Xa Hoi Mo Va Nhung Ke Thu Cua No (Tap 1) PDF

T sch SOS2
KARL R. POPPER
X Hi M v
Nhng K th ca N
1 Plato
KARL R. POPPER
X Hi M v
Nhng K th ca N
Tp I
BA M CA PLATO
Ngi dch: Nguyn Quang A
The Open Society

and Its Enemies
by KARL R. POPPER
Volume I
THE SPELL OF PLATO
PRINCETON UNIVERSITY PRESS

PRINCETON, NEW JERSEY
S thy rng nhng ngi Erewhonian

l nhng ngi d bo v nhn nhc, d b
dt mi, v d hin lng tri trc in
th logic, khi mt trit gia ni ln gia h,
ngi cun h theobng cch thuyt
phc h rng cc nh ch hin hnh ca
h khng da trn cc nguyn l nghim
ngt nht ca o c.
SAMUEL BUTLER
Trong ng i ca mnh ti bit v, theo nh

gi ca ti, hp tc vi nhng ngi v i; v
ti chng bao gi thy bt k k hoch no
khng c tu sa bi nhng bnh phm ca nhng
ngi thp km v hiu bit hn nhiu so vi ngi
dn u trong cng vic.
EDMUND BURKE
LI GII THIU
Bn c cm trn tay cun th mi* ca t sch SOS2, tp I
ca cun X hi M v nhng K th ca n ca Karl Popper.
C th ni cun sch ny l minh ho v nh hng dai dng
v nguy hi ca cc t tng lch s ch ngha c phn tch
k [v l thuyt] trong S Khn cng ca Ch ngha lch s
ca ng bng cc s kin v t liu lch s t Plato n Hegel
v Marx. Cun sch ny cng c xut x t cc nm 1930 v
ln u tin c xut bn vo nm 1943. Tp I ny bn v
trit hc c Hy Lp v ch yu v Plato.
Cun sch c ting vang ln, v gy ra s phn n d
di t pha cc nh Platonist. Ti ngh n cng s gy tranh
lun trong gii hc gi Vit Nam na, nhng c l Tp I
khng nhiu nh Tp II, tp bn n Hegel v Marx, cc tc
gi c nhiu hc gi Vit Nam bit n.
Khi dch xong phn vn bn v mt phn ch thch ca
tp I, ti c anh Nguyn c Mu Vin Vn hc cho bit
cun sch ny v cun Logic of Scientific Discovery c
dch ra ting Vit, v anh vui lng cho ti mt bn sao.
Nhn b ngoi c th thy sch c dch t lu, khng r
ai dch hay c quan no t chc dch. Theo anh Mu c l
nhm nghin cu ca Nguyn Hng Phong dch. Tuy vy
khng thy c bn dch ca Tp I. Sau khi dch hai chng
u ca tp II (t bn ting Anh) v so vi bn dch (chc
*
Cc quyn trc gm:

1. J. Kornai: Con ng dn ti nn kinh t th trng, Hi Tin hc
Vit Nam 2001, Nh Xut bn Vn ho Thng tin (NXB VHTT)
2002.
2. J. Kornai: H thng X hi ch ngha, NXB Vn ho Thng tin
2002
3. J. Kornai- K. Eggleston: Chm sc sc kho cng ng, NXB
VHTT 2002
4. G. Soros: Gi kim thut ti chnh, sp xut bn
5. H. de Soto: S b n ca t bn, sp xut bn
6. J. E. Stiglitz: Ch ngha x hi i v u? sp xut bn
7. F.A. Hayek: Con ng dn ti ch nng n, sp xut bn
8. G. Soros: X hi M, sp xut bn
9. K. Popper: S Khn cng ca Ch ngha lch s, sp xut bn.
t bn ting Php) ti quyt nh t mnh dch nt c tp II.

t nht n cng mang li thm mt s la chn khc cho bn
c. V nh gi cui cng l ca bn c.
Plato l trit gia v i nht trong cc trit gia t trc n
nay, nh chnh Popper tha nhn. Song chnh v nh hng to
ln ca ng n s pht trin ca nhn loi nn cng quan
trng hn i ch ra cc nh hng xu ca ng, mt cng vic
kh khn v thng c coi l phm thng m Popper
dng cm m ng.
Cun sch khng d c. Soros cng thy vn Popper
lng cng vi cc ch ngha v thuyt [Soros, X hi M
p. 122]. Ngi dch c ht sc lm cho bn dch c
chnh xc v d c hn, song do hiu bit c hn nn kh th
trnh khi sai st. Phn ch mc ni dung, mi mc chnh,
c km theo thut ng ting Anh bn c tin tham kho.
Tn cc tc phm m ti khng chc c dch ra ting
Vit c nguyn nh nguyn bn bn c tin tham
kho. Tn ngi cng c nguyn, khng phin m, ring
Plato cng c nhiu ngi gi l Platon, theo cch dng
trong ting Php, bn dch ny dng Plato nh trong ting
Anh. Mt s tnh t c to ra t cc tn ring nh Marx
Marxian, Pythagoras Pythagorean, Athens Athenian,
Socrates-Socratic, Plato-Platonic, v.v. c nguyn nh
trong ting Anh. Bn c lu phn bit tn ngi ring
nh Gorgias vi Gorgias l mt tc phm i thoi ca Plato.
Tn tc phm lun c in nghing.
Mi ch thch ca tc gi c nh bng s. Tt c cc
ch thch nh du sao (*) l ca ngi dch [Du * cn c
tc gi s dng trong phn ch thch, song s khng b ln vi
ch thch c nh du sao]. Bn dch chc cn nhiu thiu
st mong bn c thng cm, lng th, v ch bo; xin lin
h theo a ch Tp ch Tin hc v i sng, 54 Hong Ngc
Phch H Ni [25/B7 Nam Thnh Cng], hoc qua in th
thds@hn.vnn.vn hay nqa@netnam.vn
H Ni 11-2004
Nguyn Quang A
X HI M V NHNG K TH CA N
DN NHP
Ti khng mun che du s thc rng ti ch c th nhn vi
mi c cm ln tnh kiu cng dng dng t c ca tt
c cc tp sch c nhi y s uyn thm, nh ang l mt
thi thng hin nay. V ti hon ton tin rngcc phng
php c chp nhn hn lm tng v hn nhng iu nc
ci v ng ngn ny, v rng ngay c s th tiu hon ton
tt c nhng thnh tu k cc ny c l c th khng tai hi
nh khoa hc h cu ny vi s mu m ng ght ca n.
KANT.
Cun sch ny nu ra cc vn c th khng hin nhin t bng mc
lc.
N phc ho mt s kh khn i mt vi nn vn minh ca chng tamt nn vn minh c l c th c m t nh hng n tnh nhn o
v tnh hp l, n s bnh ng v quyn t do; mt nn vn minh, c
th ni, vn cn phi thai v tip tc pht trin bt chp s thc l n
rt thng xuyn b rt nhiu lnh t tr tu ca nhn loi phn bi. N c
gng ch ra rng nn vn minh ny vn cha hi phc t c sc sinh
thnh ca n- qu t x hi b lc hay x hi ng, vi s qui phc
trc cc lc lng ma thut, sang x hi m gii phng nng lc ph
phn ca con ngi. N c gng chng t rng c sc ca qu ny l
mt trong nhng nhn t lm cho s ni ln ca cc phong tro phn
ng- c, v vn c, p nn vn minh v quay li vi tp qun
b lc- l c th. V n gi rng ci ngy nay chng ta gi l ch ngha
ton tr thuc v mt truyn thng, ng l c xa hay ng l non tr
nh bn thn nn vn minh ca chng ta.
N c gng bng cch y ng gp cho s hiu bit ca chng ta v
ch ngha ton tr, v v tm quan trng ca cuc chin mun tha chng
li n.
N c kho st thm vic p dng cc phng php ph phn v duy l
ca khoa hc vo cc vn ca x hi m. N phn tch cc nguyn l
ca s ti thit x hi dn ch, cc nguyn l ca ci ti c th gi l ci
bin x hi tng phn- piecemeal social engineering i lp vi ci
bin x hi Khng tng Utopian social engineering (nh c gii
thch Chng 9). V n c dn i mt s tr ngi ngn cn cch tip
cn duy l n cc vn ti thit x hi. N lm nh vy bng cch ph
phn cc trit l x hi, trit l chu trch nhim v nh kin ph bin
chng li cc kh nng ca ci cch dn ch. Hng mnh nht trong cc
DN NHP
trit l ny l trit l m ti gi l ch ngha lch s. Cu chuyn v s

ni ln v nh hng ca mt s dng quan trng ca ch ngha lch s l
mt trong nhng ti chnh ca cun sch, nhng ci c th thm ch
c m t nh mt su tp cc ghi ch bn l v s pht trin ca cc
trit l lch s ch ngha no . Vi nhn xt v xut x ca cun sch s
trnh by ngn gn ch ngha lch s c ngha l g v n lin h ra sao
vi cc vn khc c nhc ti.
Mc d ti ch yu quan tm n cc phng php ca vt l hc (v v
vy n cc vn k thut nht nh, rt xa cc vn c tho lun
cun sch ny), ti cng quan tm trong nhiu nm n vn v tnh
trng khng c tho mn lm ca mt s khoa hc x hi v c bit
ca trit hc x hi. iu ny, tt nhin, lm ny sinh vn v cc
phng php ca chng. S quan tm ca ti n vn ny c kch
thch mnh bi s ni ln ca ch ngha ton tr v bi s tht bi ca cc
khoa hc x hi v trit hc x hi khc nhau lm cho n c ngha.
V iu ny, mt im ni ln c bit cp bch i vi ti.
Ta nghe qu thng xuyn v gi rng dng ny hay dng kia ca
ch ngha ton tr l khng th trnh khi. Nhiu ngi, do tr thng
minh v s o to ca h, phi chu trch nhim v ci m h ni, tuyn
b rng khng c li thot no khi n. H hi liu chng ta c tht
u tr tin rng dn ch c th l vnh cu hay khng; liu chng ta
khng thy rng n ch l mt trong nhiu dng ca chnh ph n v i
trong tin trnh lch s hay khng. H l l rng dn ch, chng li ch
ngha ton tr, buc phi sao chp cc phng php ca n v nh vy t
tr thnh ton tr. Hoc h khng nh rng h thng cng nghip ca
chng ta khng th tip tc hot ng m khng chp nhn cc phng
php k hoch ho tp th, v h suy ra t tnh khng th trnh khi ca
mt h thng kinh t tp th rng s chp thun cc hnh thc ton tr ca
cuc sng x hi l cng khng th trnh khi.
Cc l l nh vy nghe c v kh hp l. Song v hp l khng phi l
mt ch dn tin cy trong nhng vn nh vy. Thc ra, khng nn i
tho lun cc l l ch c v hp l ny trc khi xt vn sau v
phng php: Liu c trong phm vi nng lc ca bt k khoa hc x hi
no a ra cc li tin tri lch s bao qut n vy khng? Chng ta c
th mong i c c tr li nhiu hn tr li v trch nhim ca thy
bi nu chng ta hi mt ngi: tng lai d tr ci g cho nhn loi?
DN NHP
y l mt cu hi v phng php ca cc khoa hc x hi. N r

rng l cn bn hn bt k ph phn no ca bt k l l no c vin
dn ng h bt k li tin tri lch s no.
Kho st t m cu hi ny dn ti n nim tin chc chn rng cc
li tin tri lch s bao qut nh vy l hon ton nm ngoi phm vi ca
phng php khoa hc. Tng lai ph thuc vo bn thn chng ta, v
chng ta khng ph thuc vo bt k tt yu lch s no. Tuy vy, c cc
trit l x hi c nh hng gi quan im ngc li. H cho rng mi
ngi c dng u c ca mnh tin on cc s kin sp xy ra; rng
d nhin l chnh ng cho mt nh chin lc c gng thy trc kt
qu ca mt cuc chin; v rng cc ng ranh gii gia mt d on
nh vy v cc li tin tri lch s bao qut l d thay i. H khng nh
rng nhim v ca khoa hc ni chung l a ra cc tin on, hay
ng hn, ci thin cc d on hng ngy ca chng ta, v t
chng trn nhng c s chc chn hn; v rng, c bit, chnh nhim v
ca cc khoa hc x hi l cho chng ta nhng li tin tri lch s di hn.
H cng tin rng h khm ph ra cc qui lut ca lch s, cc qui lut
cho php h tin tri din tin ca cc s kin lch s. Cc trit l x hi
khc nhau nu ra cc i hi loi ny, c ti nhm li vi nhau di
ci tn ch ngha lch s. ni khc, trong S Khn cng ca Ch ngha
Lch s, ti th l l chng li cc i hi ny, v chng t rng bt
chp v hp l ca chng, chng da vo s hiu sai th thin v phng
php khoa hc, v c bit vo s b qua s phn bit gia tin on
khoa hc v tin tri lch s. Trong khi bn phn tch v ph phn mt
cch c h thng cc i hi ca ch ngha lch s, ti cng c thu
thp mt s ti liu minh ho s pht trin ca n. Nhng nghi ch
c thu thp cho mc ch tr thnh c s cho cun sch ny.
Phn tch c h thng ch ngha lch s nhm ti ci g ging a v
khoa hc. Cun sch ny th khng. Nhiu kin c by t mang tnh
c nhn. Ci n hm n phng php khoa hc ch yu l thc v cc
hn ch ca n: n khng cho cc chng minh ni chng g c th c
chng minh, n cng khng lm ra v l khoa hc ni n khng th em
li nhiu hn mt quan im c nhn. N khng c thay cc h thng
trit hc c bng mt h thng mi. N khng c a thm vo tt c cc
tp sch nhi y s uyn thm ny, vo siu hnh hc v lch s v vn
mnh, nh ang thi thng hin nay. ng hn n c chng t rng s
uyn thm tin tri ny l c hi, rng siu hnh hc v lch s cn tr vic
p dng cc phng php tng phn ca khoa hc vo cc vn ci
DN NHP
cch. V n c hn chng t, chng ta c th l ngi kin to s

phn ca mnh khi thi lm b nh cc nh tin tri v n.
Ln theo s pht trin ca ch ngha lch s, ti thy rng tp qun
nguy him ca tin tri lch s, rt ph bin gia cc lnh t tr tu ca
chng ta, c cc chc nng khc nhau. Lun l s hnh din thuc v
ni gii ca nhng ngi bit b mt ring, v c quyn nng t xut
v tin on din tin ca lch s. Ngoi ra, c mt truyn thng l cc
th lnh tr tu c ph cho cc quyn nng nh vy, v khng chim
ot chng c th dn n mt a v x hi. Mt khc, mi nguy him b
lt mt n ca h nh nhng k bp bm l rt nh, v h lun c th ch
ra l chc chn c th cho php a ra cc tin on t bao qut hn; v
ranh gii gia nhng ci ny v li bi da vo im bo l d thay i.
Nhng i khi c cc ng c thm v c l su hn gi cc nim
tin lch s ch ngha. Cc nh tin tri, ngi on trc s n ca mt
thi i hong kim, c th biu l tnh cm su sc v s bt mn; v cc
c m ca h thc ra c th cho mt s ngi nim hi vng v nim c
v, nhng ngi kh c th hot ng m khng c chng. Nhng chng
ta cng phi nhn ra l nh hng ca h c th ngn cn chng ta i
mt vi cc nhim v hng ngy ca i sng x hi. V cc nh tin tri
th yu, ngi tuyn b rng cc s kin no , th d mt s sa ng
vo ch ngha ton tr (hay c l ch ngha qun l), nht thit xy ra, c
th, d h c thch hay khng, l cng c gy ra cc s kin ny. Cu
chuyn ca h rng dn ch khng ko di mi mi l cng ng, v
cng chng quan trng, nh khng nh rng l tr con ngi khng ko
di mi mi, v ch dn ch mi cung cp mt khung kh nh ch cho
php ci cch m khng c bo lc, v vic s dng l tr trong cc vn
chnh tr cng vy. Nhng cu chuyn ca h c xu hng lm nn
lng nhng ngi chin u chng ch ngha ton tr; ng c ca n l
ng h s ni lon chng nn vn minh. Dng nh c th thy mt
ng c na nu xem xt rng siu hnh hc lch s ch ngha l hp
lm nh bt cho con ngi khi s cng thng ca cc trch nhim ca
h. Nu bit rng cc s vt nht thit xy ra bt k chng ta lm g, th
c th cm thy thoi mi t b u tranh chng li chng. c bit, ta
c th t b n lc kim sot nhng th m hu ht ngi dn thng
nht coi l cc t nn x hi, nh chin tranh; hoc, nhc n mt th
nh hn tuy nhin quan trng, s chuyn quyn ca cng chc nh.
Ti khng mun gi l ch ngha lch s phi lun c cc tc ng
nh vy. C cc nh lch s ch ngha- c bit cc nh Marxist- nhng
DN NHP
ngi khng mun lm nh bt cho con ngi khi cc trch nhim ca

h. Mc khc, c mt s trit l x hi, c th l hay c th khng l lch
s ch ngha, nhng chng bin h s bt lc ca l tr trong i sng x
hi, v bng phn ch ngha duy l ny chng tuyn truyn thi : hoc
i theo Lnh t, Chnh khch V i, hay t tr thnh mt Lnh t; mt
thi i, i vi hu ht ngi dn, hn c ngha l s phc tng th
ng cc lc lng, c nhn hoc n danh, cc lc lng cai tr x hi.
L th thy rng mt vi trong nhng ngi ln n l tr, v thm ch
trch mc n v cc t nn x hi ca thi i chng ta, lm vy mt mt
v h nhn ra s thc rng tin tri lch s vt qu nng lc ca l tr, v
mt khc v h khng th hnh dung v mt khoa hc x hi, hay v l tr
trong x hi, c chc nng khc ngoi chc nng tin tri lch s. Ni cch
khc, h l cc nh lch s ch ngha bt mn; h l nhng ngi, bt
chp vic tha nhn s ngho nn ca ch ngha lch s, khng thc
c rng h vn c nh kin lch s ch ngha cn bn- hc thuyt rng
cc khoa hc x hi, nu chng ni chung c bt k s hu dng no,
phi mang tnh tin tri. R rng l thi ny hn dn ti t chi p dng
khoa hc hay l tr cho cc vn ca i sng x hi- v cui cng, dn
ti hc thuyt v quyn lc, v thng tr v qui phc.
V sao tt c cc trit l x hi ny ng h ni lon chng nn vn
minh? V b mt v s a thch ca nhn dn i vi chng l g? V sao
chng hp dn v quyn r nhiu nh tr thc n vy? Ti thin v ngh
rng l do l, chng biu l mt s bt mn su sc vi mt th gii, th
gii khng, v khng th, thc hin cc l tng o c v cc c m
hon m ca chng ta. Xu hng ca ch ngha lch s (v cc quan im
lin quan) ng h ni dy chng li nn vn minh c th do s thc l
bn thn ch ngha lch s, ch yu, l mt phn ng chng li cng
thng ca nn vn minh ca chng ta v i hi ca n v trch nhim c
nhn.
Nhng m ch cui cng l hi m h, nhng chng phi cho dn
nhp ny. Mun hn chng s c ti liu lch s chng minh, c bit
trong chng X hi M v Nhng K th ca N. Ti b cm d a
chng ny ln u cun sch; vi s quan tm ang ni n n c th
chc chn lm cho dn nhp l th hn. Nhng ti thy rng ton b
trng lng ca din gii lch s ny khng th c cm nhn tr phi n
i sau ti liu c tho lun sm hn trong cun sch. Dng nh u
tin ta b bi ri bi s ging nhau gia l thuyt ca Plato v cng l v
DN NHP
l thuyt v thc tin ca ch ngha ton tr hin i trc khi ta c th

cm nhn vic din gii cc vn ny l cp bch n th no.
LI NI U CHO LN XUT BN U TIN

Nu trong cun sch ny c nhng li c nghit v mt vi bc v i
nht trong s cc lnh t tr thc ca nhn loi, ng c ca ti khng
phi, ti hi vng, l h thp h. N xut pht ng hn t nim tin
chc chn ca ti l, nu mun nn vn minh ca chng ta sng st,
chng ta phi on tuyt vi tp qun tn knh nhng ngi v i.
Nhng ngi v i c th phm cc sai lm to ln; v nh cun sch c
gng cho thy mt s lnh t v i nht ca qu kh ng h s tn
cng mun tha vo t do v l tr. nh hng ca h, qu him khi b
thch thc, vn tip tc lm lc li v chia r nhng ngi m s bo v
nn vn minh ph thuc vo. Trch nhim v s chia r bi thm v c l
tai ho ny tr thnh trch nhim ca chng ta nu chng ta do d ni
thng trong ph phn ca chng ta i vi ci phi tha nhn l mt phn
di sn tr tu ca chng ta. Bng cch khng sn lng ph phn mt vi
trong s , chng ta c th gip ph hu n hon ton.
Cun sch l mt nhp mn ph phn trit hc v chnh tr v lch s,
v mt kho st mt vi nguyn l v xy dng li x hi. Mc tiu v
cch tip cn ca n c trnh by trong Dn nhp. Ngay c ni n nhn
li qu kh, cc vn ca n l cc vn ca thi i chng ta; v ti
c gng ht sc pht biu chng n gin mc ti c th, vi hi
vng lm sng t cc vn lin quan n tt c chng ta.
Mc d cun sch khng t bt k iu kin trc no ngoi tnh
phng khong ca c gi, mc tiu ca n khng phi l truyn b cc
vn c cp m l gii quyt chng. Tuy vy, trong mt n lc
phc v c hai mc tiu ny, ti nhng ni dung chuyn su hn
vo phn Ch thch c tp hp cui cun sch.
1943
vii
LI NI U CHO LN XUT BN TH HAI

Mc d phn ln ni dung ca cun sch ny c hnh thnh sm
hn, quyt nh cui cng vit n c a ra vo thng Ba 1938, vo
ngy ti nhn c tin v s xm chim o. Vic vit ko di n 1943;
v s thc rng hu ht cun sch c vit trong cc nm trm trng khi
kt qu ca cuc chin tranh cn cha chc chn, c th gip gii thch v
sao by gi ti thy ph phn ca n mang tnh xc cm hn v c dng
cay nghit hn l ti c th mun. Nhng l lc ni ch hoe rahay ch t, ti cm thy iu ny. C chin tranh ln bt k s kin
ng thi no khc u khng c nhc n mt cch tng minh
trong cun sch; nhng n l mt n lc hiu cc s kin v bi
cnh ca chng, v mt vi vn chc s ny sinh sau chin thng chin
tranh. D tnh rng ch ngha Marx s tr thnh mt vn ln l l
do cp n n vi mt s chi tit.
Nhn tnh hnh th gii hin thi en ti, s ph phn ch ngha Marx,
m cun sch n lc, c th ni bt ln nh im chnh ca n. Quan
im ny khng hon ton sai v c l khng th trnh khi, cho d cc
mc tiu ca cun sch rng hn nhiu. Ch ngha Marx ch l mt phn
- mt trong nhiu sai lm m chng ta mc trong cuc chin u mun
tha v nguy him xy dng mt th gii tt p v t do hn.
Khng bt ng, ti b mt s ngi qu trch v qu gay gt trong
lun bn ca ti v Marx, cn nhng ngi khc li i snh tnh hin
hu ca ti vi ng, vi s tn cng d tn ca ti vo Plato. Nhng ti
vn cm thy cn nhn nhn Plato vi con mt rt ph phn, chnh v s
tn sng chung v trit gia siu phm c mt nn tng tht s trong
thnh tu tr tu p o ca ng. Marx, mt khc, b tn cng qu
nhiu v l do c nhn v o c, cho nn y, ng hn, cn n mt
ph phn da trn l tr kht khe i vi cc l thuyt ca ng kt hp vi
mt s hiu bit ng cm v sc quyn r o c v tr tu ng kinh
ngc ca chng. ng hay sai, ti cm thy ph phn ca mnh l tn
ph, v v th ti c th c kh nng tm nhng cng hin tht s ca
Marx, v cc ng c ca ng c li ca s nghi ng. Trong mi
trng hp, hin nhin chng ta phi c gng nh gi cao sc mnh ca
i th nu chng ta mun nh thng ng. (Nm 1965 ti a mt
ch gii mi v ti ny nh Ph lc II ca tp hai ca ti).
Chng cun sch no tng c th hon tt. Trong khi vit n chng ta
hc va thy n cha chn chn ti thi khc chng ta b i. V
ph phn ca ti i vi Plato v Marx, kinh nghim khng trnh khi
viii
ny khng gy bi ri hn thng thng. Nhng hu ht gi tch cc

ca ti v, trc ht, cm ngh lc quan mnh m trn khp cun sch,
vi ti, cng ngy ngy cng t ra u tr, khi nm thng sau chin tranh
tri qua. Li ni ring ca ti bt u nghe c nh n n t qu kh xa
xi- ging nh li ni ca mt trong cc nh ci cch x hi y hi vng
ca th k mi tm hay thm ch th k mi by.
Song tm trng su mun ca ti qua, ch yu nh kt qu ca mt
cuc ving thm Hoa K; v gi y, trong lc sa li cun sch, ti vui
mng l, ti gii hn mnh a thm ti liu mi v sa cc li v ni
dung v phong cch, v ti cng li cm d h bt c tnh ca
n. V bt chp tnh hnh th gii hin ti, ti cm thy y hi vng nh
cha tng bao gi.
By gi ti thy r hn bao gi rng c nhng phin mun ln nht ca
chng ta bt ngun t ci g tuyt vi v lnh mnh ngang nh nguy
him - t tnh nn nng ca chng ta ci thin s phn ca ng bo
chng ta. V nhng phin toi ny l cc sn phm ph ca ci, c l l v
i nht trong mi cuc cch mng o c v tinh thn ca lch s, mt
phong tro bt u ba th k trc. l nim kht khao ca v s nhng
ngi v danh t gii phng h v tm tr ca h khi s gim h ca
uy quyn v nh kin. l n lc ca h xy dng mt x hi m,
x hi t chi uy quyn tuyt i c thit lp n thun v mang tnh
truyn thng n thun, trong khi c gng duy tr, pht trin, v
thit lp cc truyn thng, c hay mi, hp vi cc chun mc ca h v
t do, v tnh nhn bn, v v ph phn duy l. l s khng sn lng
ca h ngi yn v giao ton b trch nhim cai tr th gii cho uy
quyn con ngi hay siu phm, v s sn sng ca h chia s gnh
nng trch nhim v s au kh c th trnh, v hnh ng nhm trnh
n. Cuc cch mng ny to ra nhng quyn lc c sc tn ph kinh
khng; song chng vn c th b chinh phc.
1950
ix
LI CM N
Ti mun by t s bit n ti tt c bn b, nhng ngi lm cho vic vit
cun sch ny l c th. Gio s C. G. F. Simkin khng ch gip ti phin
bn sm hn, m cho ti c hi lm r nhiu vn trong cc tho lun chi
tit sut thi k gn bn nm. Dr. Margaret Dalziel gip ti chun b cc bn
tho khc nhau v bn tho cui cng. S gip khng mt mi ca b l v
gi. S quan tm ca Dr. H. Larsen v vn ch ngha lch s l mt s ng
vin ln lao. Gio s T. K. Ewer c bn tho v a ra nhiu gi ci
thin.
Ti bit n su sc Gio s F. A. von Hayek. Khng c s quan tm v ng h
ca ng cun sch khng th c xut bn. Gio s E. Bombrich theo di
in n cun sch, m mt gnh nng thm l s cng thng v i hi th t gia
nc Anh v New Zealand. ng gip n mc ti kh c th ni ti mang
n ng n nhng no.
CHRISTCHURCH, New Zealand, thng T 1944.
Trong chun b ti bn c sa cha, ti nhn c s gip to ln t cc ch
gii ph phn chi tit vi ln xut bn u tin do Gio s Jacob Viner v J. D.
Mabbott vui lng ti s dng.
LONDON, thng Tm 1951.
Trong ln ti bn th ba mt Ch mc Ni dung v mt Ch mc cc on vn
ca Plato c thm vo, c hai do Dr. J. Agassi chun b. ng cng lu ti n
mt s li m ti sa. Ti rt bit n s gip ca ng. Trong su ch ti
c ci thin v sa ng cc trch dn t Plato, hay dn chiu n vn ng, di
nh sng ca ph phn ho hng v rt th v ca Richard Robinson (The
Philosophical Review, vol. 60) i vi ln xut bn M ca cun sch ny.
STANFORD, CALIFORNIA, thng Nm 1957
V hu ht ci thin trong ln xut bn th t ti hm n Dr. William W. Bartley
v Bryan Magee.
PENN, BUCKINGHAMSHIRE, thng Nm 1961
Ti bn ln th nm cha mt s ni dung lch s mi (c bit tr. 312 Tp I v
Ph lc) v c mt Ph lc ngn mi cho mi tp. Ni dung thm c th thy
trong cun Conjectures and Refutations ca ti, c bit ti bn ln hai (1965).
David Miller khm ph ra v sa nhiu li.
PENN, BUCKINGHAMSHIRE, thng By 1965.
MC LC
TP I: BA M CA PLATO
LI GII THIU
LI NI U CHO LN XUT BN U TIN

LI NI U CHO LN XUT BN TH HAI
LI CM N
vii
viii
x
DN NHP
BA M CA PLATO
1
7
HUYN THOI V NGUN GC V S PHN

Chng 1. Ch ngha Lch s v Huyn thoi v S phn
Chng 2. Heraclitus
Chng 3. L thuyt ca Plato v Hnh thc v nim
7
7
11
18
X HI HC M T CA PLATO
Chng 4. S Thay i v ng yn
Chng 5. T nhin v Qui c
35
35
57
CHNG TRNH CHNH TR CA PLATO

Chng 6. Cng l Ton tr
Chng 7. Nguyn l v s Lnh o
Chng 8. Vua Trit gia
Chng 9. Tnh thm m, Ch ngha cu ton, Ch ngha Khng tng
86
86
120
138
157
HU TRNG CA S TN CNG PLATO

Chng 10. X hi M v Nhng K th ca n
169
169
CH THCH
202
PH LC (1957, 1961, 1965)
319
CH MC V CC ON PLATONIC
345
CH MC V TN
347
CH MC NI DUNG
353
xi
X HI M V NHNG K TH CA N
TP I
BA M CA PLATO
ng h X hi M (khong 430 trc cng nguyn):
Mc d ch vi ngi c th khi to mt chnh sch, tt c
chng ta u c nng lc nh gi n.
PERICLES x ATHENS.
Chng X hi M (khong 80 nm sau):
Nguyn l ln nht ca mi nguyn l l chng ai, bt k n
ng hay n b, tn ti m khng c mt th lnh. Tr c ca
bt k ai cng khng c lm quen cho php anh ta lm
ni chung bt k vic g da vo sng kin ring ca mnh;
khng v nhit huyt, cng chng thm ch mt cch khi hi.
Nhng trong chin tranh v gia thi bnh anh ta s hng
mt ca mnh ln th lnh v theo ng ta mt cch trung
thnh. Th d, anh ta phi dy, di chuyn, hay ra ry, hay n
cm ch nu anh ta c bo lm vy. Ni tm li, anh ta
nn thuyt phc tm tr ca mnh, bng thi quen lu di,
chng bao gi m c hnh ng mt cch c lp, v tr nn
hon ton bt lc v vic .
PLATO x ATHENS.
HUYN THOI V NGUN GC V VN MNH
CHNG 1: CH NGHA LCH S V HUYN THOI V

VN MNH
c tin mt cch rng ri rng mt thi tht s khoa hc hay trit
l ti chnh tr hc, v mt s hiu bit su hn v i sng x hi ni
chung, phi da vo s trm ngm v din gii v lch s loi ngi.
Trong khi ngi dn bnh thng coi s sp t i sng ca mnh v
tm quan trng ca nhng kinh nghim c nhn v nhng vt ln lt vt
ca anh ta l d nhin, c cho l nh khoa hc x hi hay nh trit hc
phi kho st cc s vt t mt mt bng cao hn. ng ta nhn c nhn
nh mt con tt, nh mt cng c khng quan trng my trong s pht
trin chung ca loi ngi. V ng ta thy rng cc din vin thc s

quan trng trn Sn khu Lch s hoc l cc Dn tc V i hoc cc
Lnh t V i, hay c l cc Giai cp V i, hay cc T tng V i.
Du cho iu ny c th no, ng ta s c gng hiu ngha ca cuc
chi din ra trn Sn khu Lch s; ng ta s c gng hiu cc qui lut
pht trin lch s. Nu ng ta thnh cng lm vic ny, tt nhin, ng ta
s c kh nng tin on cc din tin tng lai. Khi ng ta c th t
chnh tr hc trn mt c s vng chc, v cho chng ta li khuyn thc
tin bng cch ni cho chng ta cc hnh ng chnh tr no chc s
thnh cng hay chc s tht bi.
y l mt m t ngn gn ca mt thi m ti gi l ch ngha lch
s. N l mt tng c xa, hay ng hn, l mt tp lin kt lng lo
ca cc tng, nhng ci, ng tic, tr thnh mt phn ca bu
khng kh tinh thn ca chng ta n mc chng thng c coi l d
nhin, v hu nh chng bao gi b nghi ng.
Ti th ni khc chng t rng cch tip cn lch s ch ngha
ti cc khoa hc x hi cho cc kt qu ngho nn. Ti cng c gng
phc ho mt phng php m, ti tin, s mang li nhng kt qu tt
hn.
Nhng nu ch ngha lch s l mt phng php c thiu st, to ra
cc kt qu v dng, th c th hu ch xem n c ngun gc th no,
v n thnh cng ra sao c th thnh cng n vy. Mt phc tho
lch s m nhim mc ch ny c th, ng thi, dng phn tch tnh
a dng ca cc tng dn dn tch t li xung quanh hc thuyt lch
s ch ngha trung tm- hc thuyt cho rng lch s c kim sot bi
cc qui lut lch s hay tin ho c th, m s khm ph ra chng c th
cho php chng ta tin tri vn mnh ca con ngi.
Ch ngha lch s, m n y ti c trng ch theo cch kh tru
tng, c th c minh ho kho bi mt trong nhng hnh thc n
gin nht v c nht ca n, bi thuyt v dn tc c la chn. Thuyt
ny l mt trong cc n lc lm cho lch s c th hiu c bng mt
din gii theo thuyt hu thn, tc l, bng cng nhn Thng nh tc
gi ca tn kch c din trn Sn khu Lch s. C th hn, l thuyt v
dn tc c chn gi thit l Thng chn mt dn tc hot
ng nh cng c c chn ca ch ca Ngi, v rng dn tc ny s
tha k tri t.
Trong thuyt ny, qui lut v s pht trin lch s do ch ca Thng
ra. y l khc bit c th phn bit hnh thc hu thn vi cc
hnh thc khc ca ch ngha lch s. Ch ngha lch s theo t nhin, th
CHNG 1: CH NGHA LCH S
d, c th coi qui lut pht trin nh mt qui lut t nhin; ch ngha lch
s tinh thn coi qui lut pht trin nh mt qui lut pht trin tinh thn;
ch ngha lch s kinh t coi n nh mt qui lut pht trin kinh t. Ch
ngha lch s hu thn chia s vi cc hnh thc khc ca hc thuyt rng
c cc qui lut lch s c th, nhng ci c th c khm ph ra, v
da vo chng c th t c s cho cc tin on tng lai ca nhn loi.
Khng nghi ng g l thuyt v dn tc c chn pht sinh t hnh
thc b lc ca i sng x hi. Ch ngha b lc, tc l s nhn mnh
v tm quan trng ti cao ca b lc, m khng c n th c nhn chng
l g c, l mt yu t m chng ta s thy trong nhiu hnh thc ca ch
ngha lch s. Cc hnh thc khc khng cn mang tnh b lc vn c th
gi li mt yu t ca ch ngha tp th 1; chng vn c th nhn mnh
tm quan trng ca nhm hay tp th no th d, mt giai cp- m
khng c n th c nhn chng l g c. Mt kha cnh khc ca thuyt v
dn tc c chn l s xa vi v ci n ngh nh l kt thc ca lch
s. V mc d n c th m t s kt thc ny vi mc xc nh no
, chng ta phi i rt lu trc khi t n n. V con ng khng ch
di, m quanh co, i ln v xung, r phi v tri. Do , n s c kh
nng gy ra mi s kin lch s c th hnh dung ra c trong khun
kh s din gii. Chng kinh nghim c th hnh dung ra no c th
bc b n.2 Nhng vi nhng ngi tin vo n, n cho s chc chn lin
quan n kt qu ca lch s nhn loi.
Mt ph phn i vi din gii hu thn ca lch s s c th
chng cui ca cun sch ny, ni cng s ch ra rng mt s nh t
tng Thin cha gio v i nht bc b thuyt ny nh s sng bi
thn tng. Mt tn cng vo dng ny ca ch ngha lch s v vy
khng c din gii nh mt s cng kch tn gio. Trong chng ny,
thuyt v dn tc c chn c dng ch nh mt minh ho. Gi tr t
thn ca n c th thy t s thc rng cc c trng3 ch yu ca n
c hai phin bn hin i quan trng nht ca ch ngha lch s chia
s, m phn tch hai dng s l phn chnh ca cun sch ny - mt
mt l trit l lch s ca ch ngha chng tc hay ch ngha pht xt (pha
hu) v mt khc l trit l lch s ca Marx (pha t). Ch ngha chng
tc thay dn tc c chn bng chng tc c chn (s la chn ca
Gobineau), c chn ra nh cng c ca vn mnh, cui cng tha
k tri t. Trit l lch s ca Marx thay n bng giai cp c chn,
cng c to ra mt x hi phi giai cp, v ng thi, l giai cp c
ch nh tha k tri t. C hai l thuyt t c s cho cc d bo lch s
ca mnh vo mt din gii lch s, din gii dn n khm ph ra qui
10
lut pht trin ca n. Trong trng hp ch ngha chng tc, iu ny

c coi nh mt loi qui lut t nhin; tnh u vit sinh hc ca dng
mu ca chng tc c la chn gii thch din tin ca lch s, qu
kh, hin ti, v tng lai; chng g khc ngoi cuc u tranh ca cc
chng tc v quyn lm ch. Trong trng hp trit l lch s ca Marx,
qui lut l qui lut kinh t; tt c lch s phi c din gii nh cuc u
tranh ca cc giai cp v uy quyn kinh t.
Tnh cht lch s ch ngha ca hai phong tro ny lm cho nghin cu
ca chng ta mang tnh thi s. Chng ta s quay li chng trong nhng
phn sau ca cun sch ny. Mi trong hai thuyt ny truy nguyn trc
tip ti trit hc ca Hegel. V vy, chng ta cng phi cp n trit
hc na. V v Hegel4 ch yu theo cc trit gia c x no , s cn
thit tho lun cc l thuyt ca Heraclitus, Plato v Aristotle, trc
khi quay sang cc hnh thc hin i hn ca ch ngha lch s.
CHNG 2: HERACLITUS
Khng phi n Heraclitus chng ta mi thy Hi Lp cc l thuyt c
th so snh c v tnh cht lch s ch ngha ca chng vi hc thuyt
v dn tc c la chn. Trong din gii theo thuyt hu thn hay ng
hn a thn ca Homer, lch s l sn phm ca ch thn thnh. Nhng
cc thng kiu Homer khng t ra cc qui lut chung cho s pht
trin. Ci m Homer c gng nhn mnh v gii thch khng phi l tnh
thng nht ca lch s, m ng hn l s thiu thng nht ca n. Tc
gi ca tn kch trn Sn khu Lch s khng phi l mt Thng ; m
cc thn thuc loi nhng tay vo. Ci m din gii ca Homer chia s
vi ngi Do Thi l mt cm gic m h no v vn mnh, v
tng v cc quyn nng ng hu trng. Nhng vn mnh cui
cng, theo Homer, khng c tit l; khng ging nh vi ngi Do
Thi, n vn b n.
Ngi Hi Lp u tin a ra mt thuyt lch s ch ngha ni bt l
Hesiod, ng c l b nh hng ca cc ngun phng ng. ng
s dng tng v xu hng hay khuynh hng chung trong pht trin
lch s. Din gii lch s ca ng mang tnh bi quan. ng tin rng loi
ngi, trong s pht trin xung ca n t Thi Hong kim, c nh
sn suy i, c v mt th cht ln o c. Cao im ca cc tng
lch s ch ngha khc nhau do cc trit gia Hi Lp ban u xut, n
vi Plato, ngi, trong mt n lc gii thch lch s v i sng x hi
ca cc b lc Hi Lp, v c bit ca nhng ngi Athens, v nn
bc tranh trit hc hng v ca th gii. Trong ch ngha lch s ca
mnh ng b nh hng mnh bi cc bc tin bi khc nhau, c bit bi
Hesiod; song nh hng quan trng nht n t Heraclitus.
Heraclitus l trit gia khm ph ra tng v thay i. Vo thi
ny, cc trit gia Hi Lp, b nh hng bi cc tng phng ng,
coi th gii nh mt dinh th khng l m cc th vt cht l vt liu
xy dng.1 Ton b cc th l - cosmos [v tr] (ci ban u dng nh
l mt ci lu hay mn che phng ng). Cc cu hi m cc trit gia t
hi mnh l, Th gii c lm bng cht g? hay N c xy
dng th no, s mt bng tht ca n l g?. H coi trit hc, hay vt
l hc (hai th khng th c phn bit trong thi gian di), nh vic
nghin cu t nhin, tc l, nghin cu vt liu ban u m dinh th
ny, th gii ny, c lm ra. Trong chng mc bt k qu trnh no
c xem xt, h ngh hoc nh xy ra bn trong dinh th, hoc
khc i th nh xy dng hay duy tr n, lm xo ng v khi phc li
s n nh hay cn bng ca mt kin trc c coi v c bn l tnh.
12
Chng l cc qu trnh tun hon (tr cc qu trnh gn vi ngun gc

ca dinh th; cu hi Ai to ra n? c nhng ngi phng ng,
Hesiod, v nhng ngi khc tho lun). Cch tip cn rt t nhin ny,
t nhin ngay c vi nhiu ngi chng ta ngy nay, b th ch bi
thin ti ca Heraclitus. Quan im ng a ra l khng c dinh th nh
vy, khng c cu trc n nh, khng c v tr. V tr, nhiu nht,
ging nh mt ng rc ri vi lung tung, l mt trong cc chm ngn
ca ng.2 ng hnh dung th gii khng nh mt dinh th, m ng hn
nh mt qu trnh khng l; khng nh tng th ca tt c cc th, m
ng hn nh tng th ca tt c cc s kin, hay nhng thay i, hay
cc s thc (fact). Mi th u thay i v chng g ng yn c, l
t ca trit hc ca ng.
S khm ph ca Heraclitus nh hng lu di n s pht trin ca
trit hc Hi Lp. Cc trit l ca Parmenides, Democritus, Plato, v
Aristotle tt c u c th c m t mt cch thch hp nh cc n lc
gii quyt cc vn ca th gii thay i , m Heraclitus khm
ph ra. Tnh trng i ca khm ph ny kh c th c nh gi qu
cao. N c coi l gy kinh hi, v nh hng ca n c so snh vi
nh hng ca mt cuc ng t, trong mi th dng nh u
lc l.3 V ti khng nghi ng rng khm ph ny gy n tng ln
Heraclitus bi nhng kinh nghim c nhn gy kinh hi tri qua nh
mt kt qu ca cc xo ng x hi v chnh tr ca thi ng. Heraclitus,
l trit gia u tin cp khng ch n t nhin m thm ch nhiu
hn n cc vn o c-chnh tr, sng trong mt thi i cch
mng x hi. Chnh trong thi ng cc qu tc b lc Hi Lp bt u
nhng bc cho lc lng dn ch mi.
hiu nh hng ca cuc cch mng ny, chng ta phi nh li tnh
n nh v cng nhc ca i sng x hi trong mt ch qu tc b
lc. i sng x hi c xc nh bi cc iu cm k x hi v tn
gio; mi ngi c ch c n nh ca mnh bn trong ton b cu trc
x hi; mi ngi u cm thy ch ca mnh l ph hp, l a v t
nhin, c n nh cho anh ta bi cc lc thng tr th gii; mi ngi
bit a v ca mnh.
Theo truyn thng, a v ring ca Heraclitus l a v ca ngi tha
k thuc hong gia ca vua gio s Ephesus, nhng ng t b i hi
ca mnh nhng cho em trai. Bt chp s t chi ng hnh din ca
ng v tham gia vo i sng chnh tr ca thnh ph, ng ng h s
nghip ca cc nh qu tc, nhng ngi c mt cch v vng chn
s ni ln ca tro lu ca cc lc lng cch mng mi. Nhng kinh
CHNG 2: HERACLITUS
13
nghim ny trong lnh vc x hi hay chnh tr c phn nh trong

nhng mu cn st li ca tc phm ca ng.4 Ngi Ephesus phi treo
c mnh tng ngi mt, tt c ngi ln, v tr con cai tr thnh ph
, l mt trong nhng cn gin d ca ng, gy ra bi quyt nh ca
nhn dn trc xut Hermodorus, mt trong cc bn qu tc ca
Heraclitus. L th nht l din gii ca ng v cc ng c ca ngi dn,
v n chng t rng th thut ca l l phn dn ch chng thay i
my t nhng ngy u tin ca nn dn ch. Chng vin dn: khng ai
s l ngi tt nht gia chng ta; v nu c ai ni bt ln, th hy
anh ta l th ni khc, gia nhng ngi khc. S th ch ny vi dn
ch hin ra khp ni trong cc on: m ng nhi y bng ging
l th vtH coi cc thi s v tn ngng bnh dn nh ngi ch ng
ca h, khng bit rng s nhiu l xu v ch c t l ttBias, con ca
Teutames, sng Pirene, li ca ng c gi tr nhiu hn ca ngi
khc. (ng ni: Hu ht n ng l i bi.) m ng chng quan
tm, ngay c n nhng vic h tnh c gp phi; h cng chng th hiu
thu c mt bi hc- d h ngh h hiu. ng ni theo cng li: Lut
c th i hi, qu vy, rng ch ca Mt Ngi phi c tun theo.
Mt din t khc v cch nhn bo th v phn dn ch ca Heraclitus,
tnh c, hon ton c th chp nhn c vi nhng ngi dn ch v
cch hnh vn ca n, tuy c l khng v ch nh ca n: Nhn dn
phi u tranh v nhng php tc ca thnh ph nh th chng l thnh
lu ca n.
Nhng cuc chin u v cc php tc c ca thnh ph ca ng l v
vng, v tnh nht thi ca mi th gy n tng mnh ln ng. L
thuyt ca ng v thay i by t cm gic ny5: Mi th u thay i
lin tc, ng ni; v ta khng th bc hai ln vo cng mt con sng.
Lm v mng, ng l l chng li lng tin rng trt t x hi hin hnh s
duy tr mi mi: Chng ta khng c hnh ng nh tr con c nui
dy vi ci nhn thin cn Nh n c truyn xung cho chng ta.
S nhn mnh ny v thay i, v c bit v thay i trong i sng
x hi, l mt c trng quan trng khng ch ca trit l ca Heraclitus
m ca ch ngha lch s ni chung. Rng cc s vt, v ngay c cc v
vua, thay i, l mt s tht cn phi c n tng c bit ln nhng
ngi coi mi trng x hi ca h l d nhin. By nhiu phi c tha
nhn. Song trit hc kiu Heraclitus mt trong nhng c im t ng
khen ca ch ngha lch s hin ra, c th l, mt s nhn mnh qu n
thay i, c kt hp vi lng tin b sung vo mt qui lut v vn mnh
khng th lay chuyn v khng th thay i c.
14
Trong lng tin ny chng ta i mt vi mt thi , mc d thot nhn

l mu thun vi s nhn mnh qu n thay i ca nh lch s ch
ngha, n l c im ca hu ht, nu khng phi tt c, cc nh lch s
ch ngha. C th gii thch thi ny, c l, nu chng ta din gii s
nhn mnh qu n thay i ca nh lch s ch ngha nh mt triu
chng ca mt n lc cn vt qua s phn khng v thc ca ng ta
vi tng v thay i. iu ny cng c th gii thch s cng thng
cm xc dn nhiu nh lch s ch ngha n vy (ngay c ngy nay) i
nhn mnh tnh mi ca pht hin cha tng nghe thy m h phi t
c. Nhng cn nhc nh vy gi kh nng l cc nh lch s ch
ngha ny s s thay i, v h khng th chp nhn tng v thay i
m khng c vt ln ni tm nghim tc. C v c nh h c an i mnh
v s mt mt ca mt th gii n nh bng cch bm cht ly quan
im rng s thay i do mt qui lut khng thay i ng tr. (Theo
Parmenides v theo Plato, chng ta thm ch thy l thuyt rng th gii
ang thay i, m trong chng ta sng, l mt o tng v rng c
mt th gii thc hn, mt th gii khng thay i).
Trong trng hp Heraclitus, s nhn mnh n thay i dn ng n l
thuyt rng mi th vt cht, bt lun th rn, lng, hay kh, u ging
la -rng chng l cc qu trnh hn l cc th, v rng chng u l
nhng bin i ca la; qu t nhn b ngoi rn (gm c tro) ch l la
trong trng thi bin i, v ngay c cc cht lng (nc, bin) u l la
c bin i (v c th tr thnh nhin liu, c l dng du ho). S
bin i u tin ca la l bin; nhng ca bin, na l t, v na kh
nng.6 Nh vy tt c cc nguyn t khc - t, nc, v kh - u l
la c bin i: Mi th l mt s trao i ra la, v la ra mi th;
ht nh vng ra hng ho v hng ho ra vng.
Nhng sau khi qui mi th thnh la, thnh cc qu trnh, ging nh s
chy, Heraclitus thy r trong cc qu trnh mt qui lut, mt mc ,
mt l phi, mt s sng sut; v sau khi ph hu v tr nh mt dinh
th, v tuyn b n nh mt ng rc, ng ti-gii thiu n nh trt t
nh trc ca cc s kin trong qu trnh-th gii.
Mi qu trnh trong th gii, c bit bn thn la, pht trin theo mt
qui lut xc nh, theo mc 7 ca n. l mt qui lut khng lay
chuyn v khng cng li c, v trong chng mc ny n ging khi
nim hin i ca chng ta v qui lut t nhin cng nh khi nim v
cc qui lut lch s hay tin ho ca cc nh lch s ch ngha. Nhng n
khc cc khi nim ny chng mc n l sc lnh ca l tr, c thc
thi bng trng pht, ht nh lut do nh nc p t. S tht bi phn
CHNG 2: HERACLITUS
15
bit, mt bn gia lut php hay cc tiu chun v cc qui lut t nhin
hay nhng s u n bn kia, l c trng ca ch ngha cm k: c
hai loi lut c coi nh ma thut, iu lm cho s ph phn duy l cc
iu cm k nhn to l khng th hnh dung ni nh mt n lc ci
thin s sng sut v l phi cui cng ca cc qui lut hay s u n
ca th gii t nhin: Tt c cc s kin din ra vi s tt yu ca s
phn Mt tri s khng i qu mc ca qu o ca n; khng th
n thn S Phn, hu gi ca Cng L, s bit tm n ra sao. Nhng mt
tri khng ch tun theo qui lut; La, trong hnh th ca mt tri v (nh
chng ta s thy) ca sm st ca thn Zeus, trng coi qui lut, v a ra
phn x theo n. Mt tri l ngi gc, ngi bo v cc chu k, hn ch
v phn x v bo trc v biu th nhng thay i v cc ma, nhng
ci sinh ra tt c mi thTrt t v tr ny, trt t nh nhau cho mi
th, khng c to ra, khng phi bi thn cng chng phi bi con
ngi; n lun l, ang l, v s l, mt ngn La sng mi, lo sng
theo mc [qui lut], v tt i theo mc Trong s thng tin ca
n, La s nm bt, xt x, v thi hnh, mi th.
Kt hp vi tng lch s ch ngha v mt vn mnh tn nhn chng
ta thng xuyn thy mt yu t ca ch ngha thn b. Chng 24 s
cho mt phn tch ph phn ca ch ngha thn b. y ti ch mun
ch ra vai tr ca ch ngha phn l v ch ngha thn b trong trit hc
Heraclitus8: T nhin thch che giu, ng vit, v Cha m li sm ca
Ngi Delphi khng tit l cng chng giu gim, m Ngi biu l
ngha ca mnh qua cc li m ch. S khinh r cc nh khoa hc c u
c thc nghim hn ca Heraclitus l in hnh ca nhng ngi chp
nhn thi ny: Ngi bit nhiu th khng cn n nhiu tr tu; v
khc i th Hesiod v Pythagoras c th c nhiu hn, v c
Xenophanes naPythagoras l ng ca tt c nhng k la o. i
cng vi s khinh b ny l l thuyt thn b v mt s hiu bit trc gic.
L thuyt ca Heraclitus v l tr coi s thc, rng nu chng ta thc,
chng ta sng trong mt th gii chung, nh im xut pht ca mnh.
Chng ta c th giao thip, kim sot, v kim tra ln nhau; v s m
bo, rng chng ta khng l nn nhn ca o tng, nm y. Nhng l
thuyt ny cho mt ngha th hai, mang tnh tng trng, v thn b.
N l l thuyt v mt trc gic thn b c ban cho nhng ngi c
chn, nhng ngi thc, nhng ngi c quyn lc nhn, nghe, v
ni: Ta khng c hnh ng v ni c nh ang ngNhng ngi
thc c Mt th gii Chung; nhng ngi ng, quay v cc th gii ring
ca hH khng c nng lc c v nghe v niCho d h c nghe
16
h ging ngi ic. Ngn ng p dng cho h: H hin hu th m h

khng hin huCh c mt th l sng sut: hiu ngh hng dn
mi th qua mi th. Th gii, m kinh nghim v n l chung cho
nhng ngi thc, l ci thng nht thn b, ci c nht ca tt c mi
th, ci c th lnh hi c ch bng l tr: Ta phi theo ci l chung cho
tt cL tr l chung cho tt c Tt c tr thnh Mt v Mt tr thnh
tt c Ci Mt, m ring n l sng sut, mun v khng mun c
gi bng tn ca Zeus l sm st hng dn tt c mi th.
By nhiu v cc nt c bit chung ca trit l Heraclitus v s thay
i ph qut v vn mnh b che giu. T trit l ny ny sinh mt l
thuyt v ng lc ng sau mi thay i; mt l thuyt by t c tnh
lch s ch ngha ca n bng nhn mnh n tm quan trng ca ng
hc x hi i li vi tnh hc x hi. ng hc Heraclitus v t nhin
ni chung v c bit v i sng x hi, xc nhn quan im rng trit l
ca ng c truyn cm hng bi nhng xo ng x hi v chnh tr
m ng tri nghim. V ng tuyn b rng xung t hay chin tranh l
nguyn l ng hc hay sng to ca mi thay i, v c bit ca mi s
khc bit gia nhng con ngi. V l mt nh lch s ch ngha in
hnh, ng chp nhn phn quyt ca lch s nh mt phn quyt o
c9; v ng cho rng kt qu ca chin tranh lun lun l cng bng10:
Chin tranh l cha v vua ca mi th. N chng t mt s l thn v
nhng ngi khc ch l ngi, bin nhng ngi ny thnh n l v
nhng ngi trc thnh cc ng chPhi bit rng chin tranh l ph
qut, v rng cng l php lut- l xung t, v rng tt c mi th pht
trin thng qua xung t v bi tnh tt yu.
Nhng nu cng l l xung t hay chin tranh; nu n thn nh
mnh ng thi l c hu ca Cng l; nu lch s, hay chnh xc hn,
nu thnh cng, tc l thnh cng trong chin tranh, l tiu chun ca
phm cht, th tiu chun ca phm cht bn thn n phi lun thay i.
Heraclitus tho mn vn ny bng ch ngha tng i ca ng, v
bng hc thuyt v tnh ng nht ca nhng s i lp ca ng. Ci ny
xut pht t l thuyt v thay i ca ng (vn l c s cho l thuyt ca
Plato v thm ch nhiu hn ca Aristotle). Mt s vt thay i phi t
b tnh cht no v ly tnh cht i ngc. Khng phi l mt s vt
m l mt qu trnh qu t mt trng thi sang trng thi i lp, v
do l s thng nht ca cc trng thi i lp11: Cc vt lnh tr nn
m v cc vt m tr nn lnh; ci l m tr nn kh v ci kh tr nn
mBnh tt cho php chng ta nh gi cao sc khoSng v cht,
thc v ng, tr v gi, tt c cc th ny l y ht nhau; v ci ny bin
CHNG 2: HERACLITUS
17
thnh ci kia v ci kia bin thnh ci nyCi vt ln vi chnh mnh

tr thnh cam kt cho chnh mnh: c mt lin kt hay s hi ho do bt
v cng, nh trong v cm hay n lyreCc s i lp thuc v ln
nhau, s hi ho nht l kt qu t s bt ho, v mi th pht trin bng
xung tCon ng dn ln v ng dn xung l y ht
nhaung thng v ng quanh co l nh nhau Vi thnh thn,
mi th u p v tt v cng bng; con ngi, tuy vy, chp nhn
mt s th l cng bng, cc th khc l khng cng bngCi tt v
ci xu l y ht nhau.
Nhng ch ngha tng i v gi tr (c th c m t thm ch nh
ch ngha tng i o c) c by t on sau cng khng ngn
cn Heraclitus pht trin, trn nn l thuyt ca ng v cng l ca chin
tranh v phn quyt ca lch s, mt o c theo b lc v lng mn v
Danh ting, nh mnh, v s u vit ca V Nhn, tt c ging l k vi
mt s t tng rt hin i12: Ngi hi sinh trong chin u s c
thn thnh v con ngi ca ngiHi sinh cng ln thin mnh cng v
vangNgi gii nht kim mt th trn tt c cc th khc: danh ting
mun thaMt ngi c gi tr hn vn ngi, nu anh ta V i.
Tht ngc nhin thy trong cc on ny, c t khong nm 500
trc cng nguyn, bao nhiu ci l c trng ca cc xu hng lch s
ch ngha v phn dn ch hin i. Nhng ngoi s thc rng Heraclitus
l mt nh t tng c nng lc v tnh c o v song, v, h qu l,
nhiu t tng ca ng (qua trung gian ca Plato) tr thnh mt phn
ch yu ca truyn thng trit hc, s ging nhau ca hc thuyt c l c
th c gii thch, mc no , bng s ging nhau ca tnh hnh
x hi trong cc giai on lin quan. C v c nh cc t tng lch s
ch ngha tr nn ni bt trong cc thi k bin ng x hi ln. Chng
xut hin khi i sng b lc Hi Lp v, cng nh khi i sng b lc
Do Thi b tan v do tc ng ca s xm chim ca ngi Babylon13.
C t nghi ng, ti tin, rng trit hc ca Heraclitus l mt biu hin ca
mt cm gic tri git; mt cm gic dng nh l mt phn ng in
hnh i vi s tan r ca cc hnh thc b lc c xa ca i sng x
hi. chu u hin i, cc t tng lch s ch ngha hi sinh trong
cch mng cng nghip, v c bit qua nh hng ca cc cuc cch
mng chnh tr M v Php14. Dng nh nhiu hn l s trng hp
ngu nhin rng Hegel, ngi chp nhn rt nhiu t tng ca
Heraclitus v chuyn n cho tt c cc phong tro lch s ch ngha hin
i, l mt ngi pht ngn ca phn ng chng li Cch mng Php.
CHNG 3: L THUYT V CC HNH THC

HAY CC NIM CA PLATO
I
Plato sng trong mt thi k chin tranh v xung t chnh tr, thi
k, trong chng mc m chng ta bit, cn b o ln hn thi k lm
Heraclitus kh s. Trong khi ng ln ln, s tan v ca i sng b lc
ca ngi Hi Lp dn n Athens, thnh ph qu ng, mt thi k
chuyn ch, v mun hn n s thit lp mt nn dn ch c t bo
v mnh mt cch ghen t chng li bt k mu toan no ti lp mt
ch hoc chuyn ch hoc u s, tc l s cai tr ca cc gia nh qu
tc dn u.1 Trong thi thanh nin ca ng, Athens dn ch dnh lu
n mt cuc chin ch t chng li Sparta, thnh ph-quc gia dn u
ca Peloponnese, duy tr nhiu lut l v tp qun ca ch qu tc
b lc c xa. Chin tranh Peloponnese ko di, vi mt gin on, hai
mi tm nm. (Trong chng 10, ni bi cnh lch s c xem xt li
chi tit hn, cho thy rng chin tranh khng kt thc vi s tht th
ca Athens nm 404 trc cng nguyn, nh i khi c khng nh2.)
Plato sinh ra trong chin tranh, v ng khong hai mi t tui khi n kt
thc. N dn n cc bnh dch kinh hong, v, trong nm cui ca n,
n nn i, tht th thnh ph Athens, ni chin, v s cai tr khng b,
thng c gi l s cai tr ca Ba mi Bo cha; nhng ngi ny
c hai cu ca Plato lnh o, c hai ngi thit mng trong mt n
lc khng thnh cng duy tr ch ca h chng li nhng ngi
dn ch. S ti thit lp nn dn ch v ho bnh khng c ngha l mt
s ngh ngi cho Plato. Socrates ngi thy yu qu ca ng, ngi m
sau ny ng bin thnh ngi pht ngn chnh ca hu ht cc i thoi
ca ng, b kt n v x t. Bn thn Plato dng nh b nguy him;
cng vi nhng bu bn khc ca Socrates ng ri Athens.
Mun hn, trong dp ving thm u tin ca ng ti Sicily, ng dnh
lu vo cc mu chnh tr triu nh ca Dionysius gi, bo cha x
Syracuse, v thm ch sau khi ng quay v Athens v sau vic thnh lp
Vin Hn Lm, Plato tip tc, cng cc hc tr ca mnh, tham gia mt
cch tch cc v rt cuc tai ho vo cc m mu v cch mng3 to nn
hot ng chnh tr Syracuse.
Phc ho ngn gn ny v cc s kin chnh tr c th gip gii thch v
sao chng ta thy trong tc phm ca Plato, nh trong tc phm ca
Heraclitus, cc du hiu rng ng chu ng kinh khng di s bt
n chnh tr v s bt an ton ca thi ng. Ging Heraclitus, Plato thuc
dng di hong tc; ch t truyn thng cho rng gia nh b ng thuc
dng di Codrus, v vua cui cng ca cc vua b lc Attica4. Plato rt
CHNG 3: L THUYT V HNH THC HAY NIM CA PLATO
19
t ho v gia nh m ng m, nh ng gii thch trong cc i thoi ca

mnh (trong Charmides v Timaeus), c h hng vi gia nh Solon, nh
lp php ca Athens. Cc cu ca ng, Critias v Charmides, nhng
ngi lnh o ca Ba mi Bo cha, cng thuc v gia nh m ng.
Vi truyn thng gia nh nh vy, c th k vng Plato quan tm su sc
n cng vic chung; v tht vy, hu ht cng trnh ca ng p ng k
vng ny. Bn thn ng thut li (nu Seventh Letter [L Th th By] l
xc thc) rng ng 5 rt khao kht hot ng chnh tr t u, nhng
ng b nhng kinh nghim no ng ca thi tr ca mnh lm nht
ch. Nhn thy mi th lc l v chuyn hng vu v, ti cm thy
chong vng v tuyt vng. T cm gic rng x hi, v thc ra mi
th, thay i lin tc, ti tin, pht sinh s thc y cn bn ca trit l
ca ng cng nh ca Heraclitus; v Plato tng kt kinh nghim x hi
ca mnh, chnh xc nh cc bc tin bi lch s ch ngha ca ng
lm, bng cch xut mt qui lut v pht trin lch s. Theo qui lut
ny, s c tho lun k hn chng tip, th mi bin i x hi u
l thi nt hay suy tn hay thoi ho.
Qui lut lch s c bn ny, trong quan nim ca Plato, to thnh mt
phn ca qui lut v tr - ca mt qui lut c hiu lc cho mi th c
to ra hay sinh ra. Mi th trong dng chy, mi th c to ra, u i
n suy tn. Plato, ging Heraclitus, cm thy rng cc lc hot ng
trong lch s l cc lc v tr.
Tuy vy, gn nh chc chn l Plato tin rng qui lut thoi ho ny
khng phi l ton b cu chuyn. Chng ta thy, Heraclitus, mt xu
hng mng tng cc qui lut pht trin nh cc qui lut tun hon;
chng c tng tng theo qui lut xc nh s k tip nhau theo chu
k ca cc ma. Tng t chng ta c th thy, trong mt vi cng trnh
ca Plato, s gi v mt Nm Ln ( di ca n hnh nh l 36.000
nm bnh thng), vi mt thi k ci thin hay sinh ra, c l tng ng
vi Ma Xun v Ma H, v mt thi k thoi ho hay suy tn, tng
ng vi Ma Thu v Ma ng. Theo mt i thoi ca Plato
(Statesman [Chnh khch]), mt Thi i Hong Kim, thi i ca
Cronos - mt thi k trong bn thn Cronos cai tr th gii, v trong
con ngi sinh ra t t- tip theo l thi i ca chng ta, thi i ca
Zeus, mt thi k trong th gii b cc thn b ri v mc cho n t
xoay x, v bi vy l mt thi i ngy cng thi nt. V trong cu
chuyn ca Statesman cng c mt gi rng, sau khi t im hon
ton thi nt, thn s li cm li con tu v tr, v s vt s bt u ci
thin.
20
Khng chc chn l Plato tin vo cu chuyn ca Statesman n u.

