnh ca nhn
dn. H bit rng t s gii phng chnh h, v vi n, cc hnh thc cao hn m x
hi hin thi ca chng ta hng ti mt cch khng cng ni, .. h s phi tri qua
cc cuc u tranh lu di, qua mt lot qu trnh lch s, bin i hon cnh v con
ngi. H khng c cc l tng thc hin, m gii phng cc yu t ca mt x
338
CHNG
/CH THCH
CHNG
/CH THCH
339
340
12
CHNG
/CH THCH
So cc ct. 4 v 5 ch. 17, v vn bn; cng nh ct. 14 ch. ny; v tng phn vi
cc ct. 17 v 18 ch. ny, v vn bn.
13
Tt nhin, c cc lp trng ng gia hai lp trng ny; v cng c cc lp
trng Marxist n ho hn: c bit ci gi l ch ngha xt li ca A. Bernstein. Lp
trng sau, thc ra, t b ch ngha Marx hon ton; n khng l g ngoi ch trng
mt phong tro cng nhn dn ch v bt bo ng nghim ngt.
14
Din bin ny ca Marx, tt nhin, l mt din gii, v khng phi rt thuyt phc;
thc ra Marx khng rt nht qun, v ng dng t cch mng, v lc, bo lc,
v.v. vi mt s m h c h thng. Lp trng ny c p ln ng mt phn bi s
thc l lch s trong sut i ng khng din tin theo d kin ca ng. N tun theo
l thuyt Marxist chng mc n biu l cc k r rt mt xu hng ri xa ci Marx gi
l ch ngha t bn, tc l ri xa s khng-can thip. Marx thng xuyn ni n xu
hng ny vi s tho mn, th d, trong Li ni u ca ng cho ln xut bn Capital
u tin. (So trch dn ct. 16 ch. ny; xem c vn bn). Mt khc, cng xu hng
ny (n ch ngha can thip) dn n s ci thin s phn ca cng nhn tri vi l
thuyt ca Marx; v v th lm gim kh nng ca mt cuc cch mng. Cc din gii
do d v m h ca Marx v gio hun ca chnh ng c l l kt qu ca tnh hnh ny.
minh ho im ny, c th trch hai on, mt t mt tc phm sm v mt t mt
tc phm mun ca Marx. on sm l t Gi Lin on Cng sn (1850; so H.o.M.,
pp. 60 ff. =Labour Monthly, Sept. 1922, 136 ff.). on l l th v n thit thc. Marx
gi s cng nhn cng nhng ngi dn ch t sn cng nhau thng cuc chin chng
ch ngha phong kin v thit lp mt ch dn ch. Marx nht quyt rng sau khi
t iu ny, li h xung trn ca cng nhn phi l Cch mng thng trc! iu ny
c ngha l g c gii thch k ( p. 66): H phi hnh ng sao cho s sc si cch
mng khng tt ngay sau thng li. Ngc li, h phi duy tr n cng lu cng tt. Cn
xa mi chng ci gi l thi qu, nh t b s tr th ca nhn dn i vi nhng k v
cc cng s b cm ght, gn vi cc k c th hn, cc hnh ng nh vy khng ch
c tha th, m phi nm ly s iu khin chng, lm gng. (So c ct. 35 (1)
ch. ny, v ct. 44 ch. 20).
Mt on n ho tng phn vi on trc c th chn t Gi Quc t Cng sn th
Nht (Amsterdam, 1872; so L. Laurat, op. cit., p. 36): Chng ta khng ph nhn rng
c cc nc, nh Hoa K v Vng quc Anh - nu ti bit cc th ch ca cc bn k
hn, c l ti phi k thm Holland ni cng nhn s c kh nng t cc mc tiu ca
h bng cc phng tin ho bnh. Song iu ny khng phi th mi nc. V cc
quan im n ho hn ny, so c vn bn cho cc ct. 16-18 ch. ny.
Song ton b s ln ln c th thy ngn gn sm nh tm tt cui cng ca Tuyn
ngn ni ta thy hai tuyn b mu thun sau y, ch cch nhau mt cu: (1) Tm li,
nhng ngi Cng sn ng h mi ni mi phong tro cch mng chng li trt t x
hi v chnh tr hin hnh. (Vic ny phi bao gm nc Anh, chng hn). (2) Cui
cng, h n lc mi ni v s thng nht v ho hp ca cc ng dn ch ca mi
nc. lm cho s ln ln hon ton, cu tip l nh sau: Nhng ngi cng sn
khng thm giu gim cc quan im v mc tiu ca h. H tuyn b cng khai rng
mc ch ca h c th t c ch bi lt bng v lc mi iu kin x hi hin
hnh. (Cc iu kin dn ch khng c loi tr).
15
So Capital, 846 = H.o.M., 403 f. (V t tp trung ho, thay ln xut bn th ba
cho t tp trung ca ln hai, so ct. 3 ch. ny. V vic dch ci o chong t bn ch
ngha ca chng tr nn ct chi, tri buc, c th lu rng mt cch dch theo ngha
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342
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344
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346
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thng tn dng dn n cc khon u t bt buc, tc l ngi tiu dng buc phi tit
kim, phi king; nhng vn [t bn] c tit kim bng con ng ca cc khon
u t bt buc ny, Miksch vit, khng thuc v nhng ngi buc phi king tiu
dng, m thuc v cc nghip ch [entrepreneur, ngi khi nghip, nh kinh doanh].
Nu l thuyt ny t ra c th chp nhn c, th phn tch ca Marx (song khng
phi cc qui lut cng chng phi cc li tin tri ca ng) s c xc nhn mc
ng k. V ch c s khc bit nh gia gi tr thng d ca Marx m, cng bng ra,
thuc v cng nhn song b nh t bn chim ot hay tc ot, v cc khon tit
kim bt buc ca Miksch tr thnh ti sn khng ca ngi tiu dng buc phi tit
kim, m ca nh kinh doanh. Bn thn Miksch m ch rng cc kt qu ny gii thch
nhiu v s pht trin kinh t th k mi chn (v v s ni ln ca ch ngha x hi).
Phi lu rng phn tch ca Miksch gii thch cc s thc quan trng dng nhng
khng hon ho trong mt h thng cnh tranh (ng ni n c quyn kinh t v to
tin l ci c quyn lc l lng) cn Marx th gii thch cc s thc tng ng vi s
gip ca gi thit v mt th trng t do, tc l v cnh tranh [hon ho]. (V li,
ngi tiu dng v cng nhn cng nghip, tt nhin, khng th c ng nht
hon ton). Nhng bt lun gii thch l g, cc s thc - c Miksch m t nh phnx hi khng th chu c - vn cn; v l cng lao ca Marx, c vic ng
khng chp nhn cc s thc ny, ln ng ht sc c gng gii thch chng.
20
So ct. 10 ch. ny, c bit on v gi t nhin (c ct. 18 v vn bn); l th l
tp ba ca Capital, khng xa cc on c trch ct. 10 ch. ny (xem Das Kapital,
III/2, 352; ti nhn mnh), v trong ng cnh tng t, Marx a ra nhn xt phng
php lun sau: Mi khoa hc s l tha nu cc hnh thc b ngoi ca cc s vt
trng vi cc bn cht ca chng. y, tt nhin, l bn cht lun thun tu. Rng bn
cht lun ny tip gip vi siu hnh hc c cho thy ct. 24 ch. ny.