ng lm kh r rng ng khng tin l tt c u ng theo ngha en.
Mt mt, c th khng my nghi ng rng ng hnh dung lch s loi
ngi trong mt khung cnh v tr; rng ng tin thi i ca ng l mt
thi i i bi su thm c l su nht v ton b thi k lch s
trc b chi phi bi mt xu hng c hu hng ti suy tn, mt xu
hng c c pht trin lch s v pht trin v tr chia s.6 Liu ng
cng tin rng xu hng ny nht thit phi i n kt thc mt khi t
im i bi cng cc hay khng, i vi ti dng nh khng chc
chn. Nhng ng chc chn tin rng l c th i vi chng ta, ph v
xu hng lch s tai ho, v chm dt qu trnh suy tn bng mt n lc
ca con ngi, hay ng hn bng mt n lc siu phm.
II
Tuy gia Plato v Heraclitus c cc im rt ging nhau, chng ta ch
ti mt s khc bit quan trng. Plato tin rng qui lut nh mnh lch
s, qui lut suy tn, c th b ph v bi ch o c con ngi, c
ng h bi nng lc ca l tr con ngi.
Khng hon ton r l Plato iu ho ra sao quan im ny vi lng tin
ca ng vo qui lut vn mnh. Nhng c mt vi du hiu c th gii
thch vn .
Plato tin l qui lut tha ho ko theo s suy i o c. Theo quan
im ca ng, tha ho chnh tr d sao i na ph thuc ch yu vo s
suy i o c (v thiu tri thc); v suy i o c, n lt n, li
ch yu do suy i chng tc. y l cch m qui lut v tr chung v
suy tn t th hin trong lnh vc cng vic con ngi.
Cho nn c th hiu c rng bc ngot ln ca v tr c th trng
vi bc ngot trong lnh vc cng vic con ngi lnh vc o c v
tr c v rng n c th, v th, t ra vi chng ta nh do n lc o c
v tr tu con ngi gy ra. Plato rt c th tin rng, ht nh qui lut
chung v suy tn t th hin trong suy tn o c dn n suy tn chnh
tr, cng th s xut hin ca bc ngot v tr t th hin trin vng
c mt nh lp php ln m quyn lc l tr v o c ca ngi s
c kh nng chm dt thi k suy tn chnh tr ny. Hnh nh chc l li
tin tri, trong Statesman, v s quay li ca Thi i Hong Kim, ca
mt thi i hong kim mi, l s biu hin ca mt lng tin nh vy
dng huyn thoi. Du iu ny c th no i na, ng chc chn tin vo
c hai- vo mt xu hng lch s chung ti thi nt, v vo kh nng
21
rng chng ta c th ngn chn s thi nt thm na trong lnh vc chnh

tr bng lm ngng mi thay i chnh tr. y, v vy, l mc tiu m
ng phn u.7 ng c thc hin n bng thit lp mt nh nc thot
khi tai ho ca thay i v thi nt, nh nc tt nht, nh nc hon
ho. l nh nc ca Thi i Hong kim khng bit n s thay i.
l nh nc b ngng li.
III
V tin vo mt nh nc l tng nh vy, nh nc khng thay i,
Plato xa ri trit khi cc gio l ca ch ngha lch s m chng ta
thy Hericlitus. Nhng d s khc bit ny l quan trng, n gy ra cc
im tng t na gia Plato v Heraclitus.
Heraclitus, bt chp tnh r rt ca lp lun ca ng, dng nh li
li trc tng thay v tr bng hn n. Chng ta ni, ng dng nh
t an i mnh i vi s mt mt ca mt th gii n nh bng cch bm
vo quan im l s thay i b ch ng bi mt qui lut khng thay i.
Xu hng li li trc cc hu qu cui cng ca ch ngha lch s l c
trng cho nhiu nh lch s ch ngha.
Plato, xu hng ny tr thnh tt bc. ( y ng chu nh hng
trit hc ca Parmenides, nh ph bnh ln ca Heraclitus). Heraclitus
khi qut ho kinh nghim ca ng v dng chy x hi bng m rng n
ra cho th gii ca mi th, v Plato, ti m ch, cng lm th. Song
Plato cng m rng nim tin ca ng vo mt nh nc hon ho, khng
thay i sang cho a ht ca mi th. ng tin rng vi mi loi s vt
bnh thng hay suy tn cng tng ng vi mt s vt hon ho, khng
suy tn. Nim tin ny vo cc s vt hon ho v khng thay i, thng
c gi l L thuyt v cc Hnh thc hay nim [Theory of Forms and
Ideas]8, tr thnh thuyt trung tm ca trit hc ca ng.
Nim tin ca Plato rng chng ta c th ph v qui lut st v vn
mnh, v c th trnh suy tn bng ngng mi thay i, chng t rng
cc xu hng lch s ch ngha ca ng c nhng hn ch xc nh. Mt
ch ngha lch s khng tho hip v c pht trin y s do d
tha nhn rng con ngi, bng bt k n lc no, c th thay i cc qui
lut v vn mnh lch s, ngay c sau khi anh ta khm ph ra chng.
N cho rng anh ta khng th hot ng chng li chng, v mi k
hoch v hnh ng ca anh ta l cc cng c m theo cc qui lut
pht trin khng th lay chuyn thc hin vn mnh lch s ca anh ta;
ht nh Oedipus chu ng s mnh ca mnh bi v li tin tri, v cc
22
bin php do cha anh s dng trnh n, ch khng phi bt chp

chng. c mt hiu bit tt hn v thi lch s ch ngha trit
ny, v phn tch xu hng ngc c hu trong nim tin ca Plato rng
ng c th tc ng n s phn, ti s tng phn ch ngha lch s, nh
chng ta thy Plato, vi mt cch tip cn hon ton tri ngc, cng
thy Plato, cch tip cn c th c gi l thi ci bin (hay k
thut) x hi [attitude of social engineering]9.
IV
K s x hi khng hi bt k cu hi no v cc xu hng lch s hay
s phn ca con ngi. Anh ta tin rng con ngi l ch vn mnh ring
ca mnh v rng, ph hp vi cc mc tiu ca chng ta, chng ta c th
chi phi hay thay i lch s con ngi ht nh chng ta lm thay i
b mt tri t. Anh ta khng tin rng cc mc ch ny c p t ln
chng ta bi bi cnh lch s ca chng ta hay bi cc xu hng lch s,
m ng hn chng c chnh chng ta la chn, hay thm ch to ra,
ht nh chng ta to ra nhng t duy mi hay cc tc phm ngh thut
mi hay cc cn nh mi hay my mc mi. Ngc vi nh lch s ch
ngha, ngi tin rng hnh ng chnh tr thng minh l c th, ch nu
din tin ca lch s c xc nh u tin, k s x hi tin rng c s
ca hot ng chnh tr l chuyn rt khc; n bao gm thng tin thc s
cn thit cho xy dng hay thay i cc nh ch x hi, ph hp vi
mun hay mc tiu ca chng ta. Mt khoa hc nh vy phi ni cho
chng ta nn tin hnh cc bc no nu chng ta mun, th d, trnh
suy thoi, hay khc i to ra suy thoi; hay nu chng ta mun lm
cho phn phi ca ci ng u hn, hay t ng u hn. Ni cch khc,
k s x hi hnh dung c s khoa hc ca chnh tr hc nh ci g
ging mt cng ngh x hi [social technology] (Plato, nh s thy, so
snh n vi nn tng khoa hc ca y khoa), ngc vi nh lch s ch
ngha, ngi hiu n nh khoa hc v cc xu hng lch s khng th
thay i c.
T ci ti ni v thi ca k s x hi, khng c suy ra l
khng c cc khc bit quan trng trong phe cc k s x hi. Ngc li,
s khc bit gia ci ti gi l ci bin x hi tng phn piecemeal
social engineering v ci bin x hi Khng tng-Utopian social
engineering l mt trong nhng ch chnh ca cun sch ny. (So
snh c bit vi chng 9, ni ti a ra cc l do ca mnh ch
trng ci trc v bc b ci sau). Nhng hin ti, ti ch quan tm n
23
s i lp gia ch ngha lch s v k thut [ci bin] x hi. S i lp

ny c l c th c lm r thm nu chng ta xem xt thi ca nh
lch s ch ngha v ca k s x hi i vi cc nh ch x hi, tc l
nhng th nh mt cng ti bo him, hay lc lng cnh st, hay mt
chnh ph, hay c l mt ca hng tp phm.
Nh lch s ch ngha c thin hng nhn cc nh ch x hi ch yu
t quan im lch s ca chng, tc l ngun gc, s pht trin, v tm
quan trng hin ti v tng lai ca chng. Anh ta c l c th khng
khng rng ngun gc ca chng l do mt k hoch hay mt thit k xc
nh v theo ui cc mc tiu xc nh, hoc ca con ngi hay ca
thn thnh; hoc anh ta c th khng nh l chng khng c ngh ra
phc v cho bt k mc ch c hnh dung r rng no, m ng
hn l s biu l trc tip ca cc bn nng hay nim say m no ; hay
anh ta c th khng nh l trc kia chng c dng nh cc cng
c cho cc mc ch c th, nhng chng mt tnh cht ny. Mt khc,
k s v nh cng ngh x hi s hu nh khng my quan tm n
ngun gc ca cc nh ch, hay n nhng nh ban u ca nhng
ngi sng lp ra chng (mc d chng c l do v sao anh ta li khng
nhn ra s thc rng ch c mt thiu s cc nh ch c thit k mt
cch c thc, trong khi tuyt i a s ch mc ln, nh kt qu
khng c d kin ca hot ng con ngi10). ng hn, anh ta s t
vn nh th ny. Nu cc mc tiu ca chng ta l nh th v nh th,
th nh ch ny c c c tr tnh v t chc kho phc v chng
khng? Nh mt th d c th xem xt nh ch bo him. K s hay nh
cng ngh x hi s khng my lo lng v vn liu bo him c ngun
gc nh mt hot ng kinh doanh v li nhun hay khng; hay liu s
mng lch s ca n l phc v hnh phc chung hay khng. Nhng anh
ta c th a ra mt ph phn cc nh ch bo him no , ch ra, c l,
lm th no tng li nhun, hay, mt vic hon ton khc l, lm th
no tng li ch m chng mang li cho cng chng; v anh ta s gi
nhng cch theo c th lm cho chng c hiu qu hn cho mc ch
ny hay mc ch khc. Mt th d khc v nh ch x hi, chng ta c
th xt lc lng cng an. Mt s nh lch s ch ngha c th m t n
nh mt cng c bo v t do v an ninh, nhng ngi khc coi nh
cng c thng tr v p bc giai cp. K s hay nh cng ngh x hi, tuy
vy, c l gi cc bin php lm cho n l mt cng c ph hp cho
bo v t do v an ninh, v anh ta cng c th ngh ra cc bin php bin
n thnh mt v kh hng hu ca thng tr giai cp. (Trong chc nng
ca mnh nh mt cng dn theo ui cc mc ch no m anh ta tin
24
tng, anh ta c th i hi rng cc mc ch ny, v cc bin php

thch hp, phi c chp nhn. Nhng nh mt nh cng ngh, anh ta
phn bit cn thn gia vn mc ch v la chn ca chng v vn
lin quan n s thc, tc l cc tc ng x hi ca bt k bin php c
th c tin hnh no11).
Ni chung hn, c th ni rng k s hay nh cng nh tip cn cc
nh ch mt cch duy l nh cc cng c phc v cho cc mc ch no
, v rng nh mt nh cng ngh anh ta nh gi chng hon ton theo
tnh thch ng, tnh hiu qu, tnh n gin, v.v. ca chng. Mt khc,
nh lch s ch ngha li c tm ra ngun gc v vn mnh ca cc nh
ch ny nh gi vai tr tht ca chng trong s pht trin lch snh gi chng, th d, nh ch ca Thng , hay ch ca S
phn, hay phc v cc xu hng lch s quan trng, v.v. Tt c iu
ny khng c ngha l k s hay nh cng ngh x hi tn tm vi khng
nh rng cc nh ch ch l cc cng c cho cc mc ch, hay cc
phng tin; anh ta c th hon ton thc c s thc rng, trong
nhiu kha cnh quan trng, chng rt khc cc cng c c kh hay my
mc. Anh ta s khng qun, th d, rng chng mc ln theo cch ging
(mc d hon ton khng ngang nh) s pht trin ca cc c th, v
rng s thc ny rt quan trng cho k thut ci bin x hi. Anh ta
khng tn tm vi mt trit l theo thuyt cng c v cc nh ch x
hi. (Chng ai s ni rng mt qu cam l mt cng c, hay mt phng
tin cho mt mc ch, th d, nu chng ta mun n n, hay, c l,
kim sng bng cch bn chng).
Hai thi , ch ngha lch s v ci bin x hi, i khi xut hin trong
nhng kt hp in hnh. Th d sm nht v c l c nh hng nht v
nhng kt hp ny l trit l chnh tr v x hi ca Plato. N kt hp, c
th ni, mt s yu t cng ngh kh hin nhin tin cnh vi mt hu
cnh b ln t bi s ph by cc c tnh lch s ch ngha in hnh. S
kt hp l tiu biu cho kh nhiu trit gia chnh tr v x hi, nhng
ngi to ra ci c m t mun hn nh cc h thng Khng tng.
Tt c cc h thng ny kin ngh mt loi k thut ci bin x hi no
, v chng i hi s chp nhn cc phng tin nh ch no , d
cho khng lun thc tin lm, nhm t cc mc ch ca h. Nhng khi
xem xt cc mc ch ny, th chng ta thng xuyn thy rng chng
c ch ngha lch s quyt nh. c bit, cc mc ch chnh tr ca
Plato ph thuc mc ng k vo cc thuyt lch s ch ngha ca
ng. Th nht, chnh mc tiu thot khi dng chy kiu Heraclitus,
c th hin cch mng x hi v suy tn lch s. Th hai, ng tin
25
rng iu ny c th c thc hin bng thit lp mt nh nc hon

ho n mc n khng tham gia vo xu hng chung ca s pht trin
lch s. Th ba, ng tin rng m hnh hay nguyn bn ca nh nc hon
ho ca ng c th thy trong qu kh xa xi, Thi k Hong kim tn
ti trong bui ban u ca lch s; v nu th gii suy tn theo thi gian,
th chng ta phi tm thy s hon ho ngy cng tng thm khi li li
qu kh. Nh nc hon ho l ci g ging ng t u tin, thu t,
ca cc nh nc mun hn, cc nh nc, c th ni, l con chu b
thoi ho ca nh nc hon ho, tt nht, hay l tng ny;12 mt nh
nc l tng khng phi l mt o nh n thun, cng chng phi l
mt c m, chng phi l mt nim trong u, m, v tnh n nh
ca n, l thc t hn tt c mi x hi suy tn lun bin i, v c th
mt i vo bt c lc no.
Nh vy ngay c mc ch chnh tr ca Plato, nh nc tt nht, li
ph thuc ch yu vo ch ngha lch s ca ng; v ci l ng trong
trit l ca ng v nh nc c th c m rng ra, nh c biu
th, cho trit l chung ca ng v mi th, cho L thuyt v cc Hnh
thc hay cc nim ca ng.
V
Nhng s vt lun bin i, cc s vt thoi ho v suy tn, l con ci
(ging nh nc), c th ni, l con ca cc s vt hon ho. V ging
cc con, chng l cc bn sao ca t tin ban u ca chng. Cha hay bn
gc ca mt s vt lun thay i c Plato gi l Hnh thc hay Hnh
mu hay nim ca n. Nh trc, phi nhn mnh rng Hnh thc
hay nim, bt chp tn ca n, khng phi l nim trong u chng
ta; khng phi l mt o nh, cng chng phi l mt c m, m l mt
s vt thc. Qu vy, n thc hn tt c cc th bnh thng lun thay
i, cc th bt chp s vng chc b ngoi ca chng, buc phi suy
tn; v Hnh thc hay nim l mt th hon ho, v khng tn li.
Khng c ngh l cc Hnh thc hay nim trong khng gian v
thi gian, ging cc th c th tn li. Chng ngoi khng gian, v
cng ngoi thi gian (v chng vnh cu). Song chng c tip xc vi
khng gian, ti khi u ca thi gian. V chng khng cng vi chng ta
trong khng gian v thi gian, cc gic quan ca chng ta khng cm
nhn c chng, nh cc th thay i bnh thng giao tip vi cm
quan ca chng ta v v th c gi l cc th c th cm nhn c.
Cc th c th cm nhn c , chng l cc bn sao hay con ca cng
26
m hnh hay bn gc, ging khng ch bn gc, Hnh thc hay nim
ca chng, m cng ging nhau, nh cc con ca cng gia nh; v nh
cc con chng c gi theo h [tn] ca b chng, cc th c th cm
nhn c cng vy, chng mang tn ca cc Hnh thc hay nim ca
chng; Tt c chng c gi theo cch , nh Aristotle ni13.
Nh mt a con c th nhn ln b mnh, coi ng l mt mu l tng,
mt m hnh duy nht, mt s nhn cch ho ging thn ca kht vng
ring ca n; hin thn ca s hon ho, s thng thi, s n nh, vinh
quang v c hnh; nng lc, ci to ra n trc th gii, bt u; l
ci hin nay bo tn v duy tr n; v trong c hnh ca ci y n tn
ti; Plato nhn cc Hnh thc hay nim nh vy. nim kiu Plato l
bn gc v ngun gc ca s vt; n l nhn t hp l ca s vt, l l do
tn ti ca n l nguyn l n nh, bn vng m trong c hnh ca
nguyn l n tn ti. l c hnh ca s vt, l l tng ca n, s
hon ho ca n.
S so snh gia Hnh thc hay nim ca mt lp cc s vt c th
cm nhn c v cha ca mt gia nh gm cc con c Plato pht
trin trong Timaeus, mt trong nhng i thoi mun nht ca ng. N
ph hp14 vi phn ln tc phm sm hn ca ng, m n lm r ng
k. Nhng trong Timaeus, Plato i mt bc qu gio hun trc kia ca
ng, khi ng miu t s giao tip ca Hnh thc hay nim vi th gii
khng-thi gian bng m rng s v von ca ng. ng m t khng
gian tru tng, trong cc th c th cm nhn c di chuyn (khi
u l khng gian hay khong trng gia tri v t), nh mt ch cha,
v so snh n vi m ca cc s vt, trong , khi u ca thi gian,
cc th c th cm nhn c c to ra bi cc Hnh thc, nhng ci
in hay khc bn thn ln khng gian tinh khit, v bng cch y cho cc
con hnh th ca chng. Chng ta phi hnh dung, Plato vit, ba loi s
vt: th nht, nhng th tri qua s sinh ra; th hai, nhng th trong
s sinh ra xut hin; v th ba, m hnh ci ra cc th c sinh ra vi
s ging nhau ca n. V chng ta c th so snh nguyn l cha ng
vi mt ngi m, v m hnh vi ngi cha, v sn phm ca chng vi
a tr. V ng tip tc m t chi tit hn u tin cc m hnh, nhng
ngi cha, cc Hnh thc hay nim khng thay i: u tin c Hnh
thc khng thay i, ci khng c to ra v khng th hu hoi, v
hnh v khng th cm nhn bi bt k gic quan no, v c th c suy
ngm ch bi t duy thun khit. Vi mi bn duy nht bt k ca cc
Hnh thc hay nim ny c con ca n, hay loi ca cc th c th cm
nhn c, mt loi khc, mang tn ca Hnh thc v ging n, song
27
cm nhn c i vi gic quan, c to ra, lun bin i, sinh ra

mt ni v bin mt t ni , v c hiu r bi kin da trn cm
nhn. V khng gian tru tng, ging nh m, c m t nh: C
mt loi th ba, khng gian, vnh cu, khng th b hu hoi, v to t
m cho tt c cc th c sinh ra.15
C th gp cho s hiu bit l thuyt ca Plato v cc Hnh thc hay
nim nu so snh n vi cc nim tin tn gio Hi Lp nht nh. Nh
trong nhiu tn gio th s, t nht mt s thn Hi Lp chng l g khc
m l t tin v anh hng b lc c l tng ho nhn cch ho ca
c hnh hay s hon ho ca b lc. Do , cc b lc v gia tc no
truy t tng ca h n thn ny hay thn kia. (Gia tc ring ca Plato
c k l c dng di t thn Poseidon16). Chng ta ch cn coi cc thn
ny l bt t hay vnh cu, v hon ho- hay rt gn th- trong khi nhng
ngi thng dnh lu n s thay i lin tc ca mi th, v b suy tn
(ci thc s l vn mnh cui cng ca mi c nhn), thy rng cc
thn ny c quan h vi ngi thng ng nh cch cc Hnh thc hay
nim c quan h vi cc th c th cm nhn c, cc bn sao ca
chng17 (hay nh nc hon ho ca ng vi cc nh nc khc nhau tn
ti hin nay). Tuy vy, c mt s khc bit quan trng gia thn thoi Hi
Lp v L thuyt ca Plato v cc Hnh thc hay nim. Trong khi
nhng ngi Hi Lp sng knh nhiu thn nh t tin ca cc b lc hay
gia tc khc nhau, L thuyt v cc nim i hi rng phi ch c mt
Hnh thc hay nim ca con ngi18; v mt trong nhng thuyt trung
tm ca L thuyt v Hnh thc l ch c mt Hnh thc ca mi loi
hay loi cc s vt. Tnh duy nht ca Hnh thc tng ng vi tnh
duy nht ca t tin l mt yu t cn thit ca l thuyt, nu n mun
thc hin mt trong cc chc nng quan trng nht ca n, c th l,
gii thch s ging nhau ca cc th c th cm nhn c, bng xut
rng cc th ging nhau l cc bn sao hay du n ca mt Hnh thc.
Nh th nu gi nh c hai Hnh thc ngang hay ging nhau, s ging
nhau ca chng buc chng ta gi thit rng c hai l bn sao ca mt
bn gc th ba, ci v th ho ra l Hnh thc tht v n l duy nht.
Hay, nh Plato din t trong Timaeus: S ging nhau nh th c th
c gii thch, chnh xc hn, khng nh mt trong hai th ny, m dn
chiu n s vt cp trn, nguyn mu ca chng.19 Trong Republic, tc
phm sm hn Timaeus, Plato gii thch vn thm ch r hn, dng
ging bn cht nh th d, tc l Hnh thc hay nim v mt ci
ging: Thng lm mt ci ging bn cht, v ch mt ci;
Ngi khng to ra hai hay nhiu ci, v s chng bao giVngay
28
c gi nh Ngi lm ra hai ci, v khng hn, th c th khm ph ra

mt ci khc, c th l Hnh thc ca hai ci ; ci ny v khng phi
hai ci , s l ci ging bn cht.20
L l ny chng t rng cc Hnh thc hay nim cho Plato khng ch
ngun gc hay im xut pht i vi mi din tin trong khng gian v
thi gian (v c bit i vi lch s loi ngi) m cho c mt gii thch
v nhng s ging nhau gia cc th c th cm nhn c, thuc cng
loi. Nu cc s vt l ging nhau v c hnh hay tnh cht no m
chng chia s, th d, tnh trng hay tnh rn, hay tnh tt, th c tnh hay
tnh cht ny phi l mt v nh nhau trong tt c chng; khc i th
chng khng cn ging nhau na. Theo Plato, tt c chng u mang mt
Hnh thc hay nim trng, nu chng l trng; rn, cng nu chng l
cng. Chng mang theo ngha trong nhng a con mang hay c phn
ca ci v nng khiu ca cha chng; ht nh nhiu bn sao c bit ca
mt bn khc, chng u l n bn t cng mt khun in, v v th ging
nhau, c th mang sc p ca bn gc.
S thc rng l thuyt ny c ngh ra gii thch s ging nhau
trong cc vt c th cm nhn c, thot u dng nh chng h c
lin quan g n ch ngha lch s. Nhng c; v nh Aristotle ni cho
chng ta, chnh mi lin h ny l ci dn Plato n pht trin L
thuyt cc nim. Ti s c gng phc ho s pht trin ny, s dng
tng thut ca Aristotle cng vi mt s du hiu trong cc tc phm
ring ca Plato.
Nu mi th thay i lin tc, th khng th ni c bt c g r rng
v chng. Chng ta khng th c tri thc tht s v chng, m, nhiu
nht, ch c cc kin mp m v ho huyn. im ny, nh chng ta
bit t Plato v Aristotle21, gy lo lng cho nhiu mn ca Heraclitus.
Parmenides, mt trong cc bc tin bi ca Plato, ngi c nh hng
ln n ng, dy rng tri thc thun khit ca l tr, ngc vi kin
ho huyn ca kinh nghim, c th c i tng ca n ch l mt th
gii khng thay i, v tri thc thun khit ca l tr qu thc tit l
mt th gii nh vy. Nhng thc ti khng thay i v khng chia s
m Parmenides ngh ng khm ph ra ng sau th gii ca cc s vt
c th tn li22 hon ton khng lin quan n th gii trong chng ta
sng v cht. V vy khng c kh nng gii thch n.
Plato khng th tho mn vi iu ny. Cng nh ng khng thch
v khinh mit th gii kinh nghim lun thay i ny, v bn cht ng li
quan tm n n mt cch su sc nht. ng mun vn bc mn b mt
v s suy tn ca n, v nhng thay i d di ca n, v v s bt hnh
29
ca n. ng hi vng khm ph ra cc phng tin cu ri ca n. ng b

n tng su sc bi hc thuyt ca Parmenides v mt th gii khng
thay i, tht s, vng chc, v hon ho ng sau th gii ma qu trong
ng au kh; nhng quan nim ny khng gii quyt cc vn ca
ng chng no n khng lin quan n th gii ca cc s vt c th cm
nhn c. Ci m ng tm kim l tri thc, khng phi kin; tri thc
duy l thun khit ca mt th gii khng thay i; nhng ng thi, l
tri thc c th c dng kho st th gii thay i ny, v c bit x
hi thay i ny; s thay i chnh tr, vi cc qui lut l k ca n. Plato
nhm ti vic khm ph ra b mt ca tri thc vng gi v chnh tr, v
ngh thut cai tr con ngi.
Nhng mt khoa hc chnh xc v chnh tr hc dng nh l khng
th nh bt k khoa hc chnh xc no v mt th gii lun thay i;
khng c cc i tng c nh trong lnh vc chnh tr. Lm sao c th
tho lun bt k vn chnh tr no khi ngha ca cc t nh chnh
ph hay nh nc hay thnh ph thay i vi mi pha trong din tin
lch s? L thuyt chnh tr i vi Plato trong giai on theo Heraclitus
ca ng phi c v kh hiu, tht thng, v kh th d c ht nh
thc tin chnh tr.
Trong tnh hung ny, nh Aristotle ni vi chng ta, Plato nhn
c mt m ch quan trng nht t Socrates. Socrates quan tm n
cc vn o c; ng l mt nh ci cch o c, mt nh o c
hc ngi lm phin mi loi ngi, buc h phi suy ngh, l gii, v
gii thch cho cc nguyn l hnh ng ca h. ng thng cht vn h
v khng d tho mn vi cc cu tr li ca h. Li p in hnh m
ng thng nhn c l chng ta hnh ng theo cch no v khn
ngoan hay c l hiu qu, hay cng bng, hay sng o, v.v.,
hnh ng theo cch ny- ch khin ng tip tc cc cu hi ca mnh
bng cch hi s khn ngoan; hay tnh hiu qu; hay s cng bng; hay
lng m o l g. Ni cch khc, n dn ng n iu tra c hnh ca
s vt. Cho nn ng tho lun, th d, s khn ngoan biu hin trong cc
ngh v nghip khc nhau, nhm tm ra ci g l chung cho tt c nhng
cch ng x khn ngoan khc nhau v thay i ny, v nh th tm
ra khn ngoan thc s l ci g, hay khn ngoan tht s c ngha g, hay
(dng cch din t ca Aristotle) bn cht ca n l g. Aristotle ni,
tht t nhin l Socrates phi tm bn cht23, tc l tm c hnh hay l
do cn bn ca s vt v tm cc ngha tht, khng thay i hay cn bn
ca cc thut ng. Lin quan n iu ny ng l ngi u tin t vn
v cc nh ngha ph qut.
30
Cc n lc ny ca Socrates tho lun cc khi nim o c nh

cng bng hay khim tn hay m o c so snh ng n vi
nhng tho lun hin i v T do (th d, bi Mill24), hay v Uy quyn,
hay v C nhn v X hi (th d, bi Catin). Khng cn phi gi thit
rng Socrates, trong tm kim ngha khng thay i hay cn bn ca
cc khi nim nh vy, nhn cch ho chng, hay rng ng coi
chng nh cc s vt. Tng thut ca Aristotle, t nht gi rng ng
khng, v rng chnh Plato l ngi pht trin phng php ca
Socrates v tm kim ngha hay bn cht thnh mt phng php xc
nh bn cht thc, Hnh thc hay nim ca mt s vt. Plato gi li
cc hc thuyt ca Heraclitus rng tt c cc th c th cm nhn c
lun lun trong trng thi lun thay i, v rng khng c tri thc no v
chng, nhng ng tm thy mt li ra ca cc kh khn ny trong
phng php ca Socrates. Mc d khng th c nh ngha ca bt k
s vt c th cm nhn c no, v chng lin tc thay i, c th c
cc nh ngha v tri thc tht ca cc th thuc mt loi khc - ca c
hnh ca cc th c th cm nhn c. Nu tri thc hay t duy phi c
mt i tng, th s phi c cc thc th khng thay i no , ngoi
nhng th c th cm nhn c, Aristotle25 ni, v ng tng thut v
Plato rng cc th thuc loi khc ny, sau , ng gi l cc Hnh thc
hay nim, v ng ni cc th c th cm nhn c l khc bit vi
chng, v tt c c gi theo chng. V tn ti nhiu th c cng tn
nh Hnh thc hay nim no bng cch tham gia vo n.
Tng thut ny ca Aristotle gn hp vi cc l l ring ca Plato
c a ra trong Timaeus26, v n chng t rng vn c bn ca
Plato l tm ra phng php khoa hc x l cc th c th cm nhn.
ng mun nhn c tri thc duy l thun khit, ch khng phi kin
n thun; v v khng th nhn c tri thc thun khit v cc th c
th cm nhn c, ng khng khng, nh nhc ti trc, v nhn
c ch t tri thc thun khit nh vy theo cch no lin quan, v c
th p dng c cho cc th c th cm nhn c. Tri thc v cc
Hnh thc hay nim tho mn i hi ny, v Hnh thc lin quan n
cc th c th cm nhn c ca n ging mt ngi cha i vi cc
con mnh nhng a cha n tui trng thnh. Hnh thc l i din c
trch nhim ca cc th c th cm nhn c, v v vy c th c
tham vn trong cc cu hi quan trng lin quan n th gii lun thay
i.
Theo phn tch ca chng ta, l thuyt v cc Hnh thc hay nim t
nht c ba chc nng trong trit hc ca Plato. (1) N l mt cng c
31
phng php lun quan trng nht, v n lm cho tri thc khoa hc thun
khit l c th, v ngay c tri thc c th p dng cho th gii ca cc th
thay i m chng ta khng th nhn trc tip bt k tri thc no, m ch
l kin. Nh th tr thnh c th iu tra cc vn ca mt x hi
thay i, v xy dng mt khoa hc chnh tr. (2) N cung cp manh
mi cho l thuyt bc thit v thay i, v v s suy tn, cho mt l
thuyt v sinh v thoi ho, v c bit manh mi cho lch s. (3) Trong
lnh vc x hi, n m ng cho loi ci bin x hi no ; v n lm
cho c th rn cc cng c nhm ngn li s thay i x hi, v n gi
thit k mt nh nc tt nht gn ging Hnh thc hay nim ca
mt nh nc khng suy tn.
Vn (2), l thuyt v s thay i v v lch s, s c cp trong
hai chng 4 v 5 tip theo, ni x hi hc m t ca Plato c cp,
tc l m t v gii thch ca ng v th gii x hi thay i trong ng
sng. Vn (3), ngn thay i x hi li, s c cp trong cc
chng 6 n 9, cp n chng trnh chnh tr ca Plato. Vn (1),
v phng php lun ca Plato, vi s gip ca tng thut ca
Aristotle v lch s ca l thuyt ca Plato c phc ho ngn gn
chng ny. i vi tho lun ny, ti mun a thm y vi nhn
xt na.
VI
Ti dng thut ng bn cht lun phng php c trng quan
im, do Plato v nhiu mn ca ng nm gi, rng nhim v ca tri
thc thun khit hay ca khoa hc l i khm ph v m t bn cht
tht ca cc s vt, tc l thc ti hay bn cht b che giu ca chng.
Chnh nim tin l k ca Plato rng bn cht ca cc th c th cm nhn
c c th thy trong cc th khc v thc t hn- trong cc t tin hay
Hnh thc ca chng. Nhiu nh bn cht lun mun hn, th d
Aristotle, khng hon ton theo ng v im ny; nhng tt c h u
thng nht vi ng v xc nh nhim v ca tri thc thun khit nh s
khm ph ra bn tnh hay Hnh thc hay bn cht b che giu ca cc s
vt. Tt c cc nh bn cht lun phng php ny cng thng nht vi
Plato trong cho rng cc bn cht ny c th c khm ph v nhn thc
vi s gip ca trc gic tr c; rng mi bn cht c mt tn ph hp
vi n, tn gi ca cc th c th cm nhn c; v rng n c th c
m t bng li ni. V mt m t bn cht ca mt s vt u c h
gi l mt nh ngha. Theo bn cht lun phng php, c ba cch
32
hiu mt s vt: Ti mun ni l chng ta c th bit thc ti hay bn

cht khng thay i ca n; v rng chng ta c th bit nh ngha ca
bn cht; v rng chng ta c th bit tn ca n. Do , c th nu hai
cu hi v bt k s vt thc t no: Mt ngi c th cho tn v hi
nh ngha; hay anh ta c th cho nh ngha v hi tn. Nh mt th d
v phng php ny, Plato dng bn cht ca chn (i lp vi l):
Con s c th l mt th c th chia thnh cc phn bng nhau. Nu
n chia c nh vy, con s c tn l chn; v nh ngha ca tn
chn l mt s c th chia thnh cc phn bng nhauV khi cho
chng ta tn v hi v nh ngha, hay khi cho chng ta nh ngha v hi
v tn, chng ta ni, trong c hai trng hp, v cng mt bn cht, bt
lun by gi ta gi n l chn hay l mt s chia c thnh cc phn
bng nhau. Sau th d ny, Plato tip tc s dng phng php ny cho
mt chng minh lin quan n bn cht tht ca linh hn, m chng ta
s nghe nhiu hn sau.27
Bn cht lun phng php, tc l l thuyt cho rng mc ch ca
khoa hc l i khm ph bn cht v m t chng bng cc nh ngha, c
th c hiu tt hn khi i snh n vi thuyt i lp ca n, vi
thuyt duy danh phng php. Thay cho nhm tm ra mt s vt thc s
l g, v nhm xc nh bn cht tht ca n, thuyt duy danh phng
php nhm m t mt s vt ng x ra sao trong cc hon cnh khc
nhau, v c bit, liu c bt k s u n no trong ng x ca n hay
khng. Ni cch khc, thuyt duy danh phng php coi mc ch ca
khoa hc l m t cc s vt v cc s kin ca kinh nghim ca chng
ta, v l gii thch cc s kin ny, tc l m t chng vi s gip
ca cc qui lut ph qut28. V n thy trong ngn ng ca chng ta, v
c bit trong cc qui tc ca n- cc qui tc phn bit cc cu v cc suy
din c xy dng mt cch ng n khi mt ng t n thun- l
cng c m t khoa hc29 tuyt vi; n coi cc t ng hn nh cc cng
c ph tr cho nhim v ny, ch khng nh cc tn ca cc bn cht.
Nh duy danh lun phng php chng bao gi ngh cu hi nh Nng
lng l g? hay Chuyn ng l g? hay Nguyn t l g? l mt cu
hi quan trng cho vt l hc; nhng anh ta gn tm quan trng cho cu
hi nh: Lm sao c th bin nng lng mt tri thnh hu ch? hay
Mt hnh tinh chuyn ng th no? hay Di iu kin no mt
nguyn t pht ra nh sng? V vi cc trit gia nhng ngi bo anh ta
rng trc khi tr li cho cu hi l ci g th h khng th hi vng cho
cc cu tr li chnh xc cho cc cu hi th no, anh ta s tr li, nu
ni chung c tr li, bng cch ch ra rng anh ta thch hn nhiu mc
33
chnh xc khim tn m anh ta c th t vi phng php ca mnh so

vi s ln ln kiu cng m h t c vi phng php ca h.
Nh th d ca chng ta m ch, thuyt duy danh phng php ngy
nay c chp nhn kh ph bin trong cc khoa hc t nhin. Vn
ca cc khoa hc x hi, mt khc, vn c cp ch yu bi cc
phng php bn cht lun. Theo ti, y l mt trong cc l do chnh
cho s lc hu ca chng. Nhng nhiu ngi, nhng ngi nhn thy
tnh hnh ny30, nh gi n khc i. H tin rng s khc bit v phng
php l cn thit, v rng n phn nh mt s khc bit bn cht gia
bn tnh ca hai lnh vc nghin cu ny.
Cc l l thng c a ra ng h quan im ny nhn mnh tm
quan trng ca s thay i trong x hi, v by t cc kha cnh khc ca
ch ngha lch s. Nh vt l, cng vng vn mt l l in hnh, cp
n cc i tng nh nng lng hay cc nguyn t, cho d chng thay
i, vn gi mt mc bt bin no . Anh ta c th m t nhng thay
i bt gp bi cc thc th tng i khng thay i ny, v khng phi
xy dng hay pht hin ra cc bn cht hay Hnh thc hay cc thc th
khng thay i tng t nhn c ci g lu bn trn anh ta c
th a ra cc cng b r rng. Nh khoa hc x hi, tuy vy, mt v
th rt khc. Ton b lnh vc quan tm ca anh ta thay i. Khng c
cc thc th lu bn trong lnh vc x hi, ni mi th u di s thng
tr ca dng chy lch s. Th d, lm sao chng ta c th nghin cu
chnh ph? Lm sao chng ta c th nhn dng n trong s a dng ca
cc nh ch chnh ph, thy cc nh nc khc nhau cc giai on
lch s khc nhau, m khng gi thit rng chng c ci g chung v
cn bn? Chng ta gi mt nh ch l chnh ph nu chng ta ngh rng
n v c bn l mt chnh ph, tc l nu n tun theo trc gic ca
chng ta v mt chnh ph l ci g, mt trc gic m chng ta c th
trnh by trong mt nh ngha. Cng ng th vi cc thc th x hi
hc khc, nh nn vn minh. Chng ta phi lnh hi bn cht ca
chng, l l lch s ch ngha kt lun nh vy, v t n dng ca mt
nh ngha.
Cc l l hin i ny, ti ngh, l rt ging cc l l c tng thut
trn m, theo Aristotle, dn Plato n hc thuyt v cc Hnh thc hay
nim ca ng. S khc bit duy nht l Plato (ngi khng chp
nhn l thuyt nguyn t v chng bit g v nng lng) p dng hc
thuyt ca ng cho c lnh vc vt l hc na, v nh th cho ton b th
gii. Chng ta c mt du hiu v s thc rng, trong cc khoa hc x
34
hi, tho lun ca Plato v cc phng php c th c tnh thi s ngay

c ngy nay.
Trc khi tip tc vi x hi hc Plato v cch s dng m ng dng
bn cht lun phng php ca ng trong lnh vc , ti mun lm tht
r rng ti gii hn cp ca mnh v Plato ch ngha lch s ca ng,
v nh nc tt nht ca ng. V vy ti phi cnh bo c gi ng
k vng mt trnh by v ton b trit hc ca Plato, hay ci c th gi l
mt cp cng bng v ng n v ch ngha Plato. Thi ca ti
vi ch ngha lch s l mt thi th nghch bc trc, da trn nim
tin chc chn rng ch ngha lch s l v ch, v ti hn th. Kho st
ca ti v cc c im lch s ch ngha ca ch ngha Plato v vy
mang tnh ph phn mnh m. Mc d ti rt khm phc trit hc ca
Plato vt xa cc phn m ti tin l thuc v Socrates, ti khng coi nh
nhim v ca mnh a thm vo nhng li knh trng v tn i vi
thin ti ca ng. ng hn, ti thin v ph hu ci, theo ti, l c hi
trong trit hc ny. l xu hng ton tr ca trit l chnh tr ca Plato
m ti s c gng phn tch, v ph phn.31
X HI HC M T CA PLATO
CHNG 4: THAY I V NG YN
Plato l mt trong nhng nh khoa hc x hi hng u v khng nghi
ng g l ngi c nh hng nht. Theo ngha trong t x hi hc
c Comte, Mill, v Spence hiu, ng l mt nh x hi hc; tc l, ng
p dng thnh cng phng php duy tm ca mnh cho mt phn tch
v i sng x hi ca con ngi, v v cc qui lut pht trin ca n
cng nh cc qui lut v iu kin ca s n nh ca n. Bt chp nh
hng to ln ca Plato, mt ny ca gio hun ca ng t c ch
n. iu ny dng nh l do hai nhn t. Trc ht, phn ln x hi
hc ca Plato c ng trnh by trong mi quan h mt thit vi cc i
hi ca ng v o c v chnh tr n mc cc yu t m t phn ln
khng c nhn ra. Th hai, nhiu suy ngh ca ng c coi l
nghim nhin n mc chng n gin c hp thu mt cch v thc v
v vy mt cch khng ph phn. Ch yu bng cch ny m cc l thuyt
x hi hc ca ng tr nn c nh hng n vy.
X hi hc ca Plato l mt hn hp ti tnh ca s suy on vi s
quan st sc so cc s thc. Mc suy on ca n, tt nhin, l l thuyt
v cc Hnh thc v v dng chy ph qut v suy tn, v sinh ra v tha
ho. Nhng trn nn tng duy tm ny Plato xy dng mt l thuyt thc
tin ng ngc nhin v x hi, l thuyt c kh nng gii thch cc xu
hng chnh trong din tin lch s ca cc quc gia- th Hi Lp cng
nh cc lc lng x hi v chnh tr hot ng trong thi ng.
I
Mc suy on v siu hnh ca l thuyt Plato v thay i x hi
c phc ho ri. l th gii ca cc Hnh thc hay nim khng
thay i, m th gii ca cc th thay i trong khng gian v thi gian
l con ca n. Cc Hnh thc hay nim khng ch l khng i, khng
th hu hoi, v khng th thi nt, m cn l hon ho, ng, tht, v
tt; thc ra, tt c mt ln, trong Republic1, c gii thch nh tt
c mi th duy tr, cn xu nh tt c mi th tn ph hay thi nt.
Cc Hnh thc hay nim hon ho v tt l b trn i vi cc bn sao,
cc th c th cm nhn c, v chng l ci g ging t tin hay cc
im xut pht2 ca mi s thay i trong th gii lun bin i. Quan
im ny c dng nh gi xu hng chung v chiu hng chnh
ca mi thay i trong th gii ca cc th c th cm nhn c. V nu
36
X HI HC CA PLATO
im xut pht ca mi thay i l hon ho v tt, th s thay i ch c

th l mt chuyn ng dn khi s hon ho v tt; n phi hng ti s
bt hon ho v xu, ti s thi nt.
L thuyt ny c th c pht trin chi tit. Mt s vt c th cm
nhn c cng ging Hnh thc hay nim ca n hn, th n hn t
thi nt hn, v bn thn cc Hnh thc l khng th thi nt. Nhng cc
s vt c th cm nhn c, hay c sinh ra, khng phi l cc bn sao
hon ho; thc vy, khng bn sao no c th hon ho, v n ch l mt
s bt chc ca thc ti tht, ch l b ngoi v o tng, khng phi s
tht. Do , khng c s vt c th cm nhn c no (tr c l nhng
ci xut sc nht) ging cc Hnh thc ca chng st n mc l
khng th thay i. Tnh khng bin i tuyt i v vnh vin c n
nh ch cho ci tuyt diu nht ca cc s vt, v thn th khng thuc
v trt t ny3, Plato ni. Mt s vt c th cm nhn c, hay c
sinh ra, nh mt thn th, hay mt linh hn ngi - nu n l mt bn
sao tt, u tin c th ch thay i rt t; v thay i hay chuyn ng c
nht -chuyn ng ca linh hn- vn cn tuyt trn (ngc vi nhng
thay i th hai hay th ba). Nhng mi s thay i, cho d nh n u,
phi lm cho n khc bit, v nh vy t hon ho hn, bng cch gim
s ging nhau ca n vi Hnh thc ca n. Theo cch ny, s vt tr
nn d thay i hn vi mi s thay i, v thi nt hn, v n b dch xa
hn khi Hnh thc ca n, ci l cn nguyn ca tnh bt ng v ng
yn ca n, nh Aristotle ni, ngi din gii hc thuyt Plato nh sau:
Cc th c sinh ra bng tham gia vo Hnh thc, v chng suy tn bi
mt Hnh thc. Qu trnh tha ho ny, u tin chm v sau nhanh
hn qui lut suy tn v sp - c Plato m t y kch tnh trong
Laws, tc phm cui ca cc i thoi v i ca ng. on vn cp
ch yu n s phn ca linh hn ngi, nhng Plato lm r rng n
ng cho tt c cc th chia s linh hn, theo ng mun ni tt c
cc th sng. ng vit, Tt c cc th chia s linh hn bin iv
trong lc chng bin i, chng b trt t v qui lut v vn mnh ko i.
S thay i v tnh cch ca chng cng nh, th s bt u sa st v mc
xp hng ca chng cng t ng k. Nhng khi s thay i, v vi n s
bt cng, tng ln, th chng sp - xung a ngc v ci c bit n
nh cc vng qu qui. (Tip tc on vn ny, Plato nhc ti kh nng
rng mt linh hn c ph cho nng khiu vi mt phn ln khc
thng ca c hnh c th, bi lc ca ch ring ca n, nu n
giao tip vi c hnh thnh thn, tr nn c c hnh tt bc v di
chuyn sang vng cao thng. Vn ca linh hn c bit, c th t
37
cu mnh- v c l nhng ngi khc- khi qui lut chung ca s phn,

s c tho lun chng 8). Sm hn trong Laws, Plato tm tt hc
thuyt ca ng v thay i: Bt k s thay i no, tr s thay i ca
mt s vt xu xa, l nghim trng nht trong mi mi nguy him ph
bc c th xy ra vi mt s vt -bt lun by gi n l mt s thay i
ca ma, hay ca gi, hay ca vic n king ca con ngi, hay ca c
tnh ca linh hn. V ng chua thm, nhn mnh: Tuyn b ny p
dng cho tt c mi th, vi ngoi l duy nht, nh ti va ni, ca ci g
xu xa. Tm li, Plato dy rng s thay i l xu xa, v s ng yn
l tuyt diu.
By gi chng ta thy rng l thuyt ca Plato v Hnh thc hay
nim ng mt xu hng no trong s pht trin ca th gii lun
bin i. N dn n qui lut rng tnh thi nt ca mi th trong th gii
phi lin tc tng ln. Khng phi l mt qui lut cng nhc v s thi
nt tng ln mt cch ph qut, m ng hn l qui lut v tnh thi nt
tng ln; tc l, mi nguy c hay kh nng thi nt tng ln, nhng
nhng s pht trin c bit theo hng khc khng b loi tr. Nh vy
c th, nh trch dn cui cng cho thy, l mt linh hn rt tt c th
thch thc s thay i v suy tn, v rng mi th xu xa, th d mt
thnh ph rt c hi, c th c ci thin bng thay i n. ( mt s
ci thin nh vy c bt k gi tr no, chng ta phi c lm cho n vnh
cu, tc l lm ngng mi s thay i thm na).
Hon ton ph hp vi l thuyt tng qut ny l cu chuyn ca Plato
v ngun gc ca cc loi, nu trong Timaeus. Theo cu chuyn ny, con
ngi, ng vt cao cp nht, do cc thn sinh ra; cc loi khc sinh ra t
con ngi bi mt qu trnh thi nt v tha ho. u tin, nhng ngi
n ng no nhng ngi nht nht v nhng k bt lng- tha ho
thnh n b. Nhng ngi thiu khn ngoan tha ho tng bc mt
thnh cc ng vt cp thp hn. Chim, chng ta nghe ni, sinh ra qua s
bin i ca nhng ngi v hi, nhng qu v t, tin vo gic quan ca
h qu nhiu; cc ng vt trn cn sinh ra t nhng ngi khng quan
tm n trit hc; v c, bao gm cc loi c v, b tha ho t ngi
ngu xun, n n, v tin nht trong tt c s n ng.4
R rng l l thuyt ny c th c p dng cho x hi loi ngi, v
cho lch s ca n. N sau gii thch qui lut bi quan ca Hesiod5 v
pht trin, qui lut v s suy tn lch s. Nu chng ta tin tng thut ca
Aristotle (c phc ho chng trc), th l thuyt v Hnh thc hay
nim khi u c a ra tho mn yu cu phng php lun, i
hi v tri thc thun khit hay duy l iu l khng th c trong trng
38
X HI HC CA PLATO
hp ca cc th c th cm nhn c v lun thay i. By gi chng ta

thy rng l thuyt lm nhiu hn th. Ngoi vic tho mn cc i hi
phng php lun ny ra, n cung cp mt l thuyt v s thay i. N
gii thch chiu hng chung v s lun thay i ca tt c cc th c th
cm nhn c, v bng cch gii thch xu hng lch s n tha ho
bi con ngi v x hi loi ngi. (V n lm cn nhiu hn; nh
chng ta s thy chng 6, l thuyt v Hnh thc cng xc nh xu
hng ca i hi chnh tr ca Plato, v thm ch cc phng tin
thc hin n). Nu, nh ti tin, trit hc ca Plato cng nh ca
Heraclitus xut pht t kinh nghim x hi ca hai ng, c bit t kinh
nghim ca chin tranh giai cp v t cm gic khn kh rng th gii x
hi ca h tan v thnh tng mnh, th chng ta c th hiu v sao l
thuyt v Hnh thc ng mt phn quan trng nh vy trong trit hc
ca Plato khi ng thy rng n c kh nng gii thch xu hng tin ti
tha ho. ng hn cho n n nh gii php ca mt cu gy bi ri
nht. Trong khi Heraclitus khng c kh nng vt qua mt s ln n
o c trc tip v xu hng ca s pht trin chnh tr, Plato thy,
trong l thuyt v Hnh thc ca ng, c s l thuyt cho mt nh gi bi
quan theo cch ca Hesiod.
Nhng s v i ca Plato vi t cch l mt nh x hi hc khng nm
nhng suy on chung v tru tng ca ng v qui lut ca s suy tn
x hi. N nm ng hn s phong ph v chi tit ca nhng quan st
ca ng, v s sc so n kinh ngc ca trc gic x hi hc ca ng.
ng thy cc th cha c thy trc ng, v ch c ti pht hin
ra trong thi i chng ta. Nh mt th d ti c th nhc n l thuyt
ca ng v s khi u th s ca x hi, v ch gia trng b lc, v,
ni chung, n lc ca ng phc ho cc giai on in hnh trong s
pht trin ca i sng x hi. Th d khc l ch ngha lch s x hi
hc v kinh t hc ca Plato, s nhn mnh ca ng n nn tng kinh t
ca i sng chnh tr v pht trin lch s; mt l thuyt c Marx lm
sng li di ci tn ch ngha duy vt lch s. Mt th d th ba l qui
lut l th nht ca Plato v cch mng chnh tr, theo tt c cc cuc
cch mng u gi nh trc mt giai cp cm quyn (hay lite) b
chia r; mt qui lut to c s cho phn tch ca ng v cc phng tin
lm ngng thay i chnh tr v to ra cn bng x hi, v n c ti
khm ph ra mi y bi cc nh l thuyt ca ch ngha ton tr, c bit
bi Pareto.
By gi ti s tho lun chi tit hn v nhng im ny, c bit l
im th ba, l thuyt v cch mng v v cn bng.
39
II
Cc i thoi trong Plato tho lun cc vn ny l, theo th t
thi gian, Republic, mt i thoi mun hn nhiu c gi l Statesman
(hay Politicus), v Laws, tc phm mun nht v di nht ca ng. Bt
chp nhng khc bit nh no y, c nhiu s thng nht gia cc i
thoi ny, trong mt s kha cnh l tng t, trong cc kha cnh khc l
b sung cho nhau. Laws6, th d, trnh by cu chuyn v suy tn v sp
ca x hi loi ngi nh mt tng thut v s hp nht tin s ca
Hy Lp m khng c s xen no vo lch s; trong khi cc on vn
tng t ca Republic cho mt phc ho v s pht trin ca chnh th,
theo mt cch tru tng hn; Statesman, cn tru tng hn na, cho
mt phn loi logic ca cc kiu chnh th, ch vi vi m ch n cc s
kin lch s. Tng t, Laws trnh by kha cnh lch s ch ngha ca s
nghin cu rt mch lc. Hnh mu hay ngun gc ca mt nh nc l
g? Plato hi , lin kt cu hi ny vi cu hi khc: Phi chng
phng php tt nht tm mt cu tr li cho cu hi nyl suy
ngm s pht trin ca cc nh nc nh chng thay i hoc ti tt lnh
hay ti xu xa? Nhng trong phm vi cc hc thuyt x hi hc, s khc
bit ln duy nht dng nh l do mt kh khn t bin thun tu l ci
dng nh lm Plato lo lng. Gi s nh im xut pht ca s pht
trin mt nh nc hon ho v v vy khng th thi nt, ng thy kh
gii thch s thay i u tin, s Sa ng ca Con Ngi, c th ni
vy, ci khi ng mi th.7 Chng ta s nghe, chng tip, v n lc
ca Plato gii quyt vn ny; nhng u tin ti s cho mt tng
quan chung v l thuyt ca ng v s pht trin x hi.
Theo Republic, hnh thc ban u hay nguyn thu ca x hi, v ng
thi, l ci ging st nht Hnh thc hay nim ca mt nh nc, nh
nc tt nht, l vng quyn ca ngi sng sut nht v ging thn
thnh nht trong nhng con ngi. Quc gia- th l tng ny cng gn
hon ho n mc kh hiu c lm sao n c th tng thay i. Th
m, s thay i c xy ra tht; v vi n s xung t ca Heraclitus bt
u, ng lc ca mi chuyn ng. Theo Plato, xung t ni b, chin
tranh giai cp, c t li v c bit l t li v vt cht hay v kinh t
xi by, l lc lng ch yu ca ng hc x hi. Cng thc theo kiu
Marx Lch s ca tt c cc x hi tn ti cho n nay l lch s ca u
tranh giai cp8 khp vi ch ngha lch s ca Plato cng gn kho nh
vi ch ngha lch s ca Marx. Bn giai on d thy nht hay cc ct
40
X HI HC CA PLATO
mc trong lch s tha ho chnh tr, v, ng thi, cc tnh a

dngquan trng nht ca cc nh nc hin tn9, c Plato m t
theo th t sau. Th nht, sau nh nc hon ho l n chnh th ho
hip [timarchy hay timocracy], s cai tr ca qu tc, ngi i tm kim
vinh d v ting tm; th hai, n chnh th u s [oligarchy], s cai tr
ca cc gia nh giu c; tip theo th t, nn dn ch [democracy] sinh
ra, s cai tr ca t do, ci c ngha l s v php lut; v cui cng l
chnh th chuyn ch [tyranny]cn bnh th t v cui cng ca thnh
ph10.
Nh c th thy t nhn xt cui cng, Plato nhn lch s, i vi ng
lch s v s suy tn x hi, c nh lch s ca mt bnh: bnh nhn l
x hi; v nh s thy mun hn, chnh khch phi l mt thy thuc (v
ngc li) - mt thy cha bnh, mt v cu tinh.
Ht nh m t v din bin in hnh ca mt bnh khng lun c th
p dng c cho ring mi bnh nhn, l thuyt lch s ca Plato v suy
tn x hi cng th, khng c nh p dng cho s pht trin ca ring
mi thnh ph. Nhng n c nh m t c din tin ban u ca s
pht trin theo cc hnh thc chnh ca s suy tn th cht c to ra
u tin, v din tin in hnh ca s thay i x hi.11 Chng ta thy
Plato nhm ti trnh by mt h thng v cc giai on lch s, c ch
ng bi qui lut tin ho; ni cch khc, ng nhm ti mt l thuyt lch
s ch ngha v x hi. N lc ny c Rousseau lm sng li, v c
Comte v Mill, v c Hegel v Marx lm tr thnh thi thng; nhng
xt bng chng lch s sn c khi , h thng cc giai on lch s ca
Plato cng hon ton tt nh h thng ca bt k ai trong s cc nh lch
s ch ngha hin i ny. (S khc bit chnh nm s nh gi din
tin thc t ca lch s. Trong khi nh qu tc Plato ln n s pht trin
m ng m t, cc tc gi lch s ch ngha hin i ny khen ngi n, tin
nh h tin vo qui lut v tin b lch s).
Trc khi tho lun nh nc hon ho ca Plato mt cch chi tit, ti
s cho mt phc ho ngn gn v phn tch ca ng v vai tr do cc
ng c kinh t v u tranh giai cp ng trong qu trnh chuyn i
gia bn hnh thc suy tn ca nh nc. Hnh thc u tin m nh
nc hon ho tha ho thnh timocracy, s cai tr ca nhng ngi cao
qu c tham vng, c ni l trong gn nh tt c cc kha cnh, l
ging bn thn nh nc hon ho. Quan trng lu rng Plato ng
nht mt cch r rng nh nc tt nht v c nht ny gia cc nh
nc hin tn vi hin php Dorian ca x Sparta v Crete, v rng hai
ch qu tc b lc ny qu thc i din cho cc hnh thc c nht ca
41
cuc sng chnh tr bn trong Hy Lp. Hu ht m t tuyt vi ca Plato

v cc nh ch ca chng l cc phn nht nh ca m t v nh nc
tt nht hay hon ho, m timocracy l rt ging th. (Qua thuyt v s
tng t gia Sparta v nh nc hon ho, Plato tr thnh mt trong cc
nh tuyn truyn thnh cng nht ca ci ti mun gi l Huyn thoi
Ln v Sparta- huyn thoi bt dit v c nh hng v u th ti cao
ca hin php v cch sng Sparta).
S khc nhau ch yu gia nh nc tt nht hay l tng v timocracy
l, ci sau cha mt yu t bt n nh; giai cp cai tr tc trng mt
thi thng nht th by gi chia r, v chnh s chia r ny dn n bc
tip theo, n s tha ho thnh chnh th u s. S chia r do tham vng
gy ra. u tin, Plato ni v mt ph ho tr, anh ta nghe m mnh ca
thn rng chng b khng phi l mt trong nhng ngi cai tr12.
Nh th anh ta tr nn c hoi bo v ao c tc hiu. Nhng ci quyt
nh gy ra s thay i tip theo l cc xu hng x hi cnh tranh v
hm li. Chng ta phi m t, Plato ni, timocracy bin thnh chnh
th u s th noNgay c ngi m hn cng thy n thay i th
noChnh kho bu l ci hu hoi hin php ny. H [cc ph ho] bt
u bng to ra cc c hi khoe khoang v tiu xi tin, v v mc ch
ny h bp mo lut php, h v cc b v ca h khng tun theo lut
php..; v h c vt ln nhau. Xung t giai cp u tin ny sinh theo
cch ny: xung t gia c hnh v tin bc, hay gia cch c xc
lp c xa v tnh dn d phong kin v cch mi v giu sang. Qu
sang chnh th u s hon tt khi ngi giu thit lp mt lut loi khi
chc v cng tt c nhng ai m ca ci ca h khng t mt lng qui
nh. S thay i ny c p t bng v lc, nu s e do v hm do
khng thnh cng
Vi s thit lp ca chnh th u s, t n mt trng thi ni
chin tim nng gia nhng ngi u s v cc giai cp ngho hn: ht
nh mt thn th m yui khi xung t vi chnh mnh..., thnh ph
m yu cng vy. N b m v xung t vi chnh mnh v nhng c cn
con nht, h khi no mt bn hay bn kia tm c s gip t bn
ngoi, mt bn t mt thnh ph theo chnh th u s, hay bn kia t
mt nn dn ch. V chng phi l nh nc m yu ny i khi lm vo
ni chin, thm ch khng c bt k s tr gip nh vy no t bn
ngoi?13 Cuc ni chin ny sinh ra nn dn ch: Dn ch sinh rakhi
ngi ngho thng, git mt s.., v xua ui mt s khc, v chia s vi
nhng ngi cn li quyn cng dn v chc v cng, di danh ngha
cng bng
42
X HI HC CA PLATO
M t ca Plato v dn ch l s ch nho sinh ng nhng th ch d

di v bt cng bng v i sng chnh tr ca Athens, v v tn iu dn
ch m Pericles trnh by theo cch chng bao gi b vt qua,
khong ba nm trc khi Plato sinh ra. (Chng trnh ca Pericles c
tho lun chng 10, sau14). M t ca Plato l mt mn tuyn truyn
ti ba, v chng ta c th nh gi s tai hi bit bao m n hn gy ra
nu chng ta xt, th d, rng mt ngi nh Adam, mt hc gi xut sc
v bin tp vin ca Republic, khng c kh nng cng li s hng bin
ca Plato lng m thnh ph qu hng ng. M t ca Plato v ngun
gc ca ngi dn ch, Adam15 vit, l mt trong nhng ng vn vng
gi v trng l nht trong ton b vn hc, bt lun c xa hay hin i.
V khi cng tc gi tip tc: m t v ngi dn ch nh con tc k
hoa [lun bin sc, k c hi] ca x hi loi ngi l m t anh ta vnh
vin, sau chng ta thy rng Plato thnh cng ch t bin nh t
tng ny chng li dn ch, v chng ta c th t hi vn c hi ca
ng gy ra bao nhiu tc hi khi c trnh by, khng b phn i,
cho cc tr c nh hn
Dng nh thng khi vn phong ca Plato, dng mt cch din t
ca Adam16, tr thnh mt dng y p cc t tng v hnh nh v
ngn t cao thng, ng c nhu cu cp bch v mt o chong che
y gi rch v qun o rch ri ca lun chng ca ng, hay thm ch,
trong trng hp ny, s thiu vng hon ton ca cc l l duy l. Thay
cho chng ng dng li tho m, ng nht t do vi v php lut, quyn
t do vi giy php, v s bnh ng trc php lut vi mt trt t.
Nhng ngi dn ch c m t nh nhng k trc tng v keo kit, lo
xc v ln xn, v tr tro, nh nhng con th sn mi d tn v khng
khip, chiu theo mi tht thng, sng ch v khoi lc, v v nhng
mong mun khng cn thit v bn thu. (H nhi y bng ging nh
cc th vt, l cch din t ca Heraclitus). H b ln n v ku gi tn
sng s in r..; h gi thi n ho l tnh hn nht..; h gi s iu
v chi tiu ngn np l bn xn v th l17, v.v. V c nhiu chuyn
lt vt thuc loi ny, Plato ni, khi s tun tro lm dng hoa m ca
ng bt u du i, thy gio s v nnh b hc tr.., v ngi gi h c
n ngi tr trnh din mo cu knh v bo ngc. ( l Plato,
Ch nhn ca Vin Hn Lm, ngi cho Socrates ni iu ny, qun
rng Socrates chng bao gi l thy gio, v rng ngay c nh mt
ngi gi ng chng bao gi t ra cu knh hay bo ngc. ng
lun lun yu qu, khng h c n thanh nin, m coi h, th d Plato
tr, nh nhng ngi bn. Bn thn Plato, chng ta c l do tin, t
43
sn sng h c, v tho lun cc vn vi hc tr ca mnh). Song

nh cao ca tt c s d dt t do nyt n, Plato tip tc, khi cc
n l, n ng cng nh n b, nhng ngi b mang ra ch, l hon
ton t do nh nhng ngi ch ca hV kt qu tch lu ca tt c
th ny l g? L tri tim ca cc cng dn tr nn rt nhn hu n mc
h pht cu vi n thun cnh v bt c ci g ging cnh n l v
khng dung th bt c ai bin h cho s hin din ca nn mc h
c th khng c ng ch no bn trn h. y, cui cng, Plato t lng
knh trng i vi thnh ph qu ng, cho d ng lm vic mt cch
khng ch . Mi vn l mt trong nhng thng li v i nht ca nn
dn ch Athens l n i x nhn o vi cc n l, v bt chp tuyn
truyn v nhn o ca cc trit gia nh bn thn Plato v Aristotle n
tr nn, nh ng chng kin, rt gn ti bi b tnh trng n l.18
Cng trng ln hn nhiu, d cho n cng c cm hng bi lng hn
th, l m t ca Plato v ch chuyn ch v c bit v qu tin
ti n. ng khng khng rng ng m t cc th m bn thn ng
thy19; khng nghi ng g, l s m ch ti kinh nghim ca ng triu
nh Dionysius gi, bo cha x Syracuse. Qu t nn dn ch sang
ch chuyn ch, Plato ni, xy ra d nht bi mt lnh t c dn
chng ngng m v bit cch khai thc mu thun giai cp i khng
gia nhng ngi giu v nhng ngi ngho trong phm vi mt nh
nc dn ch, ngi thnh cng xy dng mt i v binh hay mt qun
i ca ring mnh. Nhng ngi tung h ng ta lc u nh qun qun
ca t do mau chng tr thnh n l; v ri h phi chin u v ng ta,
ht cuc chin ny n cuc chin khc m ng ta phi gy rabi v
ng ta phi lm cho ngi dn cm thy cn mt v tng20. Vi ch
chuyn ch, t n nh nc khn nn nht.
Mt tng quan rt ging th v cc dng khc nhau ca chnh th c th
thy trong Statesman, ni Plato tho lun ngun gc ca bo cha v
vua, ca nhng k u s v cc qu tc, v ca cc nn dn ch21.
Chng ta li thy rng cc dng khc nhau ca cc chnh th hin tn
c gii thch nh cc bn sao b gim cht lng ca m hnh tht hay
Hnh thc ca nh nc, ca nh nc hon ho, tiu chun ca mi bn
m phng, c cho l tn ti thi xa xa ca Cronos, cha ca Zeus.
Mt s khc bit l y Plato phn bit su loi ca cc nh nc mt
phm cht; nhng s khc bit ny khng quan trng, c bit nu chng
ta nh li ci Plato ni trong Republic22 rng bn loi c tho lun
khng phi l ht, l ton din, v rng cn c mt s cp trung gian na.
t ti su loi, trong Statesman, u tin bng phn bit gia ba dng
44
X HI HC CA PLATO
chnh th, s cai tr ca mt ngi, ca t ngi, v ca nhiu ngi. Sau

mi trong ba loi ny c chia lm hai loi ph, trong mt loi l
tng i tt v loi kia l xu, da theo liu chng c bt chc bn
gc ng duy nht hay khng bng cch sao chp v duy tr lut php c
xa ca n.23 Bng cch ny, ba dng bo th hay hp php v ba dng
hon ton suy i hay v php lut c phn bit; nn qun ch, ch
qu tc, v mt dng bo th ca nn dn ch l nhng bt chc hp
php, theo th t phm cht. Nhng nn dn ch bin thnh dng v
php lut ca n, v h hng hn na, qua chnh th u s, s cai tr v
lut php ca t ngi, n s cai tr v php lut ca mt ngi, ch
chuyn ch, ch , nh Plato ni trong Republic, l ti nht trong s
.
Rng ch chuyn ch, nh nc ti li nht, khng nht thit l kt
thc ca s pht trin c biu l mt on trong Laws c lp li
mt phn, v mt phn24 lin kt vi, cu chuyn ca Statesman. Cho ti
mt nh nc do mt nh chuyn ch tr cai tr, Plato tht ln ,
ngi c may mn l ngi cng thi ca mt nh lp php ln, v
gp ng ta bi s tnh c may mn no . Mt ng thn c th lm g
nhiu hn cho mt thnh ph m ng mun ban hnh phc cho? Ch
chuyn ch, nh nc ti t nht, c th c ci cch bng cch ny.
(iu ny thng nht vi nhn xt trong Laws, c trch trn, rng
mi thay i l xu xa, tr thay i ca th xu xa. Khng c my nghi
ng rng Plato, khi ni v nh lp php ln v k chuyn ch tr, hn
ngh v bn thn ng v cc th nghim khc nhau ca ng vi cc bo
cha tr, v c bit v cc n lc ca ng ci cch ch chuyn ch
ca Dionysius tr trn khp Syracuse. Cc th nghim xu s ny s c
tho lun sau).
Mt trong nhng mc tiu chnh ca phn tch ca Plato v cc din
bin chnh tr l bit chc ng lc ca mi s thay i lch s. Trong
Laws, tng quan lch s c tin hnh mt cch tng minh vi mc
tiu ny trc mt: Chng phi hng ngn thnh ph khng c m
sinh ra trong thi gian nyv chng phi mi trong s u di
mi loi chnh th?Hy chng ta, nu chng ta c th, nm c
nguyn nhn ca nhiu s thay i n vy. Ti hi vng rng nh vy
chng ta c th pht hin ra b mt c ca s sinh ra cc hin php, v c
ca s thay i ca chng.25 Nh kt qu ca nhng nghin cu ny ng
khm ph ra qui lut x hi rng s chia r ni b, chin tranh giai cp
c kch bi s i khng ca cc quyn li giai cp v kinh t, l ng
lc ca mi cuc cch mng chnh tr. Nhng trnh by qui lut c bn
45
ny ca Plato cn i xa hn na. ng khng nh rng ch s dy lon

ni b trong bn thn giai cp thng tr c th lm yu n nhiu n mc
s thng tr ca n c th b lt . Nhng s thay i trong bt k hin
php no hnh thnh, khng c ngoi l, trong bn thn giai cp thng tr,
v ch khi giai cp ny tr thnh ch chia r26, l cng thc ca ng trong
Republic; v trong Laws ng ni (c l dn chiu n on vn ny ca
Republic): Lm sao mt vng v, hay bt k dng khc no ca chnh
th, tng c th b bt k ai ngoi bn thn cc nh cai tr tiu dit? Chng
ta qun ci chng ta va ni mt lc trc y, khi cp n ch
ny, nh chng ta lm hm trc? Qui lut x hi hc ny, cng vi
quan st rng cc li ch kinh t rt c th l cc nguyn nhn ca s chia
r, l manh mi ca Plato cho lch s. Nhng n nhiu hn th. N cng
l manh mi cho phn tch ca ng v cc iu kin cn thit thit lp
cn bng chnh tr, tc l lm ngng s thay i chnh tr. ng gi s
rng cc iu kin ny c thc hin trong nh nc tt nht hay hon
ho ca thi xa.
III
M t ca Plato v nh nc hon ho hay tt nht thng c din
gii nh chng trnh Khng tng ca mt nh theo thuyt tin b. Bt
chp s khng nh i khng nh li ca ng, trong Republic, Timaeus,
v Critias, rng ng m t qu kh xa xi, v bt chp cc on vn
tng t trong Laws m nh lch s c bc l, ngi ta thng cho
rng l nh ca ng cho mt m t p m v tng lai. Nhng
ti ngh Plato mun ni ci ng ni, v rng nhiu c trng ca nh
nc tt nht ca ng, c bit nh c m t trong Quyn Hai n
Quyn Bn ca Republic, c mun ni l thuc lch s,27 hay c l tin
s (ging tng thut ca ng v x hi nguyn thu trong Statesman v
Laws). iu ny c th khng p dng cho mi c trng ca nh nc
tt nht. Xt, th d, vng v ca cc trit gia (c m t trong Quyn
Nm n Quyn By ca Republic), Plato cho bit rng n c th l mt
c trng ch ca th gii bt tn ca cc Hnh thc hay nim, ca
Thnh ph trn Thin ng. Cc yu t khng thuc v lch s mt
cch ch ny s c tho lun sau, cng vi cc i hi o c
chnh tr ca Plato. Tt nhin, phi tha nhn rng ng khng c
nh cho mt tng thut lch s chnh xc trong m t ca ng v cc
hin php nguyn thu hay c xa; chc hn ng bit rng ng khng c
s liu cn thit t bt k ci g ging vy. Tuy vy, ti tin rng ng
46
X HI HC CA PLATO
nghim tc th dng li cc dng b lc c xa ca i sng x hi

kho nh ng c th. Khng c l do nghi ng iu ny, c bit v n
lc rt thnh cng trong kh nhiu chi tit. Kh c th l khc, v
Plato i n bc tranh ca ng bng mt m t c l tng ho v cc
ch qu tc ca Crete v Sparta. Vi trc gic sc so ca mnh ng
thy cc dng ny khng nhng l c xa, m c ho , c ngng
li; rng chng l cc di tch ca mt dng cn c hn na. V ng kt
lun rng dng cn c hn ny thm ch cn n nh hn, c ngng li
chc chn hn. Nh nc rt c xa v do rt tt v rt n nh ny
c ng c dng li theo cch lm r n c gi khi s chia r
th no; lm sao chin tranh giai cp c loi b, v lm sao nh
hng ca cc li ch kinh t c gim n mc ti thiu, v c
kim sot tt. y l cc vn chnh ca Plato v vic dng li nh
nc tt nht.
Plato gii quyt ra sao vn trnh chin tranh giai cp? Gi nh ng
l ngi theo thuyt tin b, ng c th tm ra tng v mt x
hi khng giai cp, bnh qun; v, nh chng ta c th thy th d t s
ch nho nn dn ch Athens ca ng, c cc xu hng bnh qun
hot ng Athens. Nhng ng khng c xy dng li mt nh nc
c th s n, m l mt nh nc tn ti cha ca nh nc Sparta,
nh nc chc chn khng phi l mt x hi phi giai cp. l mt nh
nc n l, v do nh nc tt nht ca Plato da vo s phn bit
giai cp cng nhc nht. l nh nc ng cp. Vn trnh chin
tranh giai cp c gii quyt, khng phi bng th tiu giai cp, m
bng ban cho giai cp thng tr tnh u vit khng th b thch thc. Nh
Sparta, ch mt mnh giai cp cai tr c php mang v kh, ch mnh
n c cc quyn chnh tr hay cc quyn khc, v ch mnh n c gio
dc, tc l nhn c s o to c bit v ngh thut p bc nhng con
cu ngi hay gia sc ngi ca n. (Thc ra tnh hn hn p o ca n
lm Plato lo u mt cht; ng s rng cc thnh vin ca n c th quy
ry con cu, thay cho n thun ct lng chng, v hnh ng nh
nhng con si hn l nhng con ch.28 Vn ny s c xem xt
mun hn chng ny). Chng no giai cp thng tr cn thng nht,
khng th c thch thc no i vi uy quyn ca h, v do khng c
chin tranh giai cp.
Plato phn bit ba giai cp trong nh nc tt nht, nhng ngi bo
v, nhng ph t c v trang hay cc chin binh ca h, v giai cp lao
ng. Nhng thc t ch c hai ng cp, ng cp qun i cc nh cai
tr c v trang v c gio dc v nhng ngi b tr khng c v
47
trang v khng c gio dc, nhng con cu ngi; v nhng ngi bo

v khng phi l ng cp ring bit, m ch l cc chin binh gi v
thng thi c ct nhc t i ng cc ph t. Rng Plato chia ng
cp cai tr thnh hai giai cp, nhng ngi bo v v cc ph t, m
khng nu chi tit s phn chia tng t trong phm vi giai cp lao ng,
ch yu l do s thc rng ng ch quan tm n nhng k thng tr. ng
hon ton khng quan tm n nhng ngi lao ng, cc nh bun, v.v.,
h ch l cc sc vt ngi m chc nng duy nht l cung cp cc nhu
cu vt cht cho giai cp thng tr. Plato thm ch cn i xa n mc cm
nhng k cai tr lm lut cho nhng ngi thuc giai cp ny, v cho cc
vn lt vt ca h.29 y l l do v sao thng tin ca chng ta v cc
giai cp thp hn li t i n vy. Nhng s im lng ca Plato khng
hon ton lin tc. Khng phi c nhng k n l, mt ln ng hi,
nhng ngi khng c mt t thng minh no v khng xng ng
c chp nhn vo cng ng, nhng l nhng ngi c thn th trng
kin cho cng vic nng nhc? V nhn xt c c ny dn n bnh
lun d chu l Plato khng nhn cc n l vo thnh ph ca ng, y
ti c th ch ra rng quan im ny l sai. ng l khng u Plato
tho lun mt cch r rng v a v ca cc n l trong nh nc tt nht
ca ng, v thm ch ng l ng ni rng ci tn n l tt hn phi
c trnh, v rng chng ta phi gi l nhng ngi lao ng, ngi c
v hay thm ch ng ch. Nhng iu ny c thc hin v cc l do
tuyn truyn. Chng tm thy u cht xu gi no rng th ch n l
phi c bi b, hay gim nh. Ngc li, Plato ch c s khinh b i
vi nhng ngi dn ch Athens nhn hu, ng h phong tro bi n.
V ng nu quan im ca ca mnh kh r rng, th d, trong m t
chnh th ph ho, timocracy, nh nc tt th nh, nh nc k ngay sau
nh nc tt nht. ng ni v ngi ph ho: Anh ta s thch i
x tn nhn vi cc n l, v anh ta khng xem thng h nhiu nh mt
ngi c o to tt xem thng h. Nhng v ch trong thnh ph tt
nht mi c th c gio dc tt hn gio dc ca timocracy, chng ta
buc phi kt lun rng c n l trong thnh ph tt nht ca Plato, v
rng h khng b i x tn nhn, m b khinh mit hon ton. V s
khinh mit chnh ng ca ng i vi h, Plato khng trnh by chi tit.
Kt lun ny hon ton c cng c bi s thc rng mt on trong
Republic ph phn thi quen hin hnh ca nhng ngi Hy Lp n dch
ho nhng ngi Hy Lp, kt thc vi s tn thnh r rng v n dch
ho nhng ngi man r, v thm ch vi mt khuyn ngh cho cc cng
dn ca chng ta- tc l, cc cng dn ca thnh ph tt nht - lm
48
X HI HC CA PLATO
vi nhng ngi man r nh nhng ngi Hy Lp hin nay lm vi