R rng l khi Marx ni i ni li, c bit tp mt, v hnh thc-gi, ng ngh n
mt hnh thc b ngoi; bn cht l gi tr. (So c ct. 6 ch. 17 v vn bn).
21
Trong Capital, pp. 43 ff.: S Thn B ca c tnh Bi [Th] Vt ca Hng ho.
22
So Capital, 567 (xem c 328), vi tm tt ca Marx: Nu nng sut lao ng tng
gp i th, nu t l lao ng cn thit trn lao ng thng d vn khng i .. kt qu
duy nht s l mi trong hai th s i din cho hai ln nhiu gi tr s dng (tc hng
ho) nh trc. Cc gi tr s dng ny by gi hai ln r nh trc Nh th l c
th, khi nng sut lao ng tng, gi lao ng phi tip tc gim, v th m s gim ny
li i km mt s tng ln v s lng cc phng tin sng ca cng nhn.
23
Nu ni chung nng sut lao ng tng ln t nhiu, th nng sut ca cc cng ti
vng c th cng tng; v iu ny c ngha l vng, ging mi hng ho khc, tr nn
r hn nu nh gi bng gi lao ng. Do , cng ng cho vng nh cho cc hng
ho khc; v khi Marx ni (so ct. trc) rng s lng thu nhp thc ca cng nhn
tng, v l thuyt, iu ny cng c th ng v thu nhp ca anh ta tnh bng vng, tc
l bng tin. (Phn tch ca Marx trong Capital, p. 567, m ti ch trch mt tm tt
ct. trc, v vy l khng ng bt c u ng ni v gi; v gi l gi tr biu th
bng vng, v nhng ci ny c th vn khng i nu nng sut tng bng nhau trong
mi nghnh sn xut, bao gm sn xut vng).
24
Ci l v l thuyt gi tr ca Marx (nh khc bit vi trng phi c in Anh, theo
J. Viner) l n coi lao ng ca con ngi l khc bit c bn vi mi qu trnh khc
trong t nhin, th d vi lao ng ca sc vt. iu ny cho thy r l l thuyt da
cui cng vo mt l thuyt o c, cho rng s au kh ca con ngi v i ngi l
348
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31
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349
350
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37
So H.o.M., 507.
Trong mt ch gii cho on ny (tc Das Kapital, III/1, 219), Marx cho rng Adam
Smith ng, chng li Ricardo.
on ca Smith m c l Marx m ch n c trch di hn trong on vn: n
l t the Wealth of Nations (vol. II, p. 95 ca ln xut bn Everyman).
Marx trch mt on t Ricardo (Works, ed. MacCulloch, p. 73 = Ricardo, Everyman
edition, p. 78). Nhng c thm ch mt on c trng hn trong Ricardo cho rng
c ch do Smith m t khng th .. tc ng n sut li nhun (Principles, 232).
38
V Engels, so H.o.M., 708 (= c trch Imperialism, 96).
39
V s tr mt [change of front], so ct. 31 ch. 19, v vn bn.
40
So Lenin, Imperialism: Highest Stage of Capitalism (1917), 97; (= H.o.M., 708).
41
y c th l mt bo cha, tuy ch l bo cha rt khng tho mn, cho cc nhn
xt gy chn nn nht ca Marx, c Parkes trch, Marxism A Post Mortem (213 f.,
n. 3). Chng gy chn nn nht v chng nu ra cu hi liu Marx v Engels c chn
tht yu t do khng m ngi ta mun cc ng c; liu h khng phi b nh hng
nhiu bi tnh v trch nhim v ch ngha dn tc ca Hegel hn l ngi ta c th k
vng t cc gio hun chung ca cc ng.
42
So H.o.M., 295 (= GA, Special Vol. 290-1): Bng ngy cng bin s ng dn c
thnh v sn, phng thc sn xut t bn ch ngha to ra lc lng .. buc phi thc
hin cuc cch mng ny. V on t Tuyn ngn, so H.o.M., 35 (= GA, Ser. I, vol. vi,
536). V on tip theo, so H.o.M., 156 f. (= Der Buergerkrieg in Frankreich, 84).
43
V on u tr khng ng, H.o.M., 147 f. (= Der Buergerkrieg in Frankreich, 75 f.).
44
V chnh sch ny, so Marx, Gi Lin on Cng sn, c trch cc ct. 14 v
35-37 ch. 19. (So c, th d, cc ct. 26 f. ch. ). Xem thm on sau t op. cit.
(H.o.M., 70 f.; ti nhn mnh = Labour Monthly, Sept. 1922, 145-6): Nh th, th d,
nu giai cp tiu t sn nh mua ng st v cc nh my, cng nhn phi i rng
ng st v cc nh my nh vy phi n gin b Nh nc tch thu m khng c n
b; v chng l ti sn ca bn phn ng. Nu nhng ngi dn ch kin ngh thu t
l, cng nhn phi i thu lu tin. Nu bn thn nhng ngi dn ch tuyn b v mt
thu lu tin va phi, cng nhn phi nht quyt mt thu lu tin nng; nng n mc
gy ra sp t bn ln. Nu nhng ngi dn ch kin ngh iu chnh N Quc gia,
cng nhn phi i s ph sn ca Nh nc. Cc i hi ca cng nhn s ph thuc
vo cc kin ngh v cc bin php ca nhng ngi dn ch. y l cc chin thut
ca nhng ngi Cng sn, nhng ngi m Marx ni: Li h xung trn ca h phi
l: Cch mng Thng trc!.
CH THCH CHO CHNG 21
1
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351
352
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353
Khi dng t ch ngha duy l theo cch ny, ti khng mun m ch rng cch dng
khc ca t, y l, i lp vi ch ngha kinh nghim, c l t quan trng hn. Ngc
li, ti tin l s i lp ny c trng cho mt trong cc vn l th nht ca trit hc.
Song ti khng mun cp n n y; v ti cm thy rng, tng phn vi ch
ngha kinh nghim, hay hn ta c th dng t khc c l thuyt duy l tr hay thuyt
trc gic tr tu thay cho ch ngha duy l theo ngha ca Descartes. Ti c th lu
trong ng cnh ny l ti khng nh ngha cc t l tr hay ch ngha duy l; ti
dng chng nh cc nhn, cn thn sao cho chng g ph thuc vo cc t c dng.
So ch. 11, c bit ct. 50. (V dn chiu n Kant, xem ct. 56 ch. 12, v vn bn).
2
* y l ci ti th lm Towards a Rational Theory of Tradition (The Rational
Annual, 1949, pp. 36 ff., v by gi trong Conjectures and Refutations, pp. 120 ff.).*
3
So Plato, Timaeus 51e. (Xem c dn chiu cho ct. 33 ch. 11).
4
So ch. 10, c bit cc ct. 38-41, v vn bn.
Trong cc tc phm ca Pythagoras, Heraclitus, Parmenides, Plato, cc yu t thn b
v duy l c trn ln. c bit Plato, bt chp mi s nhn mnh ca ng n l tr,
kt hp vo trit hc ca ng mt hn hp c trng lng ca ch ngha phi duy l
n mc n gn nh gt ch ngha duy l m ng k tha t Socrates ra. iu ny
cho php cc nh tn-Platonist t c s ch ngha thn b ca h ln Plato; v ch
ngha thn b sau nht truy nguyn v tn cc ngun ny.