nhng ngi Hy Lp. V n c cng c thm bi ni dung ca Laws,
v bi thi tn bo nht i vi n l c chp nhn .
V ch c giai cp cai tr mi c quyn lc chnh tr, gm c quyn gi
mt s lng sc vt ngi trong phm vi cc gii hn ngn h khi
tr thnh mi nguy him, ton b vn duy tr nh nc c qui v
vn duy tr s thng nht ni b ca giai cp thng tr. S thng nht
ca nhng k thng tr c duy tr th no? Bng o to v nhng tc
ng tm l khc, nhng mt khc ch yu bng loi b nhng li ch
kinh t c th dn n chia r. S king khem kinh t ny t c v
c kim sot bng a ch ngha cng sn vo, tc l bng th tiu ti
sn t nhn, c bit cc kim loi qu. (S hu kim loi qu b cm
Sparta). Ch ngha cng sn ny c gii hn cho giai cp thng tr, m
ch ring n phi c gi khng b chia r; nhng bt ho gia
nhng k b tr khng ng xem xt. V tt c ti sn l ti sn chung,
cng phi c s hu chung v n b v tr con. Khng thnh vin no
ca giai cp thng tr c c kh nng nhn ra con ci hay b m ca
mnh. Gia nh phi b tiu dit, hay ng hn, c m rng ph
ton b giai cp chin binh. Lng trung thnh gia nh khc i c th tr
thnh mt ngun chia r kh d; v vy mi ngi phi coi tt c c nh
l thuc v mt gia nh.30 (Gi ny chng mi cng khng cch mng
nh n c v vy; chng ta phi nh n nhng hn ch Sparta v tnh
ring t ca i sng gia nh nh cm cc ba n ring, lin tc c
Plato nhc n nh th ch v cc ba n chung). Nhng ngay c s s
hu chung nhng ngi n b v tr con cng khng hon ton
bo v giai cp thng tr khi mi nguy him kinh t. Quan trng l phi
trnh thnh vng cng nh ngho kh. C hai u nguy him cho s
thng nht: ngho i, v n y ngi dn n ch chp nhn cc
phng tin liu lnh tho mn nhu cu ca h; s giu c, v hu ht
s thay i ny sinh t s d dt, t s tch lu ca ci lm cho cc th
nghim nguy him l kh d. Ch mt h thng cng sn ch ngha, h
thng khng c ch cho c s thiu thn ln ln giu sang ln, l c th
gim cc li ch kinh t xung ti thiu, v m bo s thng nht ca
giai cp thng tr.
Ch ngha cng sn ca ng cp cai tr ca thnh ph tt nht ca ng
nh vy c th c suy ra t qui lut x hi hc c bn v thay i ca
Plato; n l iu kin cn cho s n nh chnh tr, mt c trng c bn
ca n. Nhng d cho c l iu kin quan trng, n khng phi l iu
kin . giai cp thng tr c th cm thy tht s thng nht, n
49
cm thy ging mt b lc, tc l ging mt i gia nh, p lc t khng

c giai cp cng cn thit nh cc rng buc gia cc thnh vin giai cp.
p lc ny c th c m bo bng nhn mnh v m rng h su
ngn cch gia nhng k cai tr v b tr. Cm gic, rng nhng k b tr
l loi khc v hon ton h ng, cng mnh, th thc v s thng nht
gia nhng k thng tr cng mnh. Bng cch ny chng ta i n
nguyn tc c bn, c cng b ch sau do d no , rng khng c
c s trn ln no gia cc giai cp31: Bt c s xen vo hay chuyn no
t mt giai cp ny sang giai cp khc, Plato ni, l mt ti ln chng
li thnh ph v c th b ln n mt cch ng n nh s i bi tin
nht. Nhng s phn chia giai cp cng nhc nh vy phi c bin
minh, v mt n lc bin minh cho n ch c th c tin hnh t i
hi rng nhng k cai tr l hn hn nhng k b tr. Do , Plato c bin
minh s phn chia giai cp ca ng bng i hi gm ba phn, rng cc
nh cai tr l ht sc u vit ba kha cnh - v dng ging, v gio dc,
v v thang gi tr ca h. Nhng nh gi o c ca Plato, m, tt
nhin, l ht nh ca nhng ngi cai tr ca nh nc tt nht ca ng,
s c tho lun cc chng 6 n 8; v th y ti c th gii hn
vic m t mt s tng ca ng lin quan n ngun gc, s gy
ging, v gio dc ca giai cp thng tr ca ng. (Trc khi tin hnh
m t ny, ti mun by t nim tin ca ti rng tnh u vit c nhn, bt
lun mang tnh dng ging, hay tr tu, hay o c, hay gio dc, chng
bao gi c th chng minh cho i hi c c quyn chnh tr, ngay c
gi nh nu tnh u vit nh vy c th c bit l chc chn. Hu ht
ngi dn trong cc nc vn minh ngy nay tha nhn tnh u vit
chng tc ch l huyn thoi; nhng ngay c gi nh n l mt s thc
c xc minh, th n cng khng c to ra cc quyn chnh tr c
bit, d cho n c th to ra nhng trch nhim o c c bit cho cc
c nhn u vit. C th a ra cc i hi tng t cho nhng ngi c
tnh u vit v tr tu, o c, v gio dc; v ti khng th no khng
cm thy rng, nhng i hi ngc li ca cc nh duy l tr v o c
hc no , ch chng t rng s gio dc ca h t thnh cng n th
no, v n khng lm cho h bit v nhng hn ch ring ca h, v
tnh o c gi ca h).
IV
Nu chng ta mun hiu quan im ca Plato v ngun gc, gy ging,
v gio dc ca giai cp thng tr ca ng, chng ta khng c mt tm
50
X HI HC CA PLATO
nhn v hai im chnh ca phn tch ca chng ta. Chng ta phi nh,
trc ht, rng Plato dng li mt thnh ph ca qu kh, d cho n c
lin h vi hin ti theo cch l mt vi c tnh ca n vn c th thy r
cc nh nc hin hnh, th d, Sparta; v th hai, rng ng dng li
thnh ph ca ng vi ci nhn n cc iu kin ca s n nh ca n,
v rng ng tm nhng m bo cho s n nh ny ch trong bn thn
giai cp thng tr, v c bit hn, trong s thng nht v sc mnh ca
n.
Lin quan n ngun gc ca giai cp thng tr, c th nhc n rng
Plato ni trong Statesman v mt thi, thm ch trc c thi ca nh
nc tt nht ca ng, khi Bn thn Thng l ngi chn dt ngi,
cai tr h chnh xc nh ngivn cai tr sc vt. khng c s
hu n b v tr con32. y khng ch l s v von v ngi chn dt
tt; di nh sng ca ci m Plato ni trong Laws, n phi c din
gii theo ngha en nhiu hn. V chng ta c bo l x hi
nguyn thu ny, x hi cn trc c thnh ph u tin v tt nht, l x
hi ca nhng ngi chn cu du mc trn ni di mt tc trng:
Chnh th bt ngun, Plato ni v giai on trc s nh c u
tin, nh s cai tr ca ngi gi nht, ngi tha hng quyn lc t
cha hay m mnh; tt c nhng ngi khc theo ng ging nh mt n
chim, nh th to thnh mt by duy nht c cai tr bi uy quyn tc
trng v vng v m, trong s mi vng v n l ci xng ng
nht. Cc b tc du mc ny, chng ta nghe ni, nh c cc thnh
ph ca Peloponnese, c bit Sparta, ly tn Dorian. Vic ny xy ra
th no c gii thch khng r lm, nhng chng ta hiu s min
cng ca Plato khi chng ta nhn li m ch rng vic nh c thc ra
l mt s chinh phc d di. y, cho d ta bit, l cu chuyn tht v
s nh c Dorian Peloponnese. V vy chng ta c mi l do tin
rng Plato nh dng cu chuyn ca ng nh mt m t nghim tc v
cc s kin tin s; nh mt m t khng ch v ngun gc ca dng
ging ch nhn Dorian, m c v ngun gc ca gia sc ngi ca h,
tc l dn c gc. mt on tng t trong Republic, Plato cho chng
ta mt m t thn thoi nhng rt sc so v bn thn cuc chinh phc,
khi cp n ngun gc ca ngi sinh ra t t, giai cp thng tr
ca thnh ph tt nht. (Thn thoi v Ngi sinh ra t t s c tho
lun t mt quan im khc chng 8). Cuc hnh qun thng li ca
h vo thnh ph, do cc thng gia v ngi lao ng xy dng ln
trc , c m t nh sau: Sau khi v trang v o to ngi sinh
ra t t, hy chng ta lm cho h tin ln, di s ch huy ca nhng
51
ngi bo v, cho n khi h i n thnh ph. Ri h nhn quanh

kim ch tt nht h tri ni ph hp nht nn dn c, nu c
ai t ra khng sn lng tun theo lut, v ngn cc k th bn ngoi c
th xung ging nhng con si ven bi ro. Chuyn k ngn nhng hn
hoan v s chinh phc dn c khng di tr bi mt m nh nhau i
xm chim (nhng ngi c ng nht, trong Statesman, vi nhng
ngi chn cu du mc vng ni ca thi k trc nh c) phi c
nh ti khi chng ta din gii s nhn mnh c nhc i nhc li ca
Plato rng cc nh thng tr tt, bt lun l thn hay thn hay nhng
ngi bo v, l cc tc trng chn dt ngi, v rng ngh thut chnh
tr thc s, ngh thut thng tr, l mt loi ngh chn gia sc, tc l
ngh thut qun l v nn gia sc ngi. V di nh sng ny m
chng ta phi xem xt m t ca ng v gy ging v o to cc ph t,
di quyn cc nh cai tr, ging nh ch chn cu di quyn nhng
ngi chn cu ca nh nc.
S gy ging v gio dc ca cc ph t v do ca giai cp thng tr
ca nh nc tt nht ca Plato, ging vic mang v kh ca h, l mt
biu tng giai cp v v vy l mt c quyn giai cp.33 V gy ging
v gio dc khng phi l cc biu tng ho m, ging v kh, l cc
cng c ca s thng tr giai cp, v cn thit m bo s n nh ca
s thng tr ny. Chng c Plato cp duy nht t quan im ny,
tc l nh cc v kh chnh tr hng hu, nh cc phng tin hu dng
cho gi gia sc ngi, v cho thng nht giai cp thng tr.
Cho mc ch ny, quan trng l giai cp ch nhn phi cm thy nh
ging ging ch nhn u vit. Dng ging ca nhng ngi bo v phi
c gi thun khit34, Plato ni ( bo v tc git tr s sinh), khi pht
trin l l phn bit chng tc rng chng ta phi ging ng vt ht sc
cn thn trong khi li sao lng dng ging ring ca mnh, mt l l c
lp li sut t . (Tc git tr s sinh khng phi l mt thit ch
Athens; thy n c thc hnh Sparta v cc l do u sinh, Plato kt
lun rng n phi c xa v v vy tt). ng cho l cng cc nguyn tc
y c p dng cho gy ging chng tc ch nhn nh c p dng,
bi mt nh gy ging c kinh nghim, cho ch, nga, v chim. Nu anh
khng gy ging chng theo cch ny, anh khng ngh rng ging chim
hay ch ca anh s nhanh chng thoi ho? Plato lp lun; v ng rt ra
kt lun rng cng cc nguyn tc p dng cho ging ngi. Cc phm
cht i hi t mt ngi bo v hay mt ph t, c th hn, l cc phm
cht ca ch chn cu. Cc chin binh-lc s ca chng taphi cnh
gic ging nh ch gi nh, Plato i hi, v ng hi: Chc chn,
52
X HI HC CA PLATO
khng c s khc nhau no, trong chng mc lin quan n s thch hp

t nhin ca h canh gc, gia mt thanh nin dng cm v mt con
ch c gy ging kho? Trong s nhit tnh v hm m ca ng vi
ch, Plato i xa n mc nhn thy trong ng mt bn cht trit hc
thnh tht; v chng phi tnh yu hc tp l ng nht vi thi trit
hc?
Kh khn chnh cn Plato l nhng ngi bo v v cc ph t phi
c ph cho c tnh hung d ng thi li hin lnh. R rng h phi
c gy ging l hung d, v chng phi ng u vi mi nguy
him vi tinh thn can m v khng th chinh phc c. Song nu
bn tnh ca h l nh th, lm sao gi c h khi hung d chng li
nhau hay chng li cc cng dn cn li?35 Tht vy, s l hon ton v
l nu nhng ngi chn cu phi gi chnhng con s quy ry l
cu, ng x ging ch si hn l ch. Vn l quan trng nhn t quan
im ca cn bng chnh tr, hay ng hn, ca s n nh ca nh nc,
v Plato khng da vo s cn bng ca cc lc ca cc giai cp khc
nhau, v iu s khng n nh. Mt s kim sot giai cp ch nhn,
quyn lc c on ca n, v s hung d ca n, qua lc lng i lp
ca nhng ngi b tr, l khng th c, v tnh u vit ca giai cp
thng tr phi gi nguyn khng b thch thc. S kim sot duy nht c
th chp nhn c ca giai cp ch nhn v vy l t kim sot. Ht nh
giai cp thng tr phi thc hin s king khem kinh t, tc l kim ch
s bc lt kinh t qu ng ca nhng k b tr, nn n cng phi c kh
nng kim ch s hung d qu ng trong i x vi nhng ngi b tr.
Nhng iu ny ch c th t c nu tnh hung d ca bn tnh ca n
c cn bng vi tnh hin lnh. Plato thy iu ny l mt vn rt
nghim trng, v bn tnh hung d l chnh xc i nghch vi tnh hin
lnh. Ngi pht ngn ca ng, Socrates, thut li rng ng bi ri, cho
n khi ng li nh n ch. Ch c gy ging kho v bn cht l
hin lnh nht vi bn b v ngi quen ca n, nhng rt hung d vi
k l, ng ni. V vy chng t rng c tnh m chng ta th cho
nhng ngi bo v ca mnh l khng tri ngc vi t nhin. Mc
ch gy ging gii ch nhn nh th c xc lp, v chng t c th
t c. N c dn ra t phn tch cc iu kin cn thit gi cho
nh nc n nh.
Mc tiu gio dc ca Plato chnh xc cng nh th. L mc tiu chnh
tr thun tu ca n nh ho nh nc bng pha trn yu t hung d v
hin du trong tnh cch ca nhng ngi cai tr. Hai mn hc m tr em
ca giai cp trn ca Hy Lp c gio dc, th dc v m nhc (mn
53
sau, theo ngha rng hn ca t, bao gm mi mn vn hc), c Plato

tng quan vi hai yu t ca tnh cch, hung d v hin lnh. Anh
khng quan st thy, Plato hi36, tnh cch b nh hng ra sao bi o
to ring v th dc m khng c m nhc, v n b nh hng ra sao vi
o to ngc li?Ch bn tm ring vi th dc to ra nhng ngi
hung d hn h l ra nn l, trong khi s bn tm tng t vi m nhc
lm cho h qu mm yuSong chng ta kin nh rng ngi bo v
ca mnh phi kt hp c hai bn tnh nyy l l do v sao ti ni
rng thn no hn phi cho con ngi hai ngh thut ny, m nhc v
th dc; v mc ch ca chng khng phi ch yu phc v linh hn
v th xc, m ng hn chnh hai dy chnh ny mt cch ph hp,
tc l lm cho hai yu t ca linh hn, tnh hin lnh v hung d, hi ho
vi nhau. y l cc phc ho v h thng ca chng ta v gio dc v
o to, Plato kt thc phn tch ca mnh.
Bt chp s thc rng Plato ng nht yu t hin lnh ca linh hn vi
tnh kh trit hc ca n, v bt chp s thc rng trit hc s ng mt
vai tr p o nh vy cc phn sau ca Republic, ng hon ton khng
thin v cho yu t hin du ca linh hn, hay ca gio dc m nhc, tc
l vn hc. S v t v cn i hai yu t r rt hn v n dn ng n p
t nhng hn ch nghim ngt nht ln gio dc vn hc, so vi ci
l, trong thi ng, thng thng Athens. y, tt nhin, ch l mt phn
ca thin hng chung ca ng a thch cc tp qun Sparta so vi cc
tp qun Athens. (Crete, m hnh khc ca ng, thm ch chng m
nhc hn c Sparta37). Cc nguyn tc chnh tr ca Plato v gio dc vn
hc da trn mt so snh n gin. Sparta, ng thy, i x vi sc vt
ngi ca n ng l hi qu khc nghit; y l mt triu chng hay
thm ch mt s th nhn v mt cm gic yu ui38, v v vy l mt
triu chng v s thoi ho chm n ca giai cp ch nhn. Athens, mt
khc, hon ton qu t do v u oi trong i x ca n vi n l.
Plato coi iu ny nh chng minh rng Sparta nhn mnh ng l hi
qu nhiu v th dc, cn Athens, tt nhin, qu nhiu v m nhc. nh
gi n gin ny cho php ng d dng dng li ci, theo ng, hn
l bin php tht hay hn hp tht ca hai yu t trong gio dc ca
thnh ph tt nht, v ra cc nguyn tc ca chnh sch gio dc ca
ng. nh gi t quan im ca ngi Athens, n hon ton l i hi
rng gio dc vn hc b bp nght39 bi s bm cht vo tm gng ca
Sparta vi s kim sot nghim ngt ca nh nc i vi mi vn
vn hc. Khng ch th ca m c m nhc theo ngha thng thng ca t
b kim sot bi s kim duyt kht khe, v c hai phi hin dng ton b
54
X HI HC CA PLATO
cho cng c s n nh ca nh nc bng lm cho thanh nin c thc

hn v k lut giai cp40, v nh vy sn sng hn phc v cc li ch
giai cp. Plato thm ch qun mt rng chc nng ca m nhc l lm cho
thanh nin hin lnh hn, v ng i hi cc dng m nhc lm cho h
dng cm hn, tc l hung d hn. (Xt rng Plato l mt ngi x
Athens, cc l l ca ng lin quan n m nhc ch thc dng nh i
vi ti l hu nh khng th tin c v tnh khng khoan dung m tn
ca h, c bit nu so snh vi ph phn ng thi c khai sng
hn41. Nhng ngay c by gi ng c nhiu nhc s ng v pha mnh,
c l v h c tng bc bi nh gi cao ca ng v m nhc, tc l v
quyn lc chnh tr ca n. Cng ng th vi cc chuyn gia gio dc,
v thm ch nhiu hn vi cc trit gia, v Plato cho rng h phi thng
tr; mt i hi s c tho lun chng 8).
Nguyn tc chnh tr, quyt nh gio dc linh hn, c th l, duy tr s
n nh ca nh nc, cng xc nh s n nh ca th xc. Mc ch
n gin l mc ch ca Sparta. Trong khi cng dn Athens c gio
dc tnh a nng chung, Plato cho rng giai cp thng tr phi c o
to nh giai cp ca cc chin binh chuyn nghip, sn sng nh li k
th t bn ngoi hay bn trong quc gia. Tr em thuc c hai gii, chng
ta c bo hai ln, phi c t ln lng nga trong tm nhn ca
cuc chin thc t; v vi iu kin c th c tin hnh an ton, chng
phi c a vo cuc chin, v cho chng nm mu; ht nh ta lm
vi cc con ch sn non42. M t ca mt tc gi hin i, ngi nu c
im ca gio dc ton tr hin thi nh mt dng ng vin c tng
cng v lin tc, qu thc rt khp vi ton b h thng gio dc ca
Plato.
y l mt phc tho l thuyt ca Plato v nh nc tt nht hay c
nht, v thnh ph m n i x vi sc vt ngi chnh xc nh mt
ngi chn cu khn ngoan nhng chai dn i x vi l cu ca anh ta;
khng qu c c, nhng vi s coi khinh ng mc Nh mt phn
tch c v cc th ch x hi x Sparta v v cc iu kin ca s n nh
v bt n nh ca chng, v nh mt n lc nhm dng li cc hnh thc
cng nhc v s khai hn ca i sng b lc, th qu thc m t ny l
tuyt vi. (Chng ny ch cp n kha cnh m t. Cc kha cnh
o c s c tho lun mun hn). Ti tin rng phn ln trong cc tc
phm ca Plato, thng c coi ch l suy on thn thoi hay Khng
tng, theo cch ny c th c din gii nh m t v phn tch x hi
hc. Th d, nu chng ta ng ti thn thoi ca ng v by ngi nh
nhau c thng chinh phc dn c nh c, th chng ta phi tha nhn
55
rng, nhn t quan im x hi hc m t, n l rt thnh cng. Tht vy,

thm ch n c th c cho l mt s on trc ca mt l thuyt hin
i l th (d cho c l qu bao qut) v ngun gc ca nh nc, theo
quyn lc chnh tr tp trung v c t chc thng bt ngun trong
mt cuc chinh phc43 nh vy. C th c nhiu m t thuc loi ny
trong cc tc phm ca Plato hn l chng ta hin thi c th c lng.
V
Tm tt. Trong mt n lc hiu v din gii th gii x hi thay i
nh ng tri nghim, dn Plato n pht trin rt chi tit mt x hi
hc lch s ch ngha c h thng. ng ngh v cc nh nc hin tn
nh cc bn sao suy tn ca mt Hnh thc hay nim khng thay i.
ng c dng li Hnh thc hay nim ny ca nh nc, hay ch t
m t mt x hi ging n cng nhiu cng tt. Theo cng vi cc
truyn thng c xa, ng dng nh vt liu cho vic dng li ca mnh
nhng kt qu ca phn tch ca ng v cc th ch ca Sparta v Crete
cc dng c nht ca i sng x hi m ng c th thy Hy Lp
trong ng nhn ra cc hnh thc c ngng li ca cc x hi b lc
thm ch cn c hn. Nhng s dng ph hp vt liu ny, ng cn
mt nguyn tc phn bit gia cc c im tt hay gc hay c ca
cc th ch hin tn v cc triu chng suy tn ca chng. Nguyn tc
ny ng tm thy trong qui lut ca ng v cch mng chnh tr, theo
s chia r trong giai cp thng tr, v s bn tm ca h n cng vic
kinh t, l ngun gc ca mi s thay i x hi. Nh nc tt nht ca
ng v th phi c dng li theo cch sao cho loi tr mi mm
mng v yu t chia r v suy tn mt cch trit nht c th; tc l,
phi c dng li t nh nc Sparta vi s ch n cc iu kin cn
thit cho s thng nht khng b st m ca giai cp ch nhn, c m
bo bng s king khem kinh t ca n, s gy ging ca n, v vic o
to ca n.
Din gii cc x hi hin tn nh cc bn sao sa st ca mt nh nc
l tng, Plato cung cp ngay mt c s l thuyt v mt ng dng
thc tin phong ph cho quan im hi th ca Hesiod v lch s loi
ngi. ng pht trin mt l thuyt lch s ch ngha ht sc hin
thc, l thuyt tm thy nguyn nhn ca bin i x hi trong s chia r
ca Heraclitus, v trong xung t giai cp, trong ng nhn ra cc lc
lng thc y cng nh gy i bi ca lch s. ng p dng cc
nguyn tc lch s ch ngha ny cho cu chuyn v Suy tn v Sp
56
X HI HC CA PLATO
(Decline and Fall) ca cc quc gia th Hy Lp, v c bit cho mt

ph phn nn dn ch, m ng m t nh nhu nhc v suy i. V
chng ta c th ni thm rng mun hn, trong Laws44, ng p dng
chng cho c cu chuyn v Suy tn v Suy sp ca ch Ba t
(Persian), nh th to ra s khi u ca mt chui di nhng bi kch ho
Suy tn-v-Sp ca lch s ca cc ch v cc nn vn minh. (C l
Decline of the West [Suy tn ca Phng Ty] ca O. Spengler l ti t
nht nhng khng phi l ln cui trong s ). Ti ngh, tt c iu ny
c th c din gii nh mt n lc, v l mt n lc gy n tng su
sc nht, gii thch, v hp l ho, kinh nghim ca ng v s v
ca x hi b lc; mt kinh nghim tng t nh kinh nghim dn
Heraclitus n pht trin trit hc u tin v s thay i.
Nhng phn tch ca chng ta v x hi hc m t ca Plato vn cn
cha y . Nhng cu chuyn ca ng v Suy tn v Sp , v vi n
hu nh tt c cc chuyn mun hn, th hin t nht hai c trng m
chng ta n nay vn cha tho lun. ng hnh dung cc x hi suy
tn ny nh loi c th no , v s suy tn nh mt qu trnh ging
nh s lo ho. V ng tin rng s suy tn l rt xng ng, theo ngha
rng s sa st o c, mt s suy tn v sp ca linh hn, i cng
vi s suy tn v sp ca th xc x hi. Tt c iu ny ng mt vai
tr quan trng trong l thuyt ca Plato v s bin i u tin trong
Cu Chuyn v Ch S v v Sp ca Con Ngi [Story of the
Number and of the Fall of Man]. L thuyt ny, v mi quan h ca n
vi hc thuyt v Hnh thc hay nim, s c tho lun chng
tip.
CHNG 5: T NHIN V QUY C
Plato khng phi l ngi u tin tip cn cc hin tng x hi theo

tinh thn nghin cu khoa hc. Khi u ca khoa hc x hi ch t quay
li ti th h Protagoras, ngi u tin trong cc nh t tng v i t
gi mnh l cc Sophist [nh ngu bin]. N c nh du bi s thy
r nhu cu phn bit gia hai yu t v mi trng ca con ngi- mi
trng t nhin v mi trng x hi. y l mt s phn bit kh thc
hin v kh lnh hi, nh c th suy ra t s thc rng ngay c ngy nay
n cha c xc lp r trong tm tr chng ta. N b cht vn sut t
thi Protagoras. Dng nh hu ht chng ta c thin hng mnh
chp nhn cc nt ring bit ca mi trng x hi c gi nh chng l
t nhin.
Mt trong cc c trng ca quan im mu nhim v x hi b lc
nguyn thu, hay x hi ng, rng n sng trong mt vng1 m hoc
ca cc iu cm k khng thay i, ca cc qui lut v tp qun hnh
nh khng th trnh khi, nh s mc ln ca mt tri, hay chu k ca
cc ma, hay nhng s u n hin nhin tng t ca t nhin. V ch
sau khi x hi ng mu nhim ny thc s b sp th mt s hiu
bit l thuyt v s khc nhau gia t nhin v x hi mi c th c
pht trin.
I
Phn tch s pht trin ny cn n, ti tin, mt s lnh hi r v mt s
phn bit quan trng. l s phn bit gia (a) cc qui lut t nhin
[natural laws], hay qui lut ca t nhin, nh cc qui lut m t chuyn
ng ca mt tri, mt trng, v cc hnh tinh, s k tip nhau ca cc
ma, v.v., hay nh lut hp dn hay, th d, cc nh lut nhit ng hc,
v, mt khc, (b) cc lut chun tc [normative laws], hay cc chun,
hay cc cm on v li rn; tc l cc qui tc nh cm hay i hi cch
thc i x no ; th d, Mi iu Rn hay cc qui tc php l quy
nh th tc bu cc i biu Quc hi, hay cc lut to thnh Hin php
Athens.
V tho lun v cc vn ny thng b, mt xu hng che m s
phn bit ny, lm h, nn c th ni vi li v n. Mt qui lut theo
ngha (a)- mt qui lut t nhin- m t mt s u n nghim ngt,
khng thay i m n hoc thc ra ng trong t nhin (trong trng hp
ny, qui lut l mt mnh ng) hoc khng ng (trong trng hp
58
X HI HC CA PLATO
ny n sai). Nu chng ta khng bit liu mt qui lut t nhin l ng

hay l sai, v nu chng ta mun lu n s khng chc chn, chng ta
thng gi n l mt gi thuyt. Qui lut t nhin l khng th sa i
c; khng c ngoi l cho n. V nu chng ta thy ci g xy ra
mu thun vi n, chng ta khng ni l c ngoi l, hay s sa i qui
lut, m ng hn l gi thit ca chng ta b bc b, v s u n
nghim ngt c gi s ho ra l khng ng, hay ni cch khc, gi
thit c cho l qui lut t nhin y khng phi l mt qui lut ng ca
t nhin, m l mt mnh sai. V qui lut t nhin l khng th thay
i c, n chng th b vi phm cng khng th c thc thi. N
ngoi tm kim sot ca con ngi, cho d chng ta c th dng n cho
cc mc ch k thut, v mc d chng ta c th gp rc ri v khng
bit, hay v b qua n.
Li rt khc nu chng ta quay sang cc lut loi (b), tc l, cc lut
chun tc. Mt lut chun tc, bt lun n l mt o lut php l hay mt
li rn o c, c th c con ngi thc thi. N cng c th thay i
c. C l n c th c m t l tt hay ti, phi l hay tri l, c th
chp nhn c hay khng th; song n ch c th c gi l ng hay
sai theo ngha n d, v n khng m t mt s thc, m ra cc
hng dn cho ng x ca chng ta. Nu c bt k tm quan trng no,
th n c th b vi phm; v nu khng th b vi phm th n l tha v
khng quan trng. ng tiu nhiu tin hn mc bn c l mt lut
chun tc quan trng; n c th c ngha nh mt qui tc o c hay
php l, v cn thit hn v n rt thng b vi phm. ng ly nhiu
tin t v ca bn hn s c trong y c th ni, theo cch hnh vn,
cng l mt lut chun tc; song nghim tc ra khng ai coi qui tc nh
vy l mt phn quan trng ca h thng o c hay php l, v n
khng th b vi phm. Nu mt lut chun tc quan trng c tun th,
th ci ny lun l do kim sot ca con ngi do cc hnh ng v
nhng quyt nh ca con ngi. Thng do quyt nh a ra nhng
trng pht - pht hay ngn nhng ngi vi phm lut.
Cng vi rt nhiu nh t tng, v c bit vi nhiu nh khoa hc x
hi, ti tin rng s phn bit gia cc qui lut theo ngha (a), tc l cc
mnh m t nhng s u n ca t nhin, v cc lut theo ngha (b),
tc l cc chun mc nh cc iu cm hay iu rn, l s phn bit c
bn, v rng hai loi lut ny chng c g chung c ngoi ci tn. Nhng
quan im ny chng h c chp nhn ni chung, ngc li, nhiu nh
t tng tin rng c cc chun mc- nhng cm on hay li rn- l t
nhin theo ngha l chng c ra ph hp vi cc qui lut t nhin
59
theo ngha (a). Th d, h ni rng cc chun mc php l no l ph

hp vi bn cht con ngi, v v th vi cc qui lut tm l hc theo
ngha (a), trong khi cc chun mc php l khc c th ngc vi bn
cht con ngi; v h ni thm rng cc lut c th ch ra l ph hp vi
bn cht con ngi thc s khng khc nhiu cc lut t nhin theo ngha
(a). Nhng ngi khc ni rng cc qui lut t nhin theo ngha (a) thc
s rt ging cc lut chun tc v chng do ch hay quyt nh ca
ng Sng To V tr t ra- mt quan im, khng nghi ng g, nm
ng sau vic s dng t lut c gc mang tnh chun tc cho cc lut
thuc loi (a). Tt c cc quan im ny ng c tho lun. Nhng
tho lun chng, u tin cn phi phn bit gia cc qui lut theo ngha
(a) v cc lut theo ngha (b), v khng ln ln vn do thut ng ti.
Nh vy ta s dnh thut ng qui lut t nhin ch cho cc qui lut loi
(a), v s t chi dng t ny cho bt k chun mc no c cho, theo
ngha ny hay ngha khc, l t nhin. S ln ln l hon ton khng
cn thit v d dng ni v cc quyn hay ngha v t nhin hay v cc
chun mc t nhin nu ta mun nhn mnh tnh t nhin ca cc lut
loi (b).
II
Ti tin rng cn thit cho hiu x hi hc ca Plato l xem xt s phn
bit gia cc lut t nhin v chun tc c th pht trin ra sao. u
tin ti s tho lun ci dng nh l im xut pht v bc cui ca s
pht trin, v mun hn tho lun ci dng nh l ba bc trung gian,
cc bc ng mt vai tr trong l thuyt ca Plato. im xut pht c
th c m t nh nht nguyn lun u tr [nave monism]. C th ni
n l c trng ca x hi ng. Bc cui, m ti m t nh nh
nguyn lun ph phn [critical dualism] (hay thuyt qui c ph phn),
l c trng ca x hi m. S thc l vn cn nhiu ngi c trnh
a ra bc ny c th c coi l du hiu rng chng ta vn cn gia
ca qu t x hi ng sang x hi m. (So tt c iu ny vi chng
10).
im xut pht m ti gi l nht nguyn lun u tr l giai on ti
s phn bit gia cc lut t nhin v chun tc vn cha c a ra.
Nhng kinh nghim kh chu l cc phng tin theo con ngi hc
iu chnh mnh vi mi trng. Khng c s phn bit gia cc trng
pht do ngi khc p t, nu mt iu cm k chun tc b vi phm, v
nhng kinh nghim kh chu do mi trng t nhin gy ra. Trong giai
60
X HI HC CA PLATO
on ny, ta c th phn bit thm hai kh nng na. Mt c th c m

t nh ch ngha t nhin [naturalism] u tr. Ti giai on ny cc s
u n, bt lun t nhin hay qui c, c cho l ngoi kh nng ca
bt k s sa i no. Nhng ti tin rng giai on ny ch l mt kh
nng tru tng c l cha bao gi c thc hin. Quan trng hn l
giai on c th c m t nh thuyt qui c [conventionalism] u tr mt giai on ti cc s u n c t nhin ln chun tc c tri
nghim nh s biu hin ca, v ph thuc vo, cc quyt nh ca thn
hay ma qu ging ngi. Nh th chu k ca cc ma, hay cc nt c
bit v chuyn ng ca mt tri, mt trng, v cc hnh tinh, c th
c din gii nh cc lut hay sc lnh hay quyt nh cai tr tri
v t, v c t ra v c thng bo bi ng to ho lc ban
u2. C th hiu c l nhng ngi ngh theo cch ny c th tin
rng c cc qui lut t nhin cng m ra cho s sa i, di cc hon
cnh c bit; rng vi s gip ca cc th on ma thut i khi con
ngi c th nh hng ln chng; v rng cc s u n t nhin c
duy tr bi s trng pht, c nh chng l chun tc. im ny c
minh ho tt bi li ca Heraclitus: Mt tri s khng i qu mc
ca qu o ca n; khng th n thn S Phn, hu gi ca Cng L, s
bit tm n ra sao.
S sp ca s gn b ma thut vi b lc lin h mt thit vi s
nhn ra rng cc iu cm k l khc nhau cc b lc khc nhau, rng
chng c con ngi p t v thc thi, v rng chng c th b vi
phm m khng c cc h qu kh chu ch nu ta c th thot khi
nhng trng pht do con ngi p t. S thy r ny c y nhanh
khi quan st thy rng cc lut c cc nh lp php sa i v lm ra.
Ti ngh khng ch n cc nh lp php nh Solon, m c n nhng
lut do ngi dn thng ca cc thnh ph dn ch lp ra v thc thi.
Nhng kinh nghim ny c th dn n mt s phn bit c thc gia
cc lut chun tc do con ngi thc thi, da trn cc quyt nh hay cc
qui c, v nhng s u n t nhin vt qu quyn lc ca con
ngi. Khi s phn bit ny c hiu mt cch r rng, th chng ta c
th m t lp trng t c nh nh nguyn lun ph phn [critical
dualism], hay thuyt qui c ph phn. Trong s pht trin ca trit hc
Hy Lp nh nguyn lun ny ca cc s thc v cc chun mc t bc l
mnh qua s i lp gia t nhin v qui c.3
Bt chp s thc rng lp trng ny t c t lu lm ri bi
Sophist [nh ngu bin] Protagoras, mt ngi cng thi ln tui hn
ca Socrates, n vn cha c hiu my nn dng nh cn phi gii
61
thch n chi tit mt cht. Th nht, chng ta khng c ngh rng nh

nguyn lun ph phn ng mt l thuyt v ngun gc lch s ca cc
chun mc. N chng lin quan g n khng nh lch s khng th
ng vng c mt cch hin nhin rng cc chun mc trc ht c
con ngi to ra hay a ra mt cch c thc, thay cho c con ngi
n gin thy (mi khi anh ta u tin c kh nng tm thy bt k
th g thuc loi ny). N v vy chng lin quan ti khng nh rng cc
chun mc bt ngun vi con ngi, ch khng vi Thng , n cng
khng nh gi thp tm quan trng ca cc lut chun tc. N chng h
c lin quan g n khng nh rng cc chun mc, v chng l qui c,
tc l nhn to, nn n thun l tu tin. Nh nguyn lun ph phn
ch khng nh rng cc chun mc v cc lut chun tc c th c to
ra v thay i bi con ngi, c bit hn bi quyt nh hay qui c
tun th chng hay sa i chng, v rng v vy chnh con ngi l
ngi chu trch nhim o c v chng; c l khng phi v cc chun
mc m anh ta thy tn ti trong x hi khi u tin nhn ra chng, m
v cc chun mc m anh ta sn sng chu ng mt khi thy rng c
th lm g thay i chng. Cc chun mc l nhn to theo ngha l
chng ta khng c li v chng cho bt k ai, khng cho t nhin,
cng chng cho Thng , m phi cho chnh mnh. l cng vic
ca chng ta ci thin chng mc ta c th, nu ta thy chng l
ng ch trch. Nhn xt sau cng ny hm rng bng cch m t cc
chun mc nh qui c, ti khng mun ni rng chng phi l tu tin,
hoc rng mt tp cc lut chun tc s hot ng hon ton tt nh tp
khc. Bng cch ni, rng mt s h thng lut c th c ci thin,
rng cc lut no c th l tt hn cc lut khc, ng hn ti ng
rng chng ta c th so snh cc lut chun tc (hay cc th ch) hin tn
vi cc chun mc tiu chun no nhng ci c xc nh l ng
thc hin. Song ngay c cc tiu chun ny cng do chng ta to ra theo
ngha rng quyt nh ca chng ta ng h chng l quyt nh ring ca
chng ta, v rng ch duy nht chng ta chu trch nhim v chp nhn
chng. Cc tiu chun khng c tm thy trong t nhin. T nhin bao
gm cc s thc v nhng s u n, v bn thn n khng mang tnh
o c cng chng tri o c. Chnh chng ta l ngi p cc tiu
chun ca mnh ln t nhin, v l ngi bng cch ny a o c vo
th gii t nhin4, bt chp s thc rng chng ta l mt phn ca th
gii ny. Chng ta l sn phm ca t nhin, nhng t nhin to ra
chng ta cng vi nng lc ca mnh thay i th gii, thy trc
v lp k hoch cho tng lai, v a ra cc quyt nh c nh
62
X HI HC CA PLATO
hng su rng m chng ta c trch nhim o c v chng. Song

trch nhim, cc quyt nh, i vo th gii t nhin ch vi chng ta.
III
Quan trng cho hiu thi ny nhn ra l nhng quyt nh ny
chng bao gi c th c dn ra t cc s thc (hay t cc tuyn b v
cc s thc), mc d chng gn lin vi cc s thc. Th d, quyt nh
phn i tnh trng n l khng ph thuc vo s thc rng mi ngi
u sinh ra t do v bnh ng, v rng khng ai sinh ra trong xing xch.
V d l mi ngi u sinh ra t do, mt s ngi c th c l c xing
nhng ngi khc, v thm ch h c th tin rng h phi xing h li.
V ngc li, gi nh cho d con ngi sinh ra trong xing xch, nhiu
ngi trong chng ta c th i tho b cc xing xch ny. Hay trnh
by vn chnh xc hn, nu chng ta coi mt s thc l c th thay i
c nh s thc rng nhiu ngi b bnh- th chng ta lun c th
chp nhn mt s thi khc nhau i vi s thc ny: c th hn, ta c
th quyt nh th thay i n; hay c th quyt nh chng li bt k c
gng no nh vy; hay c th quyt nh chng lm g c.
Theo cch ny mi quyt nh o c gn lin vi s thc ny hay s
thc khc, c bit vi s thc no ca i sng x hi, v mi s
thc (c th thay i c) ca i sng x hi c th gy ra nhiu quyt
nh khc nhau. iu ny chng t rng cc quyt nh khng bao gi c
th c dn ra t cc s thc ny, hay t mt m t ca cc s thc ny.
Nhng chng cng khng th c dn ra t mt lp khc ca cc s
thc; ti mun ni ti nhng s u n t nhin m chng ta m t vi
s gip ca cc qui lut t nhin. Hon ton ng l cc quyt nh
ca chng ta phi tng thch vi cc qui lut t nhin (bao gm cc qui
lut ca sinh l hc v tm l hc con ngi), nu mun chng c hiu
lc; v nu chng i ngc cc qui lut nh vy, th chng n gin
khng th c thc hin. Th d, quyt nh rng mi ngi phi lm
vic ct lc hn v n t hn khng th c thc hin qu mt im no
v cc l do sinh l hc, tc l v qu mt im no n s khng
tng thch vi cc qui lut t nhin no ca sinh l hc. Tng t,
quyt nh rng mi ngi phi lm t hn v n nhiu hn cng khng
th c thc hin qu mt im nht nh, v cc l do khc nhau, bao
gm cc qui lut t nhin ca kinh t hc. (Nh chng ta s thy di
y, on iv ca chng ny, cng c cc qui lut t nhin trong cc
khoa hc x hi; ta s gi chng l cc qui lut x hi hc).
63
Nh vy cc quyt nh no c th b loi b nh khng c kh

nng thc hin, v chng mu thun vi cc qui lut t nhin (hay cc s
thc khng th thay i) no . Nhng, tt nhin, iu ny khng c
ngha rng mt quyt nh c th c dn ra v mt logic t cc s
thc khng thay i c nh vy. ng hn, tnh hnh l th ny. Xt
bt k s thc no, bt lun n c th hay khng th thay i c,
chng ta c th chp nhn cc quyt nh khc nhau nh lm thay i
n; bo v n khi nhng ngi mun thay i n; khng can thip, v.v.
Nhng nu s thc c ni n l khng th thay i c - hoc v
mt s thay i l bt kh xt theo cc qui lut t nhin hin tn, hay v
s thay i l qu kh do cc l do khc i nhng ngi mun thay i
n th bt k quyt nh no thay i n s n gin khng th thc
hin c; thc vy, bt k quyt nh no lin quan n s thc nh vy
s l v ngha v khng quan trng.
Nh nguyn lun ph phn dng nh m cho tn cng. Cc quyt nh
l cc s thc, c th ni. Nu chng ta quyt nh chp nhn chun mc
no y, th s ra quyt nh ny bn thn n l mt s thc tm l hc
hay x hi hc, v s v l i ni rng chng c g chung gia cc s thc
nh vy v cc s thc khc. V khng th nghi ng rng cc quyt nh
ca chng ta v cc chun mc ca mnh, tc l cc chun mc chng ta
chp nhn, r rng ph thuc vo cc s thc tm l hc no , nh nh
hng ca s gio dc ca chng ta, dng nh v l coi nh nguyn
lun ca cc s thc v cc quyt nh l mt nh , hay ni rng
cc quyt nh khng th c dn ra t cc s thc. C th tr li s
phn i ny bng cch ch ra rng chng ta c th ni v mt quyt
nh theo hai ngha khc nhau. C th ni v mt quyt nh no
c trnh, hay xem xt, hay t c, hay c chn; hay nh la
chn khc, c th ni v hnh ng ra quyt nh v gi iu ny l mt
quyt nh. Ch theo ngha th hai ny chng ta mi c th m t mt
quyt nh nh mt s thc. Tnh hnh l ging vi mt s din t khc.
Theo mt ngha, c th ni v mt ngh quyt no c trnh ln
mt hi ng no , v theo ngha khc, hnh ng thng qua n ca
hi ng c th c ni l ngh quyt ca hi ng. Tng t, c th
ni v mt kin ngh hay mt gi cho chng ta, v mt khc ni v
hnh ng kin ngh hay gi ci g , hnh ng cng c th c gi
l kin ngh hay gi . Mt s m h tng t cng c nhiu ngi
bit n trong lnh vc ca cc mnh m t. Hy xt tuyn b:
Napoleon cht [o] St. Helena. Hu ch phn bit tuyn b ny
vi s thc m n m t, v l ci c th c gi l s thc s cp, tc
64
X HI HC CA PLATO
l, s thc rng Napoleon cht St. Helena. By gi mt s gia, th d

ng A, khi vit tiu s ca Napoleon, c th a ra tuyn b nhc ti.
Lm nh th, ng ta m t ci chng ta gi l s thc s cp. Nhng c
s thc th cp, hon ton khc s thc s cp, c th l s thc rng
ng ta a ra tuyn b ny; v s gia khc, ng B, khi vit tiu s ca
ng A, c th m t s thc th cp ny l: ng A khng nh rng
Napoleon cht St. Helena. S thc th cp c m t theo cch
ny bn thn n li l mt m t. Nhng n l mt m t theo ngha ca
t phi c phn bit vi ngha trong chng ta gi tuyn b
Napoleon cht St. Helena l mt m t. a ra mt m t, hay mt
tuyn b, l mt s thc x hi hc hay tm l hc. Nhng m t c
a ra phi c phn bit vi s thc rng n c a ra. N thm
ch khng th c dn ra t s thc ny; v iu c ngha rng chng
ta c th suy ra Napoleon cht St. Helena mt cch hp l t ng
A khng nh rng Napoleon cht St. Helena, iu hin nhin ta
khng th lm.
lnh vc quyt nh, tnh hnh l tng t. a ra mt quyt nh,
chp nhn mt chun mc hay mt tiu chun, l mt s thc. Nhng
chun mc hay tiu chun c chp nhn, khng phi l mt s thc.
Rng hu ht mi ngi ng vi chun mc Mi khng c n cp
l mt s thc x hi hc. Song chun mc Mi khng c n cp
khng phi l mt s thc, v chng bao gi c th c suy ra t cc
cu m t cc s thc. iu ny c th thy r nht khi ta nh rng lun
c cc quyt nh kh d khc nhau thm ch mu thun nhau i vi mt
s thc c lin quan no . Th d, i din vi s thc x hi hc l
hu ht ngi dn chp nhn chun mc Mi khng c n cp, vn c
kh nng quyt nh hoc chp nhn chun mc ny, hay chng li s
chp nhn n; c th c v nhng ngi chp nhn chun mc, hay
lm nn lng h, v thuyt phc h chp nhn chun mc khc. Tm li,
l bt kh dn ra mt cu pht biu mt chun mc hay mt quyt
nh hay, th d, mt kin ngh chnh sch, t mt cu pht biu mt s
thc; y ch l cch khc ni rng khng th dn ra cc chun mc
hay quyt nh hay cc kin ngh t cc s thc.5
Tuyn b rng cc chun mc l nhn to (nhn to khng theo ngha
rng chng c thit k mt cch c thc, m theo ngha rng con
ngi c th nh gi v sa i chng- tc l, theo ngha rng trch
nhim v chng l hon ton ca chng ta) thng b hiu lm. Gn nh
mi s hiu lm u c th truy nguyn v mt s hiu sai c bn, c th
l, v nim tin rng qui c hm tu tin; rng nu chng ta t do
65
la chn bt k h thng chun mc no ta thch, th mt h thng ng

l tt nh bt k h thng khc no. Tt nhin, phi th nhn cch nhn
cc chun mc l qui c hay nhn to ng rng s c dnh dng n
yu t tu tin no , tc l c th c cc h thng chun mc khc
nhau m gia chng khng c nhiu chn (mt s thc c
Protagoras nhn mnh mt cch thch ng). Nhng tnh nhn to hon
ton khng hm tnh tu tin. Th d, cc php tnh ton hc, hay cc
bn giao hng, hay cc v kch mang tnh nhn to cao, nhng khng
suy ra rng mt php tnh, mt bn giao hng hay mt v kch l hay
ht nh bt c ci khc no. Con ngi to ra cc th gii mi- ngn
ng, m nhc, thi ca, khoa hc; v ci quan trng nht trong s ny l th
gii nhu cu o c, v bnh ng, v t do, v v gip k yu.6 Khi
so snh lnh vc o c vi lnh vc m nhc hay ton hc, ti khng
mun ng ni rng nhng s ging nhau ny l rt nhiu. c bit hn,
c s khc nhau rt ln gia cc quyt nh o c v cc quyt nh
trong lnh vc ngh thut. Nhiu quyt nh o c dnh n s sng v
ci cht ca nhng ngi khc. Cc quyt nh trong lnh vc ngh thut
t cp bch v quan trng hn nhiu. V vy hon ton sai lm khi ni
rng mt ngi quyt nh ng h hay chng li cnh n l nh anh ta c
th quyt nh ng h hay chng li cc tc phm m nhc hay vn hc
no , hoc rng cc quyt nh o c thun tu l vn th hiu.
Chng cng khng ch l cc quyt nh v lm sao bin th gii ny
thnh p hn hay v nhng s xa hoa thuc loi ny; chng l cc quyt
nh khn cp hn nhiu. (So tt c iu ny vi c chng 9). S so
snh ca chng ta ch c nh chng t quan im rng cc quyt nh
o c tu thuc vo chng ta khng hm rng chng l hon ton tu
tin.
Cch nhn cc chun mc l nhn to, kh l, cng b mt vi ngi,
nhng ngi thy trong thi ny mt s tn cng vo tn gio, nghi
ng. Tt nhin, phi tha nhn rng thi ny tn cng vo cc hnh
thc tn gio no , c th l, vo tn gio ca uy quyn m qung, vo
ma thut v ch ngha cm k. Nhng ti ngh n hon ton khng chng
li mt tn gio da trn t tng v trch nhim c nhn v quyn t do
tn ngng. Ti ngh, tt nhin, c bit n o C c, ch t nh n
thng c din gii cc nc dn ch; o C c, tri vi mi ch
ngha cm k, thuyt ging, Ngi nghe thy rng h ni t thi
xaNhng Ta ni cho ngi; trong mi trng hp ting ni
lng tm i chi vi s vng li ng nghi l n thun v s thi hnh
lut.
66
X HI HC CA PLATO
Ti khng tha nhn rng, coi cc lut o c l nhn to theo ngha

ny, l khng tng hp vi quan im tn gio rng Thng ban
chng cho chng ta. V mt lch s, khng nghi ng g mi o c u
bt u vi tn gio; nhng by gi ti khng cp n cc vn lch
s. Ti khng hi ai l nh lp php o c u tin. Ti ch kin nh
rng chnh chng ta, v ring chng ta, l ngi chu trch nhim v vic
chp nhn hay t chi cc lut o c c gi no ; chnh chng ta
l ngi phi phn bit gia cc nh tin tri tht v cc nh tin tri gi.
Mi loi chun mc c cho l do Thng ban. Nu ta chp nhn
o c C c v bnh ng v khoan dung v quyn t do tn ngng
ch v n t cho l n da trn uy quyn thn thnh, th ta da vo mt
nn tng yu; v qu thng xuyn c cho rng Thng mun
bt bnh ng, v rng chng ta khng c khoan dung vi nhng k
khng tin. Tuy vy, nu ta chp nhn o c C c khng phi v ta
c lnh lm vy m bi v nim tin chc ca ta rng l quyt nh
ng ly, th chnh ta l ngi quyt nh. Ti khng khng rng
vic chng ta ly quyt nh v thc hin trch nhim khng c coi l
hm rng chng ta khng th c, hoc khng c, gip bi nim
tin, v c truyn cm hng bi truyn thng hay bi cc tm gng
ln. N cng khng ng rng vic to ra cc quyt nh o c ch
n thun l mt qu trnh t nhin, tc l ph hp vi cc qu trnh
ho l. Thc ra, Protagoras, nh nh nguyn lun ph phn u tin,
dy rng t nhin khng bit cc chun mc, v rng vic a ra cc
chun mc l do con ngi, v l quan trng nht trong cc thnh tu ca
con ngi. Nh th ng cho rng cc nh ch v cc qui c l ci nng
con ngi ln trn th vt, nh Burnet7 din t. Nhng bt chp s
khng khng ca ng rng con ngi to ra cc chun mc, rng chnh
con ngi l thc o ca mi th, ng tin rng con ngi c th thc
hin vic to ra cc chun mc ch vi s gip siu nhin. ng dy,
cc chun mc c con ngi p t ln tnh th, nhng vi s gip
ca thn Zeus. Chnh tun lnh Zeus m thn Hermes ban cho con ngi
s hiu bit v cng l v danh d; v ngi phn pht qu tng ny ng
u cho mi ngi. Cch, m theo tuyn b r rng u tin ca nh
nguyn lun nhng ch cho mt din gii tn gio v thc ca chng
ta v trch nhim, chng t rng nh nguyn lun ph phn i lp vi
thi tn gio t n nhng no. C th nhn thy r mt cch tip cn
tng t, ti tin, Socrates lch s (xem chng 10) ngi cm thy b
p buc, bi lng tm cng nh nim tin tn gio ca ng, cht vn
mi uy quyn, v lc tm cc chun mc m s cng bng ca n ng
67
c th tin cy. Thuyt v s t tr ca o c hc l c lp vi vn

tn gio, song tng thch vi, hay c l thm ch cn thit cho, bt k
tn gio no tn trng lng tm c nhn.
IV
Ngn y v nh nguyn lun ca cc s thc v quyt nh, hay thuyt
v s t tr ca o c hc, u tin do Protagoras v Socrates8 ch
trng. Ti tin, n l khng th thiu cho s hiu bit phi chng v mi
trng x hi ca chng ta. Nhng tt nhin iu ny khng c ngha
rng tt c cc qui lut x hi, tc l mi s u n ca cuc sng x
hi, u mang tnh chun tc v do con ngi p t. Ngc li, cng c
cc qui lut t nhin quan trng ca i sng x hi. Cho cc th ny,
thut ng cc qui lut x hi dng nh thch hp. Chnh s thc rng
trong i sng x hi chng ta bt gp c hai loi lut, t nhin v chun
tc, l ci lm cho rt quan trng phn bit chng mt cch r rng.
Khi ni v cc qui lut x hi hc hay cc qui lut t nhin ca i
sng x hi, ti khng ngh nhiu v cc qui lut c cho l ca tin ho
m cc nh lch s ch ngha nh Plato quan tm, mc d nu c bt k
s u n no nh vy ca tin trin lch s, th s trnh by chng s
chc chn c lit vo phm tr ca cc qui lut x hi hc. Ti cng
khng ngh nhiu v cc qui lut v bn cht con ngi, tc l cc s
u n tm l hc v tm l x hi hc ca ng x con ngi. Ti ngh,
ng hn, n cc qui lut nh c cc l thuyt kinh t hc hin i
trnh by, th d, l thuyt v thng mi quc t, hay l thuyt v chu k
thng mi. Nhng qui lut ny v cc qui lut x hi hc quan trng
khc c quan h vi hot ng ca cc th ch x hi. (So vi cc
chng 3 v 9). Cc qui lut ny ng mt vai tr trong cuc sng x hi
tng ng vi vai tr do, th d, nguyn l n by ng trong k thut c
hc. V cc th ch, ging cc n by, l cn thit nu chng ta mun
t bt k th g vt qu kh nng c bp ca chng ta. Ging my
mc, cc th ch nhn kh nng ca chng ta ln cho vic thin v vic
c. Ging my mc, chng cn s gim st thng minh bi ai ngi
hiu cch chng hot ng v, trn ht, hiu mc ch ca chng, v
chng ta khng th xy dng chng sao cho chng vn hnh hon ton t
ng. Hn na, vic xy dng chng cn hiu bit no v cc s u
n x hi, p t nhng hn ch ln ci c th t c bng cc nh
ch.9 (Cc hn ch ny ging mt cht, th d, vi nh lut bo ton
nng lng, theo khng th xy dng mt ng c vnh cu). Nhng
68
X HI HC CA PLATO
v c bn, cc nh ch lun c to ra bng thit lp s tun th cc

chun mc nht nh, c thit k vi mt mc ch nht nh trong
u. iu ny ng c bit cho cc nh ch c to ra mt cch ch ;
nhng ngay c cc nh ch -chim tuyt i a s- ny sinh nh kt qu
khng c ca hot ng con ngi (so vi chng 14) l kt qu gin
tip ca cc hot ng c mc ch loi ny hay loi khc; v s hot
ng ca chng ph thuc, ch yu, vo s tun th cc chun mc.
(Ngay c cc my c kh c lm, c th ni nh th, khng ch bng
st thp, m bng s kt hp st thp vi cc chun mc; tc l bng bin
i cc vt l, nhng theo cc qui tc chun tc no , c th l theo
k hoch hay thit k ca chng). Trong cc nh ch, cc lut chun tc
v cc qui lut x hi, tc l qui lut t nhin, an xen cht ch vi nhau,
v v th khng th hiu hot ng ca cc nh ch m khng c kh
nng phn bit hai th ny. (Cc nhn xt ny nhm gi cc vn
nht nh ch khng phi a ra cc gii php. c bit hn, s
tng t c nhc ti gia cc nh ch v my mc khng c din
gii nh kin ngh l thuyt rng cc nh ch l cc my- theo ngha bn
cht lun no . Tt nhin chng khng phi l my. V mc d lun
c kin ngh y l, c th nhn c cc kt qu hu ch v l th
nu chng ta hi mnh liu mt nh ch c phc v bt c mc ch no
hay khng, v cc mc ch no n c th phc v, n khng khng nh
rng mi nh ch phc v mc ch r rng no y- mc ch cn bn
ca n, c th ni nh th).
V
Nh biu l trc, c nhiu bc trung gian trong s pht trin t
nht nguyn lun u tr hay mu nhim n nh nguyn lun ph phn,
nhn r s khc nhau gia cc chun mc v cc qui lut t nhin. Hu
ht cc lp trng trung gian ny ny sinh t s hiu sai rng nu mt
chun mc l qui c hay nhn to, th n hn l hon ton tu tin.
hiu lp trng ca Plato, lp trng kt hp tt c cc yu t ca chng,
cn tin hnh kho st ba lp trng quan trng nht trong s cc lp
trng ny. Chng l (1) ch ngha t nhin sinh hc, (2) ch ngha thc
chng o c hay php l, v (3) ch ngha t nhin tm l hc hay tinh
thn. L th l mi trong s lp trng ny c dng bo v cc
quan im o c i lp hon ton vi nhau; c bit hn, bo v s
sng bi quyn lc, v bo v quyn ca nhng k yu.
69
(1) Ch ngha t nhin sinh hc, hay chnh xc hn, dng sinh hc ca
ch ngha t nhin o c, l l thuyt cho rng bt chp s thc rng
cc lut o c v lut ca nh nc l tu tin, c cc qui lut vnh
vin khng thay i no ca t nhin m t c th dn ra cc chun
mc. Tp qun n, tc l s ba n, v loi thc n, l cc th d ca tnh
tu tin ca cc qui c, ngi theo thuyt t nhin c th l l; song r
rng c cc qui lut t nhin no trong lnh vc ny. Th d, mt
ngi s cht nu n qu t hay qu nhiu thc n. Nh vy c v l ht
nh c thc t sau b ngoi, nn sau cc qui c tu tin ca chng ta
c cc qui lut t nhin khng thay i no v c bit l cc qui lut
sinh hc.
Ch ngha t nhin sinh hc c dng khng ch bo v ch ngha
bnh ng, m c bo v thuyt chng bnh ng v s cai tr ca k
mnh. Mt trong nhng ngi u tin a ra ch ngha t nhin ny l
nh th Pindar, ngi dng n ng h l thuyt cho l k mnh phi
thng tr. ng cho rng10 n l mt qui lut, c hiu lc khp t nhin,
rng k mnh hn lm vi k yu hn bt k th g n thch. Nh th lut
bo v k yu khng ch l tu tin m l s bp mo nhn to ca qui
lut t nhin tht s l k mnh phi c t do v k yu phi l n l
ca n. Quan im c Plato tho lun nhiu; n b tn cng Gorgias,
mt i thoi vn b nh hng nhiu ca Socrates; Republic, cho
Thrasymachus ni, v c ng nht vi ch ngha c nhn o c
(xem chng tip); trong Laws, Plato t i khng hn vi quan im ca
Pindar; nhng ng vn tng phn n vi s cai tr ca ngi thng thi
nht, m, ng ni, l mt nguyn l tt hn, v ng l ph hp nhiu hn
vi t nhin (xem c trch dn mun hn chng ny).
Ngi u tin xut phin bn nhn o hay bnh ng ch ngha
ca ch ngha t nhin sinh hc l Sophist Antiphon. Cng do ng l s
ng nht ho t nhin vi chn l, v qui c vi kin (hay kin ho
huyn11). Antiphon l ngi theo thuyt t nhin trit . ng tin rng
hu ht cc chun mc khng ch l tu tin, m trc tip tri vi t
nhin. Cc chun mc, ng ni, c p t t bn ngoi, trong khi cc
qui tc ca t nhin l khng th trnh khi. Bt li v thm ch nguy
him i vi phm cc chun mc do con ngi p t nu s vi phm
c nhng ngi p t chng theo di; song khng c s cn thit ni
ti gn vi chng, v khng ai phi xu h v vic vi phm chng; s xu
h v trng tr ch l s trng pht c p t mt cch tu tin t bn
ngoi. V s ph phn ny ca o c qui c, Antiphon t c s cho
o c hc v li. Trong cc hnh ng c nhc ti y, ta thy
70
X HI HC CA PLATO
nhiu l tri vi t nhin. V chng ko theo nhiu au kh ni l ra

phi t hn, v t th vui ni l ra phi nhiu hn, v s tn thng ni
khng cn thit.12 ng thi, ng dy cn t kim ch. ng trnh by
ch ngha bnh ng ca mnh nh sau: Bm sinh cao thng chng ta
tn knh v knh yu; nhng khng phi bm sinh ti tin. y l cc tp
qun man r. V nh nng khiu t nhin ca chng ta, tt c chng ta
u bnh ng, v mi mt, d by gi tnh c chng ta c l ngi Hy
Lp hay l Ngi Man R Tt c chng ta u ht th khng kh qua
mm v l mi.
Sophist Hippias by t mt ch ngha bnh ng tng t, ngi c
Plato miu t khi ni vi thnh gi ca mnh: Cc qu v, ti tin rng tt
c chng ta u l b con v bn b v ng bo; nu khng phi do lut
qui c, th do t nhin. V ph hp vi t nhin, s ging nhau l s
biu l mi quan h h hng; nhng lut qui c, k chuyn ch ca loi
ngi, buc chng ta lm nhiu ci ngc li t nhin.13 Tinh thn ny
gn b vi phong tro Athens chng li tnh trng n l (c nhc ti
chng 4) m Euripides biu l: Ring ci tn gy ra ni nhc cho
n l ngi c th l xut sc trong mi phng din v tht s ngang
bng vi ngi sinh ra t do. ni khc, ng ni: Qui lut t nhin ca
con ngi l s bnh ng. V Alcidamas, mt hc tr ca Gorgias v
mt ngi ng thi ca Plato, vit: Thng to ra tt c mi ngi
t do; khng ai l n l do bn cht. Cc quan im tng t cng c
biu l bi Lycophron, mt thnh vin khc ca trng phi Gorgias:
V huy hong ca dng di qu phi l tng tng, v c quyn ca
n ch da n thun vo li.
Phn ng chng li phong tro nhn o v i ny- phong tro ca
Th h V i, nh ti s gi n mun hn ( chng 10)- Plato, v
mn ca ng Aristotle, xut l thuyt v s bt bnh ng sinh hc
v o c ca con ngi. Nhng ngi Hy Lp v nhng ngi man r
l khng bnh ng do bn cht; s i lp gia h tng ng vi s i
lp gia cc ch nhn t nhin v cc n l t nhin. Tnh bt bnh ng
t nhin ca con ngi l mt trong cc l do h sng vi nhau, v
nng khiu t nhin ca h l b sung cho nhau. Cuc sng x hi bt
u vi s bt bnh ng t nhin, v n phi tip tc trn nn tng .
Mun hn ti s tho lun cc thuyt ny chi tit hn. Hin ti, chng c
th chng t ch ngha t nhin sinh hc c th c dng ng h cc
thuyt o c cc k khc nhau n th no. Theo nh sng ca phn
tch trc y ca chng ta v tnh bt kh ca vic t cc chun mc
trn c s cc s thc, th kt qu ny khng bt ng.
71
Tuy vy, cc cn nhc nh vy c l cha nh bi mt l thuyt

ni ting nh ch ngha t nhin sinh hc; v th ti xut hai ph phn
trc tip hn. Th nht, phi tha nhn l cc dng no ca ng x c
th c m t t nhin hn cc dng khc; th d, i trn trung hay
n ch cc thc n sng; v mt s ngi ngh rng bn thn iu ny
bin minh s la chn cc dng ny. Song theo ngha ny chc chn
khng t nhin quan tm n ngh thut, hay khoa hc, hay thm ch
n cc l l ng h ch ngha t nhin. S la chn ph hp vi t
nhin nh mt tiu chun ti thng cui cng dn n cc hu qu m
t ngi sn sng i mt; n khng dn n mt dng t nhin hn ca
nn vn minh, m n th tnh14. Ph phn th hai quan trng hn. Ngi
theo thuyt t nhin sinh hc gi s l c th dn ra cc chun mc ca
mnh t cc qui lut t nhin xc nh cc iu kin sc kho, v.v., nu
ng ta khng tin mt cch u tr rng chng ta khng cn chp nhn bt
k chun mc no m n gin sng theo cc qui lut t nhin. ng ta
b qua s thc rng ng ta a ra mt la chn, mt quyt nh; rng c
th l, mt s ngi khc yu mn cc th no hn sc kho ca h
(th d, nhiu ngi liu mng mnh mt cch c thc cho nghin cu y
hc). V ng ta v th sai lm nu tin rng ng ta khng a ra mt quyt
nh, hay rng ng ta dn cc chun mc ca mnh ra t cc qui lut
sinh hc.
(2) Ch ngha thc chng o c chia s vi dng sinh hc ca ch
ngha t nhin o c nim tin l chng ta phi c quy cc chun mc
v cc s thc. Song cc s thc ln ny l cc s thc x hi hc, c th
l, cc chun mc hin tn thc s. Ch ngha thc chng kin nh rng
khng c cc chun mc khc ngoi cc lut thc s c a ra (hay
n nh) v v th chng c mt s tn ti r rng. Cc tiu chun khc
c xem nh cc iu tng tng h o. Cc lut hin tn l cc tiu
chun kh d duy nht ca tnh tt: ci g tn ti, l ci tt. (L phi thuc
v k mnh). Theo mt s dng ca l thuyt ny, l mt li lm hin
nhin i tin rng c nhn c th nh gi cc chun mc ca x hi; ng
hn, chnh x hi cung cp cc lut theo c nhn phi c phn x.
V vn s thc lch s, ch ngha thc chng o c (hay php l)
thng bo th, hay thm ch c on; v n thng vin dn n uy
quyn Thng . Cc l l ca n, ti tin, ph thuc vo tnh tu tin
c cho l ca cc chun mc. Chng ta phi tin vo cc chun mc
hin tn, n i hi, v khng c cc chun mc tt hn m chng ta c
th tm thy cho mnh. p li iu ny c th c hi: Ngh sao v
chun mc ny Chng ta phi tin v.v.? Nu y l mt chun mc hin
72
X HI HC CA PLATO
tn duy nht, th khng c tnh nh mt l l ng h cc chun mc

ny; nhng nu n l mt s li cun i vi s thu hiu ca chng ta,
th n tha nhn rng, rt cuc, bn thn chng ta c th tm ra cc chun
mc. V nu chng ta c bo chp nhn chun mc da trn uy quyn
bi v chng ta khng th nh gi chng, th chng ta cng chng th
phn x liu i hi v uy quyn c c bin minh hay khng, hay liu
chng ta c th khng theo mt nh tin tri gi. Nu cho l khng c cc
nh tin tri gi v du sao lut l tu tin, cho nn ci chnh l c lut no
, th chng ta c th t hi v sao li quan trng n vy c lut ni
chung; v nu khng c thm cc tiu chun, th v sao khng chn
khng c lut no c? (Cc nhn xt ny c l c th cho bit cc l do
cho nim tin ca ti rng cc nguyn l c on hay bo th thng l
mt s biu l ca thuyt h v o c; tc l, ca mt ch ngha hoi
nghi o c cc oan, ca s ng vc con ngi v kh nng ca con
ngi).
Trong khi l thuyt v cc quyn t nhin, trong tin trnh lch s,
thng ng h cc t tng bnh ng ch ngha v nhn o, trng
phi thc chng thng phe chng i. Nhng y khng nhiu hn
mt s tnh c. Nh t ra, ch ngha t nhin o c c th c
dng vi cc nh rt khc nhau. (Mi y n c dng lm ln ln
ton b vn bng cch qung co cc quyn v ngha v c cho l
t nhin no nh cc qui lut t nhin). Ngc li, cng c cc nh
thc chng nhn o v tin b. V nu mi chun mc u l tu tin, v
sao khng khoan dung? y l mt n lc in hnh bin minh cho
thi nhn o theo cc phng chm thc chng.
(3) Ch ngha t nhin tm l hc hay tinh thn theo mt cch l s kt
hp ca hai quan im trc, v n c th c gii thch tt nht bng
mt l l chng li tnh phin din ca cc quan im ny. Nh thc
chng o c l ng, h l l, nu anh ta nhn mnh rng mi chun
mc u l qui c, tc l mt sn phm ca con ngi, v ca x hi
loi ngi; nhng anh ta b qua s thc rng chng v th l s biu l
bn cht tm l hc hay tinh thn ca con ngi, v bn cht ca x hi
loi ngi. Ngi theo thuyt t nhin sinh hc l ng trong gi thit
rng c cc mc tiu hay mc ch no , m t chng ta c th dn
ra cc chun mc t nhin; nhng anh ta b qua s thc rng cc mc
tiu t nhin ca chng ta khng nht thit l cc mc tiu nh sc kho,
vui th, thc n, ni hay truyn ging. Bn cht con ngi l, con
ngi, hay ch t mt s ngi, khng mun sng ch bng bnh m, rng
h tm kim cc mc tiu cao hn, cc mc tiu tinh thn. Nh th chng
73
ta c th dn cc mc tiu t nhin tht s ca con ngi ra t bn cht

tht ring ca anh ta, bn cht mang tnh tinh thn, v x hi. V hn
na, chng ta c th dn cc chun mc t nhin ca cuc sng ra t cc
mc ch t nhin ca anh ta.
Lp trng c v hp l ny, ti tin, c Plato trnh ny u tin,
y ng chu nh hng ca thuyt linh hn ca Socrates, tc l gio
hun ca Socrates cho rng tinh thn quan trng hn xc tht15. S quyn
r ca n cho tnh cm ca chng ta khng nghi ng g l mnh hn rt
nhiu so vi s quyn r ca hai lp trng khc. Tuy vy n c th c
kt hp, ging cc lp trng ny, vi bt c quyt nh o c no; vi
thi nhn o cng nh vi s sng bi quyn lc. V chng ta c th,
th d, quyt nh coi mi ngi nh gp phn vo bn cht tinh thn con
ngi ny; hay chng ta c th khng khng ging Heraclitus, rng nhiu
ngi nhi y bng h nh cc con th, v v th thuc bn cht thp
km hn, v rng ch s t ngi c chn l xng ng thuc cng
ng tinh thn ca con ngi. Do , ch ngha t nhin tinh thn c
dng nhiu, c bit bi Plato, bin minh cho cc c quyn t nhin
ca ngi qu tc hay c chn hay sng sut hay ca lnh t t
nhin. (Thi ca Plato c bn cc chng tip). Mt khc n
c cc dng o c hc C c v nhn o khc16, th d Paine v
Kant, dng i s cng nhn cc quyn t nhin ca mi c th con
ngi. R rng l ch ngha t nhin tinh thn c th c dng bo
v bt c chun mc thc chng, tc l chun mc hin tn, no. V
lun c th l l rng cc chun mc ny s khng c hiu lc nu chng
khng biu l cc nt tiu biu no ca bn cht con ngi. Bng cch
ny, ch ngha t nhin tinh thn, trong cc vn thc tin, c th tr
thnh mt vi ch ngha thc chng, bt chp s i lp truyn thng ca
chng. Thc ra, dng ny ca ch ngha t nhin l rng v m h n
mc n c th c dng bo v bt c th g. Chng c g tng
xy ra vi con ngi li khng th c cho l t nhin; v gi nh nu
n khng trong bn cht con ngi, th lm sao n li xy ra vi con
ngi?
Nhn li tng quan ngn ny, c l chng ta c th thy r hai xu hng
chnh cn tr s chp nhn nh nguyn lun ph phn. Th nht l xu
hng chung ti nht nguyn lun17, tc l, ti vic quy cc chun mc
v cc s thc. Xu hng th hai nm su hn, v c l to nn tng cho
xu hng th nht. N da vo s s hi ca chng ta v vic th nhn
vi chnh mnh rng trch nhim ca cc quyt nh o c ca chng
ta l hon ton ca chng ta v khng th cho bt c ai khc; khng
74
X HI HC CA PLATO
cho Thng , cng chng cho t nhin, khng cho x hi, cng chng
cho lch s. Tt c cc l thuyt o c ny c tm ra ai , hay c l l l
no , nhn gnh nng cho chng ta18. Nhng chng ta khng th ln
khi trch nhim ny. Chng ta ch la di mnh nu chng ta khng
nhn ra iu n gin ny.
VI
By gi chng ta quay sang phn tch chi tit hn ch ngha t nhin
ca Plato v quan h ca n vi ch ngha lch s ca ng. Tt nhin,
Plato khng lun dng thut ng nature: t nhin, bn cht theo cng
ngha. ngha quan trng nht m ng gn cho n, ti tin, thc t ng
nht vi ngha ng gn cho thut ng bn cht: essence. Cch dng
ny ca t bn cht: nature vn tn ti gia cc nh bn cht lun ngay
c ngy nay; h ni, th d, v bn cht ca ton hc, hay v bn cht ca
suy din quy np, hay v bn cht ca hnh phc v kh cc19. Khi
c Plato dng theo cch ny, bn cht c ngha gn cng nh Hnh
thc hay nim; v Hnh thc hay nim ca mt th, nh c ch
ra trc, cng l bn cht (essence) ca n. S khc bit ch yu gia
bn cht (nature) v Hnh thc hay nim l th ny. Hnh thc hay
nim ca mt th c th cm nhn c, nh ta thy, khng phi
trong th , m tch bit khi n, l t tin n, ng t ca n; nhng
Hnh thc ny hay cha ca n truyn ci g cho cc th c th cm
nhn c, cho con hay dng ging n, c th l bn cht ca chng.
Bn cht ny nh th l tnh cht bm sinh hay gc ca mt s vt, v
trong chng mc, l bn cht vn c ca n; n l nng lc hay tm tnh
gc ca mt s vt, v n xc nh cc tnh cht ca n m chng l c
s cho s ging nhau ca n, hay ca s tham d bm sinh ca n, Hnh
thc hay nim ca n.
T nhin, do , l ci bm sinh hay gc hay thing ling trong mt
s vt, trong khi nhn to l ci mun hn b con ngi lm thay i
hay thm vo hay p t, thng qua s cng bc t bn ngoi. Plato
thng xuyn nhn mnh rng tt c mi sn phm ngh thut ca con
ngi nhiu nht ch l cc bn sao ca cc th t nhin c th cm
nhn c. Nhng v cc th ny n lt chng li ch l cc bn sao
ca cc Hnh thc hay nim siu phm, cc sn phm ngh thut ch l
cc bn sao ca cc bn sao, hai ln xa thc t, v v vy t tt hn, t
thc t hn, v t tht hn20 so vi ngay c cc th (t nhin) lun thay
i. Chng ta thy t iu ny rng Plato ng vi Antiphon21 t nht
75
mt im, c th l gi thit rng s i lp gia t nhin v qui c

hay ngh thut tng ng vi s i lp gia s tht v s ni di, gia
thc ti v v b ngoi, gia cc th s cp hay gc vi cc th th cp
hay nhn to, v vi s i lp gia cc i tng ca tri thc duy l v
cc i tng ca kin ho huyn. S i lp cng tng ng, theo
Plato, vi s i lp gia con ca ti ngh siu phm hay cc sn phm
ngh thut, v ci con ngi lm ra t chng, tc l cc sn phm ngh
thut ca con ngi22. Tt c cc th m gi tr ni ti ca n Plato
mun nhn mnh v th ng cho l t nhin i lp vi nhn to. Nh
vy ng khng khng trong Laws rng linh hn phi c coi l c trc
tt c cc th vt cht, v rng n v th phi c ni l tn ti bi t
nhin: Gn nh mi ngiu khng bit v quyn lc ca linh hn,
v c bit v ngun gc ca n. H khng bit rng n l trong s cc
th u tin, v c trc mi th xcTrong s dng t t nhin ta
mun m t cc th c to ra u tin; nhng nu ho ra l linh hn l
ci c trc mi th khc (v khng phi, c l, la hay khng kh),
th linh hn, vt xa tt c cc th khc, c th c khng nh l tn ti
bi t nhin, theo ngha tht nht ca t.23 ( y Plato ti khng nh l
thuyt c ca ng cho rng linh hn l ging vi cc Hnh thc hay
nim hn l vi th xc; mt l thuyt cng l c s ca hc thuyt ca
ng v tnh bt t).
Nhng Plato khng ch dy rng linh hn c trc cc th khc v v
th tn ti bi t nhin; ng s dng t t nhin: nature, nu p dng
cho con ngi, cng thng nh tn cho cc quyn nng tinh thn hay
nng khiu hay ti nng t nhin, nh th chng ta c th ni l bn
cht: nature ca con ngi chng khc g linh hn ca anh ta; l
nguyn l thing ling m theo anh ta tham gia vo Hnh thc hay
nim, vo t tin thing ling ca dng ging anh ta. V t dng ging,
li, thng c dng theo ngha rt ging. V mt dng ging c
hp nht bi vic l con ca cng t tin, n cng phi hp nht bi mt
bn cht chung. Nh vy cc t bn cht v dng ging thng c
Plato dng nh cc t ng ngha, th d, khi ng ni v dng ging ca
cc trit gia v ca nhng ngi c bn cht trit hc; cho nn c hai
t ny l gn ging vi cc t bn cht: essence v linh hn.
L thuyt ca Plato v bn cht m ra mt cch tip cn khc cho
phng php lun lch s ch ngha ca ng. V dng nh nhim v ca
khoa hc ni chung l kho st bn cht tht ca cc i tng ca n,
nhim v ca mt khoa hc x hi hay chnh tr l kho st bn cht ca
x hi loi ngi, v ca nh nc. Song bn cht ca mt s vt, theo
76
X HI HC CA PLATO
Plato, l ngun gc ca n; hay t nht c xc nh bi ngun gc ca

n. Nh th phng php ca bt c khoa hc no s l nghin cu
ngun gc ca cc th (nguyn nhn ca chng). Nguyn l ny, khi p
dng cho khoa hc v x hi v chnh tr, dn n i hi l ngun gc
ca x hi v nh nc phi c kho st. Lch s v th khng c
nghin cu v bn thn n m phc v nh l phng php ca cc
khoa hc x hi. y l phng php lun lch s ch ngha.
Bn cht ca x hi loi ngi, ca nh nc l g? Theo cc phng
php lch s ch ngha, cu hi c bn ny v x hi hc phi c trnh
by li th ny: ngun gc ca x hi v ca nh nc l g? Cu tr li
do Plato a ra trong Republic cng nh trong Laws24, thng nht vi lp
trng c m t trn nh ch ngha t nhin tinh thn. Ngun gc
ca x hi l mt quy c, mt kh c x hi. Nhng khng ch l th;
ng hn, n l mt quy c t nhin, tc l mt quy c da vo bn
cht con ngi, v chnh xc hn, vo bn cht x hi ca con ngi.
Bn cht x hi ca con ngi c ngun gc s khng hon ho ca
c nhn con ngi. i lp vi Socrates25, Plato dy rng c nhn con
ngi khng th t tc, do cc hn ch c hu trong bn cht con ngi.
Mc d Plato khng khng rng c cc mc rt khc nhau v s hon
ho ca con ngi, ho ra l ngay c tng i rt t ngi hon ho vn
ph thuc vo nhng ngi khc (t hon ho hn); nu khng v bt c
g khc, th v cng vic bn thu, cng vic chn tay do h lm26. Theo
cch ny, ngay c nhng ngi him v t gp n gn s hon ho
cng ph thuc vo x hi, vo nh nc. H c th t s hon ho ch
thng qua nh nc v trong nh nc; nh nc hon ho phi a ra
cho h mi trng x hi thch hp, m khng c n h hn dn tr
thnh thi nt v tha ho. Nh nc v th phi c t cao hn c nhn
v ch c nh nc c th l t cung cp (t tc), hon ho, v c kh
nng b li s bt hon ho tt yu ca c nhn.
X hi v c nhn nh vy ph thuc ln nhau. Mi ci c c s tn
ti ca mnh nh ci kia. X hi c c s tn ti ca n nh vo bn
cht con ngi, v c bit nh s thiu t tc ca n; v c nhn c
c s tn ti ca mnh nh vo x hi, v c nhn khng t tc c.
Nhng trong phm vi mi quan h ph thuc ln nhau ny, tnh u vit
ca nh nc trn c nhn th hin ra theo cc cch khc nhau; th d,
s thc rng mm mng ca s suy tn v chia r ca mt nh nc hon
ho khng xut hin bn thn nh nc, m ng hn cc c nhn
ca n; n bn r vo s bt hon ho ca linh hn con ngi, ca bn
cht con ngi; hay chnh xc hn, vo s thc rng dng ging con
77
ngi c kh nng tha ho. V im ny, ngun gc ca s suy tn chnh

tr, v s ph thuc ca n vo s tha ho ca bn cht con ngi, ti s
quay li ngay; nhng u tin ti mun a ra vi nhn xt v mt vi
c trng ca x hi hc ca Plato, c bit v phin bn ca ng v l
thuyt kh c x hi, v v quan im ca ng v x hi nh mt siuc nhn, tc l phin bn ca ng v l thuyt sinh hc hay hu c ca
nh nc.
Liu Protagoras l ngi u tin xut mt l thuyt cho rng cc
lut bt ngun t mt kh c x hi, hay liu Lycophron (l thuyt ca
ng s c tho lun chng tip) l ngi u tin lm vy, l khng
chc chn. Trong mi trng hp, tng quan h mt thit vi thuyt
quy c ca Protagoras. S thc rng Plato ch kt hp cc tng
quy c lun no , v ngay c phin bn ca l thuyt kh c, vi ch
ngha t nhin ca ng, bn thn n l mt ch bo rng thuyt quy c
dng gc ca n khng kin nh rng cc lut l hon ton tu tin;
v nhng nhn xt ca Plato v Protagoras xc nhn iu ny27. Plato
c thc n u v mt yu t quy c lun trong phin bn ca ng v
ch ngha t nhin c th thy t mt on trong Laws. Plato cho
mt danh mc cc nguyn l khc nhau m trn uy quyn chnh tr c
th da vo, nhc n ch ngha t nhin sinh hc ca Pindar (xem
trn), tc l nguyn l cho rng k mnh hn thng tr v k yu hn b
tr, m ng m t nh mt nguyn l ph hp vi t nhin, nh thi s
Pandar x Theban mt ln pht biu. Plato tng phn nguyn l ny
vi mt nguyn l khc m ng kin ngh bng cch chng t rng n kt
hp thuyt quy c vi ch ngha t nhin: Nhng cng c mti
hi ci l nguyn l v i nht, c th l, ngi sng sut s lnh o v
thng tr, v k ngu dt s i theo; v iu ny, O Pindar, thi s sng sut
nht trong cc nh th, chc chn khng tri ngc vi t nhin, m ph
hp vi t nhin; v ci n i hi khng phi l s cng bc bn ngoi
m l ch quyn t nhin tht s ca mt lut da trn s ng thun
chung.28
Trong Republic ta thy cc yu t ca l thuyt kh c quy c lun
c kt hp theo cch tng t vi cc yu t ca ch ngha t nhin
(v thuyt v li). Thnh ph hnh thnh, ta nghe , v ta khng t
tc; hay c ngun gc khc ca s nh c cc thnh ph?ngi ta
tp hp vo mt khu nh c nhiungi gip , v h cn nhiu
th V khi chia s hng ho ca h vi nhau, k th cho, ngi khc
cng hng, khng phi mi ngi k vng theo cch ny y mnh
li ch ring ca mnh?29 Nh th dn c t hp cho mi ngi c th
78
X HI HC CA PLATO
y mnh li ch ring ca mnh; l mt yu t ca l thuyt kh c.

Nhng ng sau iu ny l s thc rng h khng t tc, mt s thc v
bn cht con ngi; l mt yu t ca ch ngha t nhin. V yu t
ny c pht trin hn na. Do bn cht, khng hai ngi no trong
chng ta l hon ton ging nhau. Mi ngi c bn tnh ring bit,
ngi th hp vi mt loi vic v ngi khcTt hn l mt ngi
nn lm nhiu ngh hay ch nn lm mt ngh? Chc chn, s sn xut
c nhiu hn v tt hn v d hn nu mi ngi ch lm mt ngh,
ph hp vi nng khiu t nhin ca anh ta.
Theo cch ny, nguyn l kinh t v phn cng lao ng c a vo
(nhc chng ta v nt tng t gia ch ngha lch s ca Plato v din
gii duy vt ca lch s). Nhng nguyn l ny y da vo mt yu t
ca ch ngha t nhin sinh hc, c th, vo s bt bnh ng t nhin
ca con ngi. Thot u, tng ny c a ra mt cch kn o, v,
c th ni, mt cch v ti. Nhng chng ta s thy chng tip rng
n c cc h qu c nh hng su rng; qu thc, s phn cng lao
ng quan trng duy nht ho ra l s phn cng gia nhng ngi cai tr
v nhng k b tr, c cho l da vo s bt bnh ng t nhin ca cc
ng ch v n l, ca ngi thng thi v k ngu n.
Chng ta thy c mt yu t ng k ca thuyt quy c cng nh
ca ch ngha t nhin sinh hc trong lp trng ca Plato; mt nhn xt
khng ngc nhin khi chng ta lu rng lp trng ny, v tng th, l
lp trng ca ch ngha t nhin tinh thn m, do tnh mp m ca n,
d dng cho php tt c nhng kt hp nh vy. Phin bn tinh thn ny
ca ch ngha t nhin c l c trnh by hay nht trong Laws. Con
ngi ni, Plato din t, rng cc th v i nht v p nht l t
nhinv cc th km hn l nhn to. Cho n y ng ng ; nhng
sau ng tn cng cc nh duy vt nhng ngi ni rng la v nc,
v t v khng kh, tt c u tn ti do t nhinv rng tt c cc lut
chun tc l hon ton tri t nhin v nhn to v da vo m tn khng
ng. Chng li quan im ny, u tin ng chng t, rng khng phi
th xc cng chng phi cc yu t, m l linh hn l ci tn ti do t
nhin30 mt cch tht s (ti trch on ny trn); v t y ng kt
lun rng trt t, v lut, cng phi do t nhin, v chng bt ngun t
linh hn: Nu linh hn l b trn th xc, th cc th ph thuc vo linh
hn (tc l cht tinh thn) cng l b trn cc th ph thuc vo th
xc V linh hn ra lnh v iu khin mi th. iu ny to nn tng
cho hc thuyt rng cc lut v cc th ch c mc ch tn ti do t
nhin, v khng phi do bt c th g thp hn t nhin, v chng c
79
ngun gc l tr v t duy ng. y l mt pht biu r rng v ch

ngha t nhin tinh thn; v n cng c kt hp vi nim tin thc
chng loi bo th: php lut chn chn v thn trng s thy mt s
gip hng mnh v cc lut s vn khng thay i mt khi chng c
t ra bng vn t.
T tt c iu ny c th thy rng cc l l c dn ra t ch ngha t
nhin tinh thn ca Plato l hon ton khng c kh nng gip tr li bt
c cu hi no c th ny sinh lin quan n tnh cht ng hay t
nhin ca bt c lut c bit no. Ch ngha t nhin tinh thn l qu m
h p dng cho bt k vn thc tin no. N khng th lm my
ngoi cung cp mt s l l chung ng h ch ngha bo th. Trn thc
tin, mi th c ph mc cho s sng sut ca nh lp php v i
(trit gia ging thn, m bc ho ca ngi y, c bit trong Laws, r
rng l bc chn dung t ho; xem c chng 8). Tuy vy, ngc vi ch
ngha t nhin tinh thn ca ng, l thuyt v s ph thuc ln nhau ca
x hi v c nhn ca Plato cung cp cc kt qu c th hn; v ch
ngha t nhin sinh hc phn bnh ng ca ng cng vy.
VII
biu l trn rng v s t tc ca n, nh nc l tng hin ra vi
Plato nh c nhn hon ho, v cng dn c nhn, do , l mt bn sao
bt hon ho ca nh nc. Quan im ny l ci lm cho nh nc l
mt loi siu c th hay Leviathan a ci gi l l thuyt hu c hay
sinh hc v nh nc vo phng ty. Nguyn l ca l thuyt ny c
ph phn mun hn.31 y u tin ti mun lu n s thc l Plato
khng bo v l thuyt ny, v thc ra hu nh khng trnh by n mt
cch tng minh. Nhng n c ng r; thc t l, s tng t c
bn gia nh nc v c nhn con ngi l mt trong cc ch tiu
chun ca Republic. ng ni n, trong mi quan h ny, rng s tng
t dng gip cho phn tch c nhn hn l phn tch nh nc. Ta c
l c th bo v quan im l Plato (c l chu nh hng ca Alcmaeon)
khng kin ngh mt l thuyt sinh hc v nh nc m l mt l thuyt
chnh tr v c nhn con ngi32. Quan im ny, ti ngh, hon ton ph
hp vi hc thuyt ca ng rng c nhn l thp hn nh nc, v l mt
loi bn sao bt hon ho ca n. Chnh ch trong Plato gii thiu
php tng t c bn ca ng, n c dng theo cch ny; tc l, nh
mt phng php gii thch v lm sng t c nhn. Thnh ph, c
ni, l ln hn c nhn, v v th d kho st hn. Plato cho y l l do
80
X HI HC CA PLATO
ca ng gi rng chng ta phi bt u s iu tra ca mnh (c th

l, iu tra bn cht ca cng l) thnh ph, v sau tip tc c
nhn, lun lun theo di cc im ging nhau C th chng ta khng
k vng bng cch ny thy d hn ci chng ta tm kim?
T cch ng gii thiu n, chng ta c th thy rng Plato (v c l cc
c gi ca ng) coi s tng t c bn ca ng l d nhin. y c th
l mt triu chng v hoi c, v mt ni kht khao cho mt nh nc
thng nht v hi ho, hu c: cho mt x hi loi nguyn thu hn.
(Xem chng 10). Nh nc th nn vn nh, ng ni, v ch tng
chng no s tng ln khng gy nguy him cho s thng nht ca n.
Ton b thnh ph, do bn cht ca n, phi l mt, v khng phi l
nhiu.33 Plato nh vy nhn mnh n tnh: oneness hay c tnh ca
thnh ph ca ng. Nhng ng cng nhn mnh a tnh: manyness ca
c nhn con ngi. Trong phn tch ca ng v linh hn ring l, v s
phn chia n thnh ba phn, l tr, ngh lc, v cc bn nng th vt,
tng ng vi ba giai cp ca nh nc ca ng, nhng ngi bo v,
cc chin binh, v nhng ngi lao ng (nhng ngi vn tip tc nhi
y bng ging cc con th, nh Heraclitus ni), Plato i xa n mc
i lp cc phn ny vi nhau c gi nh chng l cc c nhn ring bit
v mu thun nhau34. Nh vy chng ta c bo, Grote ni, rng d
cho con ngi b ngoi l Mt, thc t anh ta l Nhiu mc d Quc
gia [Commonwealth] v b ngoi l Nhiu, thc t n l Mt. R rng
iu ny tng ng vi c tnh L tng ca nh nc m c nhn l
mt loi bn sao khng hon ho. Mt s nhn mnh nh vy n n
tnh v tnh trn vn - c bit ca nh nc; hay c l ca th gii c
th c m t l chnh th lun. Chnh th lun ca Plato, ti tin, c
quan h mt thit vi ch ngha tp th b lc c nhc ti cc
chng trc. Plato khao kht s thng nht mt ca i sng b lc.
Mt cuc sng thay i, gia mt cuc cch mng x hi, t ra l h o
i vi ng. Ch c ci ton th n nh, tp th vnh cu, l c tnh xc
thc, ch khng phi cc c nhn qua i. L t nhin vi c nhn
phc v ci ton th, ci khng ch l tp hp cc c nhn, m l mt n
v t nhin thuc trt t cao hn.
Plato cho nhiu m t x hi hc tuyt vi v phng thc t nhin
ny, tc l b lc v tp th, ca i sng x hi: Lut, ng vit trong
Republic, c thit k dn n s thnh vng ca quc gia nh
mt tng th, lm cho cc cng dn khp vo mt n v, bng c thuyt
phc v v lc. N lm cho h chia s bt c li ch no m mi trong s
h c th ng gp cho cng ng. V trn thc t lut l ci to cho cc
81
chnh khch c tm trng ng; khng phi cho mc ch h bung

lng, sao cho mi ngi c th i ng ring ca mnh, m l nhm s
dng tt c h gn kt thnh ph li vi nhau.35 Rng c mt tnh
thm m xc cm trong chnh th lun ny, mt s kht khao cho ci
p, c th thy, th d, t mt nhn xt trong Laws: Mi ngh sth
hin ci thnh phn v li ch ca ci ton th, v khng phi ci ton th
v li ch ca ci thnh phn. cng ch, chng ta cng tm thy mt s
trnh by ng l c in ca chnh th lun chnh tr: Mi c to ra v
li ch ca ci ton th, v khng phi ci ton th v li ch ca mi.
Trong phm vi ci ton th ny, cc c nhn khc nhau, v cc nhm c
nhn, vi tnh bt bnh ng ca h, phi thc hin cc dch v c th v
rt khng bnh ng ca h.
Tt c iu ny biu l rng l thuyt ca Plato l mt dng ca l
thuyt hu c v nh nc, cho d ng khng phi i khi ni v nh
nc nh mt c th. Nhng v ng lm iu ny, khng cn nghi ng
g rng ng phi c m t nh mt ngi ng h, hay ng hn, mt
trong nhng ngi sng to ra l thuyt ny. Phin bn ca ng v l
thuyt ny c th c c trng nh mt l thuyt nhn cch hay tm l
hc, v ng m t nh nc khng theo cch chung nh ging vi c th
no hay c th khc, m tng t nh c nhn con ngi, v c bit
hn nh linh hn con ngi. c bit bnh tt ca nh nc, s tan r
ca s thng nht ca n, tng ng vi bnh ca linh hn con ngi,
ca bn cht con ngi. Thc ra, bnh ca nh nc khng ch tng
quan vi, m c to ra trc tip bi, s thi nt ca bn cht con
ngi, c bit hn ca cc thnh vin ca giai cp thng tr. Mi giai
on n nht ca cc giai on in hnh trong s suy i ca nh nc
l do mt giai on tng ng trong s suy i ca linh hn con ngi,
ca bn cht con ngi, ca dng ging con ngi, gy ra. V v s suy
i o c ny c din gii nh da vo s suy i dng ging, ta c
th ni rng yu t sinh hc trong ch ngha t nhin ca Plato ho ra,
cui cng, c phn quan trng nht trong nn mng ca ch ngha lch s
ca ng. V lch s ca s suy sp ca nh nc u tin hay hon ho
chng l g m l lch s ca s suy i sinh hc ca dng ging ngi.
VIII
c nhc ti chng trc rng vn khi u ca thay i v
suy tn l mt trong nhng kh khn ca l thuyt lch s ch ngha ca
Plato v x hi. Th nht, quc gia th t nhin v hon ho, khng
82
X HI HC CA PLATO
th c gi s mang trong bn thn n mm mng ca s tan r, v

mt thnh ph mang trong bn thn mnh mm mng ca s tan r th
chnh v l do y l khng hon ho36. Plato c khc phc kh khn ny
bng cch li cho qui lut tin ho suy i lch s, sinh hc, v c l
thm ch v tr hc, c hiu lc ph qut ca ng, hn l cho s thnh
lp thnh ph c th u tin hay hon ho37: Mi th c to ra phi
suy tn. Nhng l thuyt tng qut ny khng cho mt li gii hon ton
tho mn, v n khng gii thch v sao ngay c mt nh nc hon
ho li khng th thot khi lut suy tn. V qu thc, Plato m ch rng
s suy tn lch s c th trnh c38, gi nh cc nh cai tr ca nh
nc u tin hay t nhin l cc trit gia lnh ngh. Nhng h
khng. H khng c o to (nh ng i hi rng cc nh cai tr
ca thnh ph thin ng ca ng phi c o to) v ton hc v
php bin chng; v trnh suy i, h cn phi c truyn cho cc
iu b n cao hn ca thuyt u sinh, ca khoa hc v gi thun chng
ca nhng ngi bo v, v ca vic trnh ho trn kim loi qu trong
tnh mch ca h vi kim loi thng ca nhng ngi lao ng. Nhng
nhng iu b n cao hn ny l kh khm ph. Plato phn bit r rt,
trong cc lnh vc ton hc, m hc, v thin vn hc, gia kin n
thun (ho huyn) b kinh nghim lm nh bn, v khng th t tnh
chnh xc, v ni chung mc thp, vi tri thc duy l thun khit, thot
c kinh nghim gic quan v chnh xc. S phn bit ny ng p dng
cho c lnh vc ca thuyt u sinh. Ngh thut kinh nghim n thun v
gy ging khng th l chnh xc, tc l n khng th gi cho dng ging
hon ton thun khit. iu ny gii thch s suy i ca thnh ph ban
u ci l rt tt, tc l rt ging Hnh thc hay nim ca n, rng mt
thnh ph c thnh lp nh vy kh c th b lung lay. Nhng iu
ny, Plato tip tc, l cch n tan r, v ng tip tc phc ho l thuyt
ca mnh v gy ging, v Con S, v v s Suy i ca Con Ngi.
Mi thc vt v ng vt, ng bo chng ta, phi c gy ging theo
cc giai on thi gian xc nh, nu mun trnh s v sinh v thoi ho.
Hiu bit no v cc giai on ny, lin quan n di i sng ca
loi, s sn c cho cc nh cai tr ca nh nc tt nht, v h s s dng
n cho gy ging chng tc ch nhn. Tuy vy, n s khng l hiu bit
duy l m ch l hiu bit kinh nghim; n s l tnh ton vi s gip
ca (hay da vo) tri gic (so vi trch dn tip). Song nh chng ta va
thy, tri gic v kinh nghim chng bao gi c th chnh xc v tin cy,
v i tng ca n khng phi l cc Hnh thc hay nim thun khit,
m l th gii ca cc s vt lun thay i; v v nhng ngi bo v
83
khng c sn loi hiu bit tt hn, khng th gi ni ging thun khit,

v s thoi ho chng tc phi ln vo. y l cch Plato gii thch vn
: Lin quan n chng tc ring ca mi (tc l chng tc ngi, i
lp vi ng vt), cc nh cai tr thnh ph, nhng ngi m mi o
to, c th khn ngoan; nhng v h dng tnh ton vi s tr gip ca
tri gic, tnh c h s khng tm ra c cch c c con tt, hay
chng c g c. Thiu mt phng php39 duy l thun khit, h s
lm hng, v mt ngy no h s sinh ra nhng a con theo cch
sai. Trong phn tip theo, Plato ni bng gi, mt cch kh b n, rng
by gi c mt cch trnh iu ny thng qua khm ph ra mt khoa
hc l tr v ton hc thun tu, khoa hc nm cha kho cho lut gc ca
thuyt u sinh cao hn S Plato (con s xc nh Thi K Tht ca
loi ngi). Nhng v nhng ngi bo v thi xa xa khng bit n
php thn b-s Pythagoras, v vi n, n cha kho ny i vi hiu
bit cao hn v gy ging, khc i th nh nc t nhin hon ho khng
th trnh khi suy tn. Sau khi tit l mt phn b mt ca S thn b ca
ng, Plato tip tc: S ny l ch trn cc dng di tt hn hay ti
hn; v mi khi nhng ngi bo v ny ca mi nhng ngi khng
bit cc vn ny - kt hn c du v ch r theo cch sai40, nhng a
con s chng c bn cht tt cng khng c vn may. Ngay c a gii
nht trong s chng s t ra khng xng ng khi k tc quyn lc ca
cha chng; v ngay khi chng l nhng ngi bo v, chng s khng
cn nghe chng ta na- tc l, v cc vn gio dc m nhc v th
dc, v, nh Plato c bit nhn mnh, v gim st gy ging. V th
nhng ngi cai tr s c ch nh, nhng ngi khng hon ton hp
vi nhim v ca h nh nhng ngi bo v; c th theo di, v
kim tra, cc kim loi trong chng tc (l cc chng tc ca Hesiod cng
nh ca mi), vng v bc v ng thic v st. Nh th st s trn ln vi
bc v ng thic vi vng v t hn hp ny S Bin i sinh ra v S
Khng u v l; v mi khi cc th ny sinh ra chng s gy ra Xung
t v S Th ch. V y l cch m chng ta phi m t t tin v
dng di ca Mi Bt ng, mt khi n ny sinh.
y l cu chuyn ca Plato v Con S v v s Suy i ca Con
Ngi. N l c s ca x hi hc lch s ch ngha ca ng, c bit ca
qui lut c bn ca ng v cc cuc cch mng x hi c tho lun
chng trc.41 V s thoi ho dng ging gii thch ngun gc ca s
chia r trong giai cp thng tr, v vi n, ngun gc ca mi din tin
lch s. S khng thng nht bn trong ca bn cht con ngi, s phn
li ca linh hn, dn ti s phn li ca giai cp thng tr. V nh vi
84
X HI HC CA PLATO
Heraclitus, chin tranh, chin tranh giai cp, l cha v ngi thc y ca
mi s thay i, v ca lch s loi ngi, ci chng l g khc m l lch
s ca s tan v ca x hi. Chng ta thy rng ch ngha lch s duy
tm ca Plato rt cuc khng da vo c s tinh thn m da vo c s
sinh hc; n da vo mt loi siu-sinh hc42 v chng tc loi ngi.
Plato khng ch l mt ngi theo ch ngha t nhin ngh mt l
thuyt sinh hc v nh nc, ng cng l ngi u tin kin ngh mt l
thuyt sinh hc v chng tc v ng hc x hi, v lch s chnh tr. S
Plato, Adam43 ni, nh th l khung cnh trong Trit hc v Lch
s ca Plato c trnh by.
Ti ngh, thch hp kt thc phc ho ny v x hi hc m t ca
Plato vi mt tm tt v mt nh gi.
Plato thnh cng ti dng mt x hi b lc v tp th ch ngha
Hy Lp bui ban u, ging nh x hi Sparta, tht n kinh ngc, tuy tt
nhin hi l tng ho. Mt phn tch cc lc lng, c bit cc lc
lng kinh t, e do s n nh ca mt x hi nh vy, cho php ng
m t chnh sch chung cng nh cc th ch x hi cn thit ngng
n li. V, hn na, ng ti dng mt cch hp l s pht trin kinh t v
lch s ca cc quc gia- th Hy Lp.
Cc thnh tu ny b s cm ght x hi, trong ng sng, v tnh
yu lng mn ca ng vi dng b lc c xa ca i sng x hi, lm
cho suy yu. Thi ny l ci dn ng n trnh by mt qui lut khng
th thay i c v din tin lch s, c th l, qui lut chung v thoi
ho hay suy tn. V cng thi cng chu trch nhim v cc yu t
phi l, k qui, v lng mn trong phn tch mt khc rt tuyt vi ca
ng. Mt khc, chnh mi quan tm c nhn ca ng v tnh thin v ca
ng l nhng ci lm cho con mt ng sc so v nh vy lm cho cc
thnh tu ca ng l c th. ng dn l thuyt lch s ch ngha ca mnh
ra t hc thuyt trit hc k qui ca ng cho rng th gii hu hnh thay
i ch l mt bn sao ang suy tn ca mt th gii v hnh khng thay
i. Nhng n lc kho lo ny, kt hp mt ch ngha bi quan lch s
ch ngha vi mt ch ngha lc quan bn th hc, dn ti nhng kh
khn, khi c trau chut. Nhng kh khn ny buc ng chp nhn mt
ch ngha t nhin sinh hc, dn (cng vi thuyt tm l lun:
psychologism44, tc l l thuyt cho rng x hi ph thuc vo bn cht
con ngi ca cc thnh vin ca n) n ch ngha thn b v m tn,
ln n nh im l thuyt ton hc gi-duy l v gy ging. Chng
thm ch gy nguy him cho tnh thng nht uy nghi ca to lu i l
thuyt ca ng.
85
IX
Nhn li to lu i ny, chng ta c th xem ngn gn s mt bng
ca n.45 S mt bng ny, do mt kin trc s v i ngh ra, biu l
mt ch ngha nh nguyn siu hnh hc c bn trong t duy ca Plato.
Trong lnh vc logic, ch ngha nh nguyn ny th hin ra nh s i lp
gia ci chung v ci ring. Trong lnh vc suy on ton hc, n th
hin ra nh s i lp ca ci Mt v ci Nhiu. Trong lnh vc nhn
thc lun, n l s i lp gia tri thc duy l da trn t duy thun khit,
v kin da vo cc kinh nghim ring bit. Trong lnh vc bn th
hc, n l s i lp gia thc ti duy nht, gc, khng thay i, v ng,
vi b ngoi a dng, thay i, v ho huyn; gia ci tn ti thun khit
v ci s ti, hay chnh xc hn, ci thay i. Trong lnh vc v tr hc,
n l s i lp gia ci to ra v ci c to ra, v phi suy tn. Trong
o c hc, n l s i lp gia ci thin, tc l ci duy tr, v ci c,
tc l ci thi nt. Trong chnh tr hc, n l s i lp gia ci tp th,
nh nc, ci c th t ti s hon ho v ch quyn tuyt i, vi s
ht sc ng dn chng - rt nhiu c nhn, nhng con ngi ring l
phi gi nguyn l khng hon ho v ph thuc, v tnh c bit ca
nhng ngi y phi b nn v li ch thng nht ca nh nc (xem
chng tip). V ton b trit hc nh nguyn ny, ti tin, bt ngun t
mong mun cp bch gii thch s tng phn gia tm nhn v mt
x hi l tng, v tnh trng thc t ng cm ght trong lnh vc x his tng phn gia mt x hi n nh, v mt x hi trong qu trnh
cch mng.
CHNG TRNH CHNH TR CA PLATO
CHNG 6: CNG L TON TR

Phn tch x hi hc ca Plato lm cho vic trnh by chng trnh
chnh tr ca ng d dng. Cc i hi c bn ca ng c th c trnh
by theo mt trong hai cng thc, ci th nht tng ng vi l thuyt
duy tm ca ng v thay i v ng yn, ci th hai vi ch ngha t
nhin ca ng. Cng thc duy tm l: Ngng mi thay i chnh tr!
Thay i l xu xa, ng yn l tuyt diu.1 C th ngng mi thay i
nu nh nc l mt bn sao chnh xc ca bn gc ca n, tc l ca
Hnh thc hay nim ca thnh ph. Nu c hi iu ny kh thi ra
sao, chng ta c th tr li vi cng thc t nhin ch ngha: Quay li vi
T nhin! Quay li vi nh nc nguyn gc ca ng cha ta, nh nc
nguyn thu c lp ra ph hp vi bn cht con ngi, v v th n
nh; quay li vi ch gia trng b lc ca thi trc Suy i, vi s
cai tr giai cp t nhin ca s t ngi thng thi trn s ng ngu dt.
Ti tin l hu nh mi yu t ca chng trnh chnh tr ca Plato c
th c dn ra t cc i hi ny. Ln lt chng li da vo ch ngha
lch s ca ng; v chng phi c kt hp vi cc thuyt x hi hc
ca ng lin quan n cc iu kin cho s n nh ca s cai tr giai cp.
Ti ngh n cc yu t ch yu sau:
(A) S phn chia nghim ngt cc giai cp: tc l giai cp cai tr bao
gm nhng ngi chn gia sc v ch canh phi c tch bit nghim
ngt khi gia sc ngi.
(B) S ng nht s phn ca nh nc vi s phn ca giai cp thng
tr; s quan tm ring bit n giai cp ny, v n s thng nht ca n;
v ph thuc vo s thng nht ny, cc qui tc cng nhc v gy ging
v gio dc giai cp ny, v s gim st cht ch v tp th ho cc li
ch ca cc thnh vin ca n.
T cc yu t ch yu ny, c th dn ra cc yu t khc, th d nh
cc yu t sau:
(C) Giai cp thng tr c quyn cc th nh cc c hnh qun s v
o to, v quyn mang v kh v nhn c gio dc mi loi; nhng n
b loi khi mi vic tham gia vo cc hot ng kinh t; v c bit vo
vic kim tin.
(D) Phi c s kim duyt tt c cc hot ng tr c ca giai cp thng
tr, v mt s tuyn truyn lin tc hng ti nho nn v thng nht tm
tr ca h. Mi i mi trong gio dc, lp php, v tn gio phi b ngn
chn hay cm.
87
(E) Nh nc phi t tc. N phi hng ti t cp t tc v kinh t; v

khc i th nhng ngi cai tr s hoc ph thuc vo cc nh bun hay
bn thn h tr thnh cc nh bun. Kh nng u trong cc la chn ny
s lm xi mn quyn lc ca h, v la chn th hai lm xi mn s
thng nht ca h v s n nh ca nh nc.
Chng trnh ny, ti ngh, c th coi mt cch chnh ng l ton tr.
V n chc chn da trn mt x hi hc lch s ch ngha.
Nhng ch th thi ? C cc c tnh khc ca chng trnh ca Plato,
cc yu t khng mang tnh ton tr cng chng da trn ch ngha lch
s, hay khng? Cn kht khao nng chy ca Plato v Lng Tt v Ci
p, hay lng yu s Uyn Thm v Chn L ca ng th sao? i hi
ca ng rng ngi khn ngoan, cc trit gia, phi cai tr th sao? Cn hi
vng ca ng lm cho cc cng dn ca nh nc ca ng c c
cng nh hnh phc th sao? V i hi ca ng rng nh nc phi da
trn Cng L th sao? Ngay c cc tc gi ph phn Plato cng tin rng
hc thuyt chnh tr ca ng, bt chp nhng s ging nhau nht nh,
c phn bit r rng khi ch ngha ton tr hin i bi nhng mc
tiu ny ca ng, s hnh phc ca cng dn, v s cai tr ca cng l.
Th d, Crossman, m thi ph phn ca ng c th c nh gi t
nhn xt ca ng rng trit hc ca Plato l s tn cng man r nht v
thm thu nht i vi cc t tng t do m lch s c th chng t2,
vn dng nh tin rng k hoch ca Plato l xy dng mt nh nc
hon ho trong cc cng dn thc s hnh phc. Th d khc l Joad
ngi tho lun nhng s ging nhau gia cc chng trnh ca Plato v
ca ch ngha pht xt vi mt s chi tit, nhng khng nh rng c
nhng khc bit c bn, v trong nh nc tt nht ca Plato ngi dn
thngt hnh phc ph hp vi bn cht ca anh ta, v v nh nc
ny c xy dng trn cc t tng v mt ci tt tuyt i v mt
cng l tuyt i.
Bt chp cc l l nh vy ti tin rng chng trnh chnh tr ca Plato,
cn xa mi u vit v o c hn ch ngha ton tr, v c bn l ng
nht vi n. Ti tin l nhng phn i chng li quan im ny da trn
mt nh kin c, thm cn c c li cho Plato l tng ho. Vic
Crossman lm nhiu ch ra v ph hu s thin v ny c th thy
t tuyn b: Trc Chin tranh V i .. Plato .. him khi b ln n
thng thng l phn ng, kin quyt chng mi nguyn l ca tn iu t
do. Thay vo ng c nng ln a v cao hn, xa cuc sng thc
tin, m c v mt Thnh Ph siu vit ca Thng .3 Tuy vy, bn
thn Crossman khng thot c xu hng m ng bc trn r n vy.
88
CHNH TR HC CA PLATO
L th l xu hng ny c th duy tr di n nh th bt chp s thc

rng Grote v Gomperz ch ra tnh cht phn ng ca mt s hc
thuyt ca Republic v ca Laws. Song ngay c h cng khng thy tt
c h qu ca cc hc thuyt ny; h khng bao gi nghi ng rng Plato,
v c bn, l mt ngi theo ch ngha nhn o. V ph phn i
nghch ca h b l i, hay c din gii nh s tht bi hiu v nh
gi cao Plato ngi c nhng ngi C c coi l mt ngi C c
trc cha Christ, v c nhng ngi cch mng coi l mt nh cch
mng. S tin tng hon ton ny vo Plato khng nghi ng g vn cn
tri, v th d, Field thy cn cnh bo c gi ca mnh rng chng ta
s hiu sai hon ton Plato nu ngh v ng nh mt nh t tng cch
mng. iu ny, tt nhin, rt ng; v r rng v ngha nu xu hng
coi Plato l mt nh t tng cch mng, hay ch t l mt ngi theo
thuyt tin b, li khng kh ph bin. Song bn thn Field cng c cng
loi nim tin vo Plato; v khi ng tip tc cho rng Plato rt phn i
cc xu hng mi v c tnh lt thi , ri chc chn ng chp nhn
qu d dng bng chng ca Plato cho tnh cht lt ca cc xu hng
mi ny. Nhng k th ca t do lun ln n nhng ngi ngi bo v
n l lt . V gn nh h lun thnh cng thuyt phc ngi khng
c hng dn v c thin ch.
S l tng ho ca nh duy tm v i thm khng ch vo nhng din
gii cc tc phm ca Plato, m c cc bn dch. Cc nhn xt quyt lit
ca Plato khng khp vi quan im ca ngi dch v ci mt ngi
theo ch ngha nhn o nn ni thng hoc c lm cho gay gt
hn hoc b hiu sai. Xu hng ny bt u vi vic dch chnh tiu
ca tc phm c gi l Republic: cng ho ca Plato. Ci n vi
tm tr chng ta khi nghe tiu ny l tc gi hn l mt ngi theo ch
ngha t do, nu khng phi l mt nh cch mng. Nhng tiu
Republic, rt n gin, l t dch ting Anh ca t dch ting Latin ca
mt t Hy Lp khng c lin tng no thuc loi ny, v t dch ng
ting Anh l ra l Hin php hay Th Quc hay Quc gia. Cch dch
truyn thng l The Republic: Nn Cng ho r rng ng gp vo
nim tin chung rng Plato khng th l mt k phn ng.
V l do ca tt c nhng ci m Plato ni v Lng Tt v Cng l v
cc T tng khc c nhc ti, lun ca ti rng cc yu sch chnh
tr ca ng l thun tu ton tr v phn nhn o cn phi c bin h.
Nhm thc hin s bin h ny bn chng tip ti s ngng phn tch
ch ngha lch s, v tp trung vo kho st ph phn cc T tng o
c c nhc ti, v vai tr ca chng trong cc yu sch chnh tr
89
ca Plato. Trong chng ny, ti s kho st T tng v Cng l; trong

ba chng tip theo, kho st thuyt v ngi sng sut nht v tt nht
phi cai tr, v cc T tng v Chn L, Sng sut, Lng tt, v Ci
p.
I
Khi ni v Cng l chng ta thc s hiu l g? Ti khng ngh rng
cc vn theo ngha ngn t thuc loi ny l c bit quan trng, hoc
rng c th a ra mt cu tr li dt khot cho chng, v cc thut ng
nh vy lun c dng theo cc ngha khc nhau. Tuy nhin, ti ngh
hu ht chng ta, c bit nhng ngi c quan im chung l nhn o,
hiu n l ci g ging th ny: (a) mt s phn chia u gnh nng
cng dn, tc l nhng hn ch v t do cn thit trong i sng x hi4;
(b) s i x ngang nhau ca cc cng dn trc php lut, tt nhin vi
iu kin, l (c) cc lut khng u i cng khng ght b cc cng dn
hay cc nhm hay cc giai cp ring bit. (d) tnh v t ca cc to n; v
(e) mt s phn chia u v li ch (v khng ch v gnh nng) m t
cch cng dn ca mt quc gia c th ban cho cc cng dn. Nu gi
nh Plato hiu cng l l bt k th g thuc loi ny, th i hi ca
ti rng chng trnh ca ng l thun tu ton tr s chc chn sai v tt
c nhng ai tin rng chnh tr hc ca Plato da trn mt c s nhn o
c th chp nhn c s ng. Nhng s thc l ng hiu cng l l
ci g hon ton khc.
Plato hiu cng l l g? Ti khng nh rng trong Republic ng
dng t cng bng nh mt t ng ngha cho ci l li ch ca nh
nc tt nht. V ci g l li ch ca nh nc tt nht ny? L
ngng mi s thay i, bng cch duy tr s phn chia giai cp cng nhc
v s cai tr giai cp. Nu ti ng trong din gii ny, th chng ta phi
ni rng i hi ca Plato v cng l chng trnh chnh tr ca ng
mc ca ch ngha ton tr; v chng ta phi kt lun rng chng ta phi
phng chng li nguy c b cm kch ch bi li ni.
Cng l l ch trung tm ca Republic; thc ra, V Cng l l tiu
ph truyn thng ca n. Trong iu tra ca ng v bn cht ca cng
l, Plato dng phng php c nhc ti5 trong chng trc; u tin
ng c tm kim T tng ny trong nh nc, v sau c gng p
dng kt qu cho c nhn. Khng th ni rng cu hi Cng l l g?
ca Plato tm thy nhanh mt cu tr li, v n ch c a ra Quyn
90
CHNH TR HC CA PLATO
Bn. Nhng cn nhc dn ti n mun hn s c phn tch y hn

chng ny. Ngn gn, chng l th ny.
Thnh ph c xy dng da trn bn cht con ngi, cc nhu cu
ca n, v cc hn ch ca n6. Chng ta tuyn b, v bn s nh,
lp i lp li rng mi ngi trong thnh ph chng ta nn lm mt cng
vic duy nht; c th l, vic ph hp nht vi bn tnh ca anh ta. T
iu ny Plato kt lun rng mi ngi nn n cng vic ring ca
mnh, rng th mc nn gii hn mnh ngh mc, th giy ngh lm
giy. Tuy vy, khng my tai hi nu hai ngi lao ng thay i ch t
nhin ca h. Nhng bt k ai m theo bn cht l ngi lao ng (hay
mt thnh vin ca giai cp kim tin)li xoay x vo giai cp chin
binh; hay mt chin binh vo giai cp nhng ngi bo v, m khng
xng ng; th loi thay i v mu toan ln lt ny s c ngha l s
suy sp ca thnh ph. T l l ny, l l quan h mt thit vi nguyn l
rng mang v kh phi l mt c quyn giai cp, Plato rt ra kt lun
cui cng rng bt c s thay i hay s trn ln no bn trong ba giai
cp ny phi l bt cng, v iu ngc li, v vy, l cng bng: Khi
mi giai cp trong thnh ph n cng vic ring ca mnh, giai cp
kim tin cng nh cc ph t v nhng ngi bo v, th y s l cng
bng. Kt lun ny c ti khng nh v tng kt li mt cht mun
hn: Thnh ph l cng bng nu mi trong ba giai cp ca n chm
lo cho cng vic ring ca mnh. Nhng tuyn b ny c ngha l Plato
ng nht cng bng vi nguyn l v s thng tr giai cp v c quyn
giai cp. V nguyn l mi giai cp phi chm lo cng vic ring ca
mnh, c ngha ngn gn v thng thng, l nh nc l cng bng nu
nh cai tr cai tr, nu ngi lao ng lm vic, v7 nu n l lm n l.
S thy rng khi nim cng bng ca Plato v c bn l khc vi quan
im bnh thng ca chng ta nh c phn tch trn. Plato gi c
quyn giai cp l cng bng, trong khi chng ta thng hiu cng bng
ng hn l s khng c c quyn nh vy. Song s khc bit cn xa
hn na. Ta hiu cng bng l mt loi bnh ng no v i x ca
cc c nhn, cn Plato coi cng bng khng nh mi quan h gia cc c
nhn, m nh mt ti sn ca ton x hi, da trn quan h gia cc giai
cp. Nh nc l cng bng nu n kho, mnh, thng nht - n nh.
II
Nhng c l Plato ng? C l cng bng c ngha l ci ng ni?
Ti khng c nh tho lun mt vn nh vy. Nu bt c ai cho
91
rng cng bng c ngha l s thng tr khng b thch thc ca mt

giai cp, th ti n gin tr li rng ti hon ton ng h bt cng. Ni
cch khc, ti tin rng khng g ph thuc vo li ni, v mi th ph
thuc vo cc i hi thc tin ca chng ta hay vo nhng kin ngh
nh khung chnh sch m chng ta quyt nh chp nhn. ng ng
sau nh ngha cng bng ca Plato v c bn l i hi ca ng cho s
thng tr giai cp ton tr, v quyt nh ca ng to ra n.
Nhng khng phi ng ng theo mt ngha khc? C phi tng ca
ng v cng bng c l tng ng vi cch ngi Hy Lp dng t ny?
C phi c l nhng ngi Hy Lp hiu cng bng l ci g chnh
th, ging nh sc kho ca nh nc, v khng phi hon ton bt
cng v phi lch s i k vng t Plato mt s thy trc tng hin i
ca chng ta v cng bng nh s bnh ng ca cc cng dn trc php
lut? Cu hi ny, qu thc, c tr li mt cch khng nh, v
c i hi rng tng chnh th ca Plato v cng bng x hi l c
trng ca cch nhn Hy Lp truyn thng, ca thin ti Hy Lp
khng ging nh Roman, c bit v php l, m ng hn l c bit
siu hnh hc8. Nhng i hi ny khng th ng vng c. Thc ra,
cch dng t cng bng ca ngi Hy Lp qu thc ging mt cch
ngc nhin vi vic s dng mang tnh c nhn ch ngha v bnh ng
ch ngha ca chng ta.
chng t iu ny, u tin ti c th vin dn n bn thn Plato,
ngi trong i thoi Gorgias (tc phm sm hn Republic), ni v quan
im rng cng bng l bnh ng nh quan im c i a s ngi
dn cho l ng, v nh quan im thng nht khng ch vi qui c,
m vi bn thn t nhin. Ti c th trch dn thm Aristotle, mt i
th khc ca ch ngha bnh ng, ngi, di nh hng ca ch ngha
t nhin ca Plato, dng ln gia cc th khc l thuyt cho rng mt s
ngi do bn cht sinh ra l n l9. Khng ai c th t quan tm hn ti
s truyn b din gii mang tnh bnh ng ch ngha v c nhn ch
ngha ca thut ng cng bng. Nhng khi ni v quan to ngi c
ng m t nh c nhn ho ca ci l cng bng, Aristotle ni rng
nhim v ca quan to lp li bnh ng, mt s bnh ng, c th l,
thuc v cc c nhn. ng thm ch ngh (nhng y ng sai) rng t
Hy Lp cho cng bng c dn ra t mt gc c ngha l s phn
chia u. (Quan im rng cng bng c ngha l mt loi bnh ng
trong phn chia chin li phm v vinh d cho cc cng dn thng nht
vi quan im ca Plato trong Laws, ni hai loi bnh ng v phn chia
chin li phm v vinh d c phn bit l bnh ng bng s hay
92
CHNH TR HC CA PLATO
s hc v bnh ng cn xng; loi th hai tnh n mc trong

cc c nhn lin quan c c hnh, gy ging, v sc kho- v ni bnh
ng cn xng ny c ni l to thnh cng bng chnh tr). V khi
Aristotle tho lun cc nguyn l dn ch, ng ni rng cng bng dn
ch l s p dng nguyn l bnh ng s hc (khc vi bnh ng cn
xng). Tt c iu ny chc chn khng n thun l cm tng c nhn
ca ng v ngha ca cng bng, c l cng khng ch l mt s m t
cch theo t c dng, sau Plato, di nh hng ca Gorgias v
ca Laws; ng hn, n l s din t ca s s dng ph bin v c
cng nh thng dng ca t cng bng.10
V bng chng ny, chng ta phi ni, ti ngh, rng din gii chnh th
v phn bnh ng v cng bng trong Republic l mt s i mi, v
Plato c gii thiu s cai tr giai cp ton tr ca ng nh cng bng
cn ngi dn ni chung hiu cng bng chnh xc l s i ngc.
Kt qu ny gy sng st, v m ra mt s cu hi. V sao, trong
Republic, Plato cho rng cng bng c ngha l bt bnh ng nu trong
cch dng chung, n c ngha l bnh ng? i vi ti cu tr li thch
hp duy nht c v l ng mun tuyn truyn cho nh nc ton tr
ca ng bng cch thuyt phc nhn dn rng n l nh nc cng
bng. Nhng mt n lc nh vy c b cng ng khng, xt rng khng
phi li ni m l chng c ngha g mi quan trng? Tt nhin l b
cng; iu ny c th thy t s thc rng ng hon ton thnh cng
trong thuyt phc cc c gi ca mnh, cho n tn ngy nay, rng ng
tht th ch trng cng bng, tc l s cng bng m h hng c t.
V mt s thc rng bng cch y ng truyn b s nghi ng v s ln
ln gia nhng ngi theo ch ngha bnh ng v ch ngha c nhn
nhng ngi, di nh hng ca thm quyn ca ng, bt u t hi
mnh liu tng ca ng v cng bng khng ng hn v tt hn ca
h hay khng. V t cng bng tng trng mt mc tiu quan trng
n vy i vi chng ta, v v rt nhiu ngi sn sng cam chu mi
th v n, v lm mi th theo nng lc ca h thc hin n, s tranh
th cc lc lng nhn o ch ngha ny, hay ch t, s lm n ca
ch ngha bnh ng, chc chn l mt mc tiu ng theo ui bi
mt ngi tin vo ch ngha ton tr. Song Plato c bit rng cng bng
c ngha nhiu n vy vi con ngi khng? ng bit; v ng vit
trong Republic: Khi mt ngi phm mt s bt cng, khng ng
rng s can m ca anh ta khng b khch ng?Song khi anh ta tin
rng mnh chu bt cng, chng phi s mnh lit v phn n ca anh ta
bng ln tc th? V khng ng ngang th l, khi chin u pha anh
93
ta tin l cng bng, anh ta c th chu i v rt, v bt c loi gian kh

no? V anh ta khng bm cht cho n khi chinh phc, kin ngan trong
tnh trng cao hng ca mnh cho n khi hoc t c mc tiu, hoc
b cht?11
c iu ny, ta khng th nghi ng l Plato bit sc mnh ca nim
tin, v trn ht, ca nim tin vo s cng bng. Ta cng khng nghi ng
l Republic phi nhm ti xuyn tc nim tin ny, v thay n bng mt
nim tin hon ton ngc li. V di nh sng ca bng chng sn c,
dng nh i vi ti c kh nng nht l Plato bit rt k ci ng lm.
Ch ngha bnh ng l k th khng i tri chung ca ng, v ng
quyt tm ph hu n; khng nghi ng g v lng tin thnh tht rng n l
mt tai ho ln v mt mi nguy him ln. Nhng s tn cng ch ngha
bnh ng ca ng khng phi l mt s tn cng trung thc. Plato
khng dm i mt vi k th mt cch cng khai.
Ti tip tc trnh by bng chng ng h lun im ny.
III
Republic c l l chuyn kho t m nht v cng bng tng c
vit. N kho st cc quan im a dng v cng bng, v n lm vic
ny theo cch dn chng ta n tin l Plato khng b st l thuyt quan
trng hn no m ng bit. Thc ra, Plato ng 12 r rng l do cc n
lc v vng ca ng theo di v nm bt n gia cc quan im hin
thi, nn cn c s tm kim mi v cng bng. Th m trong tng quan
v tho lun ca ng v cc l thuyt hin thi, quan im cho rng cng
bng l bnh ng trc php lut (isonomy) chng bao gi c nhc
n. S b st ny ch c th c gii thch theo hai cch. Hoc l ng
khng ch ti l thuyt bnh ng ch ngha13, hay ng c b qua n.
Kh nng th nht c v rt khng chc xy ra nu ta xt vic Republic
c son cn trng n th no, v iu bt buc i vi Plato phn
tch cc l thuyt ca cc i th nu ng mun trnh by sinh ng l
thuyt ca ring mnh. Nhng kh nng ny thm ch t ra l khng chc
c th xy ra hn na nu ta xt tnh ph bin rng ri ca l thuyt bnh
ng ch ngha. Tuy vy, khng cn da vo cc l l ch mang tnh c
kh nng v c th chng t d dng rng Plato khng nhng quen bit l
thuyt bnh ng ch ngha m cn bit k tm quan trng ca n khi ng
vit Republic. Nh nhc ti ri chng ny (mc II), v nh s thy
chi tit mun hn ( mc VIII), ch ngha bnh ng ng mt vai tr
ng k trong tc phm sm hn Gorgias ni thm ch n c bo v;
94
CHNH TR HC CA PLATO
v bt chp s thc rng cc gi tr hay khuyt im ca ch ngha bnh

ng khng c tho lun nghim tc bt c u trong Republic, Plato
khng i lin quan n nh hng ca n, v bn thn Republic
chng thc cho s ni ting ca n. n c m ch nh mt lng
tin dn ch rt ph bin; nhng n c cp ch vi s khinh b, v tt
c ci chng ta nghe v n gm vi li nho bng v chm chc14, khp
kho vi s tn cng lng m nn dn ch Athens, v a ra ch cng
bng khng phi l ch tho lun. V th kh nng, rng Plato khng
ch ti l thuyt bnh ng ch ngha, b loi b, cng vy vi kh nng
l ng khng thy cn tho lun mt l thuyt c nh hng v i ngc
hon ton vi l thuyt ca ring ng. S thc rng s im lng ca ng
trong Republic b ph v ch bi vi nhn xt hi hc (hnh nh ng
ngh chng qu tt b m i15) ch c th c gii thch nh mt s c
t chi tho lun n. V tt c l do , ti khng thy lm sao m
phng php ca Plato khc su vo c gi nim tin rng tt c cc l
thuyt quan trng c kho st li c th dung ho vi cc tiu chun
v s trung thc tr tu; cho d chng ta phi ni thm rng s qun r
rng l do s hin dng hon ton ca ng cho s nghip m ng tin
vng chc vo tnh tt ca n.
nh gi y cc n ca s im lng hu nh lin tc ca Plato
v vn ny, u tin chng ta phi thy r phong tro bnh ng ch
ngha nh Plato thy l n i din cho tt c ci ng cm ght, v rng l
thuyt ca ring ng, trong Republic v cc cng trnh mun hn, ch
yu l cu tr li cho thch thc mnh m ca ch ngha bnh ng v
ch ngha nhn o mi. chng t iu ny, ti s tho lun cc
nguyn l chnh ca phong tro nhn o ch ngha, v tng phn chng
vi cc nguyn l tng ng ca ch ngha ton tr ca Plato.
L thuyt nhn o ch ngha v cng bng a ra ba i hi hay
xut chnh, c th l (a) nguyn l bnh ng ch ngha ng n, tc l
kin ngh loi b cc c quyn t nhin, (b) nguyn l chung ca ch
ngha c nhn, v (c) nguyn l rng phi l nhim v v mc ch ca
nh nc i bo v quyn t do ca cng dn. i vi mi i hi hay
xut chnh tr tng ng trc tip vi mt nguyn l i nghch ca
ch ngha Plato, c th l, (a1) nguyn l v c quyn t nhin, (b1)
nguyn l chung ca chnh th lun hay ch ngha tp th, v (c1) nguyn
l cho rng nhim v v mc ch ca c nhn duy tr, v tng cng,
s n nh ca nh nc. Ti s tho lun ba im ny theo th t,
dnh cho mi im mt mc trong cc mc IV, V, v VI ca chng ny.
95
IV
Ch ngha bnh ng ng l i hi rng cc cng dn ca quc gia
phi c i x khng thin v. N i hi rng dng di, quan h gia
nh, hay ca ci khng c nh hng ln nhng ngi cai qun lut
i vi cng dn. Ni cch khc, n khng cng nhn bt k c quyn
t nhin no, mc d cc c quyn no c th c cc cng dn
ban cho nhng ngi h tin.
Nguyn l bnh ng ch ngha ny c Pericles pht biu mt cch
ng khm phc vi nm trc khi Plato sinh, trong mt bi din thuyt
c Thucydides16 gi gn. N c trch dn y hn chng 10,
nhng hai cu c th a ra y: Lut ca chng ta, Pericles ni, ban
cng bng ngang nhau cho tt c u nhau trong cc tranh chp ring ca
h, nhng chng ta khng bc b cc yu sch v s xut sc. Khi mt
cng dn t ni bt, th anh ta c bt vo cng v, khng phi nh
vn v c quyn, m nh mt phn thng cho cng lao; v s ngho
nn khng phi l mt cn tr Cc cu ny trnh by vi mc tiu c
bn ca phong tro bnh ng ch ngha m, nh ta thy, thm ch
khng b chn li t tn cng cnh n l. Trong th h Pericles, phong
tro ny c Euripides, Antiphon, v Hippias i din, tt c c trch
dn chng trc, v c bi Herodotus17. Trong th h Plato, n c
i din bi Alcidamas v Lycophron, c hai c trch dn trn; ngi
ng h khc l Antisthenes, mt trong cc bn thn nht ca Socrates.
Nguyn l v cng bng ca Plato, tt nhin, l i lp hon ton vi tt
c iu ny. ng i cc c quyn t nhin cho cc lnh t t nhin.
Nhng ng phn bc nguyn l bnh ng ch ngha th no? V ng
xc lp cc i hi ring ca ng ra sao?
Nn nh li t chng trc rng mt s trnh by quen bit nht ca
cc i hi bnh ng ch ngha c din t bng ngn ng rt n
tng nhng ng ng v cc quyn t nhin, v rng vi i din l l
ng h cc i hi ny bng cch ch ra s bnh ng t nhin, tc l
sinh hc, ca con ngi. Chng ta thy l l ny l khng thch ng;
rng con ngi l ngang nhau mt s kha cnh, v khng ngang nhau
cc kha cnh khc; v rng cc i hi chun tc khng th c dn
ra t s thc ny, hay t s thc khc. V th l th lu rng l l t
nhin ch ngha khng c tt c nhng ngi theo ch ngha bnh
ng s dng, v rng ring Pericles, thm ch khng h m ch n n.18
Plato nhanh chng thy rng ch ngha t nhin l mt im yu bn
trong thuyt bnh ng ch ngha, v ng li dng y nht im
96
CHNH TR HC CA PLATO
yu ny. Ni vi con ngi rng h bnh ng c s hp dn no .