C l l tnh c, nhng trong bt c trng hp no l ng ch rng vn c mt
bin gii vn ho gia Ty u v cc khu vc Trung u trng rt st vi cc khu vc
khng nm di s cai tr ca ch La M ca Augustus, v khng c hng
s may mn ho bnh La M, tc l ca nn vn minh La M. Cng cc khu vc man
r l c bit d b nh hng bi ch ngha thn b, cho d h khng sng ch ra
ch ngha thn b. [Thnh] Bernard x Clairvaux c thnh cng ln nht ca ng
c, ni mun hn Eckhart v trng phi ca ng hng thnh, c Boehme.
Mun hn nhiu Spinoza, ngi th kt hp thuyt duy l tr ca Descartes vi cc
xu hng thn b, ti khm ph ra l thuyt v mt trc gic tr tu thn b, m, bt
chp s phn i mnh m ca Kant, dn n s ni ln hu-Kantian ca Ch ngha
Duy tm, n Fichte, Schelling, v Hegel. Hu nh mi ch ngha phi duy l hin i
truy nguyn li n ci sau, nh c cho thy ch. 12. (So c cc ct. 6, 29-32 v 58,
di y, v cc ct. 32-33 ch. 11, v cc dn chiu cho v ch ngha thn b ).
5
Vi cc hot ng my mc, so cc ct 21 v 22 ch. ny.
6
Ti ni b loi b nhm bao trm cc quan im (1) rng mt gi thit nh vy s
l sai, (2) rng s l phi thc tin (hay khng th cho php), tuy c l n c th tnh c
ng, (3) rng n l v ngha hay khng c ngha, th d theo ngha ca Tractatus
ca Wittgenstein; so ct. 51 ch. 12, v ct. 8 (2) ch. ny.
V quan h vi s phn bit gia ch ngha duy l ph phn v khng ph phn, c
th nhc n l gio hun ca Duns Scotus cng nh ca Kant c th c din gii nh
ti gn ch ngha duy l ph phn. (Ti ngh n cc hc thuyt ca h v a v th
nht ca ch, c th c din gii nh v tr hng u ca mt quyt nh phi duy l).
7
Trong ct. ny v ct. tip theo s a ra vi nhn xt v cc nghch l, c bit v
nghch l k ni di. Khi a ra cc nhn xt ny, c th ni rng ci gi l cc nghch l
logic v ng ngha khng cn ch l cc chi ca cc nh logic. Chng khng ch
t ra quan trng cho s pht trin ca ton hc, m chng cng tr nn quan trng cc
lnh vc t duy khc. C mt mi quan h xc nh gia cc nghch l ny v cc vn
nh nghch l t do m, nh ta thy (so ct. 20 ch. 17 v cc ct. 4 v 6 ch. 7), c
354
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tm quan trng ng k trong trit hc chnh tr. im (4) ca ct. ny, s cho thy
ngn gn rng cc nghch l v quyn t quyt khc nhau (so ct. 6 ch. 7, v vn bn) l
rt ging nghch l k ni di. V cc phng php hin i gii cc nghch l ny
(hoc hay hn: xy dng cc ngn ng trong chng khng xut hin), ti s
khng a ra bnh lun no y, v n s a ta vt qu phm vi ca cun sch ny.
(1) Nghch l k ni di c th c trnh by theo nhiu cch. Mt trong s chng l
th ny. Hy gi s l mt ngy no ai ni: Tt c ci ti ni ngy hm nay l ni
di; hay chnh xc hn: Tt c cc mnh ti a ra hm nay l sai; v sut ngy
anh ta khng ni g khc. By gi nu chng ta hi mnh liu anh ta ni ng hay
khng, y l ci chng ta thy. Nu ta bt u vi gi s rng ci anh ta ni l ng,
th, xt k ci anh ta ni, ta i n kt qu rng n phi l sai. V nu ta bt u vi gi
s rng ci anh ta ni l sai, th ta phi kt lun, xt k ci anh ta ni, rng n l ng.
(2) Nghch l i khi c gi l mu thun. Song iu ny c l hi lm lc. Mt
mu thun bnh thng (hay mt t-mu thun) n gin l mt mnh sai v logic,
nh Plato hnh phc hm qua v ng khng hnh phc hm qua. Nu ta cho rng mt
cu nh vy l sai, th khng sinh ra kh khn thm. Song v mt nghch l, ta khng th
cho rng n ng cng chng th cho rng n sai, m khng dnh vo kh khn.
(3) Tuy vy, c cc mnh c quan h mt thit vi cc nghch l, song, ni nghim
khc hn, chng ch l t mu thun. Th d hy xt mnh : Tt c cc mnh l
sai. Nu ta gi s rng mnh ny l ng, th, xt k ci n ni, ta i n kt qu
rng n l sai. Nhng nu ta gi s n l sai, th ta thot khi kh khn; v gi s ny ch
dn n kt qu rng khng phi tt c cc mnh l sai, ni cch khc, c cc mnh
no ng - t nht c mt. V kt qu ny l v hi; v n khng hm rng mnh
gc ca chng ta l mt trong cc mnh ng. (iu ny khng hm rng thc
ra chng ta c th xy dng mt ngn ng khng b nghch l trong cc mnh Tt
c cc mnh l sai v Tt c cc mnh l ng c th c trnh by).
Bt chp s thc rng mnh Tt c cc nh l sai ny thc s khng phi l
mt nghch l, n c th, do x giao, c gi l mt dng nghch l k ni di, bi s
ging nhau hin nhin ca n vi ci sau; v qu thc, cch trnh by Hy Lp c x ca
nghch l ny (Epimenides ngi Creta ni: Mi ngi Creta lun ni di), theo thut
ng ny, ng hn l mt dng ca nghch l k ni di, tc l mt mu thun hn l
mt nghch l. (So c ct. tip, v ct. 54 ch. ny, v vn bn).
(4) By gi ti s cho thy ngn gn s ging nhau gia nghch l k ni di v cc
nghch l v quyn t quyt khc nhau, th d, v nguyn l rng ngi gii nht hay
sng sut nht hay a s phi cai tr. (So ct. 6 ch. 7 v vn bn).
C. H. Langford m t cc cch khc nhau din t nghch l k ni di, gia
chng l cch sau. Ta xt hai mnh , do hai ngi, A v B, a ra.
A ni: Ci B ni l ng.
B ni: Ci A ni l sai.
Bng p dng phng php c m t trn, chng ta d dng thuyt phc mnh
rng mi trong hai cu ny l nghch l. By gi hy xt hai cu sau, m cu u l
nguyn l rng ngi sng sut nht phi cai tr:
(A) Nguyn l ni: Ci m ngi sng sut nht ni (B) phi l lut.
(B) Ngi sng sut nht ni: Ci m nguyn l ni (A) khng c l lut.
8
(1) Rng nguyn l v trnh mi gi nh trc l mt dng ca nghch l k ni
di theo ngha ca ct. 7 (3) trn, v v th t mu thun, s c thy d dng nu ta
m t n th ny. Mt trit gia bt u vic nghin cu ca mnh bng gi s nguyn l
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356
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357
358
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359
ch. ny) rng s trm ngm v, hay cm gic i vi, th gii nh mt ton b c gii
hn l mt cm gic thn b.
Mt cng trnh c tho lun nhiu mi y v ch ngha thn b v vai tr thch
ng ca n trong chnh tr l Grey Eminence ca Huxley. N l th ch yu v tc gi
c v khng nhn ra rng cu chuyn ring ca ng v nh thn b v chnh tr gia, Cha
Joseph, bc b thng thng lun im chnh ca cun sch ca ng. Lun im ny l,
o to v thc tin thn b l mn gio dc duy nht c bit, c kh nng m bo
cho con ngi c s o c v tn gio vng tuyt i cc k cn thit cho nhng
ngi c nh hng n chnh sch cng. Song cu chuyn ring ca ng cho thy Cha
Joseph, bt chp s o to ca cha, ri vo s cm d - s cm d thng thng ca
ngi nm quyn v cha khng c kh nng cng li; quyn lc tuyt i lm i
bi cha mt cch tuyt i. Tc l, bng chng lch s duy nht c tc gi trnh by
chi tit hon ton bc b lun im ca ng, m, tuy th, c v khng lm ng phin.
30
So F. Kafka, The Great Wall of China (E. Muir dch ra ting Anh, 1933), p. 236.
31
So c ct. 19 ch. ny.
32
So Tractatus ca Wittgenstein, p. 187: Khng phi th gii l th no, l thn b,
m n l th. Suy ngm v th gii sub specie aeterni [di dng bt dit] l s suy
ngm n nh mt ci ton th c gii hn. Cm gic v th gii nh mt ci ton th c
gii hn l cm gic thn b. Ta thy rng ch ngha thn b ca Wittgenstein l chnh
th lun in hnh. - V cc on khc ca Wittgenstein (loc. cit.) nh : Qu thc c
ci khng th din t c. iu ny l r; l thn b, so ph phn ca Carnap
Logical Syntax of Language (1937) ca ng, p. 314 f. So c ct. 25 ch. 25, v vn bn.
Xem c ct. 29 ch. ny v cc dn chiu cho .
33
So ch. 10, th d cc ct. 40, 41. Xu hng b lc v b truyn ca loi trit hc ny
c th c minh ho bng th d bi mt trch dn t H. Blueher (so Kolnai, The War
against the West, p. 74, ti nhn mnh): o C c dt khot l mt tn iu qu tc,
thot khi o c, khng th dy c. Nhng ngi C c bit ln nhau bi tp b
ngoi ca h; h to thnh mt nhm trong x hi nhng ngi chng bao gi thiu
hiu bit ln nhau, v l nhng ngi chng ai hiu c tr bn thn h. H to thnh
mt lin on b mt. Hn na, loi tnh yu hot ng trong o C c l loi ri sng
cc thnh ng ngoi o; n khng c quan h g vi s sng ch Do Thi v ci gi
l tnh yu nhn loi hay yu thng hng xm ca mnh. Mt th d khc l t sch
The Outlaws ca E. von Salomon (c trch c ct. 90 ch. 12; trch dn ny l t p.
240; ti nhn mnh): Chng ta nhn ra nhau ngay lp tc, mc d chng ta n t mi
phn ca ch, c nghe phong phanh v nhng x xt v nguy him.
34
Nhn xt ny khng c hiu theo mt ngha lch s ch ngha. Ti khng c
ni tin tri rng xung t s khng c vai tr g trong cc din bin tng lai. Ti ch
mun ni rng by gi chng ta c th hc c rng vn khng tn ti, hay c
tn ti, d sao i na, l khng quan trng khi so vi vn ca cc tn gio xu, nh
ch ngha ton tr hay ch ngha phn bit chng tc, m chng ta i mt.
35
Ti m ch n Principia Mathematica ca A. N. Whitehead v B. Russell. (Trong
Process and Reality, p. 10, n.1, Whitehead ni rng cc tho lun dn nhp hu nh l
do Russell, v trong ln xut bn th hai l hon ton nh vy).
36
So dn chiu ti Hegel (v nhiu ngi khc trong c Plato v Aristotle) trong
A. N. Whitehead, Process and Reality, p. 14.
37
So Whitehead, op. cit., pp. 18 f.
360
38
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/CH THCH
CHNG
49
/CH THCH
361
362
CHNG
/CH THCH
lm ngng s pht trin ca n, v nhng ngi cng c trc gic truyn cm hng,
nh Plato nhng bi mt trc gic khng c tnh hp l (theo ngha trong t ny
c dng ch. ny) kim tra. Xem c ct. cho Dn nhp.
59
So ct. 4 ch. 18.
CH THCH CHO CHNG 25
1
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/CH THCH
363
364
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/CH THCH
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/CH THCH
365
366
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/CH THCH
367
368
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/CH THCH
PH LC
I
CC S THC , CC TIU CHUN, V CHN L:
MT PH PHN THM V CH NGHA TNG I (1961)
*
Fact = s thc, c ngi dch l s kin. Trong bn dch ny, s kin = event.
Ti mang n su sc ph phn sc so ca Dr. William W. Bartley, khng ch gip ti
ci thin chng 24 ca cun sch ny (c bit trang 231) m cng khin ti a ra
nhng thay i quan trng trong ph lc ny.
2
Xem th d On the Sources of Knowledge and Ignorance, by gi l Dn nhp cho
cun Conjectures and Refutations ca ti v, c bit hn, Ch. 10 ca cun sch ; tt
nhin, c cun The Logic of Scientific Discovery ca ti na.
1
370
PH LC
371
372
PH LC
373
374
PH LC
375
376
PH LC
377
378
PH LC
379
380
PH LC
381
382
PH LC
383
384
PH LC
385
386
PH LC
387
388
PH LC
Hc t cc sai lm ca mnh khng c n i qu thc bun t cng l ngha ca kinh nghim c ng trong tiu lm ni ting
389
390
PH LC
391
khng nhn thy chn l khi chng ta c thuyt phc nht rng ta nhn
thy n; v ta phi hc, qua cc sai lm, ng vc cc trc gic ny.
Th th ta tin ci g? Chng ta chp nhn ci g? Cu tr li l: bt c
g ta chp nhn, chng ta phi ch tin mt cch thm d, khng dt khot,
lun lun nh rng, may nht, chng ta nm c mt phn chn l (hay
s ng n), v nht thit chng ta mc ch t sai lm hay nh gi sai
no u khng ch v cc s thc m c v cc chun mc
c chp nhn; th hai, ta nn tin (thm ch khng dt khot) trc gic
ca chng ta ch nu n n nh kt qu ca nhiu n lc dng tr tng
tng ca chng ta; ca nhiu sai lm, ca nhiu kim nghim, ca nhiu
nghi ng, v ca tm ti ph phn.
S thy rng dng ny ca phn-ch ngha trc gic (hay ai c th
ni, c l, ca ch ngha trc gic) l hon ton khc vi cc dng c ca
phn-ch ngha trc gic. V s thy rng c mt thnh phn c bn
trong l thuyt ny: tng rng chng ta c th c l lun lunkhng t ti tiu chun no v chn l tuyt i, hay tnh ng n
tuyt i, trong kin cng nh trong cc hnh ng ca chng ta.