Song iu ny l nh so vi s hp dn do tuyn truyn a ra, ni vi
h rng h u vit hn nhng ngi khc, v nhng ngi khc thp
km hn h. Anh vn ngang bng vi cc ngi hu, cc n l ca mnh,
vi ngi lao ng chn tay khng hn con vt? Cu hi l nc ci!
Plato dng nh l ngi u tin nh gi cao kh nng ca phn ng
ny, v i lp s coi khinh, khinh b, v nho bng vi i hi bnh
ng t nhin. iu ny gii thch v sao ng nng lng quy l l t nhin
ch ngha cho ngay c cc i th khng s dng n; trong Menexenus,
bi nhi din thuyt ca Pericles, ng v th khng khng lin kt cc i
hi lut cng bng vi i hi bnh ng t nhin vi nhau: C s hin
php ca chng ta l s bnh ng v dng di, ng ni ma mai. Chng
ta l anh em, v u l con ca mt m;v s bnh ng v dng di
khin ta phn u cho bnh ng trc php lut.19
Mun hn, trong Laws, Plato tm tt tr li ca ng cho ch ngha bnh
ng trong cng thc: i x bnh ng ca nhng ngi khng bnh
ng phi gy ra bt bnh ng20; v iu ny c Aristotle pht trin
thnh cng thc Bnh ng cho nhng ngi bnh ng, bt bnh ng
cho nhng ngi khng bnh ng. Cng thc ny biu th ci c th
c gi l s phn i tiu chun i vi ch ngha bnh ng; s phn
i rng s bnh ng s l tuyt vi ch nu con ngi l ngang nhau,
nhng n r rng l khng th v h khng ngang nhau, v t khng
th bin h thnh ngang nhau. S phn i c v rt thc t ny, thc ra,
l phi thc t nht, v cc c quyn chnh tr chng bao gi da trn
nhng khc bit t nhin v c tnh. V, qu thc, Plato dng nh
khng tin my vo s phn i ny khi vit Republic, v n c dng
y ch mt trong nhng ch nho ca ng i vi dn ch khi ng ni
rng n phn chia s bnh ng cho nhng ngi bnh ng v khng
bnh ng nh nhau.21 Ngoi nhn xt ny, ng thch hn l khng
cp g n n c, m qun n i.
Tm li, c th ni rng Plato khng bao gi nh gi thp tm quan
trng ca l thuyt bnh ng ch ngha, c ng h bi mt ngi nh
Pericles, m rng, trong Republic, ng khng h cp n n; ng tn
cng n, nhng khng thng thn v cng khai.
Nhng ng c thit lp ch ngha phn bnh ng ring ca mnh,
nguyn l c quyn t nhin ca ng th no? Trong Republic, ng
ngh ba l l, tuy hai trong s hu nh khng xng ng vi tn gi. L
l th nht22 l nhn xt ng ngc nhin rng, v c ba c hnh khc
ca nh nc c kho st, c hnh cn li th t, v ch n
97
cng vic ring ca mnh, phi l cng bng. Ti min cng tin
rng y c ngha nh mt l l; nhng n phi l, v ngi pht ngn
chnh ca Plato, Socrates, a n ra bng cch hi: Bn c bit ti
ti kt lun ny ra sao khng? L l th hai l th hn, v n l mt n
lc chng t rng ch ngha phn bnh ng ca ng c th c dn
ra t quan im bnh thng (tc l bnh ng ch ngha) rng cng bng
l khng thin v. Ti trch y on ny. Ch rng nhng ngi cai
tr thnh ph s cng l cc quan to ca n, Socrates ni23: V khng
phi mc tiu ca quyn ti phn ca h l khng ngi no s ly ci
thuc v ngi khc, v b tc ot ci l ca ring mnh ? Phi, l
tr li ca Glaucon, ngi i thoi, l nh ca h Bi v
l cng bng? Phi.- Do , gi v thc hnh ci thuc v chng ta
v l ca ring chng ta l nguyn l ca quyn ti phn cng bng, ph
hp vi cc tng bnh thng ca chng ta v cng bng. L l th hai
kt thc y, nhng ng cho l l th ba (c phn tch di y)
ci dn ti kt lun rng l cng bng gi a v ring ca mnh (hay
lm cng vic ring ca mnh), l a v (hay cng vic) ca giai cp hay
ng cp ring ca mnh.
Mc ch duy nht ca l l th hai ny l khc su vo bn c rng
cng bng, theo ngha thng thng ca t, i hi chng ta gi a v
ca ring mnh, v chng ta phi lun gi ci thuc v chng ta. Tc l,
Plato mun nhng ngi c ca ng suy ra kt lun: L cng bng
gi v thc hnh ci l ca ring mnh. Ch ca ti (hay cng vic ca
ti) l ca ring ti. Nh th cng bng vi ti gi ch ca ti (hay
thc hnh cng vic ca ti). y cng sp ng nh l l: Cng bng
gi v thc hnh ci l ca ring mnh. K hoch ny v ly cp tin
ca bn l ca ring ti. Nh vy cng bng i vi ti tun theo k
hoch ca ti, v a n vo thc tin, tc l ly trm tin ca bn. R
rng l suy din m Plato mun chng ta rt ra chng l g ngoi s tung
hng [lng gt] th thin vi ngha ca t ca ring mnh. (V vn
liu cng bng i hi rng mi th theo ngha no l ca ring
ta, th d giai cp ca chng ta, v th phi c coi, khng ch nh s
hu ca chng ta, m nh s hu khng th chuyn nhng ca chng
ta. Nhng bn thn Plato khng tin vo mt nguyn l nh vy; v n r
rng lm cho qu sang ch ngha cng sn l khng th. V v gi con
ci ca chng ta th sao?) Tr tung hng th thin ny l cch ca Plato
xc lp ci m Adam gi l mt giao im gia quan im ring ca
ng v Cng bng v ngha ph bin ca t. y l cch m trit gia
98
CHNH TR HC CA PLATO
v i nht ca mi thi i c thuyt phc chng ta rng ng khm

ph ra bn cht tht s ca cng bng.
L l th ba v cui cng m Plato kin ngh l nghim tc hn nhiu.
N l mt s li cun n nguyn l ca chnh th lun hay ch ngha tp
th, v c quan h vi nguyn l rng chnh l mc ch ca c nhn
duy tr s n nh ca nh nc. V th n s c tho lun phn tch
ny, cc mc V v VI di y.
Nhng trc khi tip tc cc im ny, ti mun lu n li ta
c Plato t trc m t ca ng v khm ph m chng ta ang
kho st y. N phi c xem xt di nh sng ca nhng quan st
m ta tin hnh n y. Xt di nh sng ny, li ta di dngy l cch bn thn Plato m t n- t ra l mt mu toan khn kho
chun b bn c cho s khm ph cng l bng cch khin ngi c
tin rng c mt l l din ra khi trong thc t anh ta ch i mt vi vi
mt s ph by cc mu chc kch tnh, c ngh ra lm cn nng
lc ph phn ca anh ta.
Sau khi khm ph ra s sng sut nh c hnh ch thc cho nhng
ngi bo v v lng dng cm l ci ch thc cho cc ph t,
Socrates cng b nh ca ng v n lc cui cng khm ph s
cng bng. Cn li hai th24, ng ni, m chng ta s phi khm ph
thnh ph: s chng mc, v cui cng l ci khc, i tng chnh ca
mi kho st ca chng ta, c th l s cng bng. ng vy,
Glaucon ni. Socrates by gi gi rng s chng mc s b b i.
Nhng Glaucon phn i v Socrates nhng b, ni rng s l sai (hay
khng thng thn) t chi. S tranh chp nh ny chun b bn c
cho s ti gii thiu s cng bng, gi bn c rng Socrates c
phng tin cho s khm ph, v lm yn lng anh ta rng Glaucon
theo di cn trng tnh trung thc tr tu ca Plato trong dn dt l l m
anh ta, bn c, v th khng h cn phi theo di.25
Tp theo Socrates tin hnh tho lun s chng mc, m ng pht hin
ra l c hnh ch thc duy nht cho nhng ngi lao ng. (Tin th,
cu hi c tranh ci nhiu liu s cng bng ca Plato c th c
phn bit vi s chng mc ca ng hay khng c th c tr li d
dng. Cng bng c ngha l gi ch ca mnh; chng mc c ngha l
bit ch ca mnh- tc l, chnh xc hn, tho mn vi n. c hnh
khc no c th l ch thc cho nhng ngi lao ng nhng ngi nht
y bng h nh cc con th?) Khi s chng mc c khm ph,
Socrates hi: Th cn nguyn l cui cng th sao? Hin nhin s l s
cng bng. Hin nhin, Glaucon tr li.
99
By gi Glaucon thn mn, Socrates ni, chng ta phi, ging nhng

ngi i sn, bao vy ch np ca n v theo di cn thn, v khng cho
php n trn thot, v i khi; v chc chn, s cng bng phi u
gn ch ny. Tt hn anh phi tm v lc sot ch y. V nu anh thy n
u tin, th hy la ln cho ti! Glaucon, ging nh bn c, tt nhin
khng c kh nng lm bt c g thuc loi ny, v cu khn Socrates
hng dn. Th hy cu nguyn vi ti, Socrates ni, v theo ti.
Nhng ngay c Socrates thy mt t l kh i ngang qua, v n b
bi cy bao ph; li ti, v kh dNhng, ng ni, chng ta phi tip
tc. V thay v phn i Tip tc vi ci g? Vi s khm ph ca
chng ta, tc l vi l l ca chng ta? Nhng chng ta cha thm ch bt
u. Khng c mt thc m h trong ci anh ni n y, Glaucon, v
bn c ng nghch vi ng ta ngoan ngon tr li: Vng, chng ta phi
tip tc. By gi Socrates thut li rng ng nhn thong qua (chng
ta th khng), v b kch ng. Ny! Ny! ng ku ln, Glaucon!
Hnh nh c mt vt! Ti ngh rng con mi s khng thot khi!-
l tin tt lnh, Glaucon tr li. Ly danh d m th, Socrates ni,
chng ta x s hon ton nh nhng thng ngc. Ci chng ta tm kim
xa, li nm ngay lun di chn chng ta! V chng ta chng thy
n! Vi s tht ln v s khng nh lp i lp li thuc loi ny,
Socrates tip tc mt lc lu, b Glaucon ngt li, biu l cho cm ngh
ca bn c v hi Socrates ng tm thy ci g. Nhng khi Socrates ch
ni Chng ta lun ni v n, m khng nhn ra rng thc s m t
n, Glaucon biu l s nng lng ca c gi v ni: Li ta ny hi
di dng; hy nh rng ti mun nghe n l ci qui g. V ch khi
Plato mi tin hnh xut hai l l m ti phc ho.
Nhn xt cui cng ca Glaucon c th c coi nh mt du hiu rng
Plato bit r v ci ng ang lm trong li ta di dng ny. Ti
khng th din gii n nh bt c th g ngoi mu toan -t ra rt thnh
cng- ru ng kh nng ph phn ca ngi c, v, bng cch ph by
y kch tnh pho hoa li, lm lch s ch khi s ngho nn tr tu
ca mu i thoi bc thy ny. Ta b cm d ngh rng Plato bit
im yu ca n v bit che du n th no.
V
Vn v ch ngha c nhn v ch ngha tp th lin quan mt thit
vi vn v bnh ng v bt bnh ng. Trc khi tip tc tho lun
n, dng nh cn c vi nhn xt v thut ng.
100
CHNH TR HC CA PLATO
Thut ng ch ngha c nhn c th c dng (theo T in Oxford

Dictionary) theo hai cch khc nhau: (a) i lp vi ch ngha tp th, v
(b) i lp vi ch ngha v tha. Khng c t no khc din t ngha
trc, nhng c nhiu t ng ngha cho ci sau, th d ch ngha v k
hay tnh ch k. V th trong phn tip ti s dng thut ng ch ngha
c nhn ch ring cho ngha (a), v dng cc thut ng nh ch ngha v
k hay tnh ch k nu mun ni ti ngha (b). Mt bng nh c th
hu ch:
(a) Ch ngha c nhn i lp vi
(a) Ch ngha tp th
(b) Ch ngha v k
i lp vi
(b) Ch ngha v tha
By gi bn thut ng ny din t nhng thi , hay i hi, hay
quyt nh, hay xut nht nh cho quy tc ca cc lut chun tc. Du
cho tt yu m h, ti tin, chng c th c minh ho d dng bng cc
th d v nh vy c dng vi mt chnh xc cn thit cho mc ch
hin ti ca chng ta. Hy bt u vi ch ngha tp th26, v thi ny
quen thuc vi chng ta ri t tho lun chnh th lun ca Plato. ng
i hi c nhn phi phc v li ch ca ci ton th, bt lun l v tr,
thnh ph, b lc, dng ging hay bt k thc th tp th khc no, c
vi on chng trc minh ho. li trch mt trong cc on ny,
nhng y hn27: Ci thnh phn tn ti v li ch ca ci ton th,
nhng ci ton th khng tn ti v li ch ca ci thnh phn... Mi c
to ra v li ch ca ci ton th, v khng phi ci ton th v li ch ca
mi. on trch ny khng ch minh ho chnh th lun v ch ngha tp
th, m cng truyn t sc quyn r tnh cm mnh m m Plato
thc c (nh c th thy t li m u cho on vn). Sc quyn r ti
cc tnh cm khc nhau, th d s kht khao thuc v mt nhm hay
mt b lc; v mt nhn t trong l s quyn r o c cho ch
ngha v tha v chng thi ch k, hay ch ngha v k. Plato gi rng
nu ngi khng th hi sinh li ch ca mnh v li ch ca ton th, th
ngi l k ch k.
By gi nhn thong qua bng nh cho thy rng khng phi vy. Ch
ngha tp th khng i lp vi ch ngha v k, n cng khng ng nht
vi ch ngha v tha hay tnh khng ch k. Ch ngha v k tp th hay
nhm, th d tnh ch k giai cp, l mt th rt ph bin (Plato bit28 iu
ny rt k), v iu ny chng t r rng ch ngha tp th, nh n l,
khng i lp vi tnh ch k. Mt khc, mt ngi chng ch ngha tp
th, tc l mt ngi c nhn ch ngha, c th, ng thi, l mt ngi
theo ch ngha v tha; anh ta c th sn sng hi sinh gip cc c
nhn khc. Mt trong nhng th d hay nht v thi ny c l l
101
Dickens. Kh c th ni ci no mnh hn, s cm ght su sc ca ng

vi tnh ch k hay s quan tm nhit huyt ca ng ti cc c nhn vi
mi tnh mm yu con ngi ca h; v thi ny c kt hp vi mt
s khng a, khng ch ci by gi ta gi l cc tp th hay cc hi tp
th29, m thm ch c ch ngha v tha tn tm tht s, nu hng ti cc
nhm v danh thay v hng ti cc c nhn c th. (Ti lu bn c
n B Jellyby trong Bleak House, mt qu b hin dng cho cng vic
chung). Cc th d ny, ti ngh, gii thch r ngha ca bn thut
ng ca chng ta; v chng chng t rng bt k thut ng no trong
bng u c th kt hp vi c hai thut ng nm dng khc (to ra tt
c bn kt hp kh d).
L th l vi Plato, v hu ht cc nh Platonist, mt ch ngha c nhn
v tha (nh th d ca Dickens) khng th tn ti. Theo Plato, s la chn
kh d duy nht i vi ch ngha tp th l ch ngha v k; ng n gin
ng nht mi ch ngha v tha vi ch ngha tp th, v mi ch ngha
c nhn vi ch ngha v k. y khng phi l chuyn thut ng, ch n
thun v t ng, m thay cho bn kh nng, Plato cng nhn ch c hai.
iu ny gy ra ln ln ng k v cc vn o c, ngay c n
tn ngy nay.
S ng nht ch ngha c nhn vi ch ngha v k ca Plato cho ng
mt v kh hng hu bo v ch ngha tp th cng nh tn cng
ch ngha c nhn. Trong bo v ch ngha tp th, ng c th ku gi
tnh cm nhn o ca chng ta v tnh khng ch k; trong tn cng, ng
c th quy tt c nhng ngi c nhn ch ngha l ch k, l khng c
kh nng hin dng cho bt k th g ngoi bn thn h. S tn cng ny,
cho d c Plato hng ti chng ch ngha c nhn theo ngha ca
chng ta, tc l quyn ca cc c nhn con ngi, tt nhin t ch mt
mc tiu thc s khc, ch ngha v k. Nhng s khc bit ny b Plato
v hu ht cc nh Platonist lin tc b qua.
V sao Plato c tn cng ch ngha c nhn? Ti ngh ng bit rt k
ng lm g khi cha sng ca mnh vo v tr ny, v ch ngha c nhn,
c l cn nhiu hn ch ngha bnh ng, l mt thnh tr bo v tn iu
nhn o ch ngha mi. Gii phng c nhn qu thc l mt cuc cch
mng tinh thn v i dn n s sp ca ch ngha b lc v s ni
ln ca dn ch. Trc gic x hi hc phi thng ca Plato t bc l theo
cch trong ng lc no cng thy r k th bt c khi no ng gp n.
Ch ngha c nhn l b phn ca tng trc gic c xa v cng
bng. Rng cng bng khng phi, nh Plato mun, l s lnh mnh v
hi ho ca nh nc, m ng hn l cch nht nh i x vi cc
102
CHNH TR HC CA PLATO
c nhn, c Aristotle nhn mnh, s c ghi nh, khi ng ni cng

bng l ci g thuc v c nhn30. Yu t c nhn ch ngha ny
c th h Pericles nhn mnh. Bn thn Pericles lm r l lut phi
m bo cng l bnh ng cho tt c mi ngi u nhau trong cc
tranh chp ring ca h; ng cn i xa hn na. Chng ta khng cm
thy b yu cu, ng ni, cn nhn hng xm nu ng ta chn i theo
cch ring ca mnh. (So iu ny vi nhn xt ca Plato31 l nh nc
khng to ra con ngi cho mc ch h sng snh, mi ngi i
theo ng ring ca mnh). Pericles nhn mnh l ch ngha c nhn
ny phi c gn vi ch ngha v tha: Chng ta c dy khng bao
gi qun l chng ta phi bo v nhng ngi b (tn) thng; v bi ni
ca ng ln nh im khi m t thanh nin Athens ngi ln ln cho s
tho vt tt lnh, v cho s t lc.
Ch ngha c nhn ny, lin kt vi ch ngha v tha, tr thnh c s
ca nn vn minh Phng Ty ca chng ta. N l hc thuyt trung tm
ca o C c (Hy yu hng xm ca mi, Kinh Thnh ni, khng
phi hy yu b lc ca mi); v l ct li ca mi hc thuyt o c
pht trin t nn vn minh ca chng ta v kch thch n. , th d,
cng l hc thuyt thc tin trung tm ca Kant (lun nhn ra rng cc
c nhn con ngi l mc ch, v ng dng h ch nh cng c cho cc
mc ch ca mi). Khng c t tng no khc li hng mnh n nh
vy trong s pht trin o c ca loi ngi.
Plato ng khi ng thy trong hc thuyt ny k th ca nh nc
ng cp ca ng; v ng cm ght n hn bt c hc thuyt mang
tnh lt khc no ca thi ng. chng t iu ny r rng hn, ti
s trch hai on t Laws32 m s th ch ng kinh ngc tht s ca n
vi c nhn, ti ngh, c nh gi qu t. on th nht ni ting nh
mt dn chiu n Republic, tho lun cng ng n b v tr con.
Plato m t y hin php ca Republic nh hnh thc cao nht ca
nh nc. Trong nh nc cao nht ny, ng bo chng ta, c s hu
chung v v, con, v tt c ng sn. V mi th kh d c lm
tit tr khi cuc sng ca chng ta mi ni v bng mi cch tt c
cc th ring v c nhn. n mc c th lm c, ngay c cc th m
bn cht ca n l ring v c nhn bng cch no tr thnh s hu
chung ca tt c. Con mt v tai v tay ca chng ta dng nh nhn,
nghe, v hnh ng, c nh chng khng thuc v cc c nhn m thuc
v cng ng. Tt c n ng c nho nn tr thnh nht tr mc
ti a tn dng v khin trch, v h thm ch hoan h v au bun
v cng th, v cng lc. V mi lut c hon thin thng nht
103
thnh ph n cc im. Plato tip tc ni rng khng ai c th tm

thy mt tiu chun tt hn v s xut sc ca mt nh nc so vi cc
nguyn l va c trnh by; v ng m t nh nc nh vy l thing
ling, v l tm gng hay hnh mu hay nguyn gc ca nh nc,
tc l Hnh thc hay tng ca n. y l quan im ring ca Plato
trong Republic, c trnh by thi im khi ng t b hi vng thc
hin l tng chnh tr ca mnh trong thi k vinh quang ca n.
on th hai, cng t Laws, nu c th, thm ch thng thng hn. Phi
nhn mnh l on ny cp ch yu n cc cuc vin chinh qun s
v n k lut qun s, song Plato khng cho s nghi ng no rng
cng cc nguyn l qun s ny phi c tn trng trit khng ch
trong chin tranh, m c trong ho bnh, v k t tui u th sm nht c
th. Ging cc nh qun s ton tr khc v nhng ngi ngng m
Sparta, Plato thc gic rng cc i hi ht sc quan trng ca k lut
qun s phi l ti cao, ngay c trong ho bnh, v chng phi quyt nh
ton b i sng ca mi cng dn; v khng ch cc cng dn y (tt
c u l lnh) v tr con, m c chnh th vt phi dng ton b i sng
ca h trong mt trng thi huy ng thng xuyn v hon ton33.
Nguyn l v i nht trong tt c, ng vit, l khng mt ai, bt lun
n ng hay n b, bao gi c tn ti m khng c ngi lnh o.
Tm tr ca bt c ai cng khng c tp cho hn lm bt c th g
c da trn sng kin ring ca mnh, khng v nhit nhuyt, cng khng
ngay c do vui v. Song trong chin tranh v gia ho bnh hn s
hng mt ln ngi lnh o ca mnh, v theo ng ta mt cch trung
thnh. V ngay c v cc vic nh nht nht hn phi di s lnh o.
Th d, phi dy, di chuyn, hay ra ry, hay n cm34 ch khi hn
c bo lm vy Tm li, hn phi dy tm hn mnh, bng tp luyn
di, khng bao gi c m c hnh ng c lp, v tr nn hon ton
khng c kh nng y. Bng cch ny cuc sng ca tt c s c dng
trong ton b cng ng. Khng c lut no, cng khng bao gi c mt
lut, u vit hn lut ny, hay tt hn v hiu qu hn nhm m bo s
cu ri v chin thng trong chin tranh. V trong thi bnh, v k t tui
u th sm nht n phi c nui dng- tp qun cai tr nhng ngi
khc v b tr bi nhng ngi khc ny. V mi du vt ca tnh trng
hn lon s phi c tit tr hon ton khi mi cuc sng ca tt c
mi ngi, v thm ch ca cc d th l thuc vo con ngi.
y l nhng li l mnh. chng c ngi no st sng hn v s
th ch ca mnh vi c nhn. V s cn ght ny bt r su xa vo ch
ngha nh nguyn c bn ca trit hc Plato; ng cm ght c nhn v
104
CHNH TR HC CA PLATO
quyn t do ca anh ta ht nh ng cm ght cc kinh nghim thay i c

bit, tnh a dng ca th gii thay i ca cc th cm nhn c. Trong
lnh vc chnh tr, c nhn i vi Plato chnh l bn thn Ci c.
Thi phn nhn o v, c th ni, phn C c ny c l
tng ho mt cch kin nh. N c din gii nh nhn o, khng
ch k, v tha, v nh C c. Th d, E. B. England gi35 on th nht
ca hai trch on ny t Laws l mt s ln n mnh m tnh ch k.
Barker dng cc li l tng t khi tho lun l thuyt cng l ca Plato.
ng ni rng mc ch ca Plato l thay tnh ch k v s bt ho dn
s bng s hi ho, v rng s hi ho c xa ca cc li ch Nh nc
v c nhn nh vy c lp li trong gio hun ca Plato; song c
khi phc mc mi v cao hn, v n c nng ln theo mt ngha
c thc v hi ho. Cc tuyn b nh vy v v s tuyn b tng t
c th c gii thch d dng nu ta nh n s ng nht ch ngha c
nhn vi ch ngha v k ca Plato; v tt c cc nh Platonist ny u tin
rng chng ch ngha c nhn l ht nh khng ch k. iu ny minh
ho cho lun im ca ti rng s ng nht ny c nh hng ca
mt mn tuyn truyn chng ch ngha nhn o, v rng n lm ln
ln suy t v cc vn o c cho n tn ngy nay. Song chng ta
cng phi nhn ra rng nhng ngi, b s ng nht ny v cc li khoa
trng la di, tng bc uy tn ca Plato nh mt ngi thy o c v
tuyn b vi th gii rng o c hc ca ng l cch tip cn gn nht
ti o C c trc cha Christ, ang dn ng cho ch ngha ton tr
v c bit cho s din gii ton tr, phn C c v o C c. V
y l vic nguy him, v c thi khi cc t tng ton tr p o
o C c. c To D Gio; v, dng khc, n c th tr li.
Bi vy c th b nhc thm mt s l do v sao ngi dn chn tht
t thuyt phc mnh v nhn tnh ca cc nh ca Plato. Mt l, khi
chun b c s cho hc thuyt tp th ch ngha ca mnh, Plato thng
bt u bng trch dn mt chm ngn hay tc ng (dng nh c ngun
gc Pythagorean): Bn b c chung tt c mi th h c.36 y, r
rng, l mt biu hin tnh cm khng ch k, cao thng v tuyt vi. Ai
c th nghi rng mt lp lun xut pht t mt s tha nhn ng ca ngi
nh vy li c th dn n mt kt lun hon ton chng ch ngha nhn
o? Mt im khc v quan trng l, c nhiu biu hin tnh cm nhn
o ch ngha chn tht c pht biu trong cc i thoi ca Plato, c
bit trong cc tc phm vit trc Republic khi ng vn cn di nh
hng ca Socrates. Ti c bit lu n hc thuyt ca Socrates, trong
Gorgias, cho rng gy ra bt cng l ti hn chu bt cng. R rng, hc
105
thuyt ny khng ch l v tha, m cn l c nhn ch ngha; v trong mt

l thuyt tp th ch ngha v cng bng nh ca Republic, s bt cng l
mt hnh ng chng nh nc, khng chng mt ngi c bit, v cho
d mt ngi c th phm mt hnh ng bt cng, ch tp th c th
chu. Nhng trong Gorgias chng ta khng thy ci g thuc loi ny. L
thuyt v cng bng l mt l thuyt bnh thng hon ton, v cc th d
v bt cng do Socrates a ra (ngi y c l rt ging Socrates
thc) l nh bt tai mt ngi, lm b thng, hay git anh ta. Gio hun
ca Socrates rng chu cc hnh ng nh vy l tt hn gy ra chng
qu thc l rt ging li dy C c gio, v hc thuyt cng bng ca
ng hp tuyt vi vi tinh thn ca Pericles. (Mt n lc din gii
iu ny s c a ra chng 10).
Cn Republic pht trin mt hc thuyt cng bng mi khng ch
khng tng thch vi mt ch ngha c nhn nh vy, m hon ton th
ch vi n. Nhng ngi c c th d dng tin rng Plato vn gi vng
hc thuyt trong Gorgias. V trong Republic, Plato thng xuyn m ch
n hc thuyt rng chu l tt hn gy ra bt cng, bt chp s thc rng
iu ny n gin l v ngha nhn t quan im ca l thuyt tp th ch
ngha v cng bng c xut trong tc phm ny. Hn na, chng ta
nghe Republic cc i th ca Socrates ln ting cho l thuyt i
ngc, cho rng gy ra bt cng l tt v d thng, v chu bt cng l
xu. Tt nhin, tnh v lim s nh vy lm mi ngi theo ch ngha
nhn o kh chu, v khi Plato trnh by cc mc ch ca ng qua li
ca Socrates: Ti s phm mt ti li nu ti cho php li ni xu xa
nh vy v Cng bng trc s hin din ca ti, m khng lm ht sc
mnh bo v n37, th ngi c tin cy c thuyt phc v nh
tt ca Plato, v sn sng i theo ng bt k ni no.
Tc ng ca s tr tro ny ca Plato c tng cng rt nhiu bi
s thc l n theo, v c tng phn vi, cc bi ni v s v ch k38
ca Thrasymachus, ngi c m t nh mt k liu mng chnh tr loi
ti t nht. ng thi, ngi c c dn dt ng nht ch ngha c
nhn vi quan im ca Thrasymachus, v ngh rng Plato, trong cuc
u tranh ca ng chng li n, ang chin u chng li mi xu hng
lt v h v ca thi ng. Nhng chng ta khng c cho php mnh
b hong s bi mt yu qui c nhn ch ngha nh Thrasymachus (c
nt rt ging nhau gia chn dung ca hn v yu qui tp th ch ngha
hin i ca ch ngha bolshevik) n ni phi chp nhn mt dng
khc hin thc hn v nguy him hn nhng t hin nhin hn ca ch
ngha d man. V Plato thay hc thuyt cho rng sc mnh c nhn l
106
CHNH TR HC CA PLATO
ng ca Thrasymachus bng mt hc thuyt cng d man ngang th cho

rng ng l ci y mnh s n nh v sc mnh ca nh nc.
Tm tt. V ch ngha tp th cc oan ca ng, Plato thm ch khng
quan tm n cc vn m con ngi thng gi l cc vn cng
bng, tc l, n s cn nhc v t nhng i hi tranh ci ca cc c
nhn. ng cng khng quan tm n iu chnh cc i hi c nhn theo
cc i hi ca nh nc. V c nhn l hon ton thp km. Ti lm
lut vi mt quan im ci g l tt nht cho ton b nh nc, Plato
ni, v ti t mt cch cng bng cc li ch ca c nhn trn mt
mc gi tr thp km.39 ng quan tm duy nht n ci tp th c hiu
theo ngha hp ca t, v cng bng, i vi ng khng l g ngoi s
lnh mnh, thng nht, v n nh ca tp th.
VI
Cho n y, ta thy o c hc nhn o ch ngha i hi mt s
din gii bnh ng ch ngha v c nhn ch ngha v cng bng; nhng
ta cha phc ho quan im nhn o ch ngha v nh nc theo ng
ngha ca t. Mt khc, ta thy l thuyt v nh nc ca Plato l ton
tr; nhng ta cha gii thch s p dng l thuyt ny cho o c hc ca
c nhn. C hai nhim v ny s c thc hin by gi, u tin l
nhim v th hai; v ti s bt u bng phn tch l l th ba ca Plato
trong khm ph ca ng v cng bng, mt l l cho n y mi ch
c phc ho rt i khi. y l l l th ba ca Plato40:
Hy xem liu anh c ng vi ti, Socrates ni. Anh ngh s c
nhiu tc hi i vi thnh ph nu mt th mc bt u lm giy v mt
ngi th giy lm ngh mc? Khng my c. Nhng nu mt
ngi m bn cht l ngi lao ng, hay mt thnh vin ca giai cp
lm tin xoay x vo giai cp chin binh; hay nu mt chin binh
vo giai cp bo v m khng xng ng; th loi thay i mu toan ln
lt ny s c ngha l s sp ca thnh ph? Rt dt khot l th.
Chng ta c ba giai cp trong thnh ph, v ti cho l bt k mu toan
hay thay i no nh vy t mt giai cp sang giai cp khc l mt ti li
ln chng li thnh ph, v ng c th b ln n l v cng i bi?
Chc chn. Nhng anh s tuyn b chc chn l s i bi v cng
i vi thnh ph ca mnh l s bt cng? Hn th. Th th y l
s bt cng. V ngc li, chng ta s ni rng khi mi giai cp trong
thnh ph chm lo cng vic ca ring mnh, giai cp kim tin cng nh
cc ph t v nhng ngi bo v, th y s l cng bng.
107
By gi nu ta n l l ny, ta thy (a) gi thit x hi hc rng

bt c s ni lng h thng ng cp cng nhc hn dn ti s sp
ca thnh ph; (b) s lp i lp li lin tc mt l l rng ci lm hi cho
thnh ph l bt cng; v (c) suy ra l ci i lp l cng bng. By gi
chng ta c th tha nhn y gi thit x hi hc (a) v l tng ca
Plato l lm ngng s thay i x hi, v v ng nh gi c hi l
bt k th g c th dn ti thay i; v c l kh ng l s thay i x
hi c th c ngng li ch bi mt h thng ng cp cng nhc. V
chng ta c th tha nhn s suy din (c) rng ci i lp vi s bt cng
l cng bng. Tuy vy, (b) rt l th; ng ti l l ca Plato s cho thy
rng ton b xu hng t tng b chi phi bi cu hi: vic ny c lm
hi n thnh ph? N lm hi nhiu hay t? ng lin tc lp i lp li
rng ci e do lm hi thnh ph l i bi v bt cng v mt o c.
Ta thy y l Plato ch cng nhn mt tiu chun ti hu, li ch ca
nh nc. Bt k th g tng cng n l tt, c c hnh v cng bng;
bt k th g e do n l xu v i bi v bt cng. Cc hnh ng
phc v n l c o c; cn gy nguy him cho n, l tri o c. Ni
cch khc, quy tc o c ca Plato l hon ton v li; n l quy tc
ca ch ngha v li tp th ch ngha hay chnh tr. Tiu chun o c
l li ch ca nh nc. o c khng l g m l v sinh chnh tr.
y l l thuyt tp th ch ngha, b lc, ton tr v o c: Ci tt l
ci v li ch nhm ca ti; hay b lc ca ti; hay quc gia ca ti. D
thy o c ny ng ci g cho cc quan h quc t: bn thn nh nc
khng bao gi c th sai trong bt k hnh ng no ca n, chng no
n mnh; rng nh nc c quyn, khng ch lm tri vi cng dn ca
n, nu iu dn n tng sc mnh ca n, m cn tn cng cc nc
khc, min l lm vy m khng lm yu bn thn n. (Suy din ny, s
tha nhn r rng tnh phi o c ca nh nc, v v vy s bo v ch
ngha h v o c trong quan h quc t, c Hegel rt ra).
Nhn t quan im ca o c hc ton tr, t quan im ca thuyt v
li tp th, l thuyt ca Plato v cng bng l hon ton ng. Gi a v
ca mnh l mt c hnh. chnh l c hnh dn s tng ng chnh
xc vi c hnh qun s v k lut. V c hnh ny ng chnh xc vai
tr m cng bng ng trong h thng cc c hnh ca Plato. V cc
(bnh) rng trong mt b my ng h v i ca nh nc c th chng
t c hnh theo hai cch. Th nht, chng phi hp vi nhim v ca
chng, bi c hnh ca kch thc, hnh th, sc bn, v.v. ca chng; v
th hai, chng phi khp vi nhau vo ng ch ca chng v phi
nguyn v tr y. Loi u tin ca cc c hnh, s ph hp vi mt
108
CHNH TR HC CA PLATO
nhim v c th, s dn ti s phn bit, ph hp vi nhim v c th

ca ci rng. Nhng ci rng no s c c hnh, tc l ph hp, ch
nu chng (do bn cht ca chng) l ln; cc ci khc nu chng bn;
v nhng ci khc nu chng nhn. Nhng c hnh th hai, gi v tr
ca mnh, s l chung cho tt c; v ng thi n s l c hnh ca ci
ton th: c hnh ph hp ch thc vi nhau hi ho vi nhau. Plato
cho c hnh ph qut ny ci tn cng bng. Th tc ny l hon ton
nht qun v hon ton c bin minh nhn t quan im ca o c
ton tr. Nu c nhn khng l g c m l mt ci rng, th o c hc
chng l g ngoi nghin cu lm sao khp n vo ci ton th.
Ti mun lm r l ti tin vo tnh chn tht ca ch ngha ton tr ca
Plato. i hi ca ng v s thng tr khng b thch thc ca mt giai
cp trn phn cn li l khng tho hip, nhng l tng ca ng khng
phi l s bc lt cc i cc giai cp lao ng bi giai cp trn; n l s
n nh ca ci ton b. Tuy vy, l do m ng a ra cho s cn thit gi
s bc lt trong cc gii hn, li thun tu mang tnh v li. N l li ch
ca s n nh s thng tr giai cp. Gi nh nhng ngi bo v c
kim qu nhiu, ng lp lun, th cui cng h s khng c g c. Nu h
khng tho mn vi mt cuc sng n nh v an ninh, v c mu
toan, bng quyn lc ca h, chim hu cho bn thn mnh mi ca
ci ca thnh ph, th chc chn nht thit khm ph ra Hesiod sng
sut n u khi ng ni, mt na l nhiu hn ci ton b.41 Nhng
chng ta phi hiu r l thm ch xu hng ny hn ch s bc lt ca
ca cc c quyn giai cp l thnh phn kh ph bin ca ch ngha ton
tr. Ch ngha ton tr khng n thun l phi o c. N l o c ca
x hi ng - ca nhm, hay ca b lc; n khng phi l s ch k c
nhn, m l s ch k tp th.
Xt rng l l th ba ca Plato l thng thn v nht qun, c th hi
cu hi l v sao ng cn li ta di dng cng nh hai l l trc? V
sao c tt c s khng thoi mi ny? (Cc nh Platonist tt nhin s tr
li rng s khng thoi mi ny ch tn ti trong tr tng tng ca ti.
C th nh th. Nhng tnh cht phi l ca cc on kh c th c
thanh minh). Cu tr li cho cu hi ny, ti tin, l b my ng h tp
th ca Plato kh c th li cun cc bn c ca ng nu gi nh n
c trnh by cho h trong ton b s kh khan v v ngha ca n.
Plato khng thoi mi bi v ng bit v s sc mnh v s quyn r
o c ca cc lc lng m ng c b gy. ng khng dm thch thc
chng, m c gng li ko chng cho cc mc ch ring ca mnh. Liu
chng ta c chng kin mt m mu v lim s v c s dng cc
109
biu hin tnh cm o c ca ch ngha nhn o mi cho cc mc

ch ring ca ng, hay chng ta chng kin ng hn mt n lc bi
thm thuyt phc lng tm tt hn ca ring ng v s xu xa ca
ch ngha c nhn, chng ta s chng bao gi bit c. Cm tng c nhn
ca ti l trng hp sau l ng, v s xung t bn trong ny l b mt
chnh ca s m hoc ca Plato. Ti ngh rng cc t tng mi, v c
bit nh c nhn ch ngha v i Socrates v ci cht t v o ca ng
lm Plato cm ng su thm tn tm hn. V ti ngh rng ng
chin u chng li nh hng ny ln bn thn ng cng nh ln nhng
ngi khc vi tt c sc mnh ca tr thng minh v song ca ng, cho
d khng lun lun cng khai. iu ny cng gii thch v sao i khi,
gia ton b ch ngha ton tr ca ng, chng ta thy mt s t tng
nhn o ch ngha. V n gii thch v sao c th cho cc trit gia i
gii thiu ng nh mt ngi theo ch ngha nhn o.
Mt l l mnh ng h din gii ny l cch m Plato cp, hay ng
hn, cp sai, l thuyt nhn o ch ngha v duy l v nh nc, mt
l thuyt c pht trin ln u tin trong th h ng.
Trong mt trnh by sng sa ca l thuyt ny, ngn ng ca cc yu
sch chnh tr hay ca cc xut chnh tr (so vi chng 5, III) phi
c dng; tc l, chng ta khng nn th tr li cu hi bn cht lun:
Nh nc l ci g, bn cht tht ca n l g, ngha tht ca n l g?
ng hn ta nn t cu hi ca mnh theo cch ny: Chng ta i hi g
t nh nc? Chng ta kin ngh ci g xem nh mc ch hp php
ca hot ng nh nc? V nhm tm ra cc yu sch chnh tr c bn
ca chng ta l g, chng ta c th hi: V sao chng ta thch sng trong
mt nh nc ngn np hn l sng khng c nh nc, tc l trong tnh
trng v chnh ph? Cch t cu hi ny ca chng ta l cch hp l.
l cu hi m nh cng ngh phi th tr li trc khi anh ta c th tip
tc xy dng hay xy dng li bt k th ch chnh tr no. V ch nu
anh ta bit anh ta mun ci g th anh ta mi c th quyt nh liu mt
th ch no c thch ng hay khng thch ng tt cho chc nng ca
n.
M nu chng ta t cu hi ca mnh theo cch ny, tr li ca ngi
theo ch ngha nhn o s l: Ci ti i hi t nh nc l s bo v;
khng ch cho bn thn ti, m cho c nhng ngi khc na. Ti i hi
s bo v cho quyn t do ring ca ti v cho nhng ngi khc. Ti
khng mun sng b ph mc cho bt c ai ngi c nm tay to hn hay
c sng ln hn. Ni cch khc, ti mun c bo v chng li s cng
kch t nhng ngi khc. Ti mun s phn bit gia xm lc v
110
CHNH TR HC CA PLATO
phng th phi c cng nhn, v s bo v c quyn lc c t chc

ca nh nc ng h. (S bo v l s bo v hin trng [status quo], v
nguyn l c xut c ngha l khng c thay i status quo
bng cc cng c hung bo, m ch theo lut, bng tho hip hay phn x
trng ti, tr ni khng c th tc php l xem xt li n). Ti hon
ton sn sng thy quyn t do ring ca ti v hnh ng b nh nc
ct bt i mt cht, min l ti c th nhn c s bo v quyn t do
cn li, v ti bit rng nhng hn ch no v quyn t do ca ti l
cn thit; th d, ti phi t b quyn t do ca ti tn cng, nu ti
mun nh nc h tr bo v chng li bt k cuc tn cng no. Nhng
ti i hi rng mc ch c bn ca nh nc khng c m qung; ti
mun ni, s bo v quyn t do khng lm hi n nhng cng dn
khc. Nh vy ti i rng nh nc phi gii hn quyn t do ca cng
dn mt cch bnh ng mc c th, v khng qu mc cn thit t
c mt s hn ch bnh ng v quyn t do.
i hi ca ngi theo ch ngha nhn o, ch ngha bnh ng, ch
ngha c nhn l ci g ging nh th. l mt i hi cho php nh
k thut x hi tip cn cc vn chnh tr mt cch hp l, tc l t
quan im v mt mc tiu kh r rng v xc nh.
Chng li i hi rng mt mc tiu ging th ny c th c trnh
by r v xc nh, ny sinh nhiu s phn i. Ngi ta ni rng mt
khi tha nhn rng quyn t do phi b hn ch, th ton b nguyn l v
quyn t do sp , v vn nhng hn ch no l cn thit v ci no
l c tnh khng th c quyt nh mt cch duy l, m ch bi quyn
lc. Nhng s phn i ny l do m mm. N nhm ln vn c bn
v ci chng ta mun t nh nc vi nhng kh khn k thut quan
trng no trn con ng thc hin cc mc ch ca chng ta. Chc
chn l kh xc nh chnh xc mc quyn t do li cho cng
dn m khng gy nguy him n quyn t do m s bo v n l nhim
v ca nh nc. Nhng ci g ging mt s xc nh gn ng ca
mc l c th lm c, c chng minh bi kinh nghim, tc l
bi s tn ti ca cc nh nc dn ch. Thc ra, qu trnh xc nh gn
ng ny l mt trong nhng nhim v chnh ca lp php trong cc nn
dn ch. N l mt qu trnh kh khn, nhng nhng kh khn ca n
chc chn khng n mc buc chng ta thay i nhng i hi c bn
ca mnh. Cc iu ny, pht biu ngn gn, l nh nc phi c coi
nh mt x hi ngn chn ti phm, tc l, s gy hn. V ton b s
phn i, rng kh bit t do chm dt u v ti phm bt u
u, c tr li, v nguyn l, bi mt cu chuyn ni ting v mt k
111
du cn phn i rng, l mt cng dn t do, hn c th vng nm m

ca mnh ra bt k hng no hn ta mun; v quan to tr li mt cch
thng minh: Quyn t do di chuyn nm m ca anh b gii hn bi v
tr ca mi ngi bn cnh anh.
Cch nhn v nh nc m ti va phc ho y c th c gi l
ch ngha bo h. Thut ng ch ngha bo h thng c dng
m t cc xu hng i lp vi quyn t do. Nh th mt nh kinh t
hiu ch ngha bo h l chnh sch bo h cc li ch cng nghip no
chng li cnh tranh; v nh o c hc hiu n l i hi rng cc
quan chc nh nc s thit lp mt s gim h o c i vi dn c.
Mc d l thuyt chnh tr m ti gi l ch ngha bo h khng c quan
h vi bt c xu hng no trong cc xu hng ny, v mc d n c bn
l mt l thuyt t do, ti ngh rng ci tn ny c th c dng biu
th rng, d cho t do, n chng lin quan g n chnh sch khng can
thip nghim ngt (thng c gi, nhng khng hon ton ng, l
chnh sch laissez faire). Ch ngha t do v s can thip ca nh nc
khng i lp vi nhau. Ngc li, bt k loi t do no r rng l khng
th c c tr phi n c nh nc m bo.42 Mt mc nht nh
ca s kim sot ca nh nc trong gio dc, th d, l cn thit, nu
mun thanh nin c bo v khi s sao lng c th lm cho h khng
c kh nng bo v quyn t do ca mnh, v nh nc phi m bo
rng tt c cc phng tin gio dc l sn c cho tt c mi ngi.
Nhng kim sot nh nc qu nhiu v cc vn gio dc l mt mi
nguy him cht ngi i vi quyn t do, v n hn dn ti s nhi s.
Nh trnh by s qua ri, vn quan trng v kh v cc gii hn
ca quyn t do khng th c gii quyt bng mt cng thc tm
thng. V s thc rng s lun c cc trng hp ranh gii phi c
hoan nghnh, v khng c kch thch ca cc vn chnh tr v cc cuc
u tranh chnh tr loi ny, th s sn sng ca cng dn u tranh
cho quyn t do ca h s mau chng tan bin, v vi n, quyn t do
ca h cng tan bin. (Xt theo nh sng ny, s xung t c cho l
gia quyn t do v an ninh, tc l, s an ton do nh nc m bo, ho
ra l mt con ngo p. V khng c quyn t do nu khng c nh
nc m bo; v ngc li, ch mt nh nc c kim sot bi cc
cng dn t do mi c th cho h bt k an ninh phi chng no).
Pht biu theo cch ny, l thuyt bo h ch ngha v nh nc khng
b nh hng ca bt c yu t no ca ch ngha lch s hay bn cht
lun. N khng ni rng nh nc c xut x nh mt hip hi ca cc
c nhn vi mt mc ch bo h ch ngha, hay bt c nh nc thc s
112
CHNH TR HC CA PLATO
no trong lch s tng c cai tr mt cch c thc ph hp vi

mc ch ny. V n chng ni g v bn tnh cn bn ca nh nc, hay
v quyn t nhin i vi t do. N cng chng ni bt k th g v cch
theo nh nc thc t hot ng. N trnh by mt yu sch chnh tr,
hay chnh xc hn, mt kin ngh cho vic chp nhn mt chnh sch no
. Ti nghi, tuy vy, rng nhiu ngi theo quy c nhng ngi m t
nh nc nh bt ngun t mt hip hi bo v cc thnh vin ca
mnh, c nh pht biu chnh i hi ny, cho d h pht biu n
vi mt ngn ng vng v v lm lc li ngn ng ca ch ngha lch
s. Mt cch trnh by i hi ny mt cch gy nhm ln tng t l
khng nh rng v bn cht l chc nng ca nh nc bo v cc
thnh vin ca n; hay khng nh rng nh nc c nh ngha nh
mt hip hi cho s bo v ln nhau. Tt c cc l thuyt ny phi c
phin dch, c th ni nh vy, sang ngn ng ca cc i hi hay cc
kin ngh cho hnh ng chnh tr trc khi chng c th c tho lun
nghim tc. Khc i, th nhng tho lun v tn v c tnh t ng n
thun l khng th trnh khi.
C th a ra mt th d v s phin dch nh vy. Mt ph phn ca
ci ti gi l ch ngha bo h c Aristotle43 ngh, v c
Burke v nhiu nh Platonist hin i lp li. Ph phn ny qu quyt
rng ch ngha bo h coi l qu thp km cch nhn v nhim v ca
nh nc (dng li ca Burke) c xem xt vi s tn trng khc, bi
v n khng l mt s hp tc v cc th gip ch ch cho s tn ti xc
tht th thin mang bn tnh tm thi v d tn li. Ni cch khc, nh
nc c cho l ci g cao hn hay cao qu hn mt hip hi vi cc
mc ch duy l; n l mt i tng tn sng. N c cc nhim v
cao hn s bo v con ngi v cc quyn ca h. N c cc nhim v
o c. chm lo n cng vic ca mt nh nc m n tht s
xng ng vi ci tn ny, Aristotle ni. Nu chng ta th phin dch
ph phn ny sang ngn ng ca cc yu sch chnh tr, th chng ta thy
rng nhng ph phn ny ca ch ngha bo h mun hai th. Th nht,
chng mun bin nh nc thnh mt i tng th phng. T quan
im ca chng ta, chng c g ni chng li mong mun ny. l
vn tn gio; v nhng ngi tn th nh nc phi gii quyt cho
chnh h lm sao dung ho tn ngng ca h vi cc nim tin tn
gio khc ca h, th d, vi iu Rn Th nht. i hi th hai mang
tnh chnh tr. Trn thc tin, i hi ny n gin c ngha l cc quan
chc nh nc phi quan tm n o c ca cng dn, v rng h phi
dng quyn lc ca h khng qu nhiu cho bo v quyn t do ca cng
113
dn nh cho kim sot i sng o c ca h. Ni cch khc, l i

hi rng lnh vc php l, tc l v cc chun mc do nh nc thc thi,
phi tng ln lm tn hi n lnh vc o c ch thc, tc l ca cc
chun mc khng do nh nc thc thi m do cc quyt nh o c
ring ca chng ta do lng tm ca chng ta. Mt i hi hay xut
nh vy c th c tho lun mt cch duy l; v c th ni chng li n
rng nhng ngi nu ra cc i hi nh vy hnh nh khng thy rng
iu ny s l kt liu trch nhim o c ca c nhn, v rng n
khng ci thin m hu hoi o c. N s thay trch nhim c nhn
bng cc cm k b lc v bng s v trch nhim ton tr ca c nhn.
Chng li ton b thi ny, ngi theo ch ngha c nhn phi kin
nh rng o c ca nh nc (nu c bt k th g nh vy) c
khuynh hng thp hn ng k o c ca cng dn trung bnh, cho
nn ng mong mi hn nhiu l o c ca nh nc phi c cc
cng dn kim sot hn l ngc li. Ci chng ta cn v mun l o
c ho hot ng chnh tr, ch khng phi chnh tr ho o c.
Nn lu rng, theo quan im bo h ch ngha, cc nh nc dn
ch, cho d cn xa mi hon ho, i din cho thnh tu rt ng k v
k thut (ci bin) x hi thuc loi ng. Rt nhiu dng ti phm, s tn
cng quyn ca cc c nhn bi cc c nhn khc, b cm trn thc
tin hay c gim bt rt ng k, v cc to n thc hin cng l kh
thnh cng trong cc xung t li ch kh khn. C nhiu ngi ngh
rng m rng cc phng php ny44 sang ti phm quc t v xung t
quc t ch l mt m c Khng tng; nhng cha lu lm t khi th
ch v hnh php hu hiu cho duy tr ho ho dn s t ra l Khng
tng i vi nhng ngi chu s e do ca ti phm, trong cc nc
ni hin ti ho ho dn s c duy tr kh thnh cng. V ti ngh rng
cc vn k thut v kim sot ti phm quc t thc s khng kh
khn n vy, mt khi i mt vi chng mt cch trc tip v hp l.
Nu vn c trnh by r rng, s khng kh khin ngi dn
thng nht rng cc nh ch phng nga l cn thit, c phm vi khu
vc v phm vi ton cu. Hy cho nhng ngi th phng nh nc
tip tc th phng, nhng i rng cc nh cng ngh th ch c php
khng ch ci thin b my ni ti ca n, m cng xy dng ln mt
t chc ngn chn ti phm quc t.
114
CHNH TR HC CA PLATO
VII
By gi quay li lch s ca cc phong tro ny, dng nh l thuyt
bo h ch ngha v nh nc u tin c kin ngh bi Sophist
Lycophron, mt hc tr ca Gorgias. c nhc ti rng ng (ging
Alcidamas, cng l hc tr ca Gorgias) l mt trong nhng ngi u
tin tn cng l thuyt v c quyn t nhin. Vic ng theo l thuyt m
ti gi l ch ngha bo h c Aristotle ghi li, ngi ni v ng theo
cch lm cho rt c kh nng l ng to ra n. T cng ngun ta bit rng
ng trnh by n vi s sng sa kh c th t c bi bt k ngi
ni nghip no ca ng.
Aristotle ni vi chng ta rng Lycophron coi lut ca nh nc nh
mt hip c theo con ngi m bo cng bng cho nhau (v rng
n khng c nng lc lm cho cng dn l tt hay cng bng). ng
ni vi chng ta thm45 rng Lycophron coi nh nc nh mt cng c
bo v cc cng dn ca n chng li cc hnh ng bt cng (v
cho php h giao thip, c bit trao i, yn bnh), i hi rng nh
nc phi l mt hip hi hp tc ngn chn ti phm. L th l
khng c biu l no trong tng thut ca Aristotle rng Lycophron
trnh by l thuyt ca mnh dng lch s ch ngha, tc l nh mt l
thuyt lin quan ti ngun gc lch s ca nh nc trong mt kh c
x hi. Ngc li, ni ln r rng t vn cnh ca Aristotle l l thuyt
ca Lycophron quan tm duy nht n mc ch ca nh nc; v
Aristotle l l rng Lycophron khng cho mc ch cn bn ca nh nc
l lm cho cng dn ca n c c hnh. iu ny biu l rng
Lycophron din gii mc ch ny mt cch duy l, t mt quan im k
thut, chp nhn cc i hi ca ch ngha bnh ng, ch ngha c nhn,
v ch ngha bo h.
dng ny, l thuyt ca Lycophron l hon ton vng chc khi
nhng phn i m l thuyt lch s ch ngha truyn thng v kh c
x hi b. Ngi ta, th d Baker46, thng ni rng l thuyt kh c
p ng cc nh t tng hin i tng im mt. C th nh vy; song
kho st cc im ca Baker s cho thy rng chng chc chn khng
tho mn l thuyt ca Lycophron, ngi m Baker coi (v im ny ti
thin v ng vi ng) c th l ngi sng lp ra dng sm nht ca
mt l thuyt m mun hn c gi l l thuyt kh c. Cc im ca
Baker c th ghi li nh sau: (a) chng bao gi, v mt lch s, c
mt kh c; (b) nh nc, v mt lch s, chng bao gi c thnh lp;
(c) lut khng l quy c, m ny sinh t truyn thng, quyn lc b
115
trn, c l bn nng, v.v.; chng l cc tp qun trc khi chng tr thnh

lut; (d) sc mnh ca lut khng nm s trng pht, quyn lc bo
h ca nh nc ci thc thi chng, m s sn sng ca c nhn tun
th chng, tc l ch o c ca c nhn.
S thy ngay rng cc phn i (a), (b), v (c), m bn thn chng, phi
tha nhn, l kh ng (d cho c mt s kh c) lin quan n l
thuyt ch dng lch s ch ngha ca n v khng lin quan n phin
bn ca Lycophron. V vy chng ta khng cn xem xt n g c. S
phn i (d), tuy vy, ng xem xt k hn. N c th c ngha l g? L
thuyt b tn cng nhn mnh n ch, hay tt hn n quyt nh ca
c nhn, hn bt k l thuyt no khc; thc ra, t kh c (hay hp
ng) gi mt tho thun bi ch t do; n gi c l nhiu hn bt
c l thuyt no khc, rng sc mnh ca lut nm s sn sng ca c
nhn chp nhn v tun theo chng. Th th lm sao (d) c th l mt
s phn i chng li l thuyt kh c? Gii thch duy nht dng nh
l Barker khng ngh kh c xut pht t ch o c ca c nhn,
m ng hn t lng ch k; v din gii ny c kh nng hn v n ph
hp vi ph phn ca Plato. Nhng khng cn l ch k l mt ngi
bo h ch ngha. Bo v khng cn thit c ngha l t bo v; nhiu
ngi bo him cuc sng ca h vi mc ch bo v ngi khc ch
khng phi bo v bn thn h, v theo cng cch h c th i nh nc
ch yu bo v nhng ngi khc, v mc t hn (hay khng h)
cho bn thn h. T tng c bn ca ch ngha bo h l: bo v ngi
yu khi b k mnh c hip. i hi ny khng ch c nhng ngi
yu, m thng xuyn c nhng k mnh na, a ra. Ni gim nh i, l
vic gy lm ln gi rng n l mt i hi ch k hay tri o c.
Ch ngha bo h ca Lycophron, ti ngh, khng b tt c cc phn i
ny. N l biu hin ph hp nht ca phong tro nhn o ch ngha v
bnh ng ch ngha ca thi i Pericles. Th nhng, chng ta b
cp mt n. N c chuyn cho cc th h sau ch dng b bp mo;
nh l thuyt lch s ch ngha v ngun gc ca nh nc trong mt kh
c x hi; hay nh mt l thuyt bn cht lun i hi rng bn cht tht
ca nh nc l bn cht ca mt quy c; v nh mt l thuyt v tnh
ch k, da trn gi thit v bn cht i bi c bn ca con ngi. Tt c
iu ny l do nh hng qu mnh ca uy quyn ca Plato.
116
CHNH TR HC CA PLATO
VIII
C th khng my nghi ng l Plato bit k l thuyt ca Lycophron,
v ng (rt c kh nng) l ngi ng thi tr hn Lycophron. V, qu
thc, c th d dng ng nht l thuyt ny vi ci u tin c nhc
ti Gorgias v mun hn Republic. ( c hai ni Plato khng nhc
ti tc gi ca n; mt th tc thng c ng dng khi i th ca ng
cn sng). Trong Gorgias, l thuyt c Callicles, ngi theo thuyt h
v o c ging Thrasymachus ca Republic, trnh by chi tit. Trong
Republic, n c Glaucon trnh by chi tit. Trong c hai trng hp
ngi ni khng ng nht mnh vi l thuyt anh ta trnh by.
Hai on trong nhiu kha cnh l tng t. C hai trnh by l thuyt
mt dng lch s ch ngha, tc l, nh l thuyt v ngun gc cng l.
C hai trnh by n c gi nh l cc tin logic ca n l nht thit ch
k v thm ch h v ch ngha; tc l c nh th quan im bo h ch
ngha v nh nc ch c nhng k mun gy ra bt cng ng h, song
l qu yu lm vy, v v th i rng k mnh cng ng lm th;
mt trnh by chc chn khng ngay thng, v tin cn thit duy nht
ca l thuyt l i hi rng ti phm, hay s bt cng, phi b ngn chn.
Cho n y, hai on vn trong Gorgias v trong Republic chy song
song, mt s tng ng thng c bnh lun. Nhng c mt s khc
bit kinh khng gia chng, mt s khc bit, trong chng mc ti bit,
b cc nh bnh lun b qua. N l th ny. Trong Gorgias, l thuyt c
Callicles trnh by nh l thuyt m ng phn i; v v ng cng chng
Socrates, suy ra l, l thuyt bo h ch ngha khng b Plato tn cng m
ng hn c bo v. V, qu thc, xem xt k hn chng t l Socrates
tn thnh nhiu c im ca n chng li Callicles h v ch ngha.
Song trong Republic, cng l thuyt c Glaucon trnh by nh s
trau chut v pht trin cc quan im ca Thrasymachus, tc l ca mt
nh h v ch ngha ngi th ch ca Callicles y; ni cch khc, l
thuyt c trnh by mang tnh h v ch ngha, v Socrates nh ngi
anh hng tiu dit thng li hc thuyt him c ny v tnh ch k.
Nh th cc on trong hu ht cc nh bnh lun thy mt s tng
t gia cc xu hng ca Gorgias v Republic li tit l, thc ra, mt s
thay i hon ton ca mt trc. Bt chp trnh by th ch ca
Callicles, xu hng ca Gorgias l c thin ch vi ch ngha bo h;
nhng Republic th chng i n mnh lit.
y l mt on trch t bi ni ca Callicles trong Gorgias47: Lut
c s ng qun chng nhn dn, bao gm ch yu nhng ngi yu,
117
lm ra. V h lm ra lut nhm bo v bn thn v cc li ch ca

h. Nh th h ngn cn nhng ngi mnh v tt c nhng ngi
khc nhng ngi c th thng h, khi lm vy; v h mun ni bng
t bt cng l n lc ca mt ngi thng hng xm ca mnh; v
bit s thp km ca mnh, ti phi ni, h ch qu vui nu h nhn c
s bnh ng. Nu ta nhn vo tng thut ny v loi b ci l do s
khinh b v th ch cng khai ca Callicles, th chng ta thy tt c cc
yu t ca l thuyt Lycophron: ch ngha bnh ng, ch ngha c nhn,
v bo v chng bt cng. Ngay c s dn chiu n nhng k mnh v
nhng ngi yu bit v s thp km ca mnh, qu thc rt khp vi
quan im bo h ch ngha, vi iu kin tnh n yu t bim ho.
Khng h khng chc l hc thuyt ca Lycophron nu mt cch dt
khot i hi rng nh nc phi bo v nhng ngi yu, mt i hi,
tt nhin, hon ton khng hn mt. (Hi vng rng i hi ny mt ngy
no s c tho mn c gio hun C c gio by t: Nhng
ngi nhu m s tha hng tri t).
Bn thn Callicles khng thch ch ngha bo h; ng ng h cc quyn
t nhin ca k mnh. Rt quan trng l Socrates, trong lp lun ca
mnh chng li Callicles, n cu ch ngha bo h; v ng lin kt n
vi lun trung tm ca ring ng tc l chu bt cng l tt hn gy
ra bt cng. ng ni, th d48: Chng phi c nhiu kin, nh anh ni
mun hn, rng cng bng l bnh ng? V c rng l nhc hn i gy
bt cng hn l chu bt cng? V mun hn: bn thn t nhin, v
khng ch quy c, xc nhn rng gy ra bt cng l nhc hn chu bt
cng, v rng cng bng l bnh ng. (Bt chp cc xu hng c nhn
ch ngha v bnh ng ch ngha v bo h ch ngha ca n, Gorgias
cng biu hin mt s thin hng phn dn ch mnh m. S gii thch
c th l Plato khi vit Gorgias vn cha pht trin cc l thuyt ton tr
ca mnh; d cho s ng tnh ca ng mang tnh phn dn ch ri,
ng vn di nh hng ca Socrates. Lm sao m bt c ai c th ngh
l Gorgias v Republic c hai li c th ng thi l miu t tht v
kin ca Socrates c, ti khng hiu c).
By gi hy quay v Republic, ni Glaucon trnh by ch ngha bo h
nh mt phin bn cht ch hn v logic song khng thay i v o c
ca ch ngha h v ca Thrasymachus. Ch ca ti, Glaucon ni49,
l ngun gc ca cng l, v thc s n l loi th g. Theo mt s ngi
v bn cht l mt chuyn tuyt vi i gy bt cng ln nhng ngi
khc, v l xu chu bt cng. Song h cho rng s xu v chu bt
cng vt hn nhiu lng mong mun gy ra bt cng. Mt lc, ri th,
118
CHNH TR HC CA PLATO
con ngi s gy ra bt cng ln ln nhau, v tt nhin chu ng n, v

h s nm mi c hai. Nhng cui cng, nhng ngi khng mnh
y li n, hay thch th gy ra n, quyt nh rng c li hn i vi
h gia nhp vo mt kh c, m bo ln nhau rng khng ai c
gy ra bt cng hay chu bt cng. y l cch theo lut c thit
lp V y l bn cht v ngun gc ca cng l, theo l thuyt .
Trong chng mc ni dung duy l ca n, y r rng l cng mt l
thuyt; v cch theo n c trnh by cng ging v chi tit50 bi ni
ca Callicles trong Gorgias. Th m, Plato lm thay i hon ton mt
trc. L thuyt bo h ch ngha by gi khng cn c bo v chng
li lun iu rng n da trn ch ngha v k v lim s; tri li. Tnh
cm nhn o ch ngha ca chng ta, s phn n o c ca chng ta,
do ch ngha h v ca Thrasymachus khuy ng, c s dng bin
chng ta thnh k th ca ch ngha bo h. L thuyt ny, m c tnh
nhn o ch ngha ca n c biu l trong Gorgias, by gi c
Plato lm cho ho ra chng nhn o ch ngha, v qu thc, nh kt qu
ca hc thuyt kinh tm v hon ton khng thuyt phc cho rng bt
cng l mt vic rt tt cho nhng ngi c th trnh khi n. V ng
khng ngn ngi nhn i nhn li im ny. Trong phn tip theo bao
qut ca on c trch dn, Glaucon tho lun rt t m cc gi thit
hay tin c cho l cn thit ca ch ngha bo h. Trong s ny ng
nhc ti, th d, quan im rng gy ra bt cng l ci tt nht trong mi
th51; rng cng l c thit lp ch bi v nhiu ngi l qu yu
phm ti; v rng i vi c nhn cng dn, cch sng phm ti l sinh
li nht. V Socrates, tc l Plato, xc nhn dt khot52 cho tnh xc
thc ca din gii ca Glaucon v l thuyt c trnh by. Bng phng
php ny, Plato dng nh thnh cng thuyt phc hu ht bn c
ca mnh, v d sao i na ton b cc nh Platonist, rng l thuyt bo
h ch ngha c pht trin y l ng nht vi s ch k tn nhn v
v lim s ca Thrasymachus53; v, ci cn quan trng hn, l tt c cc
hnh thc ca ch ngha c nhn rt cuc l cng nh nhau, c th l, s
ch k. Nhng ng thuyt phc khng ch nhng ngi hm m ng,
m thm ch ng thnh cng thuyt phc cc i th ca mnh, v c
bit l nhng ngi ng h l thuyt kh c. T Carneades54 n
Hobbes, h khng nhng chp nhn cch trnh by lch s ch ngha tai
ho ca ng, m c s qu quyt ca Plato rng c s ca l thuyt ca h
l mt ch ngha h v o c.
By gi phi nhn ra rng s tho t m c s c cho l ch k ca n
l ton b l l ca Plato chng li ch ngha bo h; v xt ch m vic
119
tho t m ny chim, ta c th an ton cho rng khng phi s kn o

ca ng l ci lm cho ng khng kin ngh l l no tt hn, m l s
thc rng ng khng c l l no. Nh vy ch ngha bo h b bc bi
mt s ku gi n tnh cm o c ca chng ta- nh mt s lng m
chng tng cng bng, v chng cm xc ca ta v s ng n.
y l phng php ca Plato i ph vi mt l thuyt khng ch l
mt i th nguy him ca hc thuyt ring ca ng, m cng i din
cho tn iu nhn o ch ngha v c nhn ch ngha mi, tc l k th
khng i tri chung ca mi th yu qu i vi Plato. Phng php l
thng minh; thnh cng ng kinh ngc ca n chng minh iu .
Nhng ti khng ngay thng nu ti khng tha nhn thng thn rng
phng php ca Plato t ra i vi ti l khng trung thc. V l thuyt
b tn cng khng cn bt k gi thit no tri o c hn l bt cng l
xu xa, tc l phi ngn nga n, v phi kim sot n. V Plato bit kh
k rng l thuyt khng da trn tnh ch k, v trong Gorgias ng trnh
by n khng nh ng nht vi l thuyt h v ch ngha m t n
c dn ra trong Republic, m nh i lp vi n.
Tm li, chng ta c th ni rng l thuyt ca Plato v cng l, nh
c trnh by trong Republic v cc tc phm mun hn, l mt mu
toan c thc thng cc xu hng nhn o ch ngha, c nhn ch
ngha, v bo h ch ngha ca thi ng, v ti thit lp cc i hi
ca ch ngha b lc bng cch pht trin mt l thuyt o c ton tr.
ng thi, ng b n tng mnh bi o c nhn o ch ngha mi;
song thay cho chin u vi ch ngha bnh ng bng l l, ng thm ch
b qua vic tho lun n. V ng thnh cng tranh th c tnh cm
nhn o ch ngha, m sc mnh ca n ng bit rt k, v s thng tr
giai cp ton tr ca mt chng tc ch nhn u vit mt cch t nhin.
Cc c quyn giai cp ny, ng cho l, cn thit duy tr s n nh
ca nh nc. Chng v vy to thnh bn cht ca cng l. Cui cng,
i hi ny da trn l l rng cng l l hu ch cho sc mnh, s lnh
mnh, v s n nh ca nh nc; mt l l l qu ging vi nh ngha
ton tr hin i: ci ng l bt k g hu ch cho sc mnh ca dn tc
ti, hay giai cp ti, hay ng ti.
Nhng y vn cha phi l ton b cu chuyn. Bng nhn mnh n
c quyn giai cp, l thuyt ca Plato v cng l t ra vn Ai phi
cai tr? trung tm ca l thuyt chnh tr. Tr li ca ng cho cu hi l
ngi sng sut nht, tt nht, phi cai tr. C phi cu tr li tuyt vi
ny lm thay i c tnh ca l thuyt ca ng?
CHNG 7:
NGUYN L V S LNH O
Ngi sng sut s lnh o v cai tr, v k ngu dt s

i theo
PLATO.
Nhng s phn i1 no i vi din gii ca chng ta v chng

trnh chnh tr ca Plato buc chng ta kho st phn m cc t tng o
c nh Cng bng, Ci Tt, Ci p, s Sng Sut, Chn L, v Hnh
Phc ng trong chng trnh ny. Chng ny v hai chng tip theo
tip tc phn tch ny, v tip sau chng ta s bn tm vi phn t tng
v s Sng Sut trong trit l chnh tr ca Plato.
Chng ta thy l t tng cng bng ca Plato, v c bn, i hi
rng cc nh cai tr t nhin phi cai tr v nhng k n l t nhin phi
lm n l. L phn ca i hi lch s ch ngha rng nh nc, ngng
mi thay i, phi l mt bn sao ca nim ca n, hay ca bn cht
tht ca n. L thuyt ny v cng l biu l rt r rng l Plato thy vn
c bn ca hot ng chnh tr trong cu hi: Ai s cai tr nh nc?
I
Nim tin chc chn ca ti l, bng cch pht biu vn ca chnh tr
hc dng Ai phi cai tr? hay ch ca ai phi l ti cao? v.v., Plato
to ra mt s ln ln ko di trong trit l chnh tr. N qu thc ging
vi s ln ln m ng to ra lnh vc trit l o c bi s ng
nht ch ngha tp th v ch ngha v tha ca ng c tho lun
chng trc. R rng l mt khi cu hi Ai phi cai tr c t ra,
kh c th trnh cu tr li no nh ngi gii nht hay ngi sng
sut nht hay ngi cai tr bm sinh hay ngi lm ch ngh thut cai
tr (hay, c l, ch Chung hay Chng tc Ch nhn hay cc Cng
nhn Cng nghip hay Nhn dn). Nhng mt tr li nh vy, d
thuyt phc nh n c v - v ai i ch trng s cai tr ca k ti nht
hay k kh di nht hay n l bm sinh? l hon ton v dng, nh
ti s c chng minh.
Trc ht, mt cu tr li nh vy chc hn thuyt phc chng ta rng
vn c bn no ca l thuyt chnh tr c gii quyt. Nhng
nu chng ta tip cn l thuyt chnh tr t mt gc nhn khc, th chng
ta thy rng cn xa mi gii quyt c bt k vn c bn no, chng
ta n thun ch nhy qua chng, bng cch cho rng cu hi Ai phi cai
CHNG 7: S LNH O
121
tr l c bn. V ngay c nhng ngi chia s gi thit ny ca Plato tha

nhn rng cc nh cai tr chnh tr khng lun lun tt hay sng
sut (khng cn lo v ngha chnh xc ca cc t ny), v rng khng
d cht no c c mt chnh th m ta c th ngm da vo tnh tt
v tnh sng sut ca n. C cho l nh vy, th chng ta phi hi liu t
duy chnh tr ngay t u khng phi i mt vi kh nng ca chnh th
xu; liu chng ta khng phi chun b cho cc nh lnh o ti nht, v
hi vng ngi gii nht hay khng. Song iu ny dn n mt cch tip
cn mi ti vn chnh tr, v n buc ta thay cu hi: Ai phi cai tr?
bng cu hi mi2: Lm sao c th t chc cc th ch chnh tr sao cho
cc nh cai tri xu hay bt ti b ngn khi gy ra qu nhiu thit hi?
Nhng ngi tin rng cu hi trc l c bn, ngm gi thit l quyn
lc chnh tr v c bn khng b kim ch. H gi thit rng ai c
quyn lc - hoc mt c nhn hay mt tp th, nh mt giai cp. V h
gi thit rng ngi c quyn lc c th lm, gn nh, ci g hn mun,
v c bit hn c th tng cng quyn lc ca mnh, v bng cch y
tin gn hn na n quyn lc v hn hay khng b kim ch. H gi
thit rng quyn lc chnh tr, v c bn, l ti cao. Nu a ra gi thit
ny, th, qu thc, cu hi Ai l ti cao? l cu hi duy nht cn li.
Ti s gi gi thit ny l l thuyt v quyn ti cao (khng b kim
ch), s dng thnh ng ny khng cho bt k l thuyt c th no ca
cc l thuyt khc nhau v ch quyn hay quyn ti cao, c kin ngh
c bit bi cc tc gi nh Bodin, Rouseau, hay Hegel, m cho gi thit
tng qut hn rng quyn lc chnh tr trn thc tin l khng b kim
ch, hay cho i h rng n nn nh vy; cng vi n rng vn ch
yu cn li l a quyn lc ny vo nhng bn tay gii nht. L thuyt
v quyn ti cao ny c gi thit mt cch ngm nh trong cch tip
cn ca Plato, v ng vai tr ca n sut t . N cng c gi
thit mt cch ngm nh bi, th d, cc tc gi hin i nhng ngi tin
rng cu hi chnh l: Ai phi sai khin? Cc nh t bn hay cng nhn?
Khng i vo ph phn chi tit, ti mun ch ra rng c cc l do phn
i nghim tc chng li s chp nhn hp tp v ngm ngm l thuyt
ny. Bt k gi tr t bin ca n c th l g, n chc chn l mt gi
thit rt phi thc t. Cha tng c quyn lc chnh tr no l khng b
kim ch, v chng no con ngi cn l con ngi (chng no Th gii
Mi Tt p hn Brave New World cha thnh hin thc), th khng
th c quyn lc chnh tr tuyt i v khng b kim ch. Chng no m
mt ngi khng th tch t bo lc trong tay mnh ch ng tt c
nhng ngi khc, th chng ng ta phi ph thuc v nhng ngi
122
CHNH TR HC CA PLATO
tr gip ca mnh. Ngay c k bo cha hng mnh nht cng ph thuc

vo cng an mt ca mnh, vo tay sai ca mnh, vo nhng ngi treo
c phm nhn ca mnh. S ph thuc ny c ngha l quyn lc ca hn
ta, du c th ln n u, khng phi khng b kim ch, v rng hn
phi nhng b, kch nhm ny chng li nhm kia. N c ngha rng c
cc lc lng chnh tr khc, cc quyn lc khc bn cnh ca hn, v
rng hn c th dng s cai tr ca mnh ch bng cch tn dng v lm
yn chng. iu ny chng t rng ngay c cc trng hp cc oan v
quyn ti cao cng khng bao gi l cc trng hp v quyn ti cao
thun tu. Chng khng bao gi l cc trng hp trong ch hay li
ch ca mt ngi (hay, ch hoc li ch ca mt nhm, nu gi nh c
ci nh vy) c th t mc ch ca mnh mt cch trc tip, m khng
t b mt t v n nhm tranh th c cc quyn lc m hn khng th
ch ng c. V trong tuyt i a s cc trng hp, nhng hn ch v
quyn lc chnh tr cn i xa hn th ny nhiu.
Ti nhn mnh cc im kinh nghim ny, khng phi v ti mun
dng chng nh mt l l, m n thun ch trnh nhng phn i. Ti
cho rng mi l thuyt v quyn ti cao b qua vic i ph vi mt cu
hi c bn hn - c th l, cu hi liu chng ta khng phi phn u
nhm ti s kim sot th ch nhng ngi cai tr bng cn bng quyn
lc ca h i li vi cc quyn lc khc hay khng. L thuyt v kim
ch v cn bng (checks and balance) ny ch t c th ng xem xt cn
thn. Cc phn i duy nht i vi i hi ny, chng mc m ti c
th thy, l (a) s kim sot nh vy v thc tin l khng th lm c,
hay (b) v cn bn khng th hnh dung ra c v quyn lc chnh tr v
c bn l ti cao.3 C hai l do phn i gio iu ny, ti tin, b cc s
thc bc b; v vi chng mt lot quan im c nh hng khc sp
(th d, l thuyt cho rng s la chn kh d duy nht i vi s c ti
ca mt giai cp l s c ti ca mt giai cp khc).
nu vn kim sot th ch i vi nhng ngi cai tr, khng cn
gi thit nhiu hn rng cc chnh th l khng lun tt hay sng sut.
Nhng v ti ni ci g v cc s thc lch s, ti ngh ti phi th
nhn l ti cm thy thin v i qu gi thit ny mt cht. Ti thin v
ngh l nhng ngi cai tr him khi trn mc trung bnh, hoc v mt
o c hay v mt tr tu, v thng di mc . V ti ngh l c l
chp nhn, trong hot ng chnh tr, nguyn l v chun b cho ci xu
nht, k lng mc ta c th, tuy ng thi chng ta phi, tt nhin, c
gng c c ci tt nht. i vi ti t ra l in r i t c s cho mi
n lc chnh tr ln hi vng mong manh rng chng ta s thnh cng c
CHNG 7: S LNH O
123
c nhng ngi cai tr tuyt vi, hay thm ch trnh . D ti cm

thy chc chn v cc vn ny, ti phi nhn mnh, tuy vy, rng ph
phn ca ti v l thuyt quyn ti cao khng ph thuc vo cc kin
mang tnh ring t hn ny.
Ngoi cc kin c nhn ny, v ngoi cc l l kinh nghim c nhc
ti trn chng li l thuyt chung v quyn ti cao ra, cng c mt loi
l l logic c th c dng chng t s thiu nht qun ca bt k
dng c bit no ca l thuyt v quyn ti cao; chnh xc hn, l l logic
c th c cc dng khc nhng tng t sc vi l thuyt cho rng
ngi sng sut nht phi cai tr, hay cc l thuyt cho rng ngi gii
nht, hay lut, hay a s, v.v. phi cai tr. Mt dng c bit ca l l logic
ny c hng chng li mt phin bn qu u tr ca ch ngha t do,
ca nn dn ch, v ca nguyn l rng a s phi cai tr; v n hi ging
nghch l v quyn t do ni ting c Plato s dng ln u tin v
thnh cng. Trong ph phn nn dn ch, v trong cu chuyn v s ni
ln ca bo cha ca ng, Plato ngm nu ra cu hi sau: Nu ch ca
ngi dn l h khng nn cai tr, m thay vo l bo cha th sao?
Ngi t do, Plato gi , c th s dng quyn t do tuyt i ca mnh,
u tin coi thng php lut v cui cng coi thng bn thn quyn t
do v ku go i mt bo cha4. y khng ch l mt kh nng cng
iu; n xy ra mt s ln; v mi khi xy ra, n t tt c nhng
ngi dn ch, nhng ngi chp nhn, nh c s cui cng ca tn iu
chnh tr ca h, nguyn l v s cai tr ca a s hay mt dng tng t
ca nguyn l ch quyn ti cao, vo v th tr tu tuyt vng. Mt mt,
nguyn l h chp nhn i h phi chng li mi s cai tr tr s cai
tr a s, v v th l mt s cai tr chuyn ch mi; mt khc, cng
nguyn l i h phi chp nhn mi quyt nh do a s a ra, v
nh th l s cai tr ca bo cha mi. S khng nht qun ca l thuyt
ca h phi, tt nhin, lm t lit cc hnh ng ca h.5 Nhng ngi
dn ch trong s chng ta, ngi i nhng ngi b tr kim sot nhng
ngi cai tr, v c bit quyn ph trut chnh ph bi biu quyt a s,
v vy phi t c s cho cc i hi ca mnh trn c s tt hn mt l
thuyt v ch quyn t mu thun. (Rng iu ny l c th lm c s
c ch ra ngn gn mc tip ca chng ny).
Chng ta thy, Plato n gn s khm ph ra cc nghch l v
quyn t do v v dn ch. Nhng ci m Plato v nhng ngi theo ng
khng ch ti l tt c cc dng khc ca l thuyt v ch quyn u
gy ra nhng s khng nht qun tng t. Tt c cc l thuyt v quyn
ti cao u l nghch l. Th d, chng ta c th chn ngi sng sut
124
CHNH TR HC CA PLATO
nht hay ngi tt nht lm mt ngi cai tr. Nhng ngi sng sut
nht trong s thng thi ca mnh c th thy rng khng phi ng m l
ngi tt nht nn cai tr, v ngi tt nht trong tnh tt ca mnh c
l c th quyt nh rng a s nn cai tr. Quan trng nhn thy
rng ngay c dng l thuyt v quyn ti cao i Vng quyn ca Php
lut cng ng cho cng s phn i . iu ny, thc ra, c
thy t rt sm, nh nhn xt ca Heraclitus6 cho thy: Lut cng c th
i hi rng ch ca Mt Ngi phi c tun theo.
Tm li ph phn ngn gn ny, ti tin, c th khng nh rng l thuyt
v quyn ti cao v th yu, c v mt kinh nghim v v mt logic. t
nht c th cn n, l khng c chp nhn n m khng xem xt cn
thn cc kh nng khc.
II
V qu thc, khng kh chng minh rng mt l thuyt v kim sot
dn ch c th c pht trin m khng b nghch l v quyn ti cao. L
thuyt m ti ngh n khng bt ngun, c th ni nh vy, t tnh tt
hay tnh ngay thng thc cht ca s cai tr a s, m ng hn t tnh
tin ca s chuyn ch; hay chnh xc hn, n da trn quyt nh, hay
trn s chp nhn xut, trnh v chng li s chuyn ch.
V c th phn bit hai loi chnh th ch yu. Loi u tin gm cc
chnh th m chng ta c th thot khi n m khng c mu th d,
bng con ng cc cuc tng tuyn c; tc l, cc th ch x hi to ra
cc cng c theo ngi b tr c th sa thi nhng ngi cai tr, v cc
truyn thng x hi7 m bo l nhng ngi nm quyn khng d dng
hu cc th ch ny. Loi th hai gm cc chnh th m nhng ngi b
tr khng th thot khi n tr bng con ng ca mt cuc cch mng
thnh cng - tc l, trong hu ht cc trng hp, khng h [thnh cng].
Ti gi thut ng nn dn ch nh mt nhn tc k cho mt chnh th
loi th nht, v thut ng nn chuyn ch hay ch c ti cho loi
th hai. Ti tin, iu ny tng ng st vi cch dng truyn thng.
Nhng ti mun lm r l khng phn no ca l l ca ti ph thuc vo
s la chn cc nhn ny; v nu c ai o ngc cch dng ny (nh
thng xuyn c lm ngy nay), th ti phi ni n gin l ti ng h
ci ng ta gi l nn chuyn ch, v phn i ci ng ta gi l nn dn
ch; v ti s bc b coi l khng thch ng bt k c gng no
khm ph ra nn dn ch thc ra hay v c bn c ngha l g, th
d, bng cch dch thut ng thnh s cai tr ca nhn dn. (V tuy
CHNG 7: S LNH O
125
nhn dn c th nh hng n cc hnh ng ca nhng ngi cai tr