C th phn i tt c iu ny rng, bt lun cc quan im ca ti v
bn tnh ca tri thc o c v kinh nghim o c c chp nhn c
hay khng, chng vn l tng i ch ngha hay ch quan ch ngha.
V chng khng xc lp bt c chun mc o c tuyt i no: may
nht chng cho thy tng v mt chun mc tuyt i l mt tng
iu tit, hu ch cho nhng ngi c ci bin ri nhng ngi
ho hc ri hc v, tm kim, cc chun mc o c ng hay
hp l hay tt. Tr li ca ti l ngay c s thit lp th d, bng logic
thun tu - ca mt chun mc tuyt i, hay mt h thng ca cc
chun mc o c, s chng to ra khc bit g v kha cnh ny. V gi
s ta thnh cng chng minh v logic tnh hp l ca mt tiu chun
tuyt i, hay mt h thng cc chum mc o c, nh th ta c th
chng minh v mt logic cho ai l anh ta nn hnh ng th no: ngay
c khi anh ta c th chng ; hay khc i anh ta c th tr li: Ti
chng h quan tm n ci nn ca anh, hay n cc quy tc o c
ca anh cng chng quan tm nhiu hn n cc chng minh logic ca
anh, hay th d, n ton hc cao cp ca anh. Nh th ngay c mt
chng minh logic cng khng th lm thay i tnh hnh c bn rng ch
anh ta, ngi sn sng coi cc th ny mt cch nghim tc v hc v
chng, mi s b n tng bi cc l l o c (hay bt c g khc).
Bng l l bn khng th buc bt c ai coi cc l l mt cch nghim tc,
hay tn trng l tr ca ring anh ta.
392
PH LC
393
394
PH LC
395
396
PH LC
Vi nm sau khi ti vit cun sch ny, ti bit cun sch The Red
Prussian v Marx ca Leopold Schwarzschild (do Margaret Wing dch:
London 1948). Ti khng nghi ng g rng Schwarzschild nhn Marx vi
con mt khng thin cm v thm ch th ch, v rng ng thng m t
Marx trong cc mu en nht c th. Nhng cho d cun sch khng
lun cng bng, n cha cc bng chng t liu, c bit t th t ca
Marx-Engels, cho thy rng Marx t nhn o hn, v t yu t do hn,
nh ng c m t trong sch ca ti. Schwarzschild m t ng nh
mt ngi thy trong giai cp v sn ch yu mt cng c cho tham
vng ring ca ng. Tuy iu ny c th din t vn cay nghit hn
l bng chng m bo, phi tha nhn rng bn thn bng chng gy
chong vng.
CH MC V TN
(i = tp 1, ii = tp 2)
Achilles, i, 327 f.
Acton, Lord, i, 137; ii, 303 f., 364.
Adam, J., i, 42, 83, 97, 141, 149, 206, 209,
212-14, 220 f., 223-5, 228 f., 236, 240,
242-6, 254, 257, 262 f., 273, 275 f., 282
f., 299, 301, 315; ii, 282.
Adeimantus, i, 258, 262 f.
Adler, A., ii, 100, 326, 352.
Aeschines, i, 304.
Agassi, J., i, x.
Agrippa Menenius, i, 294; ii, 305.
Alcibiades, i, 154, 191-3, 281 f., 296, 303.
Alcidamas, i, 70, 95, 114, 152, 185, 236,
261, 278, 294; ii, 282.
Alcmaeon, i, 79, 173, 242, 254, 294.
Alexander, S., ii, 305.
Alexander i , i, 236, 278 f.; ii, 2, 22,
50.
Al-Gazzli, ii, 363.
Anaximander, i, 189, 204-6, 211, 300 f.
Ancillon, ii, 43.
Anderson, E. N., ii, 53-5, 307, 310, 313-15.
Anderson, Maxwell, i, 336.
Antiphon Nh hng bin Rhamnus, i,
256, 296
Anthiphon Nh Sophist Athens, i, 69, 74,
95, 233, 236, 240, 256, 278, 294, 299.
Antisthenes, i, 95, 129, 152-4, 185, 194,
237, 241, 276-9, 282, 298, 311; ii, 21,
283, 292, 300-301.
Anytus, i, 192-4, 268.
Apollo, i, 328.
Aquinas, xem Thomas
Archelaus, i, 233.
Archimedes, i, 167; ii, 283.
Archytas, i, 196, 319.
Aristophanes, i, 182, 185, 218, 256, 307 f.,
310.
Aristotle, i, 10, 12, 16, 26, 28-31, 33, 38,
43, 70, 91 f., 96, 102, 112, 114, 180, 205,
207-9, 211-19, 222, 228 f., 231, 235-7,
240 f., 248 f., 253, 255 f., 258, 260 f.,
268, 273 f., 277 f., 280, 283, 294-6, 299
f., 308, 311, 314, 320 f.; ii, 1-18, 21, 26
f., 30, 36, 40, 50, 69, 75, 221, 281, 283-9,
292, 294 f., 299-303, 305-6, 308-11, 317,
325, 359.
Aristoxenus, i, 300.
398
CH MC V TN
Dalziel, Margaret, i, x.
Damon, i, 229 f.
Daniel (Nh Tin tri), i, 272.
Darwin, Charles, i, 314, 317; ii, 40, 212,
244.
Davies, J. L., i, 247, 258, 271, 313.
Democritus, i, 12, 185 f., 206, 233, 276,
278 f., 294, 299, 320; ii, 22, 26 f., 54,
299, 304-5.
Demos, i, 311.
Demosthenes, ii, 281.
Descartes, R., ii, 54, 301, 353, 363, 378.
Dickens, C., i, 100 f., 258, 271, 313; ii, 341.
Diels, H., i, 204, 206 f., 213, 230, 233, 235,
254, 259, 273, 279, 294, 299-301, 303,
319, 321; ii, 387.
Dilthey, W., ii, 358.
Dio, i, 136, 154, 200, 282, 316 f.
Diogenes, Ngi theo phi Cynic, i, 241,
278 f., 282; ii, 300.
Diogenes Laertius, i, 241, 279.
Dionysius (Gi), i, 18, 43, 283, 297, 304,
311.
Dionysius (Tr), i, 44, 136, 283, 303, 316.
Dirac, P. A. M., ii, 379.
Djilas, ii, 335.
Dropides, i, 208, 282.
Dudley, D. R., i, 277.
Duemmler, F., i, 277.
Duhem, P., ii, 362, 365.
Duns Scotus, ii, 353.
Durkheim, E., i, 175.
Eastman, M., i, 210, 284; ii, 320.
Eckhart, Thy, ii, 353.
Eddington, A. S., i, 237; ii, 244, 259, 362,
365.
Einstein, A., ii, 20, 27, 165, 220 f., 266,
289, 326, 360, 365.
Eisler, R., i, 204, 211, 227, 233, 242, 254,
256, 272, 282, 321; ii, 365.
Empedocles, i, 208 f., 214, 217 f.; ii, 285.
Empiricus, Sextus, xem Sextus.
Engels, F., i, 220; ii, 83, 100, 102, 105, 111,
118, 120, 154, 159-62, 164, 171 f., 187
CH MC V TN
f., 202 f., 205, 223, 326-330, 332-33, 338
9, 341 f., 346, 350, 360, 396.
England, E. B., i, 104, 216, 222 f., 259.
Epictetus, i, 279; ii, 301.
Epicurus, ii, 304.
Epimenides, ngi Creta, ii, 354.
Estabrooks, G. H., i, 317.
Euclid, i, 249, 251, 267, 319 f., 322.
Euken, W., ii, 346.
Euphacus, i, 268.
Eurastus, i, 268.
Eupirides, i, 70, 95, 185, 236, 259, 278 f.,
299.
Euthyphro, i, 197, 315.
Ewer, T. K., i, x.
Ewing, A. C., i, 246.
Falkenberg, R., ii, 305.
Faraday, M., ii, 244.
Farber, M., ii, 298.
Farrington, B., i, 217.
Ferdinand x o, ii, 310.
Feuerbach, A., ii, 201, 314, 322 f.
Fichte, I, H., ii, 316.
Fichte, J. G., i, 247, 280; ii, 21, 53-5, 58, 70
f., 81, 306-8, 313 f., 316, 319, 353.
Field, G. C., 88, 208, 210, 214 f., 236, 247,
260, 273, 277, 281, 307, 311, 313; ii,
281, 301.
Findlay, J. N., ii, 356.
Fisher, H. A. L., ii, 197, 351, 367 f.
Fite, W., i, 217, 313.
Fitzgerald, E., ii, 339.
Ford, H., ii, 341.
Foster, M. B., ii, 312, 366.
Fourier, C., ii, 194, 350.
Fowler, H., i, 326, 328.
Francis I x o, ii, 310.
Frederick II ca x Ph, i, 276, 304.
Frederick William III x Ph, ii, 31 f., 34 f.,
41, 43, 49, 55, 58, 307, 313.
Freud, S., i, 295, 313; ii, 100, 299, 352.
Freyer, A., ii, 64-6, 70, 316.
Fried, M., ii, 309.
Friedlein, G., i, 320.
Fries, J. F., ii, 27, 309.
Fritz, Kurt von, i, 277.
Galiani, Abb, ii, 351.
Galileo, G., i, 319; 42, 252.
Gandhi, ii, 272.
399
400
CH MC V TN
CH MC V TN
Linddell, H. G., and Scott, R., i, 327, 341.
Lindsay, A. D. (Lord), i, 221, 271, 275-7,
288.
Lippmann, W., i, 203; ii, Motto, 81, 128,
331.
Livy, i,294.
Locke, J., ii, 54, 287, 295, 301, 304, 363.
Loewe, A., ii, 351.
Loewenberg, J., ii, 286, 305-6, 308.
Loyola, I, Thnh, ii, 257, 361
Lucian, i, 205.
Lucretius, ii, 304.
Ludendorff, Tng von, ii, 70, 316.
Lummer, O., ii, 365.
Luther, Martin, ii, 201, 351.
Lutoslawski, W., i, 312.
Lybyer, A. H., i, 227.
Lycophron, i, 70, 76, 95, 114-17, 152, 185,
236, 241, 261 f., 273, 278, 294, 315; ii,
282, 310.
Lycurgus, i, 256.
Lysander, i, 184, 304.
Lysias, i, 296.
Mabbott, J. D., i, x, 211.
Macaulay, T. B. (Lord), i, 264.
Machiavelli, N., i, 221, 230; ii, 323, 325.
MacIver, R. M., i, 216.
Macleod, W. C., i, 230.
Macmurray, J., ii, 243 f., 269, 273, 358,
365.
MacTaggart, John MacT. E., i, 314; ii, 29,
358.
Magee, B., i, x, 210, 286; ii, 321, 335.
Malebranche, ii, 299.
Malinowski, ii, 322.
Malthus, T. R., i, 314.
Mannheim, H., i, 288.
Martin du Gard, R., xem Gard.
Marx, K., i, viii, ix, 9, 10, 38, 40, 164, 203,
216, 220 f., 241; ii, 1, 61, 81-9, 93 f., 98128, 130, 133-136, 138-50, 152-5, 159,
164, 166-190, 193 f., 196-205, 207 f.,
211 f., 214, 224, 241, 252-5, 274, 316,
318-352, 360-1, 396.
Masaryk, T. G., ii, 51, 312, 319.
Matthew, Thnh, ii, 302, 358.
Meletus, i, 234.
Mendelssohn, M., ii, 308, 360
Menger, A., ii, 321.
Menger, K., i, 234; 290, 325.
401
402
CH MC V TN
CH MC V TN
Schwegler, F., C. A., ii, 33 f., 307.
Scott, R., xem Linddell, H. G.
Scott, R. F., Thuyn trng, ii, 75.
Sextus Empiricus, ii, 363.
Shakespeare, W., i, 246, 294; ii, 32, 283.
Shaw, G. B., i, 246, 294; ii, 62, 232 f., 315.
Shelley, P. B., i, 153.
Sherrington, C., i, 233, 258 f.
Shorey, P., i, 327, 334-6, 338.
Sibree, J., ii, 286, 312.
Sidgwick, H., ii, 361.
Simkhovitch, V. G., i, 298.
Simkin, C. G. F., i, x, 211, 285; ii, 348,
350.
Simmel, G., i, 216.
Simplicius, i, 214, 247, 312; ii, 300.
Smith, A., ii, 170, 187, 346, 350.
Smith, M. Campbell, i, 270, 276.
Socrates, i, 18, 29 f., 34, 42, 52, 61, 66 f.,
69, 72, 76, 95, 97-9, 104-6, 109, 116 f.,
128-34, 137-9, 143 f., 150-2, 154-6, 166,
185, 188-97, 199 f., 210, 214 f., 221 f.,
229, 262 f., 266-8, 272 f., 277-9, 282 f.,
296, 299-314, 317, 321 f., 330-2; ii, 21-3,
42, 224, 227, 236, 244, 276, 283, 301,
303, 314, 353, 361.
Socrates Tr, i, 329.
Solon, i, 19, 60, 208.
Sophocles, i, 185, 299.
Spearman, D., i, 343.
Spencer, H., i, 35.
Spengler, O., i, 55, 231 f., 280; ii, 71, 76,
197, 316 f.
Speusippus, i, 217, 235; ii, 5, 36, 285.
Spinoza, B. de, i, 260; ii, 54, 306, 308, 353.
Stafford Hatfield, H., xem Hatfield.
Stapel, W., ii, 72, 76, 317.
Stebbing, L. S., ii, 358.
Stern, G. B., i, 284.
Stevenson, C. L., i, 247.
Stewart, J. A., i, 292.
Stirling, J. H., ii, 27, 29, 33 f., 307.
Strabo, i, 268; ii, 303.
Tarn, W. W., i, 224, 236, 278 f., 281, 299.
Tarski, A., i, 216, 234, 273 f.; ii, 290, 294,
356, 362-3, 369 f., 373 f., 376.
Taylor, A. E., i, 153, 204, 210, 215, 224 f.,
244 f., 262, 282, 284, 303-8, 311 f., 330;
ii, 283.
Teutames, i, 13.
403
Thales, i, 204.
Theaetetus, i, 321 f.
Theages, i, 154.
Themistocles, i, 178.
Theophrastus, i, 212, 214, 312; ii, 300.
Theopompus, ii, 300, 301.
Theramenes, i, 303.