h bng s e do sa thi, bn thn h chng bao gi cai tr theo bt k
ngha c th, thc tin no).
Nu chng ta s dng hai nhn ny nh c gi , th by gi chng
ta c th m t, nh nguyn l ca mt chnh sch dn ch, kin ngh
to ra, pht trin, v bo v cc th ch chnh tr cho vic trnh ch
chuyn ch. Nguyn l ny khng ng rng chng ta c th lun pht
trin cc th ch loi ny m khng c li hay ht sc r rng, hay m
bo rng cc chnh sch do mt chnh ph dn ch chp nhn s l ng
hay tt hay sng sut hay thm ch nht thit l tt hn hay sng sut
hn cc chnh sch do mt k chuyn ch nhn t chp nhn. (V khng
khng nh no nh vy c a ra, nn trnh c nhch l v dn
ch). Ci c th ni, tuy vy, c ng trong vic chp nhn nguyn l
dn ch l s tin chc rng s chp nhn ngay c mt chnh sch ti trong
mt nn dn ch (chng no chng ta c th lm cho s thay i bnh
yn) l c a thch hn s phc tng mt nh chuyn ch, du cho ng
ta c sng sut hay nhn t n u. Nhn di nh sng ny, l thuyt v
dn ch khng da trn nguyn l rng a s phi cai tr; ng hn, cc
phng php bnh ng khc nhau ca kim sot dn ch, nh tng tuyn
c v chnh ph i din, phi c coi khng hn nhng ci bo v
mang tnh th ch c th k v, vi s nghi ng truyn thng ph
bin i vi s chuyn ch, hu hiu va phi chng li s chuyn
ch, lun ng cho s ci thin, v thm ch to ra cc phng php
cho s ci thin ring ca chng.
Ngi chp nhn nguyn l dn ch theo ngha ny v vy khng nht
thit phi coi kt qu ca mt biu quyt dn ch nh mt biu hin c
cn c ca ci l ng. Mc d anh ta s chp nhn mt quyt nh ca
a s, v mc ch lm cho cc th ch dn ch hot ng, anh ta s cm
thy t do chng li n bng cc cng c dn ch, th kinh nghim
ng bun ny s ch ni cho anh ta rng khng tn ti mt phng php
ht sc r rng trnh s chuyn ch. Nhng n khng nht thit lm
yu quyt nh ca anh ta chin u vi s chuyn ch, n cng khng
t l thuyt ca anh ta thnh khng nht qun.
III
Quay li vi Plato, chng ta thy rng bng s nhn mnh ca ng n
vn ai phi cai tr, ng ngm gi thit l thuyt chung v quyn ti
cao. Vn v s kim sot th ch ca nhng ngi cai tr, v v s cn
126
CHNH TR HC CA PLATO
bng th ch ca quyn lc ca h, do b l i m khng h c nu

ra. Mi quan tm c dch chuyn t cc th ch sang cc vn v
nhn s, v vn cp bch nht by gi tr thnh vn la chn cc
lnh t t nhin, v vn o to h cho s lnh o.
Theo cch nhn ca s thc ny mt s ngi ngh l trong l thuyt
ca Plato s thnh vng ca quc gia cui cng l mt vn o c
v tinh thn, ph thuc vo cc c nhn v trch nhim c nhn ch
khng vo vic xy dng cc th ch khch quan. Ti tin rng cch nhn
ny ca ch ngha Plato l nng cn. Tt c cc quan im chnh tr di
hn u mang tnh th ch. Khng c con ng thot khi n, ngay c
vi Plato. Nguyn l v lnh o khng thay cc vn th ch bng cc
vn nhn s, n ch gy ra cc vn th ch mi. Nh chng ta s
thy, n thm ch nng ln cc nh ch vi mt nhim v vt qu
ci c th i hi mt cch hp l t cc nh ch thun tu, c th l, vi
nhim v la chn cc nh lnh o tng lai. Nh th l mt sai lm i
ngh rng s i lp gia l thuyt v cn bng v l thuyt v quyn ti
cao tng ng vi s i lp gia thuyt trng th ch (institutionalism)
v thuyt trng nhn s (personalism). Nguyn l ca Plato v s lnh
o l khc xa mt thuyt trng nhn s v n bao hm s hot ng ca
cc th ch; v qu thc c th ni rng mt thuyt trng nhn s thun
tu l khng th c c. Nhng phi ni rng mt thuyt trng th ch
thun tu cng l khng th c c. Khng ch s xy dng cc th ch
bao hm nhng quyt nh nhn s quan trng, m s hot ng ca
ngay c cc th ch tt nht (nh kim ch v cn bng dn ch) s lun
ph thuc, mc ng k, vo nhng con ngi lin quan. Cc nh
ch ging cc pho i. Chng phi c thit k v c ngi canh tt.
S phn bit ny gia cc yu t nhn s v th ch trong mt tnh
hung x hi l mt im thng b nhng ngi ph phn nn dn ch
b qua. Hu ht h khng va lng vi cc th ch dn ch v h thy
rng nhng ci ny khng nht thit ngn cn mt nh nc hay mt
chnh sch khi khng t c cc tiu chun o c no hay cc
i hi chnh tr no c th l cp bch cng nh ng ngng m.
Nhng nhng ngi ph phn ny hng sai cc cuc tn cng ca h;
h khng hiu c th k vng cc th ch dn ch lm ci g, v la chn
kh d khc i vi cc th ch dn ch l g. Dn ch (dng nhn ny
theo ngha c gi trn) to khung kh th ch cho ci cch cc th
ch chnh tr. N lm cho vic ci cch cc th ch c th c tin hnh
m khng dng bo lc, v bng cch y s dng l tr trong thit k cc
th ch mi v iu chnh cc th ch c. N khng th cung cp l do.
CHNG 7: S LNH O
127
Vn v tiu chun tr tu v o c ca cc cng dn ch yu l mt

vn c nhn. ( tng rng vn ny c th c gii quyt, ln
lt, bng mt s kim sot u sinh th ch v gio dc, ti tin, l sai
lm; vi l do cho nim tin ca ti s c a ra di y). Hon ton
sai i li cho nn dn ch v cc thiu st chnh tr ca mt nh nc
dn ch. Chng ta ng hn phi trch mnh, tc l, cc cng dn ca
nh nc dn ch. Trong mt quc gia khng dn ch, cch duy nht
t cc ci cch hp l l bng s lt d di chnh ph, v a ra mt
khung kh dn ch. Nhng ngi ph phn dn ch trn bt k c s
o c no khng phn bit c gia cc vn nhn s v th ch.
Tu thuc vo chng ta ci thin vn . Cc th ch dn ch khng
th ci thin chnh mnh. Vn ci thin chng lun l mt vn cho
con ngi hn l vn cho cc th ch. Nhng nu mun ci thin,
chng ta phi lm r chng ta mun ci thin cc th ch no.
C s phn bit khc trong lnh vc cc vn chnh tr tng ng vi
s phn bit gia con ngi v cc th ch. l s phn bit gia cc
vn ca ngy hm nay v cc vn ca tng lai. Trong khi cc vn
ca ngy hm nay ch yu mang tnh c nhn, xy dng tng lai
nht thit phi mang tnh th ch. Nu vn chnh tr c tip cn
bng cch hi Ai phi cai tr, v nu nguyn l v s lnh o ca Plato
c chp nhn - tc l, nguyn l cho rng ngi tt nht phi cai tr th vn ca tng lai phi c dng ca thit k cc th ch cho s la
chn cc nh lnh o tng lai.
y l mt trong cc vn quan trng nht trong l thuyt ca Plato
v gio dc. Trong tip cn n ti khng do d ni rng Plato hon
ton lm h hng v ln ln l thuyt v thc tin v gio dc bng cch
lin kt n vi l thuyt v s lnh o ca ng. Thit hi gy ra, nu c
th, thm ch cn ln hn thit hi ln o c do s ng nht ch ngha
tp th v ch ngha v tha gy ra, v thit hi ln l thuyt chnh tr do
a ra nguyn l v quyn ti cao gy ra. Gi thit ca Plato rng phi l
nhim v ca gio dc (hay, chnh xc hn, ca cc nh ch gio dc) i
la chn cc nh lnh o tng lai. Bng cht ln cc nh ch ny mt
nhim v hn vt qu phm vi ca bt k nh ch no, Plato chu trch
nhim mt phn v tnh trng t hi ca chng. Nhng trc khi i vo
tho lun chung v quan im ca ng v nhim v gio dc, ti mun
pht trin, chi tit hn, l thuyt ca ng v s lnh o, s lnh o ca
ngi sng sut.
128
CHNH TR HC CA PLATO
IV
Ti ngh c kh nng nht l l thuyt ny ca Plato c c cc yu t
ca n nh nh hng ca Socrates. Mt trong nhng gio l c bn ca
Socrates, ti tin, l thuyt duy l tr (intellectualism) o c ca ng. Ti
hiu iu ny l (a) s ng nht tnh tt v s sng sut ca ng, l
thuyt ca ng cho rng khng ai hnh ng chng li s hiu bit tt
hn ca mnh, v rng s thiu tri thc chu trch nhim v mi sai lm
o c; (b) l thuyt ca ng cho rng s xut sc v o c c th
c dy, v rng n khng i hi bt k nng lc o c c bit no,
ngoi tr thng minh ph qut ca con ngi.
Socrates l mt nh o c hc v mt ngi say m. ng l loi
ngi c th ph phn mi dng chnh th v cc thiu st ca n (v
thc ra, ph phn nh vy l cn thit v hu ch cho bt k chnh th
no, cho d n ch c th lm c di mt nn dn ch) song ng nhn
ra tm quan trng ca s trung thnh vi lut php nh nc. Tnh c, l
ng sng ht i mnh ch yu di hnh thc chnh th dn ch, v
vi t cch mt nh dn ch tt ng thy nhim v ca mnh l vch trn
s bt ti v tnh ba hoa ca mt s lnh o dn ch thi ng. ng
thi, ng phn i mi dng chuyn ch; v nu xem xt thi dng
cm ca ng di Ba mi Bo Cha th chng ta khng c l do no
cho rng s ph phn cc nh lnh o dn ch ca ng c gy cm
hng bi bt k g ging cc hiu bit8 chng dn ch. Rt c th l ng
(ging Plato) i ngi tt nht phi cai tr, m, theo cch nhn ca
ng, c ngha l ngi sng sut nht, hay nhng ngi bit g v
cng l. Song chng ta phi nh rng vi cng l ng hiu l cng l
bnh ng ch ngha (nh c cc on trch t Gorgias chng trc
biu l), v rng ng khng ch l mt nh bnh ng ch ngha m cng
l mt ngi c nhn ch ngha c l l ng t v i nht ca mt o
c hc c nhn ch ngha ca mi thi i. V chng ta phi nhn ra
rng, nu ng i nhng ngi sng sut nht nn cai tr, ng nhn mnh
r rng l ng khng c ni v nhng ngi c hc; thc ra, ng hoi
nghi mi ngh hc gi chuyn nghip, bt lun l ca cc trit gia ca
qu kh hay ca nhng ngi hay ch thuc th h ng, cc Sophist. S
sng sut m ng mun ni l mt loi khc. n gin l s tha nhn:
ti bit t n chng no! Nhng ngi khng bit iu ny, ng dy,
chng bit g c. (y l tinh thn khoa hc thc s. Mt s ngi vn
ngh, nh Plato ngh khi ng sinh c lp nhip nh mt nh hin trit9
Pythagorean uyn thm, rng thi bt kh tri ca Socrates phi c
CHNG 7: S LNH O
129
gii thch bng s thiu thnh cng ca khoa hc thi ng. Nhng iu
ny ch chng t rng h khng hiu tinh thn ny, v rng h vn b
quan im ma thut tin-Socratic m nh i vi khoa hc v nh khoa
hc, ngi m h coi nh php s c tn ln mt cht, nh thng thi,
uyn thm, c th gio. H nh gi ng ta bng lng kin thc ng
ta c c, thay cho coi, nh Socrates coi, s nhn bit ca ng ta v ci
ng ta cha bit nh mt mc o trnh khoa hc ca ng ta cng nh
tnh trung thc tr tu ca ng ta).
Quan trng thy rng thuyt duy l tr Socratic ny dt khot l bnh
ng ch ngha. Socrates tin l mi ngi c th c dy; trong Meno,
ta thy ng dy mt n l tr mt phin bn10 ca ci by gi c gi l
nh l Pythagoras, nh mt n lc chng t rng bt c n l v hc
no u c nng lc lnh hi ngay c cc vn tru tng. V thuyt
duy l tr ca ng cng l chng c on. Mt k thut, th d nh thut
hng bin, theo Socrates c l c th c dy mt cch gio iu bi
mt chuyn gia; nhng tri thc tht s, s hiu bit, v c c hnh, ch
c th c dy bng mt phng php m ng m t nh mt dng b
. Nhng ngi ham hc c th c gip t gii phng khi nh
kin ca h; nh vy h c th hc t ph bnh, v rng chn l khng d
t c. Nhng h c th cng hc i n quyt nh, v da vo cc
quyt nh ca h, v vo s thu hiu ca h mt cch ph phn. Theo
cch nhn ca li dy nh vy, l r i hi Socratic (nu Socrates tng
nu ra i hi ny) rng ngi tt nht, tc l ngi trung thc v tr tu,
phi cai tr, khc n th no vi i hi c on rng ngi tt nht,
tc l cao qu nht, phi cai tr. (Lng tin ca Socrates rng ngay c s
can m l s sng sut, ti ngh, c th c din gii nh mt ph phn
trc tip ca hc thuyt qu tc v anh hng bm sinh cao qu).
Song thuyt duy l tr ny ca Socrates l con dao hai li. N c kha
cnh bnh ng ch ngha v dn ch, c Antisthenes pht trin mun
hn. Nhng n cng c mt kha cnh c th gy ra cc xu hng phn
dn ch mnh. N nhn mnh n nhu cu khai sng, gio dc, c th d
dng b din gii sai nh mt i hi cho ch ngha c on. iu ny
c quan h vi mt vn dng nh lm Socrates rt bi ri: nhng
ngi khng c gio dc , v nh vy khng thng minh bit
thiu st ca mnh, ng l nhng ngi cn gio dc nht. Bn thn s
sn sng hc chng t s s hu tinh khn, thc ra l tt c s tinh
khn c Socrates coi l cho mnh; v ng l ngi sn sng hc bit
ng bit t n th no. Ngi khng c gio dc nh vy dng nh
cn n mt ngi c thm quyn nh thc anh ta, v khng th
130
CHNH TR HC CA PLATO
mong i anh ta l t ph bnh. Nhng yu t ny ca ch ngha c

on c cn bng tuyt vi trong gio hun ca Socrates bng nhn
mnh rng ngi c thm quyn khng c i hi nhiu hn vy.
Thy gio ch thc c th t chng t mnh ch bng by t rng s t
ph bnh l ci ngi khng c gio dc thiu. Bt c thm quyn no
ti c th c da duy nht trn s hiu bit ca ti v ti bit t n th
no: y l cch theo Socrates c th bin minh cho s mnh ca ng
i khuy ng ngi dn khi gic ng gio iu ca h. S mnh gio
dc ny ng tin cng l mt s mnh chnh tr. ng cm thy rng cch
ci thin i sng chnh tr ca thnh ph l i gio dc cng dn ti
s t ph bnh. Theo ngha ny ng c cho l nh chnh tr duy nht
ca thi ng11, ngc vi nhng ngi khc ch tng bc ngi dn thay
cho y mnh cc li ch thc s ca h.
S ng nht ho Socratic ny ca hot ng gio dc v chnh tr ca
ng c th d dng b bp mo thnh i hi Platonic v Aristotlian rng
nh nc phi chm lo cho i sng o c ca cng dn ca n. V n
c th d dng c dng cho mt bng chng thuyt phc tht nguy
him rng mi s kim sot mang tnh dn ch u xu. V lm sao
nhng ngi, m nhim v ca h l i gio dc, li b ngi v hc
nh gi? Lm sao ngi gii hn li b ngi t gii hn kim sot?
Nhng l l ny, tt nhin, l hon ton phi-Socratic. N gi thit mt
thm quyn ca ngi thng thi v c hc, v i qu xa tng khim
tn ca Socrates v thm quyn ca thy gio da duy nht vo thc
ca ng ta v nhng hn ch ring ca ng ta. Thm quyn nh nc
trong cc vn ny, thc ra, hn c th t chnh xc ci ngc li vi
mc tiu ca Socrates. N c th to ra s t tho mn gio iu v s t
mn tr tu rt ln, thay cho s khng hi lng ph phn v s say m ci
thin. Ti khng ngh l khng cn thit nhn mnh mi nguy him
him khi c nhn ra r rng ny. Ngay c mt tc gi nh Crossman,
ngi, ti tin, hiu tinh thn Socratic thc, li thng nht12 vi Plato
trong ci ng gi l ph phn th ba v Athens ca Plato: Gio dc, vic
phi l trch nhim ch yu ca Nh nc, b b cho tnh tht thng
c nhn Li ln na y mt nhim v phi c giao cho ch ngi
c tnh trung thc c th thch. Tng lai ca bt c Nh nc no
u ph thuc vo th h tr, v v vy l in r i cho php u c ca
tr em b nho nn bi s thch c nhn v hon cnh bt buc. tai hi
ngang th l chnh sch laissez faire ca Nh nc lin quan n cc thy
gio, cc hiu trng v cc nh Spophist thuyt ging.13 Nhng chnh
sch laissez faire ca nh nc Athens, b Crossman v Plato ph phn,
CHNG 7: S LNH O
131
c kt qu v gi cho php cc ging vin-sophist no c dy, v

c bit l ngi v i nht trong s h, Socrates. V khi chnh sch ny
mun hn b b i, kt qu l ci cht ca Socrates. y phi l mt cnh
bo rng s kim sot nh nc trong cc vn nh vy l nguy him,
v rng s ku go i ngi c tnh trung thc c th thch c
th d dn n s n p ngi gii nht. (S n p Bertrand Russel gn
y l mt trng hp nh vy). Nhng chng mc lin quan n cc
nguyn l c bn, y chng ta c mt trng hp v nh kin n
rt su rng la chn kh d duy nht i vi laissez faire l trch nhim
hon ton ca nh nc. Ti tin chc l trch nhim ca nh nc thy
rng cng dn ca mnh c mt s gio dc cho php h tham gia vo
i sng cng ng, v s dng bt c c hi no pht trin cc li
ch c bit v cc nng khiu ca h; v nh nc chc chn cng phi
thy (nh Crossman nhn mnh ng) rng thiu nng lc c nhn
chi tr khng c ngn cn anh ta khi hc tp bc cao hn. iu ny,
ti tin, thuc v chc nng bo h ca nh nc. Tuy vy, i ni rng
tng lai ca nh nc ph thuc vo th h tr, v v vy l in r i
cho php u c ca tr em b nho nn bi s thch c nhn, t ra i
vi ti l m toang ca cho ch ngha ton tr. Li ch nh nc khng
c vin dn mt cch hi ht bo v cc bin php c th gy nguy
him cho dng qu gi nht ca cc quyn t do, c th l, quyn t do
tr tu. V mc d ti khng ch trng laissez faire i vi cc thy
gio v cc hiu trng, ti tin rng chnh sch ny l v cng u vit
hn mt chnh sch c on, chnh sch cho cc quan chc nh nc
ton quyn nho nn u c, v kim sot vic ging dy khoa hc,
bng cch y ng h thm quyn ng ng ca chuyn gia bng thm
quyn nh nc, hu hoi khoa hc bng thi quen thng l v thuyt
ging n nh mt thuyt c on, v ph hu tinh thn tm ti khoa hc
tinh thn tm kim chn l, nh i lp vi lng tin vo s s hu n.
Ti th chng minh rng thuyt duy l tr ca Socrates v c bn
manh tnh bnh ng ch ngha v c nhn ch ngha, v rng yu t c
on ch ngha m n ko theo c gim n mc ti thiu bi tnh
khim tn tr tu ca Socrates v thi khoa hc ca ng. Thuyt duy l
tr ca Plato l rt khc vi thuyt ny. Cn Socrates Platonic ca
Republic14 l s hin thn ca mt ch ngha c on hon ton. (Thm
ch nhng nhn xt t nh gi thp ca ng khng da trn nhn thc
thy nhng hn ch ca mnh, m ng hn l mt cch ma mai v
khng nh tnh u vit hn ca ng). Mc ch gio dc ca ng khng
phi l nh thc s t ph bnh v t duy ph phn ni chung. N, ng
132
CHNH TR HC CA PLATO
hn, l s truyn th - nho nn u c v tm hn vic (nhc li mt

trch dn t Laws15) tr thnh, bng thi quen lu di, hon ton khng
c kh nng lm bt k th g c mt cch c lp. V t tng gii
phng v bnh ng ch ngha v i ca Socrates rng c th dng l l
vi mt n l, v rng c mt mi lin lc tr tu gia ngi v ngi,
mt mi trng hiu bit chung, c th l, l tr, t tng ny c thay
bng mt i hi cho mt s c quyn gio dc ca giai cp thng tr,
gn vi s kim duyt nghim ngt nht, thm ch c tho lun ming.
Socrates nhn mnh rng ng khng thng thi; rng ng khng s
hu chn l, m l mt ngi tm kim, mt ngi thm tra, mt ngi
yu chn l. iu ny, ng gii thch, c th hin bng t nh trit
hc: philosopher, tc l ngi yu s sng sut, v ngi tm kim n,
i lp vi Sophist, tc l nh thng thi chuyn nghip. Nu ng c
bao gi cho rng cc chnh khch phi l cc nh trit hc, ng ch c th
mun ni rng, b mt trch nhim qu mc nng, h phi l nhng
ngi tm kim chn l, v bit r v nhng hn ch ca mnh.
Plato bin i hc thuyt ny th no? Thot nhn, c th c v nh
ng khng h thay i g c, khi ng i rng quyn ti cao ca nh nc
phi c trao cho cc nh trit hc; c bit v, ging Socrates, ng nh
ngha cc trit gia nh nhng ngi yu chn l. Nhng s thay i do
Plato tin hnh qu thc l khng l. Ngi yu chn l ca ng khng
cn l mt ngi tm kim khim tn, m l ngi kiu hnh s hu chn
l. L mt nh bin chng c o to, ng ta c ti v trc gic tr tu,
tc l, v nhn thy, v v giao thip vi cc Hnh thc hay nim vnh
hng, siu phm. c t cao trn tt c nhng ngi bnh thng, ng
ta nh thn, nu khng phi l thn thnh16, c s thng thi ln
nng lc ca ng ta. Trit gia l tng ca Plato gn nh thng sut mi
s v c quyn nng v hn. ng ta l Vua-Trit gia. Ti ngh, kh
hnh dung ra mt s tng phn ln hn s tng phn gia l tng
Socratic v Platonic v mt nh trit hc. l s tng phn gia hai
th gii th gii ca mt ngi c nhn ch ngha duy l, khim tn v
th gii ca mt -thn ton tr ch ngha.
i hi ca Plato rng ngi sng sut phi cai tr - ngi s hu chn
l, trit gia c y t cch17 - tt nhin, gy ra vn chn la v
gio dc cc nh cai tr. Trong mt l thuyt thun tu trng nhn s (i
lp vi trng th ch), vn ny c th c gii quyt n gin bng
tuyn b rng ngi cai tr sng sut trong s thng thi ca mnh s
sng sut chn ngi gii nht cho ngi k v mnh. y, tuy vy,
khng phi l mt cch tip cn tho mn lm i vi vn . Qu nhiu
CHNG 7: S LNH O
133
ph thuc vo cc hon cnh khng kim sot c; mt tai nn c th

ph hu s n nh tng lai ca nh nc. Song n lc kim sot hon
cnh, thy trc ci g c th xy ra v lo liu cho n, phi dn y,
nh mi ni khc, n s t b gii php thun tu trng nhn s, v
n s thay i n bng mt gii php trng th ch. Nh ni r, n
lc ln k hoch cho tng lai phi lun dn n thuyt trng th ch.
V
nh ch, m theo Plato, phi chm lo cho cc nh lnh o tng lai
c th c m t nh b gio dc ca nh nc. T quan im chnh tr
thun tu, l nh ch quan trng nht trong x hi ca Plato. N nm
cha kho ti quyn lc. Ch ring v l do ny phi r l ch t cc bc
hc cao hn phi c cc nh cai tr kim sot trc tip. Nhng c thm
mt s l do cho iu ny. Quan trng nht l ch chuyn gia v
ngi c tnh trung thc c th thch, nh Crossman trnh by, m
theo cch nhn ca Plato c ngha ch l nhng ngi lo luyn rt sng
sut, tc l, bn thn cc nh cai tr, c th c giao ph s kt np cui
cng cc hin nhn tng lai vo nhng iu huyn b ca s thng thi.
iu ny, trn ht, c hiu lc cho php bin chng, tc l ngh thut v
trc gic tr tu, v hnh dung ra cc nguyn bn thing ling, cc Hnh
thc hay nim, v tit l S B n V i ng sau th gii thng
thng hng ngy ca b ngoi.
Cc i hi ch nh ca Plato lin quan n dng cao nht ny ca
gio dc l g? Chng tht c bit. ng i hi rng ch nhng ngi
qua tui thanh xun mi c nhn vo. Khi sc lc th cht ca h bt
u yu i, v khi h qua tui thc hin ngha v cng v qun s, v
ch khi , h mi c php tu bc vo lnh vc thing ling 18
c th l, lnh vc nghin cu bin chng cao nht. L do ca Plato cho
qui tc gy kinh ngc ny l r. ng s quyn lc t duy. Tt c cc
th v i u nguy him19 l nhn xt m theo ng a ra li th
nhn l ng s nh hng m t duy trit hc c th c ln u c ca
nhng ngi vn cha st tui gi. (Tt c iu ny c ng trnh by
qua ming Socrates, ngi cht v bo v quyn ca ng v tho lun
t do vi thanh nin). Nhng y chnh xc l ci chng ta phi k vng
nu lu rng mc ch c bn ca Plato l ngng thay i chnh tr. Khi
h qu gi ngh mt cch c lp, h s tr thnh cc sinh vin gio
iu thm nhun s thng thi v thm quyn nhm tr thnh cc nh
134
CHNH TR HC CA PLATO
hin trit v chuyn s thng thi ca h, hc thuyt v ch ngha tp

th v ch ngha c on, cho cc th h tng lai.
L th l trong mt on mun hn v trau chut hn c t v nhng
ngi cai tr trong nhng mu sc rc r nht, Plato sa i gi ca
mnh. By gi 20 ng cho cc nh hin trit tng lai bt u s chun
b nghin cu bin chng ca h tui ba mi, tt nhin nhn mnh
n s cn thit phi rt thn trng v cc mi nguy him v s khng
chu vng li .. lm h hng rt nhiu nh bin chng; v ng i hi
rng nhng ngi m vic s dng l l vi h c cho php phi c k
lut v c bn tnh cn bng. S sa i ny chc chn gip lm ti
sng bc tranh. Nhng xu hng chung vn nh th. V, tip trong on
ny, chng ta nghe thy rng cc nh lnh o tng lai khng c
nhn vo nghin cu trit l cao hn vo s nhn xa trng rng bin
chng v bn cht ca Ci Tt - trc khi h t tui nm mi, sau khi
tri qua nhiu th thch v cm d.
y l gio l ca Republic. Dng nh l i thoi Parmenides21 cha
thng ip tng t, v y Socrates c m t nh mt thanh nin ti
gii, sau khi hc i thnh cng trit hc thun tu, gp rc ri ln khi
c mi trnh by cc vn t nh hn ca l thuyt cc nim. ng b
Parmenides gi nh trt vi li nhc nh rng ng phi rn luyn mnh
k lng hn v ngh thut t duy tru tng trc khi nh bo li vi
lnh vc nghin cu trit hc cao hn. C nh l y chng ta c (gia
cc th khc) cu tr li ca Plato Ngay c Socrates c mt thi l
qu tr i vi mn bin chng cho cc hc tr ca mnh, quy ry
ng nhp mn m ng coi l cha chn mui.
V sao Plato khng mun cc nh lnh o ca ng c tnh c o hay
sng kin? Cu tr li, ti ngh, l r. ng cm ght s thay i v khng
mun thy rng nhng s ti iu chnh c th tr nn cn thit. Nhng
s gii thch ny v thi ca Plato khng su. Thc ra, y chng
ta i mt vi kh khn c bn ca nguyn l lnh t. Chnh tng
chn la hay gio dc cc nh lnh o tng lai l t mu thun. C th
gii quyt vn , c l, mc no trong lnh vc xut sc v th
xc. S dn u v thn th v s can m th xc c l khng kh lm
bit chc. Nhng b mt ca s xut sc tr tu l tinh thn t ph
bnh; n l s c lp tr tu. V iu ny dn n nhng kh khn hn t
ra l khng th vt qua c vi bt c loi ch ngha c on no.
Ngi c on ni chung s chn nhng ngi vng li, tin, p li nh
hng ca ng ta. Nhng lm nh vy, ng ta nht thit chn nhng
ngi xong. V ng ta loi tr nhng ngi ni lon, nhng ngi nghi
CHNG 7: S LNH O
135
ng, nhng ngi dm chng li nh hng ca ng ta. Mt ngi c

thm quyn chng bao gi c th tha nhn rng s dng cm v tr tu,
tc l nhng ngi dm thch thc quyn lc ca ng ta, c th l loi c
gi tr nht. Tt nhin, cc nh chc trch s lun lun tin vo nng lc
ca h pht hin ra sng kin. Nhng ci m h mun ni vi iu
ny ch l s lnh hi nhanh cc nh ca h, v h s chng bao gi c
kh nng thy s khc bit. ( y c l chng ta c th hiu thu b mt
ca kh khn c bit v chn cc nh lnh o qun s c nng lc. Cc
i hi ca k lut qun s lm tng nhng kh khn c tho lun, v
cc phng php thng cp qun s l n ni nhng ngi dm ngh
cho bn thn thng b loi ra. Chng g t ng hn, chng mc lin
quan n sng kin tr tu, l tng rng nhng ngi gii vng li s
cng l gii trong ch huy22. Cc kh khn rt ging th ny sinh trong
cc ng chnh tr: Tr l Chnh ca lnh t ng him khi l mt ngi
k v c kh nng).
Ti tin, y chng ta c mt kt qu c tm quan trng no , v c
th c khi qut ho. Cc th ch la chn ngi xut sc hu nh
khng th ngh ra c. S la chn ch nh c th hot ng kh tt
cho cc mc ch nh Plato ngh n, c th l cho lm ngng thay i.
Nhng n chng bao gi hot ng tt nu chng ta i nhiu hn th, v
n s lun lun c khuynh hng loi b sng kin v tnh c o, v
tng qut hn, cc c tnh khc thng v bt ng. y khng phi l
mt ph phn i vi thuyt trng th ch chnh tr. N ch ti khng nh
ci c ni trc, rng chng ta lun phi chun b cho cc nh
lnh o ti nht, mc d chng ta, tt nhin, phi c c c ngi gii
nht. Nhng n l mt ph phn i vi khuynh hng nng cc nh
ch, c bit cc nh ch gio dc, vi nhim v khng th thc hin
c v chn ngi gii nht. Chng bao gi c coi iu ny l nhim
v ca chng. Xu hng ny bin h thng gio dc ca chng ta thnh
mt trng ua (nga), v bin mt kho hc thnh mt cuc chy vt
ro. Thay cho khuyn khch hc sinh hin thn cho nghin cu v mc
ch tm ti, thay cho khuyn khch hc sinh yu thc s mn hc ca
mnh v s tm ti23, n li c c v hc v mc ch ca s nghip
c nhn; dn hc sinh ti thu ch c loi kin thc c ch lm cho
n vt qua ro m n phi dn i v mc ch thng tin ca n. Ni
cch khc, ngay c trong lnh vc khoa hc, cc phng php la chn
ca chng ta da trn s ku gi kht vng c nhn c dng hi th. (L
mt phn ng t nhin i vi li ku gi ny nu hc sinh ho hc b
bn ng hc nhn vi s nghi ng). i hi khng th thc hin c
136
CHNH TR HC CA PLATO
i vi s la chn ch nh ca cc nh lnh o tr tu gy nguy him

cho chnh i sng ca khng ch khoa hc, m ca tr tu.
Ngi ta ni, tht qu ng, rng Plato l ngi pht minh ra c cc
trng trung hc v i hc ca chng ta. Ti khng bit mt l l tt hn
no cho ci nhn lc quan v loi ngi, khng chng minh no tt hn
cho tnh yu khng th hu dit c i vi chn l v s ng n, cho
tnh c o v tnh ngoan cng v s lnh mnh ca h, hn l s thc
rng h thng gio dc tn ph ny khng hu hoi hon ton h. Bt
chp s bi bc ca rt nhiu lnh t ca h, c mt s kh ng ngi,
gi cng nh tr, l nhng ngi ng n, v thng minh, v ht lng v
nhim v ca h. i khi ti kinh ngc lm sao m mi nguy hi gy ra
li khng c th cm nhn thy r hn, Samuel Buttler24 ni, v rng
nhng ngi n ng v n b ln ln khn ngoan v c duyn nh
vy, bt chp cc mu toan c b cong v lm ci cc s pht trin
ca h. Mt s khng nghi ng g b thit hi, m h phi chu ng cho
n cui i; nhng nhiu ngi c v t hay khng h ti hn, v mt s
hu nh tt hn. L do dng nh l bn nng t nhin ca l tr trong
hu ht cc trng hp ni lon mt cch tuyt i n th chng li s
o to ca chng, rng, du cc thy gio c lm ci g h c th, h
cng chng bao gi khin chng ch nghim tc n n.
C th ni n y rng, trong thc tin, Plato khng t ra qu
thnh cng vi t cch l ngi la chn cc lnh t chnh tr. Ti ngh
khng nhiu n kt qu y tht vng ca th nghim ca ng vi
Dionysius Tr, bo cha x Syracuse, m ng hn n s tham gia Vin
Hn Lm ca Plato trong cuc vin chinh thnh cng ca Dio chng li
Dionysius. Dio, bn ni ting ca Plato, c nhiu thnh vin ca Vin
Hn Lm ca Plato ng h trong cuc phiu lu ny. Mt trong s h l
Callippus, ngi tr thnh ng ch tin cy nht ca Dio. Sau khi Dio tr
thnh bo cha x Syracuse sp t git Heraclides, ng minh (v c
l i th) ca hn. Sau y khng lu bn thn hn b Callippus git v
Callippus chim quyn chuyn ch, m hn b mt n sau mi ba thng.
(n lt mnh, hn b mt trit gia Pythagorean [theo phi Pythagoras]
l Leptines git). Nhng s kin ny khng phi l mt s kin duy nht
thuc loi ny trong s nghip ca Plato nh mt thy gio. Clearchus,
mt trong nhng hc tr ca Plato (v ca Isocrates), tr thnh bo cha
x Heraclea sau khi lm ra v l mt nh lnh o dn ch. Hn b
mt ngi b con ca mnh, Chion, mt thnh vin khc ca Vin Hn
Lm ca Plato, git. (Chng ta khng th bit Chion pht trin ra sao,
mt s ngi miu t hn nh mt ngi duy tm, v chng bao lu hn
CHNG 7: S LNH O
137
cng b git). Nhng kinh nghim ny v vi kinh nghim tng t ca

Plato25 - ngi c th kiu hnh v t nht chn bo cha gia nhng
ngi mt thi l hc tr v cng s ca mnh - ri nh sng ln nhng
kh khn c bit lin quan n la chn nhng ngi c trao quyn
lc tuyt i. Kh tm ra mt ngi m tnh cch khng b lm cho i
bi bi quyn lc . Nh Lord Acton ni - mi quyn lc u tham
nhng, quyn lc tuyt i tham nhng mt cch tuyt i.
Tm tt. Chng trnh chnh tr ca Plato mang tnh ch nh hn nhiu
tnh trng nhn s; ng hi vng lm ngng thay i chnh tr bng s
kim sot ch nh s k v v lnh o. S kim sot phi mang tnh
gio dc, da trn cch nhn c on v hc tp trn thm quyn ca
chuyn gia hay ch, v ngi c tnh trung thc c th thch. y
l ci Plato ch ra t i hi ca Socrates rng mt nh chnh tr c trch
nhim phi l mt ngi yu chn l v s sng sut hn l mt chuyn
gia, v rng ng ta sng sut ch nu26 bit nhng hn ch ca mnh.
CHNG 8:
VUA TRIT GIA
V nh nc s dng cc tng i tng nh

h. V nhng s t l s c dng ln cho h nh cc
-thn, nh nhng ngi c ban phc bi s n
sng, v nh thn.
PLATO.
S tng phn gia tn iu Platonic v Socratic thm ch cn ln hn

ti chng t cho n y. Plato, nh ni, theo Socrates trong nh
ngha ca ng v trit gia. Anh gi ai l trit gia tht s? Nhng ngi
yu chn l, ta c trong Republic1. Nhng bn thn ng khng hon
ton chn thc khi a ra tuyn b ny. ng khng tin tht s vo n, v
ng tuyn b thng thng cc ch khc rng mt trong cc c quyn
vng gi ca quyn ti cao l s dng y s ni di v la gt:
l quyn ca nhng ngi cai tr thnh ph, nu l quyn ca bt c ai,
ni di, la gt c cc k th ca mnh v cc cng dn ca mnh v
li ch ca thnh ph; v khng ai khc c ng n c quyn ny.2
V li ch ca thnh ph, Plato ni. Li ln na ta thy s cu khn
n nguyn l v thuyt v li tp th l cn nhc o c cui cng. o
c ton tr gt b mi th, thm ch c nh ngha, nim, v trit gia.
Hu nh khng cn phi ni rng, cng do cng nguyn l v tnh thit
thc chnh tr, ngi b tr buc phi ni tht. Nu ngi cai tr tm
c bt k ai khc ni di th ng ta s trng tr ngi v a ra
tp qun lm hi v gy nguy him cho thnh ph3 Ch trong ngha
hi bt ng ny th cc nh cai tr Platonic cc vua trit gia- mi l
nhng ngi yu s tht.
I
Plato minh ho s p dng ny ca nguyn l ca ng v thuyt v li
tp th cho vn ca tnh chn thc bng th d ca thy thuc. Th d
c chn kho, v Plato thch hnh dung s mnh chnh tr ca mnh nh
ca ngi cha bnh hay v cu tinh cho c th x hi m yu. Ngoi
im ny, vai tr m ng quy cho y hc ri nh sng ln tnh cht ton tr
ca thnh ph ca Plato ni li ch nh nc p o cuc sng ca cng
dn t vic giao phi ca cha m h n phn m ca h. Plato din gii
y hc nh mt dng ca chnh tr hc, hay nh bn thn ng trnh by n,
ng coi Aesculapius, thn y hc, nh mt chnh tr gia4. Ngh thut y
CHNG 8: VUA TRIT GIA
139
hc, ng gii thch, khng c coi s ko di cuc sng nh mc ch

ca n, m ch li ch ca nh nc. Trong tt c cc cng ng c
cai tr thch hp, mi ngi c cng vic ring c phn cho anh ta
trong nh nc. y l iu anh ta phi lm, v khng ai c thi gian
dng i sng ca mnh vo vic ng bnh hay c cha tr. Do
thy thuc khng c quyn chm lo cho mt ngi khng th thc
hin cc ngha v bnh thng ca mnh; v mt ngi nh vy l v
dng cho bn thn v cho nh nc. Thm vo iu ny l cn nhc rng
mt ngi nh vy c th c cc con nhng ngi c l cng m yu
ngang vy, v nhng ngi cng l gnh nng cho nh nc. (Lc gi,
Plato nhc ti y hc, bt chp s cm ght tng ln ca ng vi ch ngha
c nhn, vi tm trng ring hn. ng than phin bc s i x ngay vi
cc cng dn t do c nh h l cc n l, a ra mnh lnh ca mnh
ging nh mt bo cha m ch ca hn l lut php, v sau vi v
sang bnh nhn n l tip theo5, v ng cu xin s du dng v nhn ni
hn trong iu tr y hc, ch t cho nhng ngi khng phi l n l).
Lin quan n s dng ni di v la gt, Plato c thuyt phc rng
nhng iu ny l hu ch ch nh mt th thuc6; nhng k cai tr nh
nc, Plato khng khng, phi khng c ng x ging mt s bc s
thng thng nhng ngi khng c lng dng cm pht cc loi
thuc mnh. Vua trit gia, ngi yu s tht nh mt trit gia, phi, nh
mt v vua, l mt ngi dng cm hn, v ng ta phi quyt tm
thc hin rt nhiu vic ni di v la gt v li ch ca nhng ngi
b tr, Plato vi ni thm. iu c ngha, nh ta bit ri, v nh ta
li c bit y t dn chiu ca Plato n thuc, v li ch ca nh
nc. (Kant nhn xt mt ln theo mt tinh thn rt khc l cu Tnh
chn tht l chnh sch hay nht c th qu thc l ng ng, cn cu
Tnh chn tht l tt hn chnh sch l khng th tranh ci7).
Loi ni di no Plato ngh n khi ng h ho ngi cai tr ca mnh
dng thuc mnh? Crossman nhn mnh ng rng Plato mun ni ti
tuyn truyn, k thut kim sot ng x ca m ng a s ngi b
tr8. Chc chn, Plato ngh u tin n iu ny; song khi Crossman
gi rng tuyn truyn ni di ch c nh dng cho ngi b tr, cn
nhng ngi cai tr phi l ngi thng minh c khai sng hon ton,
th ti khng th ng . Ti ngh, ng hn, s on tuyt hon ton vi
bt k th g ging thuyt duy l tr ca Socrates khng u hin nhin
hn l ch hai ln ng by t hi vng ca mnh rng ngay c bn thn
nhng ngi cai tr, t nht sau vi th h, c th c thuyt phc tin
s tuyn truyn ni di ht sc ca ng; ti mun ni ch ngha chng
140
CHNH TR HC CA PLATO
tc ca ng, Huyn thoi v Mu v t ca ng, c bit n nh

Huyn thoi v Kim loi trong con Ngi v v Ngi sinh ra t t.
y chng ta thy l cc nguyn l v li v ton tr ca Plato p o mi
th, ngay c c quyn ca nh cai tr v bit, v v i hi c cho
bit, s tht. ng c ca mong mun ca Plato rng bn thn ngi cai
tr phi tin vo tuyn truyn ni di l hi vng ca ng v tng nh hng
lnh mnh ca n, tc l v tng cng s thng tr ca dng ging ch
nhn, v cui cng, v s lm ngng mi thay i chnh tr.
II
Plato a ra Huyn thoi v Mu v t vi s th nhn thng thng
rng n l mt s la gt. Th ri, Socrates ca Republic ni, c l c
th ba ra mt trong nhng li ni di rt tin m qu thc chng ta
nhc ti va mi y? Vi s gip ca mt li ni di hoa m duy
nht chng ta c th, nu ta may mn, thuyt phc ngay c bn thn cc
nh cai tr - nhng d sao i na phn cn li ca thnh ph.9 L th
lu n vic dng t thuyt phc. i thuyt phc ai tin mt li
ni di c ngha, chnh xc hn, l i la di hay i nh la anh ta; v
c th hp hn vi s v lim s bc trc ca on ny dch l chng
ta c th, nu ta may mn, nh la ngay c bn thn cc nh cai tr.
Nhng Plato rt thng xuyn dng t s thuyt phc, v s xut hin
ca n y ri mt cht nh sng ln cc on khc. C th coi nh
mt li cnh bo rng trong cc on tng t ng c th ngh ti s
tuyn truyn ni di; c bit hn ni ng ch trng rng chnh khch
phi cai tr bng cc phng tin c thuyt phc ln v lc10.
Sau khi tuyn b s ni di hoa m ca mnh, Plato, thay cho tin
hnh trc tip tng thut v Huyn thoi ca ng, u tin ng trnh by
mt li ni u di dng, hi ging li ni u di dng trc s khm
ph ra cng l ca ng; mt ch bo, ti ngh, v s khng thoi mi ca
ng. Dng nh ng khng mong i xut tip theo c cc bn c
ca ng ng h my. Bn thn Huyn thoi bao gm hai tng. Th
nht l tng cng s bo v b m t quc; l tng rng cc
chin binh ca thnh ph ca ng l bn a, c ngun gc t t ca t
nc h, v sn sng bo v t quc h, m h. tng c v ni ting
ny chc chn khng l l do cho s do d ca Plato (mc d cch hnh
vn i thoi gi n mt cch kho lo). tng th hai phn cn li
ca cu chuyn, tuy vy, l huyn thoi v ch ngha chng tc: Thn
a vng vo nhng ngi c kh nng cai tr, bc vo cc ph t,
141
11
v st v ng vo nng dn v cc giai cp sn xut khc. Cc kim

loi ny c di truyn, chng l cc c trng chng tc. Trong on
ny, mt cch do d, Plato u tin gii thiu ch ngha chng tc ca
ng, ng cho php kh nng tr con c th sinh ra vi mt hn hp kim
loi khc vi kim loi ca b m chng; v phi tha nhn l y ng
tuyn b quy tc sau: nu mt trong cc giai cp thp hn tr con sinh
ra vi mt hn hp ca vng v bc, chng s c ch nh l nhng
ngi bo v, v cc ph t. Nhng s nhng b ny b bi b cc
on mun hn ca Republic (v c Laws), c bit trong cu chuyn
v s Suy Sp ca Con Ngi v ca S12, c trch mt phn
chng 5 k trn. T on ny chng ta bit rng, bt k hn hp no ca
mt trong cc kim loi thng, phi b loi tr khi cc giai cp cao hn.
Kh nng ca cc hn hp v thay i tng ng v a v v th ch c
ngha rng tr con bm sinh cao qu nhng tha ho c th b y xung,
ch khng phi rng bt c a tr bm sinh khng cao qu no c th
c y ln. Cch theo bt k s pha trn kim loi no phi dn ti
hu dit c m t on kt ca cu chuyn v s Suy Sp ca Con
Ngi: St s ln vi bc v ng thic vi vng, v t hn hp ny s
bin i s sinh ra v tnh khng u v l; v h khi cc th ny sinh ra
chng s gy ra tranh u v th ch. V y l cch ta phi m t t
tin v dng di ca Mi Chia R, bt c u n ny sinh13. Theo nh
sng ny ta phi lu l Huyn thoi v Ngi sinh ra t t kt thc
vi s ba t tr trn v mt li sm ca mt nh tin tri h cu rng
thnh ph phi dit vong khi c bo v bi st v ng14. S min
cng ca Plato xut ch ngha chng tc ca mnh ngay lp tc
dng cc oan hn ca n biu l, ti ngh, l ng bit n i lp n
th no vi cc xu hng dn ch v nhn o ch ngha ca thi ng.
Nu ta lu n s tha nhn thng thng ca Plato rng Huyn thoi
v Mu v t ca ng l mt s tuyn truyn di tr, th thi ca
nhng ngi bnh lun v Huyn thoi hi gy bi ri. Th d, Adam
vit: Khng c n, phc ho hin thi v nh nc s khng y .
Chng ta cn n s m bo no cho s vnh cu ca thnh ph..; v
khng g c th hn theo kp o c thnh hnh v tinh thn tn gio
ca gio dc ca Plato l ng thy m bo nim tin hn l l
tr.15 Ti ng (mc d y khng hon ton l ci Adam mun ni)
rng khng g hn theo kp o c ton tr ca Plato l ch trng
tuyn truyn ni di ca ng. Nhng ti khng hon ton hiu lm sao
nh bnh lun sng o v duy tm li c th tuyn b, bng n , rng
tn gio v nim tin li ngang mc ca mt s ni di c hi ch
142
CHNH TR HC CA PLATO
ngha. Tht ra, bnh lun ca Adam gi li thuyt quy c ca Hobbes,

quan im, mc d khng ng, cho rng cc gio l ca tn gio l cng
c chnh tr thit thc nht v khng th thiu c. V s lu ny cho
ta thy Plato, rt cuc, l ngi theo thuyt quy c hn l ta c th ngh.
ng thm ch khng chm dt t ngt vic xc lp mt nim tin tn
gio bng quy c (chng ta phi cng nhn ng vi tnh ngay thng
ca s tha nhn ca ng rng n ch l s ba t), trong khi ngi theo
thuyt quy c ni ting Protagoras ch t tin rng lut php, sn phm
ca chng ta, c lm ra vi s gip ca cm hng siu phm. Kh
hiu v sao cc nh bnh lun16 v Plato nhng ngi ca ngi ng v s
u tranh chng li thuyt quy c c tnh lt ca cc Sophist, v v
s xc lp mt ch ngha t nhin tinh thn rt cuc da trn tn gio, li
khng ph bnh ng v a ra mt quy c, hay ng hn mt chuyn
ba, c s nn tng ca tn gio. Thc ra, thi ca Plato i vi tn
gio nh c s ni di truyn cm tit l l hu nh ng nht vi
thi ca Critias, ngi cu yu qu ca ng, nh lnh o ti gii ca
Ba mi Bo cha thit lp mt ch m mu nhc nh Athens
sau chin tranh Peloponnesian. Critias, mt nh th, l ngi u tin ca
ngi tuyn truyn ni di m s ba t ra n c ng m t trong cc
vn th sinh ng ca ngi k uyn thm v xo tr to ra tn gio,
nhm thuyt phc nhn dn, tc l e do h phi phc tng.17
Ri, dng nh k uyn thm v xo tr n,
Ngi u tin ba ra s s hi cha b trn
Y pha ra mt truyn, mt thuyt rt c duyn,
Che du s tht bng mn che tri thc di la.
Ch ra ni ca cc thn ng s,
Tt trn vm xoay, ni sm gm vang
V chp lo kinh hong lm m c mt
Vy cht con ngi bng ai s hi;
H b cc thn chn ho hoa bao quanh,
Hn m hoc h bng nhng ba m, v do V hn lon bin thnh trt t v lut php.
Theo quan im ca Cristias, tn gio chng l g m l s ni di hoa
m ca mt chnh khch ln v thng minh. Quan im ca Plato l rt
ging, c trong gii thiu Huyn thoi Republic (ni ng tha nhn
thng thng rng Huyn thoi l s ni di) v Laws ni ng ni rng
t ra cc l nghi v cc thn l vic cho mt nh t tng ln18. Song
y l ton b s tht v thi tn gio ca Plato? ng chng l g m
143
l mt ngi c hi trong lnh vc ny, v tinh thn rt khc ca cc

cng trnh trc ca ng n thun l Socratic? Tt nhin khng c cch
no quyt nh vn ny vi s chc chn, mc d ti cm thy, mt
cch trc gic, rng i khi c mt cm nhn tn gio chn tht hn ngay
c cc tc phm mun hn. Nhng ti tin l bt c u Plato xem xt
cc vn tn gio trong quan h vi chnh tr, ch ngha c hi chnh tr
ca ng qut sch mi cm ngh khc sang bn l. Nh vy Plato i,
trong Laws, s trng pht nghim ngt nht thm ch i vi ngi dn19
lng thin v chnh trc nu kin ca h v cc thn khc vi kin
ca nh nc. Linh hn ca h c mt Hi ng ban m ca cc
quan to d gio20 xem xt, v nu h khng cng khai rt kin hay nu
h lp li s vi phm, th s buc ti nghch o c ngha l ci cht. ng
qun rng Socrates l mt nn nhn ca chnh s buc ti y?
Rng li ch ch yu ca nh nc l ci gy ra cc i hi ny, hn l
li ch v nim tin tn gio theo ngha hp ca t, c biu l bi hc
thuyt tn gio trung tm ca Plato. Cc thn, ng dy trong Laws, trng
pht nghim khc tt c nhng ngi pha sai trong xung t gia ci
tt v ci xu, mt cuc xung t c din gii nh gia ch ngha tp
th v ch ngha c nhn21. V cc thn, ng khng khng, c quan tm
tch cc n con ngi, h khng ch l cc khn gi. L khng th
lm cho h ngui. C cu nguyn ln t l chng lm h ng lng tha
trng pht22. Li ch chnh tr ng sau gio hun ny l r, v n c
lm thm ch cn r hn bi i hi ca Plato rng nh nc phi cm
mi nghi ng v bt c phn no ca gio iu chnh tr-tn gio ny, v
c bit v hc thuyt rng cc thn khng bao gi king trng pht.
Ch ngha c hi v l thuyt v ni di ca Plato, tt nhin, gy kh
khn cho din gii iu ng ni. ng tin vo l thuyt ca mnh v cng l
n u? ng tin vo s tht ca cc hc thuyt tn gio n u? C l
ng l mt ngi v thn, bt chp i hi ca ng v trng pht nhng
ngi khc (t) v thn hn? Du cho ta khng th hi vng tr li cho bt
c trong cc cu hi ny mt cch dt khot, ti tin, l kh, v khng c
cn c v phng php lun, khng cho Plato ch t li ch ca s nghi
ng. V c bit s chn thnh c bn ca lng tin ca ng rng c mt
nhu cu cp bch ngng mi thay i, ti ngh, kh c th b nghi
ng. (Ti s quay li im ny chng 10). Mt khc, ta khng th
nghi ng l Plato t tnh yu Socratic vi s tht di nguyn l c bn
hn cho rng s cai tr ca giai cp ch nhn phi c tng cng.
L th, tuy vy, lu rng l thuyt ca Plato v chn l l t cc
oan hn mt cht so vi l thuyt ca ng v cng l. Cng l, chng ta
144
CHNH TR HC CA PLATO
thy, c xc nh, thc tin, nh cng l phc v cho li ch ca nh

nc ton tr ca ng. C th c kh nng, tt nhin, nh r khi nim
v s tht theo cng cch v li hay thc dng. Huyn thoi l ng,
Plato c th ni, v bt c g phc v cho li ch ca nh nc ti phi
c tin v v th phi c gi l ng; v khng c c tiu chun
no khc cho s tht. V l thuyt, mt bc tng t thc s c
nhng ngi ni nghip thc dng ca Hegel tin hnh; trn thc tin, n
c bn thn Hegel v nhng ngi k nghip cc oan ca ng tin
hnh. Song Plato vn gi li tinh thn Socratic tht th tha nhn l
ng ni di. Bc do trng phi Hegel tin hnh l bc khng bao gi
c th xy ra, ti ngh, vi bt c bu bn no ca Socrates23.
III
Ngn y v vai tr do nim v Chn l ng nh nc tt nht ca
Plato. Song ngoi Cng l v Chn l, chng ta vn phi xt thm cc
nim, nh Ci Tt [Thin], Ci p [M], v Hnh Phc, nu ta mun
loi b cc phn i, ny sinh chng 6, chng li din gii ca chng
ta v chng trnh chnh tr ca Plato l thun tu ton tr ch ngha, v
da trn ch ngha lch s. Mt cch tip cn ti tho lun cc nim
ny, v c tho lun nim v s Sng Sut, c bn lun mt phn
chng trc, c th c lm bng xem xt kt qu hi ph nh t
c bi bn lun ca chng ta v nim Chn l. V kt qu ny a ra
mt vn mi: V sao Plato i rng cc trit gia phi l vua hay vua
trit gia, nu ng nh ngha trit gia nh ngi yu chn l, li mt khc,
khng khng, rng nh vua phi dng cm hn, v dng li ni di?
Tr li duy nht cho cu hi ny, tt nhin, l Plato , thc ra, ngh
n ci g rt khc khi ng dng t trit gia. V qu thc, chng ta
thy chng trc rng trit gia ca ng khng phi l ngi tn
tm tm kim s sng sut, m l ngi kiu hnh s hu n. ng l mt
ngi c hc, mt hin nhn. Ci m Plato i, v th, l s cai tr ca
hc vn uyn bc - l sophocracy (trit tr), nu c th gi nh vy.
hiu i hi ny, chng ta phi th tm ra loi chc nng no lm cho
ng mong mun rng ngi cai tr nh nc ca Plato phi l mt ngi
s hu tri thc, mt trit gia c t cch hon ton, nh Plato ni.
Cc chc nng cn xem xt c th c chia thnh hai nhm chnh, c
th l cc chc nng lin quan n nn tng ca nh nc, v nhng ci
lin quan n s duy tr n.
145
IV
Chc nng u tin v quan trng nht ca vua trit gia l chc nng
ca nh sng lp thnh ph v nh lp php. D hiu v sao Plato cn mt
trit gia cho nhim v ny. Nu nh nc mun n nh, th n phi l
mt bn sao chnh xc ca Hnh thc hay nim thing ling ca Nh
nc. Song ch c mt trit gia ngi hon ton thnh tho v cc khoa
hc cao nht, v php bin chng, mi c kh nng nhn ra, v sao, Bn
gc siu phm. im ny c nhn mnh nhiu phn ca Republic
ni Plato pht trin cc l l ca mnh cho quyn ti cao ca trit gia24.
Cc trit gia thch hiu r s tht, v ngi yu ch thc lun lun
thch nhn thy ci ton th, khng ch cc phn. Nh th ng khng
thch, nh ngi dn thng, cc th c th cm nhn c v m
thanh, mu sc v hnh th p ca chng, m ng mun nhn thy,
v chim ngng bn cht thc ca ci p- Hnh thc hay nim ca
Ci p. Bng cch ny, Plato cho t trit gia mt ngha mi, ngha
ca mt ngi yu v mt ngi thy th gii siu phm ca cc Hnh
thc hay nim. Vi t cch , trit gia l ngi c th tr thnh nh
sng lp ca mt thnh ph c o c25: Trit gia, ngi ho ng vi
thn thnh c th b chong ngp bi s thi thc nhn ra tm
nhn siu phm ca mnh, v thnh ph l tng v v cc cng dn l
tng ca n. ng ging mt ngi phc ho hay ho s c thnh thn
nh ngi mu [model] ca mnh. Ch cc nh trit hc ch thc mi
c th phc ho ra s mt bng ca thnh ph, ch duy nht h c th
thy bn gc, v c th sao chp n, bng cch cho mt h lic i lic
li, t model sang bc tranh, v ln li t bc tranh sang model.
Nh mt ho s ca cc hin php26, trit gia phi c nh sng ca
tnh tt v s sng sut gip . Vi nhn xt s c a thm lin quan
n hai tng ny, v tm quan trng ca chng cho trit gia trong
chc nng ca mnh nh nh sng lp thnh ph.
nim v Ci Tt ca Plato l cao nht trong th bc cc Hnh thc.
N l mt tri ca thn gii ca cc Hnh thc hay nim, khng ch
chiu nh sng ln mi thnh vin khc, m l ngun tn ti ca chng27.
N cng l ngun hay nguyn nhn ca mi tri thc v mi s tht28.
Nng lc v trng thy, v nhn thc, v bit Ci Tt, nh vy l khng
th thiu c29 vi nh bin chng. V l mt tri v ngun sng trong
th gii cc Hnh thc, n lm cho trit gia-ho s c th thy r cc i
tng ca mnh. Chc nng ca n v th c tm quan trng ln nht cho
nh sng lp thnh ph. Nhng thng tin hnh thc thun tu ny l tt c
146
CHNH TR HC CA PLATO
ci ta c c. nim ca Plato v Ci Tt khng u ng mt vai

tr o c hay chnh tr trc tip hn; khng bao gi ta nghe vic lm
no l tt, hay to ra ci tt, ngoi quy tc o c tp th ch ngha ni
ting m cc gio hun ca n c a ra m khng vin dn n
nim v Ci Tt. Cc nhn xt rng Ci Tt l mc ch, ng c mi
ngi30 mong mi, khng lm giu thm thng tin ca chng ta. Ch
ngha hnh thc trng rng ny cn r rt hn Philebus, ni Ci Tt
c ng nht31 vi nim v mc hay trung dung. V khi ti
c tng thut rng Plato, trong bi ging V Ci Tt ni ting ca
ng, lm tht vng ngi nghe v hc bng nh ngha Ci Tt nh lp
ca ci xc nh c hnh dung nh mt ci thng nht, th s ng
cm ca ti l vi thnh gi. Trong Republic, Plato ni thng thn32 l
ng khng th gii thch ng hiu Ci Tt l g. Gi duy nht m ta
tng c c l gi c nhc ti u chng 4 - rng tt l mi th
duy tr lu di v xu l tt c mi th dn ti thi nt hay suy i. (Tt,
tuy vy, y dng nh khng l nim ca Ci Tt, m ng hn l
mt tnh cht ca cc th lm cho chng ging cc nim). Ci Tt, do
, l mt trng thi khng thay i, b ngng li ca cc s vt; n l
trng thi ca cc th ng yn.
iu ny c v khng a chng ta i rt xa ch ngha ton tr chnh tr
ca Plato; v phn tch nim v Sng Sut ca Plato dn n cc kt
qu tht vng ngang vy. Sng Sut, nh ta thy, vi Plato khng c
ngha l s thu hiu Socratic v cc hn ch ca ring mnh; n cng
khng c ngha l ci m hu ht chng ta ch i, mt s quan tm
nng hu n, v mt s hiu bit c ch v, lng nhn o v cc vn
con ngi. Ngi sng sut ca Plato, qu bn rn vi cc vn ca th
gii cao hn, khng c thi gian nhn xung cc vn con ngi;
h nhn ln, v bm cht ly, ci ngn np v chng mc. Chnh loi hc
tp ng, l ci lm cho mt ngi thng thi: Bn cht trit hc l
nhng ngi yu loi hc tp, tit l cho h thc ti tn ti mi mi v
khng b s sinh ra v suy i quy ry. C v nghin cu ca Plato v
sng sut khng th a chng ta vt qu l tng v ngng thay i.
V
Mc d phn tch cc chc nng ca nh sng lp thnh ph khng tit
l bt c yu t o c mi no trong hc thuyt ca Plato, n chng t
rng c mt l do r rng v sao nh sng lp thnh ph phi l mt trit
gia. Song iu ny khng hon ton bin minh cho i hi v quyn ti
147
cao vnh vin ca trit gia. N ch gii thch v sao trit gia phi l nh
lp php u tin, song khng gii thch v sao ng cn l nh cai tr vnh
vin, c bit v chng ai trong cc nh cai tr mun hn phi a ra bt
c thay i no. cho mt bin minh y v i hi rng cc trit
gia phi cai tr, v th chng ta phi tip tc phn tch nhim v gn vi
vic duy tr thnh ph.
Chng ta bit t cc l thuyt x hi hc ca Plato rng nh nc, mt
khi c thit lp, s tip tc n nh chng no khng c s chia r
s thng nht ca giai cp ch. Nui dng giai cp ny, v th, l chc
nng duy tr ln ca quyn ti cao, v l mt chc nng phi tip tc
chng no nh nc cn tn ti. N bin minh n u cho i hi rng
mt trit gia phi cai tr? tr li cu hi ny, chng ta li phn bit,
trong phm vi chc nng ny, hai hot ng khc nhau: gim st gio
dc, v gim st s gy ging u sinh.
V sao gim c gio dc phi l mt trit gia? V sao khng , mt
khi nh nc v h thng gio dc ca n c thit lp, c mt
tng c kinh nghim, mt qun vng ph trch vic y? Cu tr li
rng h thng gio dc phi cung cp khng ch binh lnh m c cc trit
gia, v v th cn cc trit gia cng nh cc qun nhn nh ngi gim
st, hin nhin l khng tho mn; v nu gi nh khng cn trit gia no
vi t cch l gim c gio dc v nh cai tr vnh cu, th s khng cn
h thng gio dc to ra nhng ngi mi. Cc i hi ca h thng gio
dc vi t cch nh vy khng th bin minh cho nhu cu i vi cc
trit gia trong nh nc ca Plato, hay cho yu cu rng cc nh cai tr
phi l cc trit gia. iu ny s khc, tt nhin, nu gi nh gio dc ca
Plato c mt mc ch c nhn ch ngha, ngoi mc ch phc v li
ch ca nh nc; th d, mc ch pht trin cc nng khiu trit hc
v li ch t thn. Nhng khi ta thy, nh thy chng trc, Plato
hong s n th no v cho php bt c th g ging t duy c lp33;
v khi by gi ta thy rng mc ch l thuyt cui cng ca s gio dc
trit hc ny thun tu l Hiu bit v nim ca Ci Tt m n khng
cho mt kh nng gii thch r rng v nim ny, th chng ta bt u
nhn ra rng y khng th l s gii thch. V cm tng ny c tng
cng nu chng ta nh li chng 4, ni chng ta thy Plato cng
i nhng hn ch trong gio dc m nhc Athens. Tm quan trng to
ln m Plato gn cho gio dc trit hc ca cc nh cai tr phi c gii
thch bng cc l do khc- bng cc l do hn ch l chnh tr.
L do chnh ti c th thy l nhu cu lm tng tt bc quyn lc ca
cc nh cai tr. Nu gio dc cc ph t hot ng mt cch thch ng,
148
CHNH TR HC CA PLATO
s c nhiu binh lnh tt. Nng lc qun s xut sc v th c th l

khng xc lp mt quyn lc khng b thch thc v khng th bt
b. iu ny phi da vo cc i hi cao hn. Plato da vo cc i hi
v cc nng lc siu nhin, thn b m ng pht trin trong cc nh lnh
o ca mnh. H khng ging nhng ngi khc. H thuc v mt th
gii khc, h giao tip vi thn thnh. Nh th vua trit gia dng nh,
mt phn, l bn sao ca mt vua-thy tu b lc, mt th ch m chng ta
nhc ti trong quan h vi Heraclitus. (Th ch v cc vua-thy tu b
lc hay cc thy mo hay cc thy ph thu dng nh cng nh hng
ti gio phi Pythagorean c xa, vi cc cm k b lc ng sng st
ca h. Hnh nh, hu ht cc iu ny b b i ngay c trc Plato.
Nhng i hi ca cc Pythagorean v mt c s siu nhin ca uy
quyn ca h vn cn). Nh th gio dc trit hc ca Plato c mt chc
nng chnh tr r rng. N t mt du ln cc nh cai tr, v thit lp
mt hng ro gia cc nh cai tr v nhng ngi b tr. (iu ny vn
cn l mt chc nng chnh ca gio dc bc cao cho n thi i
chng ta). S sng sut Platonic t c phn ln v mc ch thit lp
mt s thng tr giai cp chnh tr vnh vin. N c th c m t nh
mt yu thut chnh tr, ban quyn nng thn b cho nhng ngi s
hu n, cc thy mo.34
Nhng y khng th l tr li y cho cu hi ca chng ta v cc
chc nng ca trit gia trong nh nc. N c ngha, ng hn, l cu hi
v sao cn n trit gia ch c dch chuyn, v rng by gi chng ta
phi nu ra cu hi tng t v cc chc nng chnh tr thc tin ca thy
mo hay thy ph thu. Plato phi c mc ch xc nh no khi ng
ngh ra vic o to trit hc c bit ca ng. Chng ta phi tm mt
chc nng lu di ca ngi cai tr, tng t nh chc nng tm thi ca
nh lp php. Hi vng duy nht ca s pht hin ra mt chc nng nh
vy c v l lnh vc gy ging dng di ch nhn.
VI
Cch tt nht tm ra v sao cn n trit gia nh ngi cai tr vnh
vin l t ra cu hi: Ci g xy ra, theo Plato, i vi nh nc nu n
khng c mt trit gia cai tr vnh vin? Plato cho cu hi ny mt
cu tr li r rng. Nu nhng ngi bo v ca nh nc, ngay c ngi
rt hon ho, m khng bit v hc vn Pythagorean v v S Platonic,
th dng ging nhng ngi bo v, v vi n l nh nc, phi suy i.
149
Ch ngha chng tc nh th chim mt phn trung tm hn ta c th

mong i lc u chng trnh chnh tr ca Plato. Ht nh S chng
tc hay hn phi Platonic to khung cnh cho x hi hc m t ca ng,
khung cnh trong Trit hc v Lch s ca Plato c trnh by (nh
Adam din t), n cng to khung cnh ca i hi ca Plato cho quyn
ti cao ca cc trit gia. Sau ci c ni chng 4 v hu trng cc
nh nui gia sc hay nui nga ca nh nc ca Plato, c l chng ta
khng hon ton khng sn sng thy rng vua ca ng l mt vua gy
ging. Nhng n vn c th lm mt s ngi ngc nhin rng trit gia
ca ng ho ra l mt ngi gy ging trit hc. Nhu cu v s gy ging
mt cch khoa hc, bin chng-ton hc v trit hc khng phi l ci t
nht trong cc l l ng sau i hi cho quyn ti cao ca cc trit gia.
Chng 4 cho thy vn kim c ging thun chng ca ch ngi
c nhn mnh v trau chut ra sao trong cc phn trc ca Republic.
Nhng cho n nay chng ta khng gp bt c l do c v hp l v sao
ch mt trit gia ch thc v y t cch phi l mt ngi gy ging
chnh tr thnh tho v thnh cng. Cn na, nh mi ngi gy ging
ch hay nga hay chim u bit, s gy ging hp l l khng th lm
c m khng c mt khun mu, mt mc ch hng dn ng ta
trong cc n lc ca mnh, mt mu ngi l tng m ng ta c th th
tip cn bng cc phng php giao phi v chn la. Khng c mt tiu
chun nh vy ng ta chng bao gi c th quyt nh a con no l
tt; ng ta chng bao gi c th ni v s khc bit gia con tt v
con xu. Nhng tiu chun ny tng ng chnh xc vi nim
Platonic v chng tc m ng nh gy ging.
Ht nh ch trit gia ch thc, nh bin chng, c th thy, theo Plato,
nguyn bn siu phm ca thnh ph, nn ch nh bin chng l ngi c
th thy nguyn bn siu phm khc Hnh thc hay nim Con Ngi.
Ch c ng ta mi c kh nng sao chp hnh mu ny, gi n t trn
Tri xung t35, v thc hin n y. N l mt nim vng gi,
nim Ngi. N khng, nh mt s ngi ngh, i din cho ci l chung
cho tt c mi ngi; n khng l khi nim ngi vn nng. N, ng
hn, l bn gc ging thn ca con ngi, mt siu nhn khng thay i;
n l mt siu nhn Hy Lp, v mt siu ch nhn. Trit gia phi c thc
hin trn tri t ci m Plato m t nh chng tc ca nhng ngi bt
bin nht, sung sc nht, v trong gii hn kh nng, p nht ..; nhn
cch bm sinh cao qu, v gy kinh hong36. N phi l chng tc ca
nhng ngi n ng v n b nhng ngi ging nh thn nu khng
150
CHNH TR HC CA PLATO
phi l thn thnh .. c chm tr trong sc p hon m37 - mt chng

tc qu phi, c t nhin dnh cho vng quyn v quyn lm ch.
Chng ta thy rng hai chc nng c bn ca vua trit gia l tng t:
ng phi sao chp nguyn bn siu phm ca thnh ph, v phi sao chp
nguyn bn siu phm ca con ngi. ng l ngi duy nht c kh
nng, v l ngi c s thi thc, thc hin, trong c nhn cng nh
trong thnh ph, tm nhn siu phm ca mnh38.
By gi chng ta c th hiu v sao Plato ni li bng gi u tin ca
mnh rng cn nhiu hn s xut sc thng thng trong nhng ngi cai
tr ca ng cng ch ni ng u tin a ra i hi rng phi p dng
cc nguyn l gy ging ng vt cho loi ngi. ng ni, chng ta rt
thn trng trong gy ging ng vt. Nu khng gy ging chng theo
cch ny, anh khng ngh l ging chim, ging ch ca mnh s nhanh
chng thoi ho? Khi suy ra t iu ny rng con ngi phi c gy
ging thn trng theo cng cch, Socrates la ln: Tri i! .. Chng ta
s phi i hi t nhng ngi cai tr ca mnh s xut sc tri hn th
no, nu cng cc nguyn l c p dng cho loi ngi!39 Li cm
thn ny l quan trng; n l mt trong cc li m ch u tin rng
nhng ngi cai tr c th to thnh mt giai cp u t vt tri vi a
v v s o to ring ca h; v nh th chun b chng ta cho i hi
rng h phi l cc trit gia. Nhng on ny thm ch cn quan trng
hn chng mc m n dn trc tip n i hi ca Plato rng phi l
ngha v ca nhng ngi cai tr, vi t cch l cc bc s ca loi ngi,
ni di v la gt. Ni di l cn thit, Plato khng nh, nu by n
mun t s hon thin cao nht; cho nhu cu ny nhng dn xp phi
c gi b mt i vi tt c mi ngi tr cc nh cai tr, nu chng ta
mun gi by nhng ngi bo v thc s khng b chia r. Qu thc,
li ku gi (c trch trn) i vi cc nh cai tr hy c nhiu can
m hn trong thc hin ni di nh mt th thuc c a ra trong
mi quan h ny; n chun b bn c cho i hi tip theo, c Plato
coi l c bit quan trng. ng ra lnh40 rng cc nh cai tr phi v ra,
cho mc ch phi ging cc ph t tr, mt h thng b phiu kho lo,
sao cho nhng ngi b tht vng .. c th li cho vn ri ca h, ch
khng phi cho cc nh cai tr, nhng ngi sp t vic b phiu mt
cch b mt. V ngay lp tc sau li khuyn tin ny thoi thc vic
nhn trch nhim (bng cch cho Socrates ni iu ny, Plato bi nh
ngi thy v i ca mnh), Socrates a ra gi 41 mau chng c
Glaucon bn n v trau chut v v th chng ta c th gi l Ch d
Glauconic. Ti mun ni n lut tn bo42 p t ln mi ngi thuc
151
c hai gii, trong thi gian chin tranh, ngha v phc tng lng thm
mun ca ngi dng cm: Chng no chin tranh cn ko di, .. khng
ai c th ni Khng i vi anh ta. Cho nn, nu mt ngi lnh mun
lm tnh vi bt c ai, n ng hay n b, lut ny lm cho anh ta ho
hc hn t c ci gi ca lng dng cm. Nh nc, c ch ra
mt cch cn thn, do s nhn c hai li ch r rt - nhiu anh hng
hn, nh s khuyn khch, v li nhiu anh hng hn, nh s tr con t
cc anh hng tng ln. (iu li sau, nh mt trong nhng quan im
quan trng nht ca mt chnh sch chng tc di hn, c cho
Socrates ni ra).
VII
Khng cn n s o to trit hc c bit no cho s gy ging thuc
loi ny. Gy ging trit hc, tuy vy, gp phn chnh ca n chng
li cc mi nguy him v tha ho. u tranh vi cc mi nguy him
ny, cn n mt trit gia hon ton t cch, tc l ngi c o to
v ton hc thun tu (bao gm hnh hc khng gian), thin vn hc
thun tu, ho m hc thun tu, v thnh tu tt cng ca tt c, v php
bin chng. Ch c ngi bit b mt ca u sinh hc ton hc, ca S
Platonic, mi c th mang tr li, v duy tr cho con ngi, hnh phc
c hng trc Suy Sp43. Phi nh tt c iu ny, sau vic cng b
Ch d Glauconic (v sau mt on chuyn tip cp n s phn bit
t nhin gia nhng ngi Hy Lp v nhng ngi Man R, theo Plato,
tng ng vi s phn bit gia cc ch nhn v n l), khi hc thuyt
c ra m Plato cn thn by t nh i hi chnh tr trung tm v n
tng nht ca ng quyn ti cao ca vua trit gia. Ch ring i hi
ny, ng dy, c th chm dt nhng ci xu ca i sng x hi; ci xu
trn lan cc nh nc, tc l s bt n nh chnh tr, cng nh nguyn
nhn b che du ca n, ci xu trn lan trong cc thnh vin ca loi
ngi, tc l, s tha ho chng tc. y l on vn.44
No, Socrates ni, by gi ti sp i su vo ti m ti so snh
trc y vi con sng ln nht. Th m ti phi ni, d l ti thy trc
rng iu ny s lm cho ti b ci ti tp. Qu thc, ti c th thy by
gi, chnh con sng ny, v bn trn u mnh thnh s m ca ting
ci v s ph bng.. Ni thng chuyn ra i! Glaucon ni. Tr phi,
Socrates ni, tr phi, trong cc thnh ph ca h, cc trit gia c ban
cho sc mnh ca vua, hoc nhng ngi by gi c gi l vua v u
s tr thnh cc trit gia chnh cng v c y t cch; v tr phi hai
152
CHNH TR HC CA PLATO
th ny, sc mnh chnh tr v trit hc, c hp nht li (cn nhiu

ngi hin chy theo thin hng t nhin ca h v ch mt trong hai
th ny phi b n p bng v lc), tr phi iu ny xy ra, Glaucon
thn mn, khng th c s yn tnh no; v ci xu s khng ngng trn
lan trong cc thnh ph- m cng khng, ti tin, trong chng tc ngi.
(Vi iu ny Kant tr li mt cch uyn thm: Rng cc vua phi
tr thnh cc trit gia, hay cc vua trit gia, khng chc xy ra; n cng
chng ng mong mun, v s chim hu quyn lc lun lun lm mt
phm cht s phn xt t do v l tr. Tuy vy, rt cn thit l mt v vua
hay mt ngi vng gi, tc l t-cai tr - khng c cm cc trit
gia m phi cho h c quyn pht biu cng khai45.)
on vn Platonic quan trng ny c coi rt ng l cha kho cho
ton b tc phm. Cc t cui cng ca n, m cng khng, ti tin, trong
chng tc ngi, ti ngh, l sau mi thm vo c tm quan trng
tng i nh ch ny. Tuy vy, cn bnh lun chng, v thi quen l
tng ho Plato dn n din gii46 rng Plato ni y v nhn
loi, m rng li ha ca ng v cu ri c hi ca cc thnh ph sang
c hi ca loi ngi nh mt tng th. Phi ni l, v mi quan h
ny, phm tr o c ca nhn loi nh ci g vt qu s phn
bit cc dn tc, chng tc, v giai cp, l hon ton xa l vi Plato. Thc
ra, ta c bng chng v s th ch ca Plato i vi tn iu bnh
ng ch ngha, mt s th ch dng nh v thi ca ng i vi
Antisthenes47, mt hc tr gi v bn ca Socrates. Antisthenes cng
thuc v trng phi Gorgias, ging Alcidamas v Lycophron, m cc l
thuyt bnh ng ch ngha ca h c v c m rng thnh hc thuyt
v tnh anh em ca tt c mi ngi, v ca ton b ch con ngi48.
Tn iu ny b tn cng trong Republic bng cch tng quan s bt
bnh ng t nhin ca nhng ngi Hy Lp v ngi Man R vi s bt
bnh ng t nhin ca cc ch nhn v n l; v tnh c l s tn cng
ny c tung ra49 ngay trc on vn ch cht m ta xem xt y. V
cc l do ny v cc l do khc50, c v tin cy cho rng Plato, khi ni
v ci xu trn lan trong chng tc ngi, m ch n mt l thuyt m
cc bn c ca ng c th quen thuc ch ny, c th l, n l
thuyt ca ng cho rng s thnh vng ca nh nc ph thuc, rt
cuc, vo bn cht ca cc thnh vin ring bit ca giai cp thng tr;
v rng bn cht ca h, v bn cht ca dng ging, hay con ci, h, n
lt chng, b e do bi s xu xa ca s gio dc mang tnh c nhn
ch ngha, v, cn quan trng hn, bi s tha ho chng tc. Nhn xt
ca Plato, vi s m ch r n s i lp gia s ng yn tuyt diu
153
vi s xu xa ca thay i v suy tn, bo trc cu chuyn v S v Suy

Sp ca Con Ngi51. Rt thch ng l Plato m ch n ch ngha
chng tc ca mnh trong on vn then cht ny trong ng pht biu
i hi chnh tr quan trng nht ca mnh. V khng c cc trit gia
chnh cng v c y t cch, c o to v tt c cc khoa hc l
iu kin tin quyt cho u sinh hc, th nh nc khng cn na. Trong
cu chuyn v S v Suy Sp ca Con Ngi ca mnh, Plato ni vi
chng ta rng mt trong cc ti li u tin v tai ho ca s chnh mng
do nhng ngi bo v b tha ho phm phi l s mt quan tm n u
sinh hc, n theo di v kim tra s thun khit ca chng tc: K t
y cc nh cai tr s nh ot ai l hon ton khng ph hp cho nhim
v ca h nh nhng ngi bo v; c th l, theo di, v kim tra,
cc kim loi trong cc chng tc (l cc chng tc ca Hesiod cng nh
ca cc anh), vng v bc v ng thic v st.52
Chnh s khng bit S hn phi thn b l ci dn n tt c iu .
Nhng S r rng l s ba t ring ca Plato. (N gi nh trc ho
m hc thun tu, mn, n lt n, li gi nh trc hnh hc khng
gian, mt mn khoa hc mi vo thi Republic c vit). Nh th ta
thy l khng ai ngoi bn thn Plato bit b mt v, v nm cha kho
i vi, s bo v ch thc. Nhng iu ny c th c ngha l mt th
duy nht. Vua trit gia l bn thn Plato, v Republic l i hi ring ca
Plato v quyn lc vng gi - quyn lc m ng ngh mnh c hng,
hp li trong bn thn ng, nh ng lm, c i hi v trit gia v v
ngi tha k, hu du hp php ca Codrus ngi t v o, v vua cui
cng ca Athens, theo Plato, ngi hi sinh bn thn mnh nhm duy
tr vng triu cho con chu ng.
VIII
Mt khi kt lun ny c rt ra, nhiu th m khc i th vn khng
c lin quan tr nn mch lc v r rng. Hu nh khng th nghi ng,
th d, rng tc phm ca Plato, y ry cc li m ch c nh n cc
vn v c im ng thi, m tc gi ca n khng mun ni ngay
c n mt chuyn lun l thuyt, m nh mt tuyn ngn chnh tr mang
tnh thi s. Chng ta hiu lm nghim trng Plato, A. E. Taylor ni,
nu qun rng Republic khng ch n thun l mt su tp cc tho
lun l thuyt v chnh quyn .. m l mt n h trng v ci cch
mang tnh thc tin do mt ngi Athenian xut .., lm bc chy, nh
Shelley, vi mt nim say m ci cch th gii.53 iu ny r rng
154
CHNH TR HC CA PLATO
ng, v ta c th kt lun t ring cn c ny rng, trong m t cc vua

trit gia ca mnh, Plato hn phi ngh v mt vi trit gia ng thi.
Nhng trong nhng ngy Republic c vit, Athens ch c ba ngi
xut sc c th c cho l trit gia: Antisthenes, Isocrates, v bn thn
Plato. Nu tip cn Republic vi iu ny trong u, chng ta thy ngay
rng, trong tho lun cc c im ca cc vua trit gia, c mt on di
do Plato vch ra mt cch r rng nh hm cha cc m ch c nhn. N
bt u54 vi mt m ch khng th nhm ln n mt nhn vt ni ting,
c th l Alcibiades, v kt thc bng cng khai nhc n mt ci tn
(ca Theages), v mt dn chiu ca Socrates n chnh mnh55. Kt
lun ca n l ch c rt t ngi c th c coi l trit gia tht s, t
cch cho chc v vua trit gia. Alcibiades bm sinh cao qu, ngi ng
loi, l trit gia b rung b, bt chp cc n lc ca Socrates cu vt
ng. Trit gia b b ri, khng c kh nng t v c nhng ngi theo
ui khng xng ng yu cu. Rt cuc, ch cn mt nhm ngi xng
ng gn vi trit hc. T quan im m ta t ti, ta c th ch i
rng nhng ngi theo ui khng xng ng l Antisthenes v
Isocrates v trng phi ca h (v rng h cng l nhng ngi m
Plato i n p bng v lc, nh ng ni trong on vn then cht v
vua trit gia). V, qu thc, c bng chng c lp no chng thc
cho s ch i ny56. Tng t, chng ta ch i rng nhm ngi xng
ng bao gm Plato v, c l, vi bn ca ng (c l Dio); v, tht vy,
tip tc ca on ny li t nghi ng rng y Plato ni v chnh
mnh: ng ngi thuc v ton nh ny .. c th thy s in r ca
nhiu ngi, v s thi nt chung ca mi vic cng. Trit gia .. ging
nh mt ngi trong chung th. ng s khng chia s s bt cng ca
nhiu ngi, nhng quyn lc ca ng khng tip tc cuc chin
ca ng mt mnh, c nh th b mt th gii ca nhng k man r bao
vy. ng c th b git trc khi c th lm bt c vic tt no, cho thnh
ph hay cho bn b ca ng .. Sau khi xem xt thch ng tt c cc im
ny, ng s gi mm gi ming, v gii hn cc n lc ca ng cho cng
vic ca ring mnh ..57. S on gin nng n c bc l nhng li
chua cht v rt phi-Socratic58 ny biu hin chng mt cch r rng nh
ca ring Plato. c mt s nh gi y s th nhn c nhn ny,
tuy vy, n phi c so snh vi cc cu sau: Khng ph hp vi t
nhin l hoa tiu lnh ngh phi cu xin cc thu th khng thnh tho
chp nhn s ch huy ca ng; cng khng rng ngi thng thi phi i
ca ca ngi giu... M th tc ng n v t nhin l ngi m yu,
bt lun giu hay ngho, phi vi v n ca nh bc s. Cng nh th
155
nhng ngi cn b tr phi xm quanh ca nh ng ngi c th cai tr;

v khng bao gi mt nh cai tr phi cn xin h chp nhn s cai tr ca
mnh, nu ng c gii mt cht no. Ai c th khng thy ging kiu
cng c nhn gh gm on vn ny? Ta y, Plato ni, k cai tr t
nhin ca cc ngi, vua trit gia ngi bit cai tr ra sao. Nu cc ngi
mun ta, cc ngi phi n vi ta, nu cc ngi c ni, ta c th tr
thnh nh cai tr ca cc ngi. Song ta s khng n cu xin cc ngi.
ng c tin l h s n? Ging nhiu tc phm vn hc ln, Republic
l cc du vt rng tc gi ca n tri qua nhng hi vng phn chn
v ngng cung v thnh cng59, xen k vi cc giai on tuyt vng.
i khi, t nht, Plato hi vng rng h s n; rng thnh cng ca tc
phm ca ng, danh ting v s thng thi ca ng, s mang h theo. Ri
ln na, ng cm thy rng h s ch b kch ng cho cc cuc tn cng
hung d; rng tt c ci ng c th gy ra cho mnh l s m ca ting
ci v s ph bng c th thm ch l ci cht.
ng c nhiu tham vng? ng vi ly cc v sao - s nh thn thnh.
Ti i khi t hi liu phn nhit thnh i vi Plato khng phi l do s
thc rng ng biu l nhiu gic m thm kn.60 Ngay c ni ng lp
lun chng li tham vng, chng ta khng th ngh khc l n truyn cm
hng cho ng. Trit gia, ng m bo vi chng ta61, l khng c tham
vng; mc d c nh trc cai tr, ng ta chng h ho hc cho
vic y. Nhng l do c nu ra- l a v ca ng ta qu cao. ng ta
ngi giao thip vi thn c th h c t tm cao ca mnh xung vi
con ngi di, hi sinh mnh v li ch ca nh nc. ng ta khng ho
hc; nhng vi t cch l nh cai tr t nhin v v cu tinh, ng ta sn
sng xung. Con ngi ti nghip cn n ng ta. Khng c ng ta nh
nc hn tiu vong, v mnh ng ta bit b mt lm sao duy tr n b
mt v lm ngng s tha ho
Ti ngh chng ta phi i mt vi s thc rng ng ng sau quyn
ti cao ca vua trit gia l s truy lng quyn lc. Bc chn dung p
v quyn ti cao l bc chn dung t ho. Khi chng ta tnh li t c
sc ca s pht hin ny, chng ta c th nhn li mt ln na bc chn
dung gy kinh hong ny; v nu chng ta c th cng c mnh bng mt
liu nh s chm bim ca Socrates th chng ta c th thi khng thy
n gy kinh hi n vy. Chng ta c th bt u thy r cc im c
trng mang tnh ngi, qu thc, rt ngi ca n. Thm ch chng ta bt
u cm thy mt cht thng hi i vi Plato, ngi phi tho mn vi
vic thit lp chc gio s u tin, thay cho vng quyn u tin, v
trit hc; ngi chng bao gi c th thc hin c c m ca mnh,
156
CHNH TR HC CA PLATO
nim vng gi m ng to ra theo hnh nh ring ca ng. c cng c

bng liu lng chm bim ca mnh, chng ta thm ch thy, trong cu
chuyn ca Plato, mt ni u su ging nh tc phm tro phng nh v
hi v v tnh v ch ngha Plato, cu chuyn v Ch Chn Xu X (Ugly
Dachshund), ca Tono, ngi an Mnh V i, ngi to ra nim
vng gi v Con Ch V i phng theo hnh nh ring ca ng
(nhng vui v thy cui rng bn thn ng l Con Ch V i)62.
tng ny v vua trit gia l mt tng i v s nh nhen con ngi
bit bao. Mt s tng phn bit bao gia n v tnh n gin v tnh
ngi ca Socrates, ngi cnh bo cc chnh khch chng li nguy c b
lo mt bi quyn lc, s xut sc, v s sng sut ring ca mnh, v l
ngi c gng dy ng ta ci quan trng nht - rng tt c chng ta u l
nhng con ngi mng manh. Sa st bit bao t th gii ny ca s tr
tru v l tr v tnh chn tht xung vng quc hin nhn ca Plato m
cc quyn nng thn diu ca hin nhn a ng ta ln cao trn nhng
ngi bnh thng; mc d khng tht cao b vic dng li ni
di, hay qun ngh h thn ca mi thy mo bn cc ba m, cc
thn ch gy ging, i ly quyn lc trn ng bo mnh.
CHNG 9:
TNH THM M, CH NGHA CU TON,

CH NGHA KHNG TNG
Mi th phi b p tan bt u. Ton b nn vn minh

ng nguyn ra ca chng ta phi tiu tan, trc khi chng ta
c th mang li bt c s ng n no cho th gii.
Mourlan, trong Les (Nh) Thibaults ca DU GARD.
Trong chng trnh ca Plato vn c mt cch tip cn no ti chnh

tr hc m, ti tin, l rt nguy him. Phn tch n c tm quan trng thc
tin ln lao nhn t quan im ca k thut (ci bin) x hi [social
engineering] duy l. Cch tip cn Platonic m ti ngh n c th c
coi nh cch tip cn ca k thut Khng tng [Utopian engineering],
i lp vi loi k thut x hi khc m ti cho l hp l duy nht, v c
th c m t vi ci tn k thut tng phn [piecemeal engineering].
Cch tip cn Khng tng l nguy him hn nh n c v l la chn
kh d hin nhin i vi ch ngha lch s hon ton - cch tip cn lch
s ch ngha cc oan hm rng chng ta khng th thay i din tin
lch s; ng thi, n t ra l mt s b sung thit yu cho ch ngha lch
s t cc oan hn, ging ca Plato, cho php s can thip ca con ngi.
Cch tip cn Khng tng c th c m t nh sau. Bt c hnh
ng duy l no u phi c mt mc ch no . C l cng mc khi
theo ui mc ch ca n mt cch c ch v nht qun, v khi xc
nh cc cng c ca n ph hp vi mc ch ny. Chn mc ch v th
l vic u tin phi lm nu ta mun hnh ng mt cch hp l; v
chng ta phi cn thn xc nh cc mc ch thc hay cui cng ca
mnh, t phi phn bit r rng cc mc ch trung gian hay tng phn
nhng ci trn thc t ch l cc phng tin, hay cc bc trn con
ng, ti mc ch cui cng. Nu khng ch n s phn bit ny,
th cng phi sao nhng cu hi liu cc mc tiu tng phn ny chc c
thc y mc ch cui cng hay khng, v do , chng ta hn khng
hot ng mt cch hp l. Cc nguyn l ny, nu p dng cho lnh vc
hot ng chnh tr, i hi rng chng ta phi xc nh mc ch chnh
tr, hay Nh nc L tng, ca mnh trc khi tin hnh bt k hnh
ng thc tin no. Ch khi mc ch cui cng ny c xc nh, ch t
trong phc tho, ch khi chng ta c ci g nh mt bn thit k ca x
hi m chng ta hng ti, ch khi chng ta mi c th bt u xem
xt nhng cch v cng c tt nht thc hin n, v vch ra mt k
hoch cho hot ng thc tin. y l cc bc ban u cn thit ca bt
158
CHNH TR HC CA PLATO
c nc i chnh tr thc tin no c th c gi l hp l, v c bit

ca k thut (ci bin) x hi.
y, ngn gn, l cch tip cn phng php lun m ti gi l k thut
Khng tng1. N c sc thuyt phc v quyn r. Thc ra, n ng l
cch tip cn phng php lun thu ht tt c nhng ngi hoc
khng b cc nh kin lch s ch ngha nh hng hoc phn ng
chng li chng. iu ny lm cho n nguy him hn, v vic ph phn
n l cng cp bch hn.
Trc khi tip tc ph phn chi tit k thut x hi Khng tng, ti
mun phc ho mt cch tip cn khc n k thut x hi, c th l, k
thut x hi tng phn. l mt cch tip cn m ti ngh l ng n
v phng php lun. Chnh tr gia chp nhn phng php ny c th c
hay c th khng c mt bn thit k x hi trc trong u, c th hay
c th khng hi vng rng loi ngi s thc hin mt nh nc l tng
mt ngy no , v t hnh phc v s tuyt m trn tri t. Nhng
ng ta s thc c rng s tuyt m l rt xa, nu ni chung c th t
c, v rng mi th h con ngi, v v th cuc sng cng, u c i
hi; c l khng phi l i hi c lm cho hnh phc, v khng c cc
phng tin ch nh no v lm cho con ngi hnh phc, m l mt i
hi khng b lm cho bt hnh, ni n c th trnh c. H i hi c
c mi s gip kh d, nu h b au kh. K s tng phn s, do
, chp nhn phng php tm kim, v u tranh chng li, cc t nn
x hi nghim trng nht v cp bch nht, hn l tm kim, v u tranh
cho, ci tt cui cng ca n.2 S khc bit ny cn xa mi l li ni n
thun. Thc ra, l quan trng nht. N l s khc bit gia mt phng
php phi chng v ci thin s phn con ngi, v mt phng php m,
nu th tht s, c th d dng dn n s gia tng khng th chu ni v
s au kh ca con ngi. N l s khc bit gia mt phng php c
th c p dng bt c lc no, v mt phng php m vic ch
trng n c th d dng tr thnh phng tin lin tc tr hon hnh
ng cho n mt thi gian mun hn, khi hon cnh thun li hn. V
n cng l s khc bit gia phng php duy nht v ci thin vn
cho n nay thc s thnh cng, bt c lc no, v bt c u (k c
Nga, nh s thy), v mt phng php m, bt c u n c th,
ch dn n s dng bo lc thay cho l tr, v nu khng dn n s t
b chnh n, th d sao i na n t b bn thit k ban u ca n.
ng h phng php ca mnh, k s tng phn c th cho rng mt
cuc u tranh c h thng chng li s au kh v bt cng v chin
tranh chc c kh nng c ng h bi s tn thnh v ng ca rt
CHNG 9: CH NGHA KHNG TNG
159
ng ngi hn l cuc u tranh thit lp mt l tng no . S tn

ti cc t nn x hi, tc l, cc iu kin x hi m di nhiu ngi
au kh, c th xc nh tng i r. Nhng ngi chu ng c th
nh gi cho chnh mnh, v nhng ngi khc kh c th t chi rng
h khng mun thay i ch. V cng kh hn suy lun v mt x hi
l tng. i sng x hi phc tp n mc t ngi, hay chng ai, c th
nh gi mt thit k cho k thut ci bin x hi trn quy m ln; liu n
c kh thi hay khng; liu n c th mang li ci thin tht s hay khng;
loi au kh no n c th ko theo; v ci g c th l phng tin
thc hin n. Tri vi iu ny, cc thit k cho k thut tng phn l
tng i n gin. Chng l cc k hoch cho ch tng nh ch mt,
cho bo him y t v tht nghip, th d, hay cc to n trng ti, hay d
tho ngn sch chng suy thoi3, hay ci cch gio dc. Nu chng sai,
thit hi khng phi ln lm, v mt s iu chnh li khng phi kh
lm. Chng t ri ro hn, v v chnh l do ny t gy tranh ci hn.
Nhng nu d t mt tho thun hp l v cc t nn hin tn v
phng tin u tranh vi chng hn l v mt ci tt l tng v
phng tin thc hin n, th cng c nhiu hi vng hn rng bng s
dng phng php tng phn chng ta c th khc phc c chnh kh
khn thc tin ln nht ca mi ci cch chnh tr hp l, c th l, dng
l tr, thay cho dng nhit tnh v bo lc, trong thc hin chng trnh
ci cch. S c kh nng t c mt tho hip hp l v v th t c
s ci thin bng cc phng php dn ch. (Tho hip l mt t kh
chu, nhng quan trng vi chng ta hc cch dng ng ca n. Cc
nh ch khng th trnh khi l kt qu ca mt tho hip vi hon
cnh, cc quyn li, v.v, mc d vi t cch cc c nhn chng ta phi
chng li cc nh hng thuc loi ny).
Tri vi iu , nh Khng tng c thc hin mt nh nc l tng,
dng mt bn thit k ca x hi nh mt tng th, l ngi i mt s
cai tr tp trung mnh m ca t ngi, v v th c th dn n mt ch
c ti4. y ti coi l mt ph phn i vi cch tip cn Khng
tng; v ti c chng t, trong chng Nguyn l v S Lnh o,
rng mt s cai tr c on l dng chnh quyn ng ch trch nht.
Mt s im cha ng n chng cho chng ta thm ch cc l
l trc tip hn chng li cch tip cn Khng tng. Mt trong cc kh
khn i mt vi mt nh c ti nhn t l nhn thy liu cc tc ng
ca cc bin php ca ng c hp vi cc nh tt ca ng hay khng
(nh Tocqueville thy r rng hn mt trm nm trc5). Kh khn
ny sinh t s thc rng ch ngha c on hn ngn cn s ph phn;
160
CHNH TR HC CA PLATO
do , nh c ti nhn t s khng d nghe v cc than phin lin quan

n cc bin php ng thc hin. Nhng khng c s kim tra nh
vy, ng ta kh c th nhn ra liu cc bin php ca ng c t mc
ch nhn t m c hay khng. Tnh hnh ny hn cn ti hn i vi k
s Khng tng. Xy dng li x hi l mt cng vic ln hn gy ra
phin phc ng k cho nhiu ngi, v cho mt khong thi gian di.
Do , k s Khng tng s phi lm thinh i vi nhiu li than phin;
thc ra, s l mt phn cng vic ca ng ta chn nhng s bt bnh
v l. (ng ta s ni, ging nh Lenin, Anh khng th lm mn trng
trng m khng p v qu trng.) Nhng vi n, ng ta hn cng chn
lun s ph bnh hp l. Mt kh khn khc ca k thut Khng tng
lin quan n vn v ngi k v nh c ti. Trong chng 7 ti
nhc ti cc kha cnh no ca vn ny. K thut Khng tng gy
ra mt kh khn tng t nh, song thm ch nghim trng hn, kh
khn i mt vi nh c ti nhn t ngi c tm mt ngi k v cng
nhn t ngang mnh (xem ch thch 25 ca chng 7). Tm to ln ca s
m ng cng vic Khng tng lm cho n khng chc s thc hin
c cc mc ch ca mnh trong c cuc i ca mt, hay ca mt
nhm, k s x hi. V nu nhng ngi k v khng theo ui cng l
tng, th tt c s chu ng ca nhn dn v l tng c th l v ch.
Khi qut ho l l ny dn n mt ph phn na i vi cch tip cn
Khng tng. Cch tip cn ny, r rng, c th c gi tr thc tin ch
nu chng ta gi s rng bn thit k gc, c l vi nhng hiu chnh no
, vn l c s cho cng vic cho n khi n hon thnh. Nhng iu
tn mt s thi gian. S l mt thi k cch mng, c chnh tr v tinh
thn, v thi k ca cc th nghim mi v kinh nghim trong lnh vc
chnh tr. V th c th trng i l cc t tng v l tng s thay i.
Ci t ra l mt nh nc l tng i vi nhng ngi lp ra bn k
hoch gc, c th khng t ra nh vy i vi nhng ngi k v. Nu c
cho l nh vy, th ton b cch tip cn sp . Phng php xc lp
mt mc ch chnh tr cui cng ri sau mi bt u tin n n l v
ch nu chng ta tha nhn rng mc ch c th thay i ng k trong
qu trnh thc hin n. Ti bt c thi im no c th ho ra l cc bc
c tin hnh n nay thc s li i xa khi vic thc hin mc tiu
mi. V nu chng ta thay i hng ph hp vi mc tiu mi, th
chng ta li b cng ri ro nh th. Bt chp mi s au kh chu
ng, c th chng ta chng i n u c. Nhng ngi thch mt bc
tin n mt l tng xa thc hin mt s tho hip tng phn phi
lun nh rng nu l tng l rt xa, thm ch tr nn kh ni liu
161
bc va tin hnh dn ti n hay i xa khi n. iu ny c bit l nh

vy nu tin trnh phi tri qua cc bc ngon ngo, zigzag, hay, dng
bit ng ca Hegel, mt cch bin chng, hoc nu n khng h c
lp k hoch g c. (iu ny c lin quan ti vn c xa v hi tr
con v mc ch c th bin minh cho phng tin n u. Ngoi i
hi rng khng mc ch no tng c th bin minh cho mi phng tin,
ti ngh rng mt mc ch kh c th v kh thi c th bin minh tm
thi cho cc bin php m mt l tng xa hn chng bao gi c th6).
By gi chng ta thy rng cch tip cn Khng tng c th c cu
vn ch bi lng tin Platonic vo mt l tng tuyt i v khng thay
i, cng vi hai gi thit thm na, c th l (a) rng c cc phng
php duy l xc nh mt ln v mi mi l tng ny l ci g, v (b)
cc phng tin tt nht thc hin n l g. Ch c cc gi thit su
rng nh vy mi c th ngn chng ta khi tuyn b phng php lun
Khng tng l hon ton v ch. Nhng ngay c bn thn Plato v cc
nh Platonist nhit tnh nht s phi tha nhn rng (a) chc chn khng
ng; rng khng c phng php duy l no xc nh mc ch cui
cng, m, c l, ch l loi trc gic no . Bt c s khc bit kin
no gia cc k s Khng tng v th hn phi dn, do thiu cc phng
php duy l, n vic s dng quyn lc thay cho l tr, tc l n bo lc.
Nu ni chung c bt c s tin b no trong bt c chiu hng xc
nh no, th n t c bt chp phng php c chp nhn, ch
khng phi do phng php y. Thnh cng c th l nh vo, th d, s
xut sc ca cc nh lnh o; nhng chng ta chng bao gi c qun
rng cc nh lnh o xut sc khng th c to ra bng cc phng
php duy l, m ch bng vn may.
Tht quan trng hiu ng ph phn ny; ti khng ph phn l
tng bng cch cho rng mt l tng khng bao gi c th c thc
hin, rng n phi lun lun vn l mt iu Khng tng. y khng
phi l mt ph phn hp l, v nhiu th c thc hin m mt thi
c tuyn b mt cch gio iu l khng th thc hin c, th d,
thit lp cc nh ch m bo s yn bnh dn s, tc l ngn nga
ti phm trong phm vi quc gia; v ti ngh rng, th d, thit lp cc
nh ch tng ng ngn chn ti phm quc t, tc l s xm lc v
trang hay s hm do, mc d thng c quy l Khng tng, thm
ch khng phi l vn rt kh7. Ci m ti ph phn di tn k thut
Khng tng kin ngh xy dng li x hi nh mt tng th, tc l
nhng thay i rt bao qut m kh tnh n cc hu qu thc tin ca
n, do kinh nghim hn ch ca chng ta. N i hi ln k hoch mt
162
CHNH TR HC CA PLATO
cch duy l cho ton b x hi, mc d chng ta khng c ci g ging

nh tri thc thc s, cn thit thc hin mt i hi tham vng nh
vy. Chng ta khng c tri thc nh vy v chng ta c khng kinh
nghim thc tin v loi k hoch ho ny, v tri thc v cc s thc phi
da trn kinh nghim. Hin ti, tri thc x hi cn thit cho k thut ci
bin x hi quy m ln n gin khng tn ti.
Xt v ph phn ny, k s Khng tng chc s cng nhn s cn thit
ca kinh nghim thc t, v ca mt cng ngh x hi da trn kinh
nghim thc tin. Nhng anh ta s lp lun rng ta s khng bao gi bit
nhiu hn v cc vn ny nu chng ta chn bc tin hnh cc th
nghim x hi m ch ring chng c th cung cp cho chng ta nhng
kinh nghim thc tin cn thit. V anh ta c th ni thm rng k thut
Khng tng chng l g khc m l s p dng phng php th nghim
i vi x hi. Khng th tin hnh cc th nghim m khng ko theo
nhng thay i su rng. Chng phi c mt quy m ln, v c tnh
ring bit ca x hi hin i vi mt s rt ln ngi dn. Mt th
nghim v x hi ch ngha, th d, nu b gii hn mt nh my, hay
mt lng, hay thm ch mt huyn, s khng bao gi cho chng ta loi
thng tin hin thc m chng ta cn n rt cp bch.
Cc l l nh vy ng h k thut Khng tng biu l mt nh kin
cng c nh hng rng nh l n khng ng vng c, c th l, nh
kin rng cc th nghim x hi phi trn mt quy m ln, rng chng
phi dnh dng n ton b x hi nu chng mun c thc hin di
cc iu kin thc t. Nhng cc th nghim x hi tng phn c th
c thc hin di cc iu kin thc t, gia x hi, bt chp l trn
quy m nh, tc l, khng cch mng ho ton b x hi. Thc ra,
chng ta lc no cng tin hnh cc th nghim nh vy. a ra mt loi
bo him nhn th mi, mt loi thu mi, mt ci cch hnh pht mi,
tt c u l cc th nghim x hi c nh hng n ton b x hi m
khng t chc li x hi nh mt tng th. Ngay c mt ngi m mt
ca hiu mi, hay ngi t v xem ht, u tin hnh mt loi th
nghim x hi trn quy m nh; v tt c tri thc ca chng ta v iu
kin x hi u da trn kinh nghim thu c bng thc hin cc th
nghim thuc loi ny. K s Khng tng, m chng ta phn i, l
ng khi nhn mnh rng mt th nghim v ch ngha x hi s c t gi
tr nu c tin hnh di cc iu kin phng th nghim, th d, trong
mt lng c c lp, v ci chng ta mun bit l cc th hot ng ra
sao trong x hi di cc iu kin x hi bnh thng. Nhng chnh th
d ny ch ra nh kin ca k s Khng tng nm u. Anh ta tin
163
chc rng chng ta phi c li ton b cu trc x hi, khi chng ta th

nghim vi n; v v th anh ta c th ngh ra mt th nghim khim tn
hn ch nh th nghim c li ton b cu trc ca mt x hi nh. Song
loi th nghim t chng ta c th hc c nhiu nht l mi ln sa
i mt nh ch x hi. V ch theo cch ny chng ta mi c th hc
lm sao khp cc nh ch vo khung kh ca cc nh ch khc, v
lm th no iu chnh chng sao cho chng hot ng ph hp vi
nh ca chng ta. V ch theo cch ny chng ta c th gy ra cc sai
lm, v hc t nhng sai lm ca mnh, m khng c c phi chu cc h
qu nghim trng hn gy nguy him cho quyt tm i vi cc ci cch
tng lai. Hn na, phng php Khng tng phi dn n mt s gn
km gio iu nguy him vo bn thit k m v n c v s s hi
sinh. Cc nhm quyn li hng mnh phi tr nn gn kt vi thnh cng
ca th nghim. Tt c iu ny khng ng gp cho tnh duy l, hay cho
gi tr khoa hc, ca th nghim. Nhng phng php tng phn cho
php cc th nghim lp li v nhng ti iu chnh lin tc. Thc ra, n
c th dn n trng thi may mn ni cc chnh tr gia bt u tm kim
cc sai lm ring ca h thay cho c thanh minh v chng t rng h
lun lun ng. iu ny - ch khng phi k hoch ho Khng tng
hay li tin tri lch s - c ngha l a phng php khoa hc vo hot
ng chnh tr, v ton b b mt ca phng php khoa hc l s sn
sng hc t cc sai lm8.
Cc cch nhn ny c th c cng c, ti tin, bng so snh k thut x
hi, th d, vi k thut c kh. K s Khng tng tt nhin s cho rng
cc k s c kh i khi thm ch ln k hoch cho my mc rt phc tp
nh mt tng th, v rng bn thit k ca h c th bao gm, v ln k
hoch t trc, khng ch cho mt loi my no , m thm ch cho c
ton b nh my sn xut ra my mc ny. Cu tr li ca ti l k s c
kh c th lm tt c iu ny bi v anh ta c kinh nghim sn c
dng, tc l cc l thuyt c pht trin bng th v sai. Nhng iu
ny c ngha l anh ta c th ln k hoch bi v anh ta vp phi
loi sai lm ri; hay ni cch khc, bi v anh ta da vo kinh nghim m
anh ta thu c bng p dng cc phng php tng phn. My mc mi
ca anh ta l kt qu ca rt nhiu ci thin nh. Thng u tin anh ta
c mt m hnh, v ch sau rt nhiu hiu chnh tng phn i vi nhng
phn khc nhau ca n anh ta mi tin n giai on khi anh ta c th
tho ra cc k hoch cui cng ca mnh cho sn xut. Tng t, k
hoch cho sn xut my mc ca anh ta bao hm rt nhiu kinh nghim,
c th l, nhng ci thin tng phn c tin hnh cc nh my c.
164
CHNH TR HC CA PLATO
Phng php tng th hay quy m ln hot ng ch ni phng php

tng phn cung cp cho chng ta trc tin rt nhiu kinh nghim chi
tit, v ngay c khi ch trong phm vi lnh vc ca nhng kinh nghim
ny. t nh sn xut c th sn sng tin hnh sn xut mt ng c mi
trn c s ca ring mt bn thit k, d cho n c son tho bi
chuyn gia gii nht, m u tin khng lm mt m hnh v pht trin
n bng cc hiu chnh nho nh chng mc c th.
C l hu ch tng phn ph phn ny v Ch ngha Duy tm
Platonic trong chnh tr hc vi ph phn ca Marx v ci m ng gi l
Ch ngha Khng tng. Ci l chung cho ph phn ca Marx v ca
ti l, c hai i hi nhiu ch ngha hin thc hn. C hai chng ti u
tin rng cc k hoch Khng tng s chng bao gi c thc hin theo
cch chng c ngh ra, bi v hu nh khng c hnh ng x hi no
tng to ra kt qu chnh xc nh mong i. (iu ny, theo ti, khng
lm cho cch tip cn tng phn mt hiu lc, bi v y chng ta c
th hc hay ng hn, chng ta phi hc v thay i quan im ca
mnh, trong khi chng ta hnh ng). Nhng c nhiu khc bit. Lp lun
chng Ch ngha Khng tng, Marx thc ra ln n mi k thut x himt im him khi c hiu. ng tuyn b nim tin vo lp k hoch
duy l cc nh ch x hi l hon ton phi hin thc, v x hi phi pht
trin ph hp vi qui lut lch s ch khng theo cc k hoch duy l ca
chng ta. Tt c ci chng ta c th lm, ng khng nh, l lm nh bt
cn au ca cc qu trnh lch s. Ni cch khc, ng chp nhn mt
thi lch s ch ngha trit , phn i mi k thut ci bin x hi.
Nhng c mt yu t trong khun kh ch ngha Khng tng, yu t
c bit c trng cho cch tip cn ca Plato, m Marx khng phn i,
mc d n c l l quan trng nht trong cc yu t m ti cng kch
l phi-hin thc. l tm ca ch ngha Khng tng, n lc ca n
i ph vi x hi nh mt tng th, khng hn no khng b lt
ln. l nim tin chc chn rng phi i n chnh gc r ca t nn x
hi, rng hu nh l mt s tr tit hon ton h thng x hi phm ti s
l thch hp nu ta mun mang li bt c s ng n no cho th gii
(nh Du Gard ni). Ni tm li, l ch ngha cp tin khng tho hip
ca n. (c gi s rng ti dng t ny theo ngha gc v ngha en
ca n - ch khng theo ngha thng thng by gi v mt ch ngha
tin b t do, m c trng cho thi i n gc r ca vn ).
C Plato v Marx u m tng v cuc cch mng khi huyn s lm
rng r ton b th gii x hi mt cch trit .
165
Tm tc ng ny, ch ngha cp tin cc oan ny ca cch tip cn

Platonic (cng nh ca Marx), ti tin, c quan h vi tnh thm m ca
n, tc l vi mong mun xy dng mt th gii khng ch mt cht tt
hn v hp l hn so vi ca chng ta, m thot khi mi s xu x ca
n: khng phi mt chic chn p, mt mnh vi v vu ti tn, m l
mt ci o hon ton mi, mt th gii tht s p9. Tnh thm m ny l
mt thi rt c th hiu c; thc ra, ti tin hu ht chng ta u b
mt cht t nhng m c v s hon m nh vy. (Vi l do v sao
chng ta li nh vy, ti hi vng, s r ra chng tip). Nhng s nhit
tnh thm m ny tr nn c gi tr ch nu n c kim ch bi l tr,
bi cm nhn v trch nhim, v bi s thi thc nhn o ch ngha
gip . Khc i th n l mt nhit tnh nguy him, c th tin trin
thnh mt dng lon thn kinh chc nng hay chng hysteria.
Khng u chng ta thy tnh thm m ny c biu l mnh m
hn Plato. Plato l mt ngh s; v ging nhiu ngh s gii nht, ng
th hnh dung mt hnh mu, bn gc siu phm ca tc phm ca ng,
v sao chp n mt cch trung thnh. Kh nhiu trch dn a ra
chng trc minh ho im ny. Ci m Plato m t nh php bin
chng, ch yu, l trc gic tr tu v th gii ca ci p thun khit.
Cc trit gia c o to ca ng l nhng ngi thy s tht ca
ci l p v cng bng, v tt10, v c th mang n t trn tri xung
di t. Chnh tr hc, i vi Plato, l Ngh thut Vng gi. N l
mt ngh thut khng theo ngha n d theo ta c th ni v ngh
thut dng ngi, hay ngh thut khin cng vic c lm, m theo
ngha en hn ca t. N l ngh thut sng tc, ging nh nhc, hi ho,
hay kin trc. Chnh tr gia Platonic sng tc cc thnh ph, v ci p.
Nhng y ti phi phn i. Ti khng tin l cuc sng con ngi
c th bin thnh phng tin tho mn mong mun t th hin ca
mt ngh s. Ta phi i hi, ng hn, rng mi ngi phi c trao
cho, nu anh ta mun, quyn t bn thn lm mu cuc sng ca
mnh, trong chng mc iu ny khng quy ry qu nhiu n ngi
khc. Mc d ti c th thng cm vi s thi thc thm m, ti ngh
rng ngh s c th tm cch th hin bng vt liu khc. Chnh tr, ti i
hi, phi gi vng cc nguyn tc bnh ng ch ngha v c nhn ch
ngha; cc c m v ci p phi phc tng s cn thit ca vic gip
nhng ngi au kh, v nhng ngi chu bt cng; v s cn thit
ca vic xy dng cc nh ch phc v cc mc ch nh vy11.
L th quan st quan h mt thit gia ch ngha cp tin hon ton
ca Plato, i hi cc bin php bao qut, v tnh thm m ca ng. Cc
166
CHNH TR HC CA PLATO
on trch sau l c trng nht. Plato, ni v trit gia ngi giao thip
vi thn, nhc ti u tin rng ng ta s b chong ngp bi s thi
thc .. thc hin tm nhn tuyt trn ca mnh trong cc c nhn cng
nh trong thnh ph, - mt thnh ph s khng bao gi bit nim hnh
phc tr phi nhng ngi phc ho l cc ngh s c thn l ngi mu
ca mnh. c hi v chi tit ca ti phc ho ca h, Socrates ca
Plato a ra cu tr li gy ngc nhin sau: H s coi mt thnh ph v
cc tnh cch con ngi nh bc vi v ca mnh, v h s, trc tin,
lm cho ming vi ca mnh sch* - mt vic khng h d. Nhng y
ng l im, anh bit y, ni h s khc tt c nhng ngi khc. H
khng bt u lm vic trn mt thnh ph cng khng trn mt c nhn
(h cng khng tho ra lut) tr phi h c giao mt ming vi sch,
hoc t h lm sch n.12
Loi vic Plato ngh khi ng ni v lm sch bc vi c gii thch
mun hn mt cht. Vic c lm ra sao? Glaucon hi. Tt c
cng dn trn mi tui, Socrates tr li, phi b ui khi thnh ph
v lu y u trong nc; v tr con nhng ngi by gi thot
khi nh hng ca cch c x v thi quen ca cha m chng phi c
tip qun. Chng phi c gio dc theo phng php [ca trit hc
ch thc], v ph hp vi lut php, m chng ta m t. (Cc trit
gia, tt nhin, khng phi l gia nhng cng dn phi b trc xut: h
cn li nh cc nh gio dc, v cng th, c l, nhng ngi khng l
cng dn nhng ngi phi gi chng hot ng). Plato ni vi cng tinh
thn Statesman v cc nh cai tr hong gia nhng ngi cai tr ph hp
vi Khoa hc Hong gia v Ti ca Chnh khch: D h tnh c cai tr
theo lut hay khng c lut, cc thn dn vui lng hay khng vui lng;
v d h c thanh lc nh nc cho iu tt ca n, bng cch git hay
lu y [hay trc xut] mt s cng dn - min l h tin hnh ph
hp vi khoa hc v cng l, v bo v nh nc v lm cho n tt
hn trc, hnh thc ny ca chnh quyn phi c tuyn b l dng
duy nht ng.
y l cch m chnh tr gia-ngh s phi tin hnh. y l ci vic lm
sch bc vi mun ni. ng ta phi tr tit cc nh ch v cc truyn
thng hin tn. ng ta phi lm thanh khit, thanh lc, ui, trc xut, v
git. (Thanh ton l thut ng hin i khng khip cho vic ). Tuyn
Bn c chc khng qun li ca Mao i bin x hi Trung quc thnh mt t giy
trng, trn ng c th v d dng; cng nh nhng vic lm sch bc v mt cch
cc oan ca Kh me v nhiu hnh ng tng t nhng ni khc.
*
167
b ca Plato qu thc l mt s m t ch thc v thi khng tho

hip ca mi loi ch ngha cp tin trit - v s t chi tho hip ca
nh thm m hc. Quan im rng x hi phi p nh mt tc phm
ngh thut ch dn qu d dng n cc bin php bo lc. Nhng tt c
ch ngha cp tin v bo lc ny u l phi hin thc v v ch. (iu
ny c chng t bi th d v s pht trin ca Nga. Sau s sp
kinh t m vic lm sch bc vi tranh v ca ci gi l ch ngha cng
sn thi chin mang li, Lenin a ra Chnh sch Kinh t Mi ca
mnh, thc ra l mt loi k thut tng phn, mc d khng c s trnh
by c thc v cc nguyn l hay cng ngh ca n. ng bt u bng
khi phc li hu ht cc c im ca bc tranh b tr tit vi bit
bao au kh ca con ngi. Tin, cc th trng, s phn bit thu nhp,
v ti sn c nhn trong mt thi gian thm ch c doanh nghip t
nhn v sn xut c khi phc, v ch sau khi c s ny c ti
thit lp th mi bt u mt giai on ci cch mi13).
ph phn nn tng ca ch ngha cp tin thm m ca Plato, chng
ta c th phn bit hai im khc nhau.
im th nht l th ny. Ci, m mt s ngi ni v h thng x
hi ca chng ta, v v nhu cu thay n bng mt h thng khc, ngh
n, l rt ging mt bc tranh c v ln vi cn phi c lm
sch trc khi c th v bc tranh mi. Nhng c mt s khc bit ln.
Mt trong s l ho s v nhng ngi hp tc vi ng ta cng nh
cc nh ch nhng th lm cho cuc sng ca h l c th, cc m c
v k hoch ca ng ta cho mt th gii tt p hn, v cc tiu chun
ca ng ta v s ng n v o c, tt c u l thnh phn ca mt
h thng x hi, tc l ca bc tranh phi c qut sch i. Nu thc s
h lm sch bc vi, h phi ph hu chnh mnh, v cc k hoch Khng
tng ca mnh. (V ci k theo sau s c l khng l mt bn sao p
ca mt l tng Platonic m l s hn n). Chnh tr gia ngh s la
ht, ging Archimedes, i mt ch ngoi th gii x hi trn ng ta
c th t im ta ca mnh, by n khi nhng bi ri ca n. Song
mt ch nh vy khng tn ti; v th gii x hi phi tip tc hot ng
trong thi gian ca bt c s ti xy dng no. y l l do n gin v
sao chng ta phi ci cch cc nh ch ca n tng t mt, cho n khi
chng ta c nhiu kinh nghim hn v k thut ci bin x hi.
iu ny dn chng ta ti im th hai quan trng hn, n thuyt phi
l c hu trong ch ngha cp tin. Trong mi vn , chng ta ch c th
hc bng th v sai, bng phm sai lm v tin hnh ci thin; chng ta
khng bao gi c th da vo cm hng, mc d cm hng c th l c
168
CHNH TR HC CA PLATO
gi tr nht chng no n c th c kinh nghim kim tra. Do ,

khng hp l gi thit rng mt s xy dng li hon ton th gii x
hi ca chng ta s dn ngay n mt h thng c th hot ng c.
ng hn chng ta phi k vng rng, do thiu kinh nghim, s phm
phi nhiu sai lm m chng c th c loi tr ch bng mt qu trnh
lu di v gian kh ca nhng iu chnh nh; ni cch khc, bng
phng php duy l ca k thut ci bin tng phn m vic p dng n
c chng ta ch trng. Nhng nhng ngi khng thch phng php
ny coi l khng trit s li qut sch x hi va mi c xy
dng li, khi ng li vi mt bc vi sch; v v ci mi bt u, v
cng l do, s cng khng dn ti s hon m, h phi lp li qu trnh
ny m khng bao gi ti u c. Nhng ngi tha nhn iu ny v
sn sng chp nhn phng php khim tn hn v nhng ci thin tng
phn ca chng ta, hu nh khng th thot khi s ph phn rng cc
bin php bao qut v d di ca h l hon ton khng cn thit.
Tnh thm m v ch ngha cp tin phi dn chng ta n vt b l tr
v thay n bng mt hi vng kinh khng vo cc php mu chnh tr.
Thi phi l ny, xut pht t s say sa vi cc m c v mt th gii
p , l ci ti gi l Ch ngha Lng mn14. N c th tm kim thnh
ph thin ng ca n trong qu kh hay trong tng lai; n c th
thuyt ging quay li vi t nhin hay tin ti mt th gii yu thng
v p ; nhng s quyn r ca n lun lun l vi xc cm ca
chng ta ch khng vi l tr. Ngay c vi ch hay nht v to ra thin
ng trn mt t n ch thnh cng to ra mt a ngc - mt a ngc
m ring con ngi sa son cho ng bo mnh.
CH THCH*
CC NHN XT CHUNG. Vn bn ca cun sch l c lp v c th c m
khng c cc Ch thch ny. Tuy vy, c th thy y nhiu t liu chc l l th vi
tt c cc bn c ca cun sch, cng nh c vi dn chiu v tranh lun c th khng
l mi quan tm chung. Cc bn c mun tham kho cc ch thch v mc ch t liu
ny c th thy thun tin u tin c ht vn bn ca mt chng, v sau quay
sang cc Ch thch.
Ti mun xin li v s dn chiu cho c l qu nhiu c a vo gip cc bn
c nhng ngi quan tm c bit n mt ny hay mt khc ca cc vn c
cp n (nh nhng quan tm ca Plato n ch ngha chng tc, hay Vn Socratic).
Bit rng hon cnh chin tranh lm cho bt kh i vi ti c bn in th, nn ti
quyt nh khng dn chiu theo trang m theo s ch thch. Do , dn chiu n vn
bn c th hin nh: xem vn bn gn vi ch thch 24 chng 3, v.v. Hon cnh
chin tranh cng hn ch thun li v th vin, lm cho bt kh thi i vi ti c
c mt lot sch, mt s mi v mt s khng mi, c th tham kho c trong
hon cnh bnh thng.
*Cc ch thch c s dng cc t liu khng sn c i vi ti khi vit bn tho cho
ln xut bn u tin ca cun sch ny (v cc ch thch khc m ti mun biu th
rng c a thm vo cun sch k t 1943) c nh du bng du sao; tuy vy
khng phi tt c cc ch thch mi a thm u c nh du nh vy.*
CH THCH CHO DN NHP

V t ca Kant, xem ch thch [ct.] 41 ca chng [ch.] 24, v vn bn.
Thut ng x hi m v x hi ng, theo ti bit, c Henri Bergson dng ln
u tin, trong Two Sources of Morality and Religion [Hai Ngun ca o c v Tn
gio] (Engl. ed., 1935). Bt chp mt s khc bit ng k (do cch tip cn khc c
bn v gn nh mi vn trit hc) gia cch dng t ca Bergson v ca ti, cng c
s ging nhau no , m ti mun tha nhn. (So m t c trng ca Bergson v x
hi ng, op. cit., p. 229, nh x hi loi ngi va mi khi tay ca t nhin). Tuy
vy, s khc bit chnh l th ny. T ca ti, c th ni, biu l mt s phn bit duy l;
x hi ng c c trng bi lng tin vo cc cm k ma thut, cn x hi m l x
hi trong con ngi hc c mc no c tnh ph phn i vi cc
cm k, v t c s cho nhng quyt nh trn cn c hiu bit ring ca h (sau khi
tho lun). Bergson, mt khc, li ngh n mt loi phn bit tn gio. iu ny gii
thch v sao ng c th coi x hi m ca ng nh sn phm ca mt trc gic thn b,
cn ti gi ( chng 10 v chng 24) rng ch ngha thn b c th c din gii
nh mt s biu l v nim kht khao i vi s thng nht mt ca x hi ng, v
v th nh mt phn ng chng li ch ngha duy l ca x hi m. T cch dng t X
hi M ca ti chng 10, c th thy rng c s ging nhau no vi thut ng
*
Mt s vit tt trong phn ch thch: ct. = ch thch; ch. = chng; tn cc tc phm m ngi dch khng
chc c bn ting Vit c nguyn tin tra cu; cc ch vit tt thng dng ting latin c nguyn.
CHNG /CH THCH -
203
X hi V i ca Graham Wallace; nhng thut ng ca ti ph c mt x hi nh,

c th ni nh vy, nh x hi Athens thi Pericles, trong khi c l c th hnh dung
mt X hi Ln c th b ngng li v v th l ng. C l cng c mt s ging nhau
tng t gia x hi m ca ti v thut ng do Walter Lippmann dng nh tiu
ca cun sch c hm m nht ca ng, The Good Society [X hi Tt] (1937). Xem
c cc ct. 59 (2) chng 10 v cc ct. 29, 32, v 38 ca chng 24, v vn bn.
CH THCH CHO CHNG 1
V t ca Pericles, xem ct. 31 ca chng 10, v vn bn. t ca Plato c
tho lun kh chi tit cc ct. 33 v 34 ca chng 6, v vn bn.
1
Ti dng t ch ngha tp th ch cho mt hc thuyt nhn mnh tm quan trng
ca tp th hay nhm no , th d, nh nc (hay mt nh nc; hay mt quc gia ;
hay mt giai cp no ) i lp vi tm quan trng ca c nhn. Vn ca ch ngha
tp th i li ch ngha c nhn c gii thch y hn chng 6; c bit xem
cc ct. 26 n 28 ca chng , v vn bn. V ch ngha b lc, xem chng 10, v
c bit ct. 38 ca chng (danh mc cc cm k b lc theo kiu Pythagoras).
2
iu ny c ngha l din gii khng mang bt c thng tin kinh nghim no, nh
c ch ra trong The Logic of Scientific Discovery ca ti.
3
Mt trong cc c im m cc thuyt v dn c chn, chng tc c chn, v
giai cp c chn c chung l chng bt ngun, v tr nn quan trng, nh cc phn
ng li loi n p no . Thuyt dn c chn tr nn quan trng thi k thnh lp
nh th Do Thi, tc l thi k y i [ngi Do Thi] sang Babylon; L thuyt ca B
tc Gobineau v chng tc ch nhn Aryan l mt phn ng ca ngi di c qu tc
i vi lun iu rng Cch mng Php trc xut thnh cng cc ch nhn Teutonic.
Li tin tri ca Marx v chin thng ca giai cp v sn l p li ca ng i vi mt
trong cc thi k n p v bc lt c c nht trong lch s cn i. Vi nhng vn
ny so chng 10, c bit ct. 39, v chng 17, c bit cc ct. 13-15, v vn bn.
*Mt trong nhng tm tt ngn nht v tt nht v tn iu lch s ch ngha c th
thy trong pamphlet lch s ch ngha trit c trch dn y hn cui ct. 12
ca chng 9, c tiu Christians in the Class Struggle, ca Gilbert Cope, vi li ni
u ca Gim mc x Bradford. (Magnificat, Publication No. 1, do Council of Clergy
and Ministers for Common Ownership xut bn, 1942, 28, Maypole Lane, Birmingham
14). Chng ta c y, p. 5-6: Chung cho tt c cc quan im ny l c tnh no
v tnh khng th trnh c cng vi quyn t do. Tin ho sinh hc, xung t giai
cp k tip nhau, tc ng ca Cha Thnh thn - c ba th u c c trng bi mt
chuyn ng xc nh n mt mc ch. Rng chuyn ng c th b hnh ng c
ca con ngi gy cn tr hay lm trch i, song tch t ca n khng th b tiu tan,
v mc d giai on cui cng ch c cm thy l m, .. l c th bit v qu
trnh gip y mnh hay tr hon dng chy khng th trnh khi. Ni cch khc, cc
qui lut t nhin v ci chng ta coi l tin b c con ngi hiu sao cho
h c th .. hoc.. a ra cc n lc lm ngng hay lm trch dng chy chnh cc
n lc c v nh thnh cng mt lc, nhng thc ra b nh sn l tht bi.*
4
Hegel ni, trong Logic ca mnh, rng ng bo tn ton b gio hun ca
Heraclitus. ng cng ni rng ng nhn l mi th l do Plato. *C th ng ni n l
Ferdinand von Lassalle, mt trong nhng ngi sng lp ca phong tro x hi dn ch
c (v, ging Marx, l mt ngi theo Hegel), vit hai tp v Heraclitus.*
204
CHNG /CH THCH -
CH THCH CHO CHNG 2

Cu hi Th gii c lm bng g? t nhiu c chp nhn ni chung nh vn
c bn ca cc trit gia Ionian ban u. Ta gi s rng h coi th gii nh mt dinh th,
vn v s mt bng ca th gii s b sung cho vn v vt liu xy dng ca
n. V qu thc, chng ta nghe thy rng Thales khng ch quan tm n vt liu ca
th gii lm bng g, m c n thin vn hc v a l hc m t, v rng Anaximander
l ngi u tin v ra mt s mt bng, tc l mt bn th gii. Vi nhn xt
thm v trng phi Ionian (v c bit Anaximander nh tin bi ca Heraclitus) s
c thy chng 10; so cc ct. 38-40 ca chng , c bit ct. 39.
* Theo R. Eisler, Weltenmantel und Himmelszelt, p. 693, cm nhn ca Homer v s
phn (moira) c th truy nguyn v ch ngha b n chim tinh phng ng thch
thi gian, khng gian, v s phn. Cng theo tc gi (Revue de Synthse Historique,
41, app., p. 16 f.), B Hesiod qu Tiu , v ngun tng ca ng v Thi Hong
Kim, v cc kim loi trong con ngi, mang tnh ng phng. (So v vn ny vi
nghin cu v Plato ca Eisler c cng b sau khi ng cht, Oxford 1950). Eisler
cng chng t (Jesus Basileus, vol. II, 618 f.) rng tng v th gii nh mt tng th
cc th (cosmos) truy nguyn v l thuyt chnh tr Babylonian. tng v th gii
nh mt dinh th (nh hay lu) c cp trong Weltenmantel ca ng*
2
Xem Diels, Die Vorsokratiker, 5th edition, 1934 (t y c vit tt l D5), on
124; so c D5, vol. II, p. 423, cc dng 21 f. (s ph nh ni suy i vi ti c v
khng ng v phng php lun cng nh n lc ca cc tc gi no khng tin ton
b on ny; ngoi im ny ra, ti theo bn sa li ca Rstow). V hai trch dn khc
on vn ny, xem Plato, Cratylus, 401d, 402a/b.
Din gii ca ti v gio hun ca Heraclitus c l khc vi din gii thng thng
c cho l ng hin nay, th d ca Burnet. Nhng ngi, c th cm thy nghi ng
liu ni chung c th ng vng khng, c dn chiu n cc ch thch ca ti, c
bit n ch thch ny v cc ct. 6, 7, v 11, trong ti cp n trit hc t nhin
ca Heraclitus, gii hn vn bn ca ti cho trnh by kha cnh lch s ch ngha ca
gio hun ca Heraclitus v trit hc x hi ca ng. Ti cng ch dn h thm n bng
chng ca cc chng 4 n 9, v c bit ca chng 10, m theo nh sng ca n trit
hc ca Heraclitus, nh ti thy, t ra l phn ng in hnh vi cch mng x hi m
ng l nhn chng. So c cc ct. 39 v 59 ca chng (v vn bn), v ph phn
chung i vi cc phng php ca Burnet v Taylor ct. 56.
Nh biu l vn bn, ti (cng nhiu ngi khc, th d, Zeller v Grote) cho rng
thuyt v dng chy [flux] ph qut l thuyt trung tm ca Heraclitus. Ngc vi iu
ny, Burnet cho rng y kh m l im trung tm trong h thng Heraclitus (so
Early Greek Philosophy, 2nd ed., 163). Song xt k cc l l ca ng (158 f.) khng hon
ton thuyt phc c ti l khm ph c bn ca Heraclitus l thuyt siu hnh tru
tng s sng sut khng phi l tri thc v nhiu th, m l tri gic v s thng nht
c bn ca cc s i lp xung khc nhau, nh Burnet trnh by. S thng nht ca cc
i lp chc chn l phn quan trng ca gio hun ca Heraclitus, song n c th c
dn ra ( chng mc cc th nh vy c th c dn ra; so ct. 11 ca chng ny, v
vn bn tng ng) t l thuyt v dng chy c th hn v c th hiu mt cch trc
gic; v c th ni cng th v thuyt v la ca Heraclitus (so ct. 7 ca chng ny).
1
CHNG /CH THCH -
205
Nhng ngi, cng Bernet, gi rng thuyt v dng chy ph qut l khng mi,
m c nhng ngi Ionian ban u thy trc, ti cm thy, l nhn chng v tnh
cho tnh c o ca Heraclitus; v by gi, sau 2400 nm, h vn khng hiu im
chnh ca ng. H khng thy s khc bit gia mt dng chy hay lun chuyn bn
trong mt mch hay dinh th hay khung kh v tr, tc l, bn trong mt tng th ca
mi th (phn ca l thuyt Heraclitus qu thc c th c hiu theo cch ny, nhng
ch phn l phn khng my c o; xem di y), v dng chy ph qut bao
hm mi th, ngay c bn thn mch, v khung kh (so Lucian trong D5 I, p. 190) v l
ci c, s t chi tn ti ca bt c th g c nh ca Heraclitus, m t. (theo mt
cch, Anaximander to ra mt khi u bng lm tan r khung kh, nhng vn cn
xa t y n l thuyt v dng chy ph qut. So c ct. 15 (4) ca chng 3).
Thuyt v dng chy ph qut buc Heraclitus th gii thch s n nh b ngoi ca
cc th th gii ny, v ca cc s u n in hnh khc. N lc ny dn ng n
pht trin cc l thuyt ph khc, c bit n thuyt ca ng v la (so ct. 7 ca chng
ny) v v cc qui lut t nhin (so ct. 6). Chnh trong s gii thch ny v s n nh b
ngoi ca th gii m ng s dng nhiu l thuyt ca cc tin bi ca ng bng pht
trin l thuyt ca h v lm long kh v ngng t, cng vi thuyt ca h v s xoay
vng ca tri, thnh mt l thuyt chung v lun chuyn vt cht v v tnh tun hon.
Nhng phn ny ca gio hun ca ng, ti cho l, khng phi l trung tm m l ph.
C th ni, l bin gii, v n c dung ho thuyt mi v cch mng v dng chy vi
kinh nghim chung cng nh vi gio hun ca cc tin bi ca ng. Ti tin, v th,
rng ng khng phi l mt nh duy vt c hc ngi dy ci g ging nh bo ton
v lun chuyn vt cht v nng lng; i vi ti cch nhn ny dng nh b loi tr
bi thi thn diu ca ng i vi lut cng nh bi l thuyt ca ng v s thng
nht ca cc i lp, l thuyt nhn mnh ch ngha huyn b ca ng.
Lun im ca ti rng dng chy ph qut l l thuyt trung tm ca Heraclitus, ti
tin, c Plato lm vng thm. Tuyt i a s cc dn chiu dt khot ca ng n
Heraclitus (Crat., 401d, 402a/b, 411. 437ff., 440; Theaet., 153c/d, 160d, 177c, 179d f.,
182a ff., 183a ff., so c Symp., 207d, Phil., 43a; so c Metaphysics ca Aristotle,
897a33, 1010a13, 1078b13) lm chng cho n tng gh gm m thuyt trung tm ny
gy trn cc nh t tng thi k . Cc chng c d hiu v r rng ny l mnh hn
nhiu on phi tha nhn l l th khng nhc n tn Heraclitus (Saph., 242d f., c
Ueberweg v Zeller trch dn ri, lin quan n Heraclitus), m da vo n Burnet c
t c s cho din gii ca ng. (V nh gi hi ngp ngng ca Burnet lin quan n
gi tr ca on ny, so ct. 56 (7) ca chng 10). S khm ph ca Heraclitus rng th
gii khng phi l tng th ca cc th m l ca cc s kin hay cc s thc khng h
tm thng; iu ny c l c th c nh gi bng s thc rng Wittgenstein thy
cn phi khng nh li n mi gn y: Th gii l tng th ca cc s thc, khng
phi ca cc vt. (So Tractus Logico-Philosophicus, 1921/22, cu 1.1; ti nhn mnh).
Tm li. Ti coi thuyt v dng chy ph qut l c bn, v ni ln t lnh vc kinh
nghim x hi ca Heraclitus. Tt c cc thuyt khc ca ng theo mt cch u l ph
so vi n. Thuyt v la (so Metaphysics ca Aristotle, 984a7, 1067a2; c 989a2,
996a9, 1001a15; Physics, 205a3) ti coi l thuyt trung tm ca ng trong lnh vc trit
hc t nhin; n l mt n lc dung ho thuyt v dng chy vi kinh nghim ca
chng ta v cc th n nh, mt lin kt vi cc l thuyt c hn v lu thng, v n
dn n mt l thuyt v lut. V thuyt v s thng nht ca cc i lp ti coi nh ci
g t trung tm hn v tru tng hn, nh ngi bo trc ca mt l thuyt logic
206
CHNG /CH THCH -
hay phng php lun (nh n to hng cho Aristotle trnh by qui lut ca ng v
mu thun), v nh gn vi ch ngha thn b ca ng.
3
W. Nestle, Die Vorsokratiker (1905). 35.
4
thun tin cho nhn din cc on c trch dn, ti cho cc s ca ln xut bn
ca Bywater (c Burnet chp nhn, trong bn dch ting Anh ca ng v cc on,
Early Greek Philosophy), v c cc s ca ln xut bn th 5 ca Diels.
Trong tm on c trch on vn ny, (1) v (2) l t cc on B 114 (=
Bywater, v Burnet), D5 121 (= Diels ln xut bn th 5). Cc on khc l t: (3) B
111, D5 29; so Republic ca Plato, 586a/b (4): B 111, D5 104 (5): B 112, D5 39 (so
D5, vol. I, p. 65, Bias, 1) (6): B 5, D5 17 (7): B 110, D5 33 (8): B 100, D5 44.
5
Ba on trch on vn ny l t cc on: (1) v (2): so B 41, D5 91; cho (1) so c
ct. 2 ca chng ny. (3): D5 74.
6
Hai on l B 12, D5 31; v B 22, D5 90.
7
V cc mc (hay qui lut, hay chu k) ca Heraclitus, xem B 20, 21, 23, 29; D5
30, 31, 94. (D5 31 nhm mc v qui lut (logos) li vi nhau).
Nm on c trch mun hn on vn ny l t cc on: (1): D5, vol. I, p. 141,
dng 10. (So Diog. Laert., IX, 7.) ... (2): B 29, D5 94 (so ct. 2 chng 5) (3): B 34,
D5 100 (4): B 20, D5 30 (5): B 26, D5 66.
(1) tng v qui lut l tng quan vi tng v thay i hay dng chy, v ch
cc qui lut hay s u n bn trong dng chy c th gii thch s n nh b ngoi
ca th gii. Cc s u n in hnh bn trong th gii thay i c con ngi bit
n l cc chu k t nhin: ngy, thng m lch, v nm (cc ma). L thuyt v qui lut
ca Heraclitus, ti tin, l trung gian v mt logic gia quan nim tng i hin i v
cc qui lut nhn qu (do Leucippus v c bit Democritus nm gi) v cc quyn
lc en ti ca s phn ca Anaximander. Cc qui lut ca Heraclitus vn mang tnh
ma thut, tc l ng vn cha phn bit gia cc s u n nhn qu tru tng v
cc lut, nh cc cm k, c thc thi bi s trng pht (vi iu ny, so chng 5, ct.
2). Hnh nh l thuyt ca ng v s phn c lin h vi l thuyt v mt Nm Ln hay
Chu trnh Ln bng 18.000 hay 36.000 nm bnh thng. (So, th d, Republic of
Plato do J. Adam bin tp, vol. II, 303). Ti chc chn khng ngh rng l thuyt ny l
mt biu l rng Heraclitus thc s khng tin vo mt dng chy ph qut, m ch vo
nhng lu thng khc nhau lun ti lp s n nh ca khung kh; m ti ngh l c th
rng ng c kh khn trong hnh dung mt qui lut v s thay i, v ngay c v s
phn, khc vi qui lut dnh n mt lng chu k no . (So c ct. 6 ca chng 3).
(2) La ng vai tr trung tm trong trit hc t nhin ca Heraclitus. (C th c nh
hng Persian no y). La l biu tng hin nhin ca mt dng chy hay qu
trnh hin ra nhiu kha cnh nh mt s vt. Nh vy n gii thch kinh nghim v
cc s vt n nh, v dung ho kinh nghim ny vi thuyt v dng chy. tng ny
c th d c m rng ra cho cc thn th sng, chng ging nh la, ch chy chm
hn. Heraclitus dy rng tt c cc s vt u trong dng chy, tt c u ging la;
dng chy ca chng ch c cc mc hay qui lut chuyn ng khc nhau. Ci bt
hay ci mng trong la chy s trong dng chy chm hn la nhiu, nhng tuy
nhin n vn trong dng chy. N thay i, n c s phn v qui lut ca mnh, n phi
b la lm mn dn, v b thiu cho d cn thi gian di hn trc khi s phn ca n
hon thnh. Nh th, i trc n, la s phn x v kt n mi th (B 26, D5 66).
Do , la l biu tng v s gii thch v s yn b ngoi ca cc s vt bt chp
trng thi thc ca chng trong dng chy. Song n cng l biu tng v s chuyn
CHNG /CH THCH -
207
ho vt cht t mt chng (nhin liu) sang chng khc. Nh th n cung cp kt ni