Thomas Aquinas, i, 237, 316; ii, 237.
Thrasybulus, i, 192.
Thrasymachus, i, 69, 105 f., 116-18, 184,
262 f., 303.
Thucydides, i, 95, 178-81, 183-5, 187, 192,
221, 228, 255 f., 283, 295 f., 299 f.
Timochares, i, 254.
Tocqueville, A. de, i, 159, 286.
Townsend, J., ii, 200, 300, 351.
Toynbee, A. J., i, 221, 226 f., 230-232, 268,
294 f., 298; ii, 23, 251-8, 302-4, 358,
360-1, 367.
Treitschke, H. von, ii, 65, 67, 316.
Twain, M., i, 270.
Ueberweg, F., i, 205, 321.
Urey, H. C., ii, 374.
Vaughan, C. E., i, 247, 258, 271, 313; ii,
311.
Veblen, T., i, 231.
Vico, G., i, 221; ii, 306.
Vicrkandt, A., i, 216.
Viner, J., i, x, 314; ii, 321, 345, 347, 349.
Voltaire, i, 293, 304; ii, 205.
Wagner, Richard, i, 230; ii, 32, 211.
Waismann, F., ii, 299.
Wallace, G., ii, 305.
Wallas, G., i, 203.
Webb, L., ii, 358.
Webb, Sidney and Beatrice, i, 210; ii, 320.
Weber, Alfred, ii, 352.
Weber, Max, i, 216; ii, 97, 292, 325, 364-5.
Weber (ngi dch Vico), ii, 306.
Wells, H. G., i, 258; ii, 351, 357.
Whitehead, A. N., ii, 231, 247-50, 305, 357,
359-60.
Wiener, N., i, 232.
Wilde, O., ii, 388.
Wilson, Woodrow, ii, 50 f., 319.
Winckelmann, J. J., ii, 313.
Wing, M., ii, 396.
Winspear, A. D., i, 217, 267, 315.
404
CH MC V TN
CH MC V NI DUNG
S trang in nghing biu th rng dn chiu c tm quan trng c bit. Ch t, c
ngha l thut ng, c t sau mt s trang, biu th rng ngha ca thut ng
c tho lun. Ch n c ngha l ch thch. (i = tp 1, ii = tp 2)
A
Ai Cp; Egypt, i, 224, 231, 275; ii, 320,
326.
alogos, i, 320.
an ninh; security, 111, 198, 201, 315; ii,
130, 132, 194.
anh hng, s sng bi ~, ch ngha ~;
hero worship, heroism, ii, 67-70, 73-5,
270, 271, 276.
Anh, nc; England, ii, 140, 182, 331
(xem c gio dc); Haeckel ni v, ii,
315; Hegel ni v, ii, 57, 64, 314, 330
(so ii, 34); Marx, Engels v Lenin ni
v, ii, 135-6, 154-5, 187-8, 328, 338,
340, 341.
nh hng ng phng, nhng; oriental
influences, i, 11, 204, 231, 233, 242,
272, 300; ii, 22.
Aristotle, ii, 1-7, ch. 11 (I), 281, 284-295,
301; tnh tr tro ca, cynicism of, i,
273, 296, ii, 303; nh hng ca,
influcence of, i, 236, ii, 4, 7, 27, 283;
nh hng ca Plato ln, Platos
influence on, i, 217, ii, 11, 282, 285.
Athens, i, 46, 177-83, ch. 10 (II), 228,
256, 325 f., 334; thnh kin chng, bias
against, i, 228, 296-7, ch. 10, n. 15;
Trng hc ca Hy Lp c, School of
Hellas, i, 181, 187; phong tro
Athenian chng s n l, xem n l;
Hi Bn hu ca Laconia, Society of
Friends of Laconia, i, 179, 180, 183,
187.
antinomy (ca Kant), xem tng phn.
n chung, cc ba; common meals, i, 48,
259.
m mu, l thuyt ~ v x hi;
conspiracy theory of society, ii, 94t,
95, 101, 133, 330.
B
Ba mi Bo cha; Thirty Tyrants, i, 18,
128, 142, 192, 193, 195, 200, 266, 299,
300-4, 326, ch. 10, n. 48.
Babbitt (S. Lewis), i, 316.
Bi n, ch ngha, xem ch ngha bi n.
bn cht lun; essentialism, ii, 9-21.
bn cht; essence, i, 29, 31, ii, 5-8, 13
(xem c nh ngha, bn cht lun
phng php lun); Aristotle, ii, 6, 912, 288-9, 362; Hegel, ii, 36;
Heidegger, ii, 77; Marx, ii, 107, 177,
319, 326, 328-9, 346-7; Plato, i, 28-30,
74, 75, 200; Socrates, i, 29-30 (tuy vy
xem ii, 301).
bn a, autochthonous, xem huyn thoi
v ngi sinh ra t t.
bo lc; violence, i, 331, 336; ii, 143,
149-52, ch. 19 (II); s nhp nhng ca
Marx v nhng ngi Marxist v, ii,
150, 154, 156, 157, ch. 19 (IV), 342-3;
kinh t, ii, 124-5; v ch ngha phi duy
l, ii, 212, 234, 257.
bn cng, xem kh cc.
b truyn, ch ngha, thuyt; esotericism,
241, 299.
bin chng, php, ; dialectics, Do Thi,
ii, 302; ca Hegel, ii, 28, 37t-39, 42,
309, 341; ca Kant, ii, 308; ca Marx,
ii, 88, 102, 138, 320, 334, 340; ca
Plato, i, 133, 274-5, ii, 11.
bit mnh; know thyself: hc thuyt ca
Socrates, ch. 7, n. 26; i, 228-30, 266,
269 (so i, 129, 146, 287); s xuyn tc
ca Plato, i, 132, 137; xem c
sophocracy, trit tr.
bnh ng; equality; ii, 234, 278, 357;
hnh thc, ii, 342; s hc v hnh hc,
406
CH MC NI DUNG
cm k, tc cm k; taboo, tabooism, i,
15, 60, 65, 148, 172, 173, 300, ii, 302
(xem c ch ngha b lc).
cn bng x hi; social equilibrium, i, 469, ch. 4(III), 52.
cp tin, xem thuyt cp tin.
chc chn, truy tm s; quest for
certainty, ii, 375.
chn l; truth, i, 273-4, ii, 221, 261, 36996 (xem c ng ngha hc); l thuyt
ca Hegel v, i, 144, 274, ii, 41-2, 60,
68; l thuyt ca Plato v, i, 143-4;
khoa hc v, ii, 12-13, 20, 221, 244,
261, 263, 363-4; thc dng, i, 274.
ch chuyn ch; tyranny, i, 124-5,
151-2, 159, 235, 315, ii, 160-1, 306,
342; Plato chng li, i, 40-4, 123, 170,
198, 200, 315 (xem tuy vy 317); Plato
ni v s khng th trnh khi ca
chin tranh di ~, i, 43, 198; Plato ni
v ch chuyn ch v k thut
Khng tng, i, 44, 222.
ch c ti, xem ch chuyn ch.
ch qun ch; monarchy, ii, 2; Hegel
ni v, ii, 45-7, 312; Plato ni v, i,
222, 283.
ch qu tc, xem qu tc
ch ti phit; plutocracy, Plato ni v,
i, 256, 267, 316.