gia l thuyt trc gic ca Heraclitus v t nhin v cc l thuyt v long kh v ngng
t, v.v. ca cc tin bi ca ng. Nhng s lo ln v lm i ca n, hp vi mc cung
cp nhin liu, cng l mt th d ca mt qui lut. Nu iu ny c kt hp vi dng
no v chu k, th c th dng n gii thch cc s u n ca cc chu k t nhin,
nh ngy hay nm. (Xu hng t duy ny lm cho khng chc l Burnet ng trong
hoi nghi cc bo co truyn thng v lng tin ca Heraclitus vo mt m chy ln c
chu k, c l lin h n Nm Ln ca ng; so Aristotle, Physics, 205a3 vi D5 66).
8
Mi ba on trch y l. (1): B 10, D5 123 (2): B 11, D5 93 (3): B 16, D5
40 (4): B 94, D5 73 (5): B 95, D5 89 so (4) v (5) vi Republic ca Plato, 476c
f., v 520c (6): B 6, D5 19 (7): B 3, D5 34 (8): B 19, D5 41 (9): B 92, D5 2
(10): B 91a, D5 113 (11): B 59, D5 10 (12): B 65, D5 32 (13): B 28, D5 64.
9
Nht qun hn hu ht cc nh lch s ch ngha o c, Heraclitus cng l mt
nh thc chng o c v php l (v thut ng ny, so chng 5): Tt c mi th, i
vi cc thn, l phi v tt v ng; tuy vy con ngi coi mt s th l sai, v mt
s l ng. (D5 102, B 61; xem on (8) trong ct. 11). Rng ng l nh thc chng u
tin c Plato chng thc (Theaet., 177c/d). V ch ngha thc chng o c v php
l ni chung, xem chng 5 (vn bn vi cc ct. 14-18) v chng 22.
10
Hai on trch on vn ny l: (1): B 44, D5 53 (2): B 62, D5 80.
11
Chn on trch on vn ny l: (1): B 39, D5 126 (2): B 104, D5 111 (3):
B 78, D5 88 (4): B 45, D5 51 (5): D5 8 (6) B 69, D5 60 (7): B 50, D5 59
(8): B 61, D5 102 (so ct. 9) (9): B 57, D5 58. (So Aristotle, Physics, 185b20).
Dng chy hay thay i phi l qu t mt giai on hay c tnh hay v tr ny
sang ci khc. Trong chng mc m dng chy gi thit trc ci g thay i, ci g
ny phi vn ht nh nhau, cho d n mang mt giai on hay c tnh hay v tr i
lp. iu ny lin kt l thuyt v dng chy vi l thuyt v s thng nht ca cc s
i lp (so Aristotle, Metaphysics, 1005b25, 1024a24 v 34, 1062a32, 1063a25) cng
nh thuyt v tnh duy nht ca mi th; chng tt c u l cc pha hay din mo khc
nhau ca mt th thay i (ca la).
Liu con ng dn ln v con ng dn xung ban u c hnh dung nh mt
con ng bnh thng u tin dn ln ni, ri mun hn li quay xung (hay c l:
dn ln t ci nhn ca ngi di, v dn xung t ci nhn ca ngi trn), v liu
n d ny ch mun hn mi c p dng cho qu trnh lu thng, cho con ng dn
t t qua nc (c l qua nhin liu lng trong mt ci bt?) ln la, v li quay t la
qua nc (ma?) xung t; hay liu ng ln v xung ca Heraclitus ban u c
ng p dng cho s lu thng ny ca vt cht hay khng; tt c vic ny tt nhin
khng th c phn x. (Nhng ti ngh rng kh nng u tin c nhiu kh nng hn
xt n rt nhiu cc tng tng t trong cc on ca Heraclitus: so vi vn bn).
12
Bn on l: (1): B 102, D5 24 (2): B 101, D5 25 (mt phin bn st hn t nhiu
gi c li chi ch ca Heraclitus l: Ci cht ln hn c c s phn ln hn. So
c Laws ca Plato, 903 d/e; tng phn vi Republic 617 d/e) (3): B 111, D5 29
(phn tip tc c trch trn; xem on (3) ct. 4) (4): B 113, D5 49.
13
C v rt c th (so Gesch. d. Altertums ca Meyer, c bit vol. I) l cc gio hun
c trng nh vy nh v dn c chn khi u thi k ny, ci to ra mt vi tn
gio cu ri khc bn cnh Do Thi gio.
14
Comte, ngi Php pht trin mt trit hc lch s ch ngha khng khc lm
vi phin bn Ph ca Hegel, th, ging Hegel, chn tro lu cch mng. (So, F. A.
208
CHNG /CH THCH -
von Hayek, The Counter-Revolution of Science, Economica, N. S. vol. VIII, 1941, pp.
119 ff, 281 ff.). V s quan tm ca Lassalle n Heraclitus, xem ct. 4 ca chng 1.
L th lu , trong mi quan h ny, n s song song gia lch s ca cc tng
lch s ch ngha v tin ho. Chng bt u Hy Lp vi Empedocles na-Heraclitean
(v phin bn ca Plato, xem ct. 1 ca chng 11), v chng c ti sinh, Anh cng
nh Php, trong thi Cch mng Php.
CH THCH CHO CHNG 3
Vi gii thch ny v thut ng u s, so c cui ca cc ct. 44 v 57 ca chng 8.
So c bit ch thch 48 ca chng 10.
3
So cui chng 7, c bit ct. 25, v chng 10, c bit ct. 69.
4
So Diogenes Laert., III, 1. - V cc mi quan h gia nh ca Plato, v c bit dng
di c cho l ca gia nh b ng t vua Codrus, v thm ch t Thn Poseidon,
xem G. Grote, Plato and other Companions of Socrates (ed. 1875), vol. I, 114. (Tuy
vy, xem nhn xt tng t v gia nh Cristias, tc gia nh m Plato, trong E. Meyer,
Geschichte des Altertums, vol. V, 1922, p. 66). Plato ni v Codrus trong Symposium
(208d): Anh c cho rng Alcestis, hay Achilles, hay Codrus ca ring anh c th
tm n ci cht - nhm cu vng triu cho cc con ca ng - gi nh h khng k
vng c c s tng nh bt t v c hnh ca h m trong thc ra chng ta nh
ti h? Plato ca ngi gia nh Critias (tc gia nh m ng) sm trong Charmides (157e
ff.) v mun hn trong Timaeus (20e), ni gia nh truy nguyn v nh cai tr (archn)
Athens l Dropides, bn ca Solon.
5
Hai trch dn c tnh t truyn tip theo l t Seventh Letter [L Th th By] (325).
Quyn tc gi ca Plato vi cc L th b mt s hc gi li lc nghi ng (c l khng
c cn c; ti ngh cch gii quyt vn ny ca Field rt thuyt phc; so ct. 57 ca
chng 10; mt khc, ngay c Seventh Letter c v i vi ti hi ng ng - n lp li
qu nhiu ci chng ta bit t Apology, v ni qu nhiu ci m c hi i hi). V vy
ti thn trng t c s cho din gii ca ti v ch ngha Plato ch yu trn mt s i
thoi ni ting nht; tuy nhin, nhn chung thng nht vi Letters. thun tin cho bn
c, mt danh mc cc i thoi Platonic thng xuyn c nhc n trong vn bn c
th c lit k y, theo th t lch s c l ca chng; so ct. 56 (8) ca chng 10.
Crito Apology - Eutyphro; Protagoras Meno - Gorgias; Cratylus - Menexenus Phaedo; Republic; Parmenides - Theaetetus; Sophist - Statesman (hay Politicus)
Philebus; Timaeus Critias; Laws.
6
(1) Rng cc din tin lch s c th c c tnh chu k khng u c Plato pht
biu rt r rng. N, tuy vy, c m ch t nht trong bn i thoi, c th l trong
Phaedo, trong Republic, trong Statesman (hay Politicus), v trong Laws. tt c cc
ch ny, l thuyt ca Plato c l c th m ch n Nm Ln ca Heraclitus (so ct. 6
ca chng 2). C th, tuy vy, l s m ch khng trc tip n Heraclitus, m ng
hn n Empedocles, m l thuyt ca ng (so c Aristotle, Met., 1000a25 f.) c Plato
coi ch l mt phin bn n ho hn ca l thuyt Heraclitean v s thng nht ca mi
dng chy. ng by t iu ny mt on ni ting ca Sophist (242e f.). Theo on
ny, v theo Aristotle (De Gen. Corr., B, 6., 334a6), c mt chu k lch s bao gm mt
giai on tnh yu ng tr, v mt giai on trong xung t ca Heraclitus ng
tr; v Aristotle ni vi chng ta rng, theo Empedocles, giai on hin thi by gi l
giai on ch ng ca Xung t, nh trc l s ch ng ca Tnh yu. S khng
1
2
CHNG /CH THCH -
209
nh ny rng dng chy ca thi k v tr ring ca chng ta l mt loi xung t, v v

th l xu, l ph hp st c vi cc l thuyt ca Plato ln vi cc kinh nghim ca ng.
di ca Nm Ln, c l, l chu k thi gian sau tt c cc thin th tr li cng
v tr tng i vi nhau nh chng chim thi im m t chu k c tnh.
(iu ny lm cho n l bi s chung nh nht ca cc chu k ca by hnh tinh).
(2) on trong Phaedo c nhc ti (1) m ch u tin n l thuyt Heraclitean
v thay i dn t mt trng thi n trng thi i lp ca n, hay t mt i lp sang
i lp khc: rng ci tr thnh nh hn mt thi phi l ln hn .. (70e/71a). Ri n
tip tc biu l mt qui lut tun hon v pht trin: Khng phi c hai qu trnh lun
din ra, t mt thi cc sang ci i lp ca n, v li quay li ..? (loc. cit.). V mun
hn mt cht (72a/b) l l c trnh by th ny: Nu gi nh s pht trin ch theo
ng thng, v khng c s b hay tun hon trong t nhin, .. th, cui cng, mi s
vt s c cng tnh cht .. v s khng c pht trin thm no. Hnh nh xu hng
chung ca Phaedo l lc quan (v chng t s tin tng hn vo con ngi v l tr con
ngi) hn xu hng chung ca cc i thoi mun hn, nhng khng c dn chiu
trc tip no n s pht trin lch s.
(3) Cc dn chiu nh vy, tuy nhin, c a ra trong Republic ni, Quyn VIII
v IX, ta thy mt m t chi tit v s suy i lch s c xem xt y trong chng
4. M t ny c gii thiu bi Cu Chuyn ca Plato v S Suy i ca Con Ngi
v ca S, s c tho lun y hn y trong cc chng 5 v 8. Trong ln xut
bn The Republic of Plato ca mnh (1902, 1921), J. Adam gi ng cu chuyn ny
l khung cnh trong Trit hc v Lch s ca Plato c trnh by (vol. II, 210).
Cu chuyn ny khng cha bt c khng nh r rng no v tnh cht tun hon ca
lch s, nhng n c vi li m ch kh b n m, theo din gii l th nhng khng chc
chn ca Aristotle (v ca Adam), c l l cc m ch n Nm Ln Heraclitean, tc l
n s pht trin c chu k. (So ct. 6 ca chng 2, v Adam, op. cit., vol. II, 303; nhn
xt v Empedocles a ra y, 303 f., cn sa cha; xem (1) ct. ny, trn).
(4) Hn na, c thn thoi trong Statesman (268e-274e). Theo thn thoi ny, bn
thn Cha Tri li th gii trong mt na chu k ca chu k th gii ln. Khi ng bung
ra, th th gii, cho n lc ny vn tin ln, bt u ln tr li. Nh th chng ta c hai
na chu k trong mt chu k y , mt chuyn ng ln pha trc do Cha Tri li
to thnh giai on tt khng c chin tranh hay xung t, v mt chuyn ng li khi
Cha Tri b th gii, l thi k hn n v xung t tng ln. N, tt nhin, l thi
k m chng ta sng. Cui cng, s vt tr nn ti t n mc Cha Tri s li cm ly
tay li, v o ngc chuyn ng, nhm cu th gii khi s ph hu hon ton.
Thn thoi ny rt ging vi thn thoi ca Empedocles c nhc n (1) trn y,
v c l c vi Nm Ln ca Heraclitus. Adam (op. cit., vol. II, 296 f.) cng ch ra s
ging nhau vi chuyn ca Hesiod. *Mt trong cc im m ch n Hesiod l s dn
chiu n mt Thi i Hong kim ca Cronos; v quan trng lu rng con ngi
ca thi i ny l nhng ngi sinh ra t t. iu ny xc lp mt im giao tip vi
Thn thoi v Ngi Sinh ra t t, v v cc kim loi trong con ngi, ci ng mt
vai tr trong Republic (414b ff. v 546e f.); vai tr ny c tho lun di trong
chng 8. Thn thoi v Ngi Sinh ra t t cng c m ch ti trong Symposium
(191b); c l l s m ch n vic cho rng nhng ngi Athens l ging nhng con
chu chu bn a (so cc ct. 32 (1)e ca chng 4 v 11 (2) ca chng 8).*
Tuy vy, mun hn trong Statesman (302b ff.) khi su dng chnh th bt hon ho
c xp th t theo mc khng hon ho ca chng, khng cn thy c du hiu
210
CHNG /CH THCH -
no v l thuyt tun hon ca lch s. ng hn, su dng, tt c u l cc bn sao tha

ho ca nh nc hon ho v tt nht (Statesman; 293d/e; 297c; 303b), hin ra ht thy
nh cc bc trong qu trnh tha ho; tc l c y v trong Republic, khi n cc vn
lch s c th hn, Plato gii hn mnh vo phn ca chu k dn ti suy i.
* (5) Cc nhn xt tng t c gi tr cho Laws. Ci g ging mt l thuyt tun
hon c phc ho Quyn III, 676b/c-677b, ni Plato quay sang mt phn tch chi
tit hn v s khi u ca mt trong cc chu k; v 678e v 679c, s khi u ny
ho ra l mt Thi k Hong kim, cho nn cu chuyn tip li tr thnh chuyn v sa
o. C th nhc n l thuyt ca Plato rng cc hnh tinh l cc thn, cng vi
thuyt rng cc thn nh hng n cuc sng con ngi (v vi lng tin ca ng rng
cc lc v tr hot ng trong lch s), ng mt phn quan trng trong suy xt chim
tinh hc ca cc nh tn-Platonist. C ba thuyt u c th thy trong Laws (xem, th d,
821b-d v 899b; 899d-905d; 677a ff.). Chim tinh hc, phi hiu r, chia s vi ch
ngha lch s lng tin vo mt s phn xc nh c th tin on c; v n chia s vi
vi phin bn quan trng ca ch ngha lch s (c bit vi ch ngha Plato v ch
ngha Marx) lng tin rng, bt k kh nng tin on tng lai, chng ta c nh hng
no ln n, c bit nu chng ta tht s bit ci g ang n.*
(6) Ngoi cc m ch t i ny ra, hu nh khng c bt c g biu l rng Plato coi
chu k ln hay tin ti l nghim tc. Song c nhiu nhn xt, ngoi m t chi tit trong
Republic v ci c trch (5), chng t rng ng tin rt nghim tc vo chuyn ng
i xung, vo s suy i ca lch s. Chng ta phi xt, c bit, n Timaeus, v Laws.
(7) Trong Timaeus (42b f., 90e ff., v c bit 91d f.; so c Phaedrus, 248d f.), Plato
m t ci c th c gi l ngun gc ca cc loi do tha ho (so vn bn cho ct. 4 ca
chng 4, v ct. 11 ca chng 11): n ng tha ho thnh n b, v mun hn thnh
cc ng vt thp hn.
(8) Trong Laws Quyn III (so c Quyn IV, 713a ff.; xem tuy vy m ch ngn n
chu k c nhc trn) ta c mt l thuyt kh t m v s suy i lch s, phn ln
ging l thuyt Republic. Xem c chng tip, c bit cc ct. 3, 6, 7, 27, 31, v 44.
7
Mt kin tng t v cc mc ch chnh tr ca Plato c G. C. Field by t
trong Plato and His Contemporaries (1930), p. 91: Cc mc ch chnh ca trit hc
ca Plato c th coi nh n lc ti thit lp cc tiu chun ca t duy v t cch cho
mt nn vn minh dng nh trn b tan r. Xem c ct. 3 ca chng 6, v vn bn.
8
Ti theo a s nhng ngi c hn v s ng nhng ngi ng thi c uy tn
(nh, G. C. Field, F. M. Cornford, A. K. Rogers) c lng tin ngc vi John Burnet v
A. E. Taylor, rng l thuyt v cc Hnh thc hay nim l gn nh hon ton ca
Plato, ch khng phi ca Socrates, bt chp s thc l Plato t n vo ming Socrates
nh ngi pht ngn chnh ca ng. Mc d cc i thoi ca Plato l ngun loi mt
duy nht ca chng ta v gio hun ca Socrates, ti tin, c th phn bit trong chng
gia cc c tnh Socratic, tc l ng v lch s, v cc c tnh Platonic ca ngi
pht ngn ca Plato l Socrates. Ci gi l Vn Socratic c tho lun cc
chng 6, 7, 8, v 10; so c bit ct. 56 ca chng 10.
9
Thut ng k thut x hi c Roscoe Pound dng u tin, trong Introduction to
the Philosophy of Law (1922, p. 99; *Bryan Magee ni vi ti by gi l ng b Webb
dng n chc chn trc 1922.*). ng dng n vi ngha tng phn. N c M.
Eastman dng theo ngha khc Marxism: is it Science? (1940). Ti c sch ca
Eastman sau khi vn bn ca cun sch ny c vit; thut ng k thut x hi ca
ti, do , c dng m khng c bt c m ch no n thut ng ca Eastman.
CHNG /CH THCH -
211
chng mc ti c th thy, ng ch trng cch tip cn m ti ph phn chng 9

di ci tn k thut x hi Khng tng; so ct. 1 chng . Xem c ct. 18 (3)
chng 5. C th coi nh quy hoch thnh ph Hippodamus x Miletus nh k s x hi
u tin . (So Politics ca Aristotle 1276b22, v R. Eisler, Jesus Basileus, II, p. 754).
T k thut x hi c C. G. F. Simkin gi cho ti. Ti mun lm r l trong
tho lun cc vn v phng php, nhn mnh ch yu ca ti l v thu c kinh
nghim ch nh thc tin. So chng 9, c bit vn bn cho ct. 8 chng . V
phn tch chi tit hn v cc vn phng php lin quan n k thut x hi v cng
ngh x hi, xem S khn cng ca Ch ngha lch s (2nd ed., 1960) ca ti, phn III.
10
on trch l t S khn cng ca Ch ngha lch s ca ti, p. 65. Cc kt qu
khng d kin ca hot ng con ngi c tho lun y hn di y, chng
14, xem c bit ct. 11 v vn bn.
11
Ti tin vo mt thuyt nh nguyn ca cc s thc v cc quyt nh hay i hi
(hay ca l v nn); ni cch khc, ti tin vo tnh khng th quy cc quyt nh hay
i hi v cc s thc, du cho chng c th, tt nhin, c coi nh cc s thc. Nhiu
hn v im ny s c ni cc chng 5 (vn bn cho ct. 4-5), 22, v 24.
12
Bng chng ng h din gii ny v l thuyt ca Plato v nh nc tt nht s
c a ra trong ba chng tip; gia chng, ti c th dn chiu n Statesman,
293d/e; 297c; Laws, 713b/c; 739d/e; Timaeus, 22d ff., c bit 25e v 26d.
13
So tng thut ni ting ca Aristotle, c trch mt phn chng ny (xem c
bit ct. 25 ca chng ny v vn bn).
14
iu ny c chng t trong Plato ca Grote, vol. III, ch thch u p. 267 f.
15
Cc trch dn l t Timaeus, 50c/d v 51e-52b. S v von m t cc Hnh thc hay
nim nh b, v Khng gian nh m, ca cc th cm nhn c, l quan trng v c
cc mi lin h su xa. So c cc ct. 17 v 19 chng ny, v ct. 10 chng 10.
(1) N ging thn thoi v hn n ca Hesiod, l toc (khng gian; ch cha) tng
ng vi m, v Thn Eros tng ng vi cha hay nim. Hn n (chaos) l cn
nguyn, v vn gii thch nhn qu (chaos = nguyn nhn) mt thi gian di vn l
nguyn nhn ca khi u (arch) hay sinh hay pht sinh ra.
(2) M hay khng gian tng ng vi v hn hay bao la ca Anaximander v cc
Pythagorean. nim, l ging c, v th phi tng ng vi xc nh (hay c gii hn)
ca cc Pythagorean. V c gii hn, tri vi v hn, n ng, tri vi n b, sng, tri
vi ti, tt, tri vi xu, tt c u thuc v cng bn ca bng Pythagorean v cc i
lp. (So Metaphysics ca Aristotle. 986a22 f.). V th chng ta cng c th k vng
thy cc nim lin kt vi nh sng v iu thin (So cui ct. 32 chng 8)
(3) Cc nim l cc ranh gii hay gii hn, chng l xc nh, tri vi Khng gian
v hn, v ng hay in (so ct. 17 (2) chng ny) bn thn chng, ging nh cc con
du cao su, hoc hay hn, ging cc khun, ln Khng gian (ci khng ch l khng
gian m ng thi l vt liu cha c hnh th ca Anaximander - cht liu cha c c
tnh), nh th to ra cc th cm nhn c. *J. D. Mabbott vui lng lu ti v s
thc l cc Hnh thc hay nim, theo Plato, khng ng hay in bn thn chng ln
Khng gian m, ng hn, c Demiurge ng hay in ln n. Cc du vt ca l thuyt
rng cc Hnh thc l cn nguyn c ca s tn ti v ca s sinh ra (hay ca s n)
c th thy ri trong Phaedo (100d), nh Aristotle ch ra ( Metaphysics 1080a2).*
(4) Do h qu ca hnh ng sinh, Khng gian, tc ch cha, bt u au , a
mi th vo chuyn ng, trong mt dng chy Heraclitean hay Empedoclean ci thc
s l ph qut ti chng mc m chuyn ng hay dng chy m rng ra thm ch cho
212
CHNG /CH THCH -
c khung kh, tc l bn thn khng gian (v hn) na. (V tng Heraclitean mun
v ch cha, so Cratylus, 412d.).
(5) M t ny cng gi li Con ng kin Ho huyn ca Parmenides, trong
th gii kinh nghim v thay i do s pha trn ca hai i lp to ra, sng (hay nng
hay la) v ti (hay lnh hay t). R l cc Hnh thc hay nim ca Plato s tng
ng vi ci trc, v khng gian hay ci v hn vi ci sau; c bit nu chng ta lu
n khng gian thun tu ca Plato kh thn thuc vi vt cht bt nh.
(6) S i lp gia xc nh v bt nh c v cng tng ng, c bit sau khm ph
ra tnh v t ca cn bc hai ca 2, vi s i lp ca c l [hu t] v phi l [v t]. Song
v Parmenides ng nht c l vi s tn ti, iu ny c th dn ti mt din gii khng
gian hay phi l nh khng-tn ti. Ni cch khc, bng cc i lp Pythagorean phi
c m rng bao trm tnh c l, tri vi tnh phi l, v tn ti, tri vi khng tn ti.
(iu ny thng nht vi Metaphysics, 1004b27, ni Aristotle ni l mi tri ngc c
th quy v tn ti hay khng tn ti; 1072a31, ni mt bn ca bng bn tn ti- c
m t nh i tng ca t duy (hp l); v 1093b13, ni lu tha ca cc s no
c l i lp vi cn ca chng - c a vo bn ny. iu ny gii thch thm nhn
xt ca Aristotle Metaphysics, 986b27; v n c l khng cn c, nh F. M. Cornford
lm trong bi bo xut sc Parmenides Two Ways Class. Quart., XVII, 1933, p.
108 ca ng, rng Parmenides, on 8, 53/54, b Aristotle v Theophrastus din gii
lm; v nu m rng bng cc i lp theo cch ny, th din gii rt thuyt phc ca
Cornford v on mu cht ca on 8 tr nn tng hp vi nhn xt ca Aristotle).
(7) Cornford gii thch (op. cit., 100) l c ba con ng Parmenides, con ng
Chn l, con ng Khng-tn ti, v con ng Ra v (hay, nu ti c th gi n nh
vy, kin ho huyn). ng cho thy (101) l chng tng ng vi ba lnh vc c
tho lun Republic, th gii thc t v duy l hon ho ca cc nim, th gii hon
ton h o, v th gii kin (da trn cm nhn ca cc th thay i). ng cng chng
t (102) rng trong Sophist, Plato sa i lp trng ca mnh. i vi iu ny c th
a thm vi li bnh t quan im ca cc on trong Timaeus m ct. ny gn vo.
(8) S khc bit chnh gia cc Hnh thc hay nim ca Republic v ca Timaeus l
ci trc, cc Hnh thc (v c Thn; so Rep., 380d) c ho , y l ni vy, cn
tc phm sau, chng c phong thn. tc phm trc, chng ging vi Ci Mt
Parmenidean (so ch thch ca Adam cho Rep., 380d8, 31) hn nhiu so vi tc phm
sau. S pht trin ny dn n Laws, ni cc nim phn ln c thay bng cc linh
hn. S khc bit quyt nh l cc nim ngy cng tr nn cc khi im ca chuyn
ng v cn nguyn ca sinh thnh, hay nh Timaeus din t, thnh cha ca cc th
chuyn ng. S tng phn ln nht c l l gia Phaedo, 79e: Linh hn ging v hn
vi khng thay i; ngay c k ngu nht khng ph nhn iu (so c Rep., 585c,
609b f.), v Laws, 895e/896a (so Phaedrus, 245 ff.): Ci g l nh ngha ca ci c tn
l linh hn? Ta c th hnh dung nh ngha no khc vi .. S chuyn ng chuyn
dch bn thn n? S qu gia hai lp trng ny, c l, c to ra bi Sophist
(a ra Hnh thc hay nim v bn thn chuyn ng) v bi Timaeus, 35a, tc phm
m t cc Hnh thc siu phm v khng thay i v cc th xc thay i v i bi.
iu ny dng nh gii thch v sao, Laws (so 894d/e), chuyn ng ca linh hn
c ni l th nht v ngun gc v nng lc v v sao linh hn c m t (966e)
nh ci c v siu phm nht ca cc th m chuyn ng ca chng l mt ngun
lun tun chy ca s tn ti thc. (V, theo Plato, tt c cc th sng u c linh hn,
c th cho rng ng tha nhn s hin din ca mt nguyn l ch t mt phn hnh thc
CHNG /CH THCH -
213
trong cc th; mt quan im rt gn vi ch ngha Aristotle, c bit trong s hin din

ca lng tin th s v rng ri rng tt c mi th u sng). (So c ct. 7 chng 4).
(9) Trong s pht trin ny v t duy ca Plato, mt s pht trin m ng lc ca n
l gii thch th gii thay i vi s gip ca cc nim, tc l lm cho s gin
on gia th gii l tr v th gii kin ch t c th hiu c, d cho n khng c
khc phc, Sophist c v ng mt vai tr quyt nh. Ngoi vic to ch, nh Cornford
ni n (op. cit., 102), cho a s nim, n trnh by chng, theo mt l l chng li lp
trng ring trc kia ca Plato (248a ff.): (a) nh cc nguyn nhn tch cc, c th
tng tc, th d, vi tm tr; (b) nh khng thay i bt chp rng, mc d by gi l
mt nim v chuyn ng trong tt c cc th chuyn ng tham gia vo v khng
ngh; (c) nh c kh nng ho trn vi nhau. N a ra thm Khng-tn ti, c
ng nht trong Timaeus vi Khng gian (so Cornford, Platos Theory of Knowledge,
1935, ct. cho 247), v nh th lm cho n c kh nng i vi cc nim ho trn
vi n (so c Philolaus, on 2, 3, 5, Diels5), v to ra th gii trong dng chy vi
lp trng trung gian c trng ca n gia s tn ti ca cc nim v s khng-tn
ti ca Khng gian hay vt cht.
(10) Cui cng, ti mun bo v lun im ca ti trong vn bn rng cc nim
khng ch ngoi khng gian, m cng ngoi thi gian, mc d chng giao tip vi th
gii khi im ca thi gian. iu ny, ti tin, lm cho d hn hiu lm sao chng
hnh ng m khng trong chuyn ng; v mi chuyn ng hay dng chy l trong
khng gian v thi gian. Ti tin, Plato gi s l thi gian c mt khi im. Ti ngh
y l din gii trc tip nht ca Laws, 721c: loi ngi l sinh i vi mi thi gian,
xt n nhiu du hiu l Plato tin con ngi c to ra nh mt trong cc loi vt u
tin. (V im ny, ti hi bt ng vi Cornford, Platos Cosmology, p. 145 v 26 ff.)
(11) Tm li, cc nim l c trc v tt hn cc bn sao thay i v suy i ca
chng, v bn thn chng khng thay i. (Xem c ct. 3 chng 4).
16
So ct. 4 chng ny.
17
(1) Vai tr ca cc thn trong Timaeus l ging vi vai tr c m t trong vn
bn. Ht nh cc nim in ra cc th, cc thn cng to ra cc th xc ca con ngi.
Ch c linh hn ngi c bn thn Demiurge to ra, ng cng to ra th gii v cc
thn. (V m ch khc rng cc thn l cc gio trng, xem Laws, 713c/d). Con ngi,
cc con yu ui, thoi ho ca cc thn, ri s nht thit thoi ho na; so ct. 6 (7)
chng ny, v 37-41 chng 5.
(2) Trong mt on l th ca Laws (681b; so c ct. 32 (1,a) chng 4) chng ta
thy mt m ch khc n s song song gia quan h nim-cc th v quan h cha
m-con ci. Trong on ny, ngun gc ca lut c gii thch bng nh hng ca
truyn thng, v c bit hn, bng truyn mt trt t cng nhc t cha m sang con ci;
v nhn xt sau c a ra: V h (cha m) c th chc chn in du kiu suy ngh
ring ca h ln cc con ca h, v ln cc con ca cc con ca h.
18
So ct. 49, c bit (3), chng 8.
19
So Timaeus, 31a. Thut ng m ti dch mt cch t do l s vt cp trn l
nguyn mu ca chng l mt thut ng thng xuyn c Aristotle dng vi ngha
ph qut hay thut ng chung. N c ngha l mt th chung hay tri hn hay
bao trm; v ti nghi rng ban u n c ngha l bao hm hay bao trm theo ngha
trong mt ci khun bao hm hay bao trm ci n c ra.
214
20
CHNG /CH THCH -
So Republic, 597c. Xem c 596a (v ct. th hai ca Adam vi 596a5): V chng ta

quen, anh s nh, quy nh mt Hnh thc hay nim - mi ci cho mt nhm gm
nhiu th m chng ta dng cng mt ci tn.
21
C v s on trong Plato; ti ch nhc ti Phaedo (th d, 79a), Republic, 544a,
Theaetetus (152d/e, 179d/e), Timaeus (28b/c, 29c/d, 51d f.). Aristotle nhc n trong
Metaphysics, 987a32; 999a25-999b10; 1010a6-15; 1078b15; xem c cc ct. 23 v 25
chng ny.
22
Parmenides dy, nh Burnet din t (Early Greek Philosophy 2, 208), rng ci l
c hn, hnh cu, bt ng, hu hnh, tc l th gii l qu cu hon ton, mt ci
ton th khng c bt c cc phn no, v rng khng c ci g c ngoi n. Ti trch
dn Burnet v (a) m t ca ng l tuyt vi v (b) n ph hu din gii ring ca ng
(E. G. P., 208-11) v ci Parmenides gi l kin ca nhng Con Ngi (hay Con
ng ca kin Ho huyn). V Burnet gt b y tt c din gii ca Aristotle,
Theophrastus, Simplicius, Gomperz, v Meyer, nh sai nin i hay li thi rnh
rnh, v.v. By gi din gii b Burnet gt b thc t l cng nh din gii kin ngh
trong vn bn; c th l, Parmenides tin vo mt th gii thc ti ng sau th gii b
ngoi. Mt ch ngha nh nguyn nh vy, c th cho php m t ca Parmenides v th
gii b ngoi i hi ch t mt loi tho ng no , b Burnet loi b nh li thi
mt cch v vng. Ti gi , tuy vy, rng nu gi nh Parmenides ch tin duy nht vo
th gii bt ng ca ng, v khng h vo th gii thay i, th ng thc s phi in
(nh Empedocles m ch). Song thc ra c du hiu v mt ch ngha nh nguyn
tng t ri Xenophanes, on 23-6, nu tng phn vi on 34 (c bit vi
Nhng tt c u c th c kin l lng ca h), kh c th ni v mt s li
thi.- Nh ng ct. 15 (6-7), ti theo din gii ca Cornford v Parmenides. (Xem c
ct. 41 chng 10).
23
So Metaphysics ca Aristotle, 1078b23; trch dn tip l t: op. cit., 1078b19.
24
So snh c gi tr ny l do G. C. Field, Plato and His Contemporaries, 211.
25
Trch dn trc l t Aristotle, Metaphysics, 1078b15; tip theo t op. cit., 987b7.
26
Trong phn tch ca Aristotle (trong Metaphysics, 987a30-b18) v cc l d dn n
l thuyt v cc nim (so c ct. 56 (6) chng 10), ta c th phn bit cc bc sau:
(a) dng chy Heraclitus, (b) khng th c tri thc tht v cc th lun thay i, (c) nh
hng ca bn cht o c Socrates, (d) cc nim nh cc i tng ca tri thc
tht, (e) nh hng ca cc nh Pythagorean, (f) ci ton hc nh cc i tng trung
gian. - ( ti khng nhc ti (e) v (f) trong vn bn, ni thay vo ti nhc ti
(g) nh hng Parmenidian).
C th ng cho thy cc bc ny c th c nhn din ra sao trong tc phm
ring ca Plato, ni ng trnh by l thuyt ca mnh; c bit trong Phaedo v trong
Republic, trong Theaetetus v trong Sophist, v trong Timaeus.
(1) Trong Phaedo, chng ta thy cc du hiu ca mi im cho n v bao gm (e).
Trong 65a-66a, cc bc (d) v (c) l ni bt, vi mt m ch n (b). 70e bc (a),
xut hin l thuyt ca Heraclitus, kt hp vi mt yu t ca ch ngha Pythagoras (e).
iu ny dn n 74a ff., v n mt tuyn b v bc (d). 99-100 l mt cch tip cn
n (d) qua (c), v.v. V (a) n (d), so c Cratylus, 439c ff.
Trong Republic, tt nhin Quyn VI l tng ng st vi tng thut ca Aristotle.
(a) u Quyn VI, 485a/b (so 527a/b), dn chiu n dng chy Heraclitean (v tng
phn vi th gii khng thay i ca cc Hnh thc). Plato ni v mt thc ti tn
ti mi mi v c min khi sinh thnh v thoi ho. (So cc ct. 2 (2) v 3 chng
CHNG /CH THCH -
215
4 v ct. 33 chng 8, v vn bn). Cc bc (b), (d) v c bit (f) ng mt vai tr

kh hin nhin trong S V von ni ting v ng (Rep., 509c-511e; so cc ct. ca
Adam, v ph lc ca ng cho Quyn VII); nh hng o c ca Socrates, tc l
bc (c), tt nhin c m ch sut Republic. N ng mt vai tr quan trng bn
trong S V Von v ng v c bit ngay trc, tc l 508b ff., ni vai tr ca ci
tt c nhn mnh; xem c bit 508b/c: y l ci ti kin nh i vi con ca ci
tt. Ci m ci tt sinh ra ging nh chnh n l, trong th gii c th nhn thc c,
lin quan n l tr (v cc i tng ca n) theo cng cch nh, trong th gii hu
hnh, con ca mt tri, lin quan n cnh (v cc i tng ca n). Bc (e) bao
hm trong (f), nhng n c trnh by y hn Quyn VII, trong Curriculum ni
ting (so c bit 523a-527c), m phn ln da vo S V Von v ng Quyn VI.
(2) Theaetetus, (a) v (b) c cp bao qut; (c) c nhc ti 174b v 175c.
Sophist, tt c cc bc, k c (g), c ni n, ch c (e) v (f) b b qun; xem c
bit 247a (bc (c)); 249c (bc (b)); 253d/e (bc (d)). Philebus, ta thy du hiu
ca mi bc tr c l bc (f); cc bc (a) n (d) c bit c nhn mnh 59a-c.
(3) Timaeus, tt c cc bc Aristotle ni n u biu l, vi ngoi l c l ca
(c), bc ch c m ch gin tip trong dn nhp nhc li ni dung ca Republic, v
29d. Bc (e), c th ni, c m ch mi ni, v Timaeus l mt trit gia phng
ty v b ch ngha Pythagoras nh hng mnh. Cc bc khc xut hin hai ln
dng hu nh hon ton tng t nh tng thut ca Aristotle; u tin ngn gn 28a
-29d, v mun hn chi tit hn, 48e-55c. Ngay sau (a), tc l din t Heraclitean (49a
ff.; so Cornford, Platos Cosmology, 178) v th gii thay i, l l (b) (51c-e) c nu
ra rng nu ta ng trong phn bit gia l tr (hay tri thc tht) v kin n thun, ta
phi tha nhn s tn ti ca cc Hnh thc khng th thay i c; tip theo cc iu
ny c a ra ( 51e f.) ph hp vi bc (d). Dng chy Heraclitean sau li xut
hin (nh khng gian au ), nhng ln ny c gii thch, nh h qu ca hnh ng
sinh. V nh bc tip theo (f) xut hin, 53c. (Ti cho l cc ng thng v mt
phng v khi do Aristotle nhc ti trong Metaphysics, 992b13, dn chiu n 53c ff.).
(4) C v l s tng t ny gia Timaeus v tng thut ca Aristotle cho n nay
khng khng c nhn mnh ; ch t, n khng c G. C. Field dng trong
phn tch xut sc v thuyt phc ca ng v tng thut ca Aristotle (Plato and His
Contemporaries, 202 ff.). Nhng n c th cng c l l ca Field (cc l l, tuy vy,
hu nh khng cn phi cng c, v chng thc t l thuyt phc) chng li cc quan
im ca Burnet v Taylor cho rng L thuyt v cc nim l Socratic (so ct. 56
chng 10). V trong Timaeus, Plato khng Socrates ni ra l thuyt ny, mt s thc
theo cc nguyn tc ca Burnet v Taylor phi chng minh rng n khng phi l l
thuyt ca Socrates. (H b qua suy din ny bng cch cho rng Timaeus l mt
Pythagorean, v rng ng trnh by khng phi trit hc ca Plato m ca ring ng.
Nhng Aristotle ch thn bit Plato sut hai mi nm v phi c kh nng phn xt
cc vn ny; v ng vit Metaphysics ca mnh thi im khi cc thnh vin ca
Vin Hn Lm c th ph nhn trnh by ca ng v ch ngha Plato).
(5) Burnet vit, trong Greek Philosophy, I, 155 (so c p. xliv ca Phaedo bin tp ca
ng, 1911): l thuyt v cc hnh thc theo ngha m n c duy tr trong Phaedo v
Republic l hon ton thiu ci chng ta c th coi mt cch cng bng l Platonic mt
cch r rng nht trong cc i thoi, c th l cc i thoi ni Socrates khng cn l
ngi pht ngn chnh. Theo ngha , n thm ch khng bao gi c nhc ti trong
bt k i thoi no mun hn Parmenides .. vi ngoi l duy nht ca Timaeus (51c),
216
CHNG /CH THCH -
ni ngi pht ngn l mt nh Pythagorean. Song nu n c duy tr Timaeus theo

ngha m n c duy tr Republic, th n chc chn cng c duy tr trong Sophist,
257d/e; v trong Statesman, 269c/d; 286a; 297b/c, v c/d; 301a v e; 302e; v 303b; v
trong Philebus, 150a f., v 59a-d; v trong Laws, 713, 739d/e, 962c f., 963c ff., v quan
trng nht, 965 c (so Philebus, 16d), 965d, v 966a; xem c ct. tip. (Burnet tin vo tnh
xc thc ca Letters [cc bc th], c bit l Seventh [bc th by]; nhng l thuyt v
cc nim c duy tr ti 342a ff.; xem c ct. 56 (5, d) chng 10).
27
So Laws, 895d-e. Ti khng tn thnh ct. ca England (trong ln xut bn Laws ca
ng, vol. II, 472) rng t bn cht s khng gip chng ta. ng, nu chng ta hiu
essence nh phn cm nhn c quan trng no [tinh cht] ca s vt cm nhn
c (ci c th c tinh ch v to ra bng s chng ct no ), th t essence c
th dn n lm lc. Nhng t essenctial: bn cht c dng rng ri theo cch tng
ng qu thc rt tt vi ci ta mun by t y; ci g i lp vi kha cnh ph
hay khng quan trng hay kinh nghim thay i ca s vt, bt lun n c hnh dung
nh trong s vt , hay trong mt th gii siu hnh ca cc nim.
Ti dng t bn cht lun i lp vi thuyt duy danh, trnh, v thay, t d gy
lm ln thuyt duy thc, ni n i lp (khng vi thuyt duy tm m) vi thuyt
duy danh. Xem c ct. 26 ff. chng 11, v vn bn, v c bit ct. 28).
V vic Plato p dng phng php bn cht lun, th d, nh c ni ti trong vn
bn, i vi l thuyt v linh hn, xem Laws, 895e f., c trch ct. 15 (8) chng
ny, v chng 5, c bit ct. 23. Xem c, th d, Meno, 86d/e, v Symposium, 199c/d.
28
V l thuyt gii thch nhn qu, so The Logic of Scientific Discovery ca ti, c
bit mc 12, cc p. 59 ff. Xem c ct. 6 chng 25 di.
29
L thuyt ngn ng nu y l l thuyt v Ng ngha hc, c A. Tarski v R.
Carnap trnh by. So Carnap, Introduction to Semantics, 1942, v ct. 23 cho chng 8.
30
L thuyt rng trong khi cc khoa hc vt l da vo thuyt duy danh phng php
lun, cc khoa hc x hi phi chp nhn phng php bn cht lun (duy thc), c
K. Polanyi lm r cho ti (nm 1925); ng ch ra, khi , l mt cuc ci cch phng
php lun ca cc khoa hc x hi c th c hnh dung t c bng b l thuyt ny
i. L thuyt c hu ht cc nh x hi hc cho l ng, c bit J. S. Mill (th d,
Logic, VI, Ch. VI, 2; xem c cc trnh by lch s ch ngha ca ng, th d, VI, ch. X,
2, on vn cui: Vn cn bn .. ca khoa hc x hi l tm ra cc qui lut theo
bt c trng thi no ca x hi to ra trng thi k tip n .., K. Marx (xem di);
M. Weber (so th d, nh ngha ca ng u Methodische Grundlagen der Soziologie,
trong Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft, I, v trong Ges. Aufsaetze zur Wissenschaftslehre).
G. Simmel, A. Vierkandt, R. M. MacIver, v nhiu ngi na. - Din t trit hc ca
tt c cc xu hng ny l Hin tng hc ca E. Husserl, mt ti sinh c h thng ca
bn cht lun phng php lun ca Plato v Aristotle. (Xem c ch. 11, c bit ct. 44).
Ci i lp, thi duy danh trong x hi hc, c th c trnh by, ti ngh, ch nh
mt l thuyt k thut v cc th ch x hi.
vn cnh ny, ti c th ni ti ln vt ch ngha lch s n Plato v Heraclitus
ra sao. Khi phn tch ch ngha lch s, ti thy ti cn ci by gi c gi l bn cht
lun phng php; tc l ti thy cc l l in hnh ng h bn cht lun gn b vi ch
ngha lch s (so S khn cng ca ch ngha lch s ca ti). iu ny dn ti xem xt
lch s bn cht lun. Ti b n tng bi s tng t gia tng thut ca Aristotle v
phn tch ban u ti tin hnh m khng c bt c dn chiu no n ch ngha Plato.
Bng cch ny, ti nh n vai tr ca c Heraclitus v Plato trong s pht trin ny.
CHNG /CH THCH -
217
Plato To-day (1937) ca R. H. S. Crossman l cun sch u tin (ngoi Plato ca

G. Grote) ti thy c cha din gii chnh tr ca Plato m mt phn ging vi ca ti.
Xem c cc ct. 2-3 chng 6, v vn bn. *K t ti thy cc quan im tng t
ca Plato c cc tc gi khc nhau by t. C. M. Bowra (Ancient Greek Literature,
1933) c l l u tin; ph phn Plato ngn song t m ca ng (p. 186-90) cng cng
bng nh su sc. Nhng ngi khc l W. Fite (The Platonic Legend, 134); B.
Farrington (Science and Politics in the Ancient World, 1939); A. D. Winspear ( The
Genesis of Platos Thought, 1940); v H. Kelsen (Platonic Justice, 1933; by gi trong
What is Justice?, 1957, v Platonic Love, trong The American Imago, vol. 3, 1942).*
31
CH THCH CHO CHNG 4

So Republic, 608e. Xem c ct. 2 chng ny.
Trong Laws, linh hn ci c v siu phm nht ca mi th trong chuyn ng
(966e) - c m t nh khi im ca mi chuyn ng (895b).
(1) Vi l thuyt Platonic, Aristotle tng phn l thuyt ca mnh, theo ci tt
khng l khi im, m ng hn l kt thc hay mc ch ca s thay i, v tt c
ngha l mt th c mong mi mc ch ca s thay i. Nh th ng ni v cc
Platonist, nhng ngi tin vo cc Hnh thc, l h thng nht vi Empedocles (h ni
cng cch nh Empedocles) chng no h khng ni c nh mi th xy ra v cc
th ny (tc l cc th tt) m c nh mi chuyn ng bt u t chng. V ng
ch ra l tt v th vi cc Platonist c ngha khng phi l mt mc ch vi t cch
l tt, tc l mt mc tiu, m rng n ch tin th l mt ci tt. So Metaphysics,
988a35 v b8 ff., v 1075a, 34/35. Ph phn ny nghe c nh i khi Aristotle c cc
quan im ging ca Speusippus, thc ra l kin ca Zeller; xem ct. 11 chng 11.
(2) V chuyn ng ti thoi ho, c ni trong vn bn ca on vn ny, v tm
quan trng chung ca n trong trit hc Platonic, ta phi nh s i lp chung gia th
gii ca cc th khng thay i hay cc nim, v th gii ca cc th c th cm nhn
c lun thay i. Plato thng xuyn biu l s i lp ny nh s i lp gia th
gii ca cc th khng thay i v th gii ca cc th c th thoi ho, hay gia cc
th khng c sinh ra, v cc th c sinh ra v phi b thoi ho, v.v.; xem, th d,
Republic, 485a/b, c trch ct. 26 (1) chng 3 v vn bn cho ct. 33 chng 8;
Republic, 508d-e; 527a/b; v Republic, 546a, trch vn bn cho ct. 37 chng 5:
Mi th c sinh ra phi thoi ho (hay suy tn). Rng vn ny v s sinh ra v
thoi ho ca th gii ca cc th lun thay i l phn quan trng ca Trng phi
Platonic truyn thng c biu l bi s thc rng Aristotle dnh mt chuyn lun
tch bit cho vn ny. Mt du hiu l th khc l cch m Aristotle ni v cc vn
ny dn nhp vo Politics ca ng, cha trong cc cu kt lun ca Nicomachean
Ethics (1181b/15): Chng ta s th .. tm ci g l ci duy tr hay lm mc nt cc thnh
ph .. on ny l quan trng khng ch nh mt trnh by tng qut v ci Aristotle
coi l vn chnh ca Politics ca ng, m cng v s ging nhau ng ngc nhin ca
n vi mt on quan trng trong Laws, l 676a, v 676b/c c trch di y
vn bn cho cc ct. 6 v 25 ca chng ny. (Xem c cc ct. 1, 3, v 24/25 chng
ny; xem ct. 32 chng 8, v on t Laws c trch ct. 59 cho chng 8).
3
Trch dn ny l t Statesman, 269d. (Xem c ct. 23 chng ny). V th bc cc
chuyn ng, xem Laws, 893c-895b. V l thuyt rng cc th hon ho (cc bn cht
siu phm; so chng tip) c th ch tr nn t hon ho hn khi chng thay i, xem
1
2
218
CHNG /CH THCH -
c bit Republic, 380e-381c v nhiu mt (lu cc th d 380e) l mt on

tng t vi Laws, 797d. Trch dn Aristotle l t Metaphysics, 988b3, v t De Gen. et
Corr., 335b14. Bn trch dn cui on vn ny l t Laws, 904c f., v 797d. Xem c
ct. 24 chng ny, v vn bn. (C th din gii nhn xt v cc i tng xu nh
mt m ch khc n mt s pht trin tun hon, nh c tho lun ct. 6 chng
2, tc l nh mt m ch n lng tin rng xu hng pht trin phi o ngc, v rng
cc th phi bt u ci thin, mt khi th gii t su thp nht ca ci xu.
*V s hiu l thuyt Platonic v thay i v cc on trch t Laws ca ti b thch,
ti mun a thm vi bnh lun, c bit v hai on (1) Laws, 904c, f, v (2) 797d.
(1) on Laws, 904c, t quan trng l s bt u sa st trong mc xp hng ca
chng c th c dch theo ngha en hn l t quan trng l s bt u chuyn ng
xung trong mc xp hng. T ra chc chn i vi ti, t ng cnh, l xung mc
xp hng c ngha hn l v phn mc xp hng, ci r rng cng c th l mt cch
dch kh d. (L do ca ti khng ch l ton b ng cnh kch tnh, xung t 904a, m
cng c bit hn l dy kata kata kat ci, trong mt on ly , phi bin sc
ngha ca ch t kata th hai. - V t m ti dch l mc, t ny c th, tha nhn, c
ngha khng ch l trnh m c l b mt na; v t m ti dch l hng c th c
ngha l khng gian; th nhng bn dch ca Bury: s thay i v tnh cht cng nh,
chuyn ng trn b mt trong khng gian cng t i vi ti dng nh khng mang
li my ngha trong ng cnh ny).
(2) Tip tc ca on ny (Laws, 798) l c trng nht. N i rng nh lp php
phi ngh ra, bng bt c phng tin tu no ca mnh (bng mi cch, nh
Bury dch rt kho), mt phng php m bo cho nh nc ca ng rng ton b linh
hn ca mi cng dn ca n s, do lng sng knh v s hi, khng li bt k thay i
ca bt c th no c thit lp l c. (Plato tnh c, mt cch tng minh, cc th
m cc nh lp php khc coi ch l chuyn tr chi nh, th d, nhng thay i
trong cc tr chi ca tr con).
(3) Ni chung, bng c chnh cho din gii ca ti v l thuyt thay i ca Plato
ngoi rt nhiu on th yu c dn chiu ti cc ch thch khc nhau chng
ny v chng trc -tt nhin c th thy cc on mang tnh lch s hay tin ho
ca tt c cc i thoi c cha cc on nh vy, c bit l Republic (sa st v sp
ca nh nc t thi k gn-hon ho hay Thi k Hong kim ca n Quyn VIII v
IX, l Statesman (l thuyt v Thi k Hong kim v s sa st ca n), l Laws (chuyn
v ch gia trng nguyn thu v v cuc chinh phc Dorian, v chuyn v sa st v
sp ca ch Ba t), l Timaeus (chuyn v tin ho do thoi ho, vic xy ra hai
ln, v chuyn v Thi k Hong kim ca Athens, c tip tc trong Critias).
Thm vo chng c ny phi a cc dn chiu thng xuyn ca Plato n Hesiod,
v s thc chc chn l u c tng hp ca Plato sc so khng km ca Empedocles
(thi k xung t ca ng l thi k cai tr hin nay; so Aristotle, De Gen. et Corr., 334a,
b) v hnh dung cng vic con ngi trong khung cnh v tr (Statesman,Timaeus).
(4) Cui cng, c l ti c th k n cc cn nhc tm l hc chung. Mt mt s s
hi i mi (c nhiu on Laws, th d 758c/d, minh ho) v, mt khc, l tng
ho qu kh (nh thy Hesiod hay chuyn v thin ng mt) l cc hin tng
thng xuyn v ni bt. C l khng qu cng iu kt ni ci sau, hoc thm ch
c hai, vi s l tng ho thi th u, qu hng, cha m ca mnh, v vi mong mun
hoi c tr v vi cc thi k ban u ny ca cuc sng, ca gc ca mnh. C rt
nhiu on Plato trong ng coi l nghim nhin rng tnh th gc, hay bn cht
CHNG /CH THCH -
219
gc, l trng thi hnh phc. Ti ch k n bi ni ca Aristophanes trong Symposium;

y c coi l nhim nhin rng s ham mun mnh m v s au kh ca tnh yu
say m c gii thch nu chng t c l n bt ngun t s hoi c ny, v
tng t, rng cm gic tho mn tnh dc c th c gii thch bng cm gic v s
hoi c c tho mn. Nh th Plato ni v Eros (Symposium, 193d): ng s phc hi
chng ta ti bn cht gc ca chng ta (xem c 191d) v cha tr chng ta v lm cho
chng ta hnh phc v sung sng. Cng ngh nhn mnh nhiu nhn xt nh sau
y t Philebus (16c): Nhng ngi xa .. tt hn chng ta by gi, v .. sng gn cc
thn hn .. Tt c iu ny biu l quan im rng trng thi bt hnh v s bt hnh
ca chng ta l h qu ca s pht trin lm cho chng ta khc vi bn cht gc ca
mnh nim ca chng ta; v n biu l thm rng s pht trin l t mt trng thi
tt v hnh phc sang mt trng thi ni tnh tt v phc lnh b mt; song iu ny c
ngha l s pht trin l gia tng mc nt. L thuyt hi tng ca Plato l thuyt cho
rng tt c tri thc l ti-nhn thc hay ti-su tm tri thc m ta c trong qu kh
trc khi , l phn ca cng quan im: trong qu kh c khng ch ci tt, ci cao
qu, v ci p, m c mi s sng sut. Ngay c s thay i hay chuyn ng c cng
tt hn chuyn ng th cp; v Laws linh hn c ni l (895b) khi im ca mi
chuyn ng u tin xut hin trong cc th ng yn .. chuyn ng c nht v c uy
lc ln nht, v (966e) c v siu phm nht ca tt c mi th. (So ct. 15 (8) ch.
3).
Nh c ch ra trc (so c bit ct. 6 chng 3), hc thuyt v mt xu hng
lch s v v tr ti suy tn dng nh c kt hp, Plato, vi mt thuyt v chu k
lch s v v tr. (Giai on suy tn, c l, l mt phn ca chu k ny).*
4
So Timaeus, 91d-92b/c. Xem c ct. 6 (7) chng 3 v ct. 11 chng 11.
5
Xem u chng 2 trn, v ct. 6 (1) chng 3. Khng ch l ngu nhin rng
Plato ni ti chuyn ca Hesiod v cc kim loi khi tho lun l thuyt ring ca ng
v suy tn lch s (Rep., 546e/547a, c bit cc ct. 39 v 40 chng 5); ng r rng
mun cho bit thuyt ca ng khp vi, v gii thch, kho th no l thuyt ca Hesiod.
6
Phn lch s ca Laws l Quyn III v IV (xem ct. 6 (5) v (8) chng 3). Hai
trch dn vn bn l t on u ca phn ny, tc l Laws, 676a. V cc on tng
t c nhc n, xem Republic, 369b, f. (S sinh ca mt thnh ph ..) v 545d
(Thnh ph ca chng ta s thay i th no ..).
Thng ni l Laws (v Statesman) t th ch vi dn ch hn Republic, v phi tha
nhn l ging chung ca Plato thc ra t th ch hn (iu ny c l do sc mnh ni
ti ca nn dn ch tng ln; xem chng 10 v u chng 11). Song s nhng b
thc t duy nht i vi nn dn ch Laws l cc vin chc chnh tr c cc thnh
vin ca giai cp thng tr (tc l qun s), la chn; v v mi s thay i quan trng
v lut ca nh nc ng no cng b cm (so, th d, cc trch dn ct. 3 chng
ny), iu ny khng c ngha nhiu lm. Xu hng c bn vn l ng h-Sparta, v
xu hng ny, nh c th thy t Politics ca Aristotle, 11, 6, 17 (1265b), l tng hp
vi ci gi l hin php hn hp. Thc ra, Plato Laws, nu c th ni nh vy, l th
ch i vi tinh thn dn ch, tc l i vi tng v quyn t do c nhn, hn l
Republic; so c bit vn bn cho cc ct. 32 v 33 chng 6 (tc l Laws, 739c, ff., v
942a, f.) v cho cc ct. 19-22 chng 8 (tc l Laws, 903c 909a). Xem c ct. tip.
7
C v ph hp l kh khn chnh v gii thch s thay i u tin ny l ci dn
Plato n bin i l thuyt ca mnh v cc nim thnh cc nguyn nhn v nng lc
tch cc, c kh nng ho trn vi mt vi nim khc (so Sophist, 252e, ff.), v loi
220
CHNG /CH THCH -
b cc nim cn li (Sophist, 223c), v nh th bin i chng thnh ci g ging

cc thn, tri li Republic (so 380d) ho ngay c cc thn thnh nhng ci bt ng
Parmenidean. Mt im ngot quan trng, c v nh, l Sophist, 248e-249c (lu c
bit rng y nim v chuyn ng l khng ng yn). S bin i c v nh
gii quyt ng thi s kh khn ca ci gi l ngi th ba; v nu cc Hnh thc,
nh trong Timaeus, l cha, th khng cn n ngi th ba no gii thch s ging
nhau ca chng vi cc con ca chng.
V quan h ca Republic vi Statesman v vi Laws, ti ngh rng n lc ca Plato
hai i thoi sau ln vt ngun gc ca x hi loi ngi li li hn na v hn na
cng vy c quan h vi nhng kh khn c hu trong vn v s thay i u tin.
Rng l kh hnh dung v mt s thay i trn ngp mt thnh ph hon ho c
pht biu r Republic, 546a; n lc ca Plato trong Republic gii quyt n s c
tho lun chng tip (so vn bn cho cc ct. 37-40 chng 5). Trong Statesman,
Plato chp nhn l thuyt v mt thm ho v tr dn n s thay i t na-vng tnh
yu (Empedoclean) sang chu k hin ti, na-vng xung t. tng ny dng nh
c b i trong Timaeus, c thay bng mt l thuyt (c gi li trong Laws) v
cc thm ho hn ch hn, nh cc nn lt, c th hu hoi cc nn vn minh, song hin
nhin khng nh hng n tin trnh ca v tr. (C th l gii php ny ca vn
c gi cho Plato bi s thc rng vo nm 373-372 trc cng nguyn, thnh ph
c Helice b ng t v nn lt ph hu). Hnh thc sm nht ca x hi, khc trong
Republic ch bi mt bc duy nht t nh nc Spartan vn cn tn ti, l s y li
vo mt qu kh ngy cng xa. Mc d Plato tip tc tin rng s nh c u tin phi
l thnh ph tt nht, by gi ng tho lun cc x hi trc s nh c u tin, tc l
cc x hi du c, nhng ngi chn cu trn i. (So c bit ct. 32 chng ny).
8
Trch dn l t Marx-Engels, Tuyn ngn Cng sn; so A Handbook of Marxism
(edited by E. Burns, 1935), 22.
9
Trch dn l t bnh lun ca Adam v Quyn VIII ca Republic; xem ln xut bn
ca ng, vol. II, 198, ch thch cho 544a3.
10
So Republic, 544c.
11
(1) Tri vi lun im ca ti rng Plato, ging nhiu nh x hi hc hin i k t
Comte, th phc ho cc giai on in hnh ca s pht trin x hi, hu ht ph phn
coi cu chuyn ca Plato ch nh mt trnh by hi kch tnh ca mt s phn loi thun
tu logic ca cc hin php. Song iu ny khng ch mu thun vi ci Plato ni (so ct.
ca Adam cho Rep., 544c19, op. cit., vol. II, 199), m n cng chng li ton b tinh
thn logic ca Plato, theo bn cht [essence] ca mt s vt phi c hiu bng bn
cht [nature] gc ca n, tc l bng gc lch s ca n. V chng ta khng c qun
l ng dng cng t, genus: ging, c ni mt lp theo ngha logic v mt loi
theo ngha sinh hc. Genus logic vn ng nht vi loi, theo ngha v con ca cng
cha m. (Vi iu ny, so cc ct. 15-20 chng 3, v vn bn, cng nh cc ct. 23-24
chng 5, v vn bn, ni phng trnh bn cht = ngun gc = loi c tho lun).
Do , c mi l do coi ci Plato ni theo gi tr danh ngha ca n; v cho d Adam
ng khi ng ni (loc. cit.) l Plato nh cho mt trt t logic, trt t ny i vi
ng ng thi l trt t ca s pht trin lch s in hnh. Nhn xt ca Adam (loc. cit.)
rng trt t c xc nh ch yu bi cc cn nhc tm l ch khng phi lch s, ti
tin, quay ra chng ng ta. V bn thn ng ch ra (th d, op. cit., vol. II, 195, ct. cho
543a, ff.) rng Plato gi li t u n cui .. s tng t gia Linh hn v Thnh
ph. Theo l thuyt chnh tr v linh hn ca Plato (s c tho lun chng tip),
CHNG /CH THCH -
221
lch s tm l phi chy song song vi lch s x hi, v s i lp c cho l gia cc

cn nhc tm l v lch s bin mt, i thnh mt l l ng h din gii ca chng ta.
(2) C th a ra cng tr li chnh xc nh th nu ai l l rng trt t hin php
ca Plato, v c bn, khng phi l mt trt t logic m mang tnh o c; v trt t
o c (v c trt t thm m na), trong trit hc ca Plato, l khng th phn bit
c khi trt t lch s. Trong mi quan h ny c th nhn xt rng quan im lch s
ch ngha ny to cho Plato mt hu trng cho ch ngha hnh phc ca Socrates, tc
l cho l thuyt rng ci tt v hnh phc l y ht nhau. L thuyt ny c pht trin,
trong Republic (so c bit 580b), dng hc thuyt cho rng tnh tt v hnh phc, hay
tnh xu v bt hnh, l cn xng; v chng phi th, nu tt cng nh hnh phc
ca mt ngi c o bng mc trong anh ta ging bn cht c ban phc
ban u ca chng ta - nim hon ho v con ngi. (S thc rng l thuyt ca Plato,
im ny, dn n mt s bin minh l thuyt cho mt hc thuyt Socratic hin nhin
nghch l c th gip Plato thuyt phc bn thn ng rng ng ch trnh by chi
tit tn iu Socratic tht; xem vn bn cho cc ct. 56/57 chng 10).
(3) Rousseau tip qun phn loi cc th ch ca Plato (Social Contract, Quyn II, ch.
VII, Q.III, ch. III ff., so c ch. X). Tuy vy, dng nh ng khng b Plato nh hng
trc tip khi ng hi sinh nim Platonic v mt x hi nguyn thu (so, tuy vy, cc
ct. 1 chng 6 v 14 chng 9); m mt kt qu trc tip ca s Phc hng Platonic
Italy l Arcadia c nh hng nht ca Sanazzaro, vi s phc hi tng ca
Plato v x hi nguyn thu c phc lnh ca nhng ngi chn cu Hy Lp (Dorian)
trn i. (V tng ny ca Plato, so vn bn cho ct. 32 chng ny). Nh th Ch
ngha Lng mn (so c chng 9) qu thc v mt lch s l con ca ch ngha Plato.
(4) Ch ngha lch s hin i ca Comte v Mill, v ca Hegel v Marx, b nh
hng n u bi ch ngha lch s hu thn ca New Science ca Giambattista Vico
(1725) l rt kh ni: bn thn Vico r rng b nh hng bi Plato, cng nh bi De
Civitate Dei ca St. Augustine v Discourses on Livy ca Machiavelli. Ging Plato (so
ch. 5), Vico ng nht bn cht ca mt s vt vi ngun gc ca n (so Opere, xut
bn ln 2 ca Ferrari, 1852-54, vol. V, p. 99); v ng tin l mi quc gia phi tri qua
cng tin trnh pht trin, theo mt qui lut ph qut. Cc quc gia ca ng (nh ca
Hegel) nh th c th ni l mt trong cc lin kt gia Cc thnh ph ca Plato v
Cc nn vn minh ca Toynbee.
12
Republic, 549c/d; cc trch dn tip op. cit., 550d-e, v mun hn, op. cit., 551a/b.
13
So op. cit., 556e. (on ny phi c so vi Thucydides, III, 82-4, c trch
chng 10, vn bn cho ct. 12). Trch dn tip l op. cit., 557a.
14
V chng trnh dn ch ca Pericles, xem vn bn cho ct. 31, chng 10, ct. 17
chng 6, v ct. 34 chng 10.
15
Adam, ln xut bn The Republic of Plato ca ng, vol. II, 240, ct. cho 559d22.
(Ch nghing trch dn th hai l ca ti). Adam th nhn l bc tranh r rng hi
phng i; song ng li t nghi ng rng ng ngh, c bn, n lun lun ng.
16
Adam, loc. cit.
17
Trch dn ny t Republic, 560d (v trch dn ny v ci tip, so bn dch ca
Lindsay); hai trch dn tip l t Rep., 563 a-b, v d. (Xem c ct. ca Adam cho 563
d25). Quan trng l Plato ku gi y nh ch ti sn t nhn, b tn cng gay gt
cc phn khc ca Rep., c nh n l mt nguyn l khng b bc b v cng l. C v l
khi ti sn mua l mt n l, mt s cu khn n quyn hp php ca ngi mua l .
222
CHNG /CH THCH -
Mt tn cng khc ln nn dn ch l n gim p di chn nguyn tc gio dc

rng khng ai c th ln ln thnh mt ngi tt tr phi cc nm sm nht ca n c
trao cho cc tr chi cao qu. (Rep., 558b; xem bn dch ca Lindsay; so ct. 68
chng 10). Xem c cc tn cng ln ch ngha bnh ng c trch ct. 14 ch. 6.
* V thi ca Socrates i vi bu bn tr ca ng xem hu ht cc i thoi sm
hn, nhng c Phaedo, ni dng b d thng, t t, v tn trng trong ng lng
nghe ph phn ca ngi tr ca Socrates c m t. V thi tng phn ca Plato,
xem vn bn cho cc ct. 19-21 ch. 7; xem c cc bi ging tuyt vi bi H. Cherniss,
The Riddle of the Early Academy (1945), c bit p. 70 v 79 (v Parmenides 135c-d),
v so cc ct. 18-21 chng 7, v vn bn.*
18
S n l (xem ct. trc) v phong tro Athenian chng li n s c tho lun
thm cc chng 5 (ct. 13 v vn bn), 10, v 11; xem c ct. 29 chng ny. Ging
Plato, Aristotle (th d Pol. 1313b11, 1319b20; v Constitution of Athens ca ng, 59,
5) chng nhn tnh rng lng ca Athens i vi cc n l; v Pseudo-[Gi]Xenophon
cng th (so Const. of Athens, I, 10 f., ca ng).
19
So Republic, 577a, f.; xem ct. ca Adam cho 577a v b12 (op. cit., vol. II, 332 f.).
Xem by gi c Ph lc III (Tr li mt nh ph bnh), di y, c bit pp. 330 f.
20
Republic, 566e; so ct. 63 chng 10.
21
So Statesman (Politicus), 301c/d. Mc d Plato phn bit su loi nh nc mt
phm cht, ng khng a ra thut ng mi no; nn qun ch (hay vng triu) v
ch qu tc c dng Republic (445d) cho bn thn nh nc tt nht, v khng
cho cc dng tng i tt nht ca cc nh nc gim phm cht, nh Statesman.
22
So Republic, 544d.
23
So Statesman, 297c/d: Nu chnh th ti nhc ti l bn gc tht duy nht, th cc
chnh th khc (ch l cc bn sao ca ci ny; so 297b/c) phi dng cc lut ca n,
v ghi chng li; v y l cch duy nht theo chng c th c duy tr. (So ct. 3
ch. ny, v ct. 18 ch. 7). V bt c s vi phm no v cc lut phi b trng pht vi
ti cht, v vi cc trng pht nghim khc nht; v iu ny l rt tt v cng bng,
tuy, tt nhin, ch l th tt th nh. (V ngun gc ca lut, so ct. 32 (1, a) ch. ny,
v ct. 17 (2) ch. 3). V 300e/301a, f., chng ta c thy: S gn ng st nht cc
hnh thc thp hn ny ca chnh th n chnh th tht .. l tun theo cc lut thnh vn
ny v cc tp qun Khi nhng ngi giu cai tr v bt chc Hnh thc tht, th
chnh th c gi l ch qu tc; v khi chng khng lu n cc lut (c) l ch
u s, v.v. Quan trng lu l khng phi s hp php hay s phi php mt
cch tru tng, m l s duy tr cc th ch c ca nh nc gc hay hon ho, l tiu
chun ca s phn loi. (iu ny tri ngc vi Politics ca Aristotle, 1292a, ni s
phn bit chnh l liu lut l ti cao, hay, th d, thng dn).
24
on, Laws, 709e-714a, cha vi m ch n Statesman; th d, 710d-e, a ra,
theo Herodotus III, 80-82, s cc nh cai tr nh nguyn tc phn loi; nh s cc hnh
thc chnh th 712c v d; v 713b, ff., tc l huyn thoi v nh nc hon ho thi
Cronos, m cc nh nc tt nht hin nay ca chng ta l cc s bt chc. V cc
m ch ny, ti t nghi ng l Plato mun l thuyt ca ng v s thch hp ca nn
chuyn ch cho cc th nghim Khng tng phi c hiu nh mt loi ca s tip
tc cu chuyn ca Statesman (v nh th c ca Republic). Cc trch dn on vn
ny l t Laws, 709e, v 710c/d; nhn xt t Laws c trch trn l 797d, c
trch vn bn cho ct. 3, ch. ny. (Ti ng vi ch thch ca E. B. England cho
on ny, trong ln xut bn The Laws of Plato ca ng, 1921, vol. II, 258, rng thay
CHNG /CH THCH -
223
i l c hi cho nng lc .. ca bt c ci g, v v th cho c nng lc ca ci xu;

song ti khng ng vi ng rng thay i t xu, tc l thnh tt, l qu hin nhin
c nhc n nh mt ngoi l; n khng hin nhin nhn t quan im ca hc
thuyt ca Plato v bn cht xu ca thay i. Xem c vn bn cho ch thch).
25
So Laws, 676b/c (so 676a c trch vn bn cho ct. 6). Bt chp hc thuyt ca
Plato rng thay i l c hi (so cui ct. trc), E. B. England din gii cc on ny
v thay i v cch mng bng cho chng mt ngha lc quan hay tin b. ng gi
i tng nghin cu ca