Cht en, ci; Black Death, ii, 25.
chim tinh, thut; astrology, i, 210, 244
(so ii, 279, 304).
Chin tranh; War, xem quan h quc t;
Ni chin M, ii, 329; v kinh t, ii,
105; tn gio, ii, 237, 244; Th chin I,
ii, 116; Th chin II, i, viii; Hegel ni
v, ii, 37, 58, 65, 68-9 (xem c danh
ting v nh mnh); Heraclitus ni v,
i, 16 (xem c danh ting v nh
mnh); Kolnai ni v, ii, 72; Plato ni
v, i, 43, 198, 259.
Ch d Glauconic; the Glauconic edict,
i, 150t, 151.
chnh th lun; holism, i, 80t, 100 (xem
c cc c nhn v x hi; ch ngha
thn b; thuyt trc gic); Hegel, ii, 69,
305, 310, 315; Heraclitus, i, 16; Marx,
CH MC NI DUNG
407
408
CH MC NI DUNG
CH MC NI DUNG
409
410
CH MC NI DUNG
CH MC NI DUNG
411
412
CH MC NI DUNG
CH MC NI DUNG
413
414
CH MC NI DUNG
CH MC NI DUNG
415
416
CH MC NI DUNG
CH MC NI DUNG
417
418
CH MC NI DUNG
CH MC NI DUNG
419
420
CH MC NI DUNG
CH MC NI DUNG
421
422
CH MC NI DUNG
T
tm hn, xem linh hn.
Tm l hc; psychology, ii, 97-8.
tng dn s; population increase, i, 245,
295.
tp th, ch ngha, xem ch ngha tp th.
thanh ton, thanh trng; liquidation,
Plato ni v, i, 166; ngha hin i
ca, i, 292.
thnh kin; prejudice, i, 129, 267, ii, 217,
220-3, 226, 318.
thao tc, thuyt; operationalism, ii, 296.
thay i lin tc, xem dng chy.
thay i; change, i, 314, ii, 212; l thuyt
ca Heraclitus v, i, 12, 14, 204, 205
(xem c dng chy); l thuyt ca Plato
v lm ngng ~, i, 21, ch. 3 (III), 37,
38, 86, 146, 218, ch. 4, n.3, 268, 318;
v ngng, ngh, Plato ni v, 36, 37,
ch. 4(I), 276, 317 (xem c suy tn;
dng chy); vn v khi u ca, i,
39, 81, 219, 220; Aristotle ni v, ii, 4,
5, 7, 285, 286; Hegel ni v, i, 314-315
(xem c php bin chng Hegel).
Thm m hc; aesthetics, i, 230, 292, ii,
210, 211, 302, 365-6;; v o c hc,
65, 165, 292, ii, 210, 357; v ch ngha
thn b, ii, 243, 246.
Thm m, ch ngha, tnh; aestheticism, i,
165t, 167, 292, ii, 302; ca Plato; i, 78,
145, 165 (xem c lm sch bc vi
v).
thn diu, ma thut; magic, i, 15, 57, 60,
148, 172, 206 (xem c cc cm k).
Thn thoi, Myth, xem Huyn thoi.
Thn, Thng , Cha; God (xem
thuyt mt thn); Antisthenes ni v, i,
276, 278; Aristotle ni v, ii, 285; Plato
ni v, i, 213, 276, ii, 283; ch ca, v
ch ngha lch s, i, 8, 24.
tht nghip; unemployment, ii, 168-9,
178, 180-2, 194, 195; bo him, ii, 140,
182, 183; v chu k thng mi, ii, 348.
th (nh) ch, cc; institutions, ii, 90;
quc t, i, 288-9; chnh tr, i, 109, 121,
123, 125, ii, 130; x hi, i, 23, 67, 125,
ch. 7(III), 159, 172, 173, 294, ii, 85, 90,
CH MC NI DUNG
423
424
CH MC NI DUNG
CH MC NI DUNG
425
426
CH MC NI DUNG
Y
y hc; medicine, nguyn l ca, ii, 276;
Plato ni v, i, 138-39, 270, 316, ii,
357.
ch chung; general will, ii, 52, 81.
ngha, l thuyt v, theory of meaning,
xem ch ngha thc chng.
ngha ca lch s meaning of history, ii,
278-80, 364, 366.
nim, cc; ideas, ca Plato nh cha ca
cc s vt cm nhn c, i, 211-15,
ch. 3, n. 15, 219-220, 274 (xem c
khng gian, nh m ca cc s vt c
th cm nhn c); Platonic, khng
phi Socratic, ngun gc ca l thuyt
ca Plato v, i, 210, 215 (xem c Bng
Pythagorean v cc i lp; Vn
Socratic); vn ca ngi th ba, i,
220; cc giai on pht trin ca, i,
214-15, ch. 3, n. 26, 219-20; nh cc
tam gic, i, 253, 319 f. (xem c thm
m hc); Antisthenes tn cng l thuyt
ca Plato, ii, 299; Aristotle sa i l
thuyt ca Plato, ii, 5, 6, 286, 301;
Hegel bp mo l thuyt ca Plato, ii,
40-1, 325.
Karl R. Popper
X hi M v nhng K th ca n
HEGEL V MARX
Mt tc phm quan trng loi mt nn c c rng ri v s ph bnh ti gii
ca n i vi cc k th ca dn ch, c xa v hin i.Bertrand Russell
c l l quyn sch th v, c o, v tht s quan trng nht xut hin
trong nhiu nm [N], c ton b hay mt phn, cng l mt tng quan v
trit hc Hy Lp v trit hc hin i k t Kant, mt tiu lun v logic kho
cu, mt chuyn lun v ngh thut cai tr, mt thm vn cc mc tiu ca cc
khoa hc x hi, mt lch s v s ni ln v sp ca Athens, mt ph phn
trit hc hnh thc i vi ch ngha duy tm, mt phn tch thc h ca ch
ngha pht xt v s thnh cng trn khp ca n, mt nghin cu v ngha
ca Marx, mt kho tng quan li lc, v mt s bo v, v trong nhiu phng
din l tm gng, v s sng sa, phng php khoa hc, v th tc dn ch.
Khng ngi bit suy ngh no c th b qua cun sch ca Popper.
Joseph Kraft, The Nation
Thnh tu ca Popper l tuyt diu v kp thi Ti coi cun sch ca ng
nh cng trnh vt tri quan trng nht v x hi hc ng thi.
Hugh Trevor-Roper, Polemic
Mt tc phm ln v trit hc x hi ng thi. Kt hp t duy sng t ca
mt nh khoa hc lnh ngh vi s trnh by d hiu, Popper vit mt cun
sch su sc v khiu khch khc thng. Hans Kohn, Yale Review
uyn bc, lp lun ti tnh v c vit nhit thnh Popper vit mt
cun sch kch thch mt cch khc thng.
Sidney Hook, New York Times
KARL R. POPPER sinh 1902 Vin, nc o, cui cc nm 1930 ng di c
sang New Zeland, sau nh c Anh. Cc tc phm chnh ca ng l The
Logic of Scientific Discovery, S Khn cng ca Ch ngha Lch s, X hi M,
v Conjectures and Refutations. ng c nh gi l trit gia ln nht ca th
k XX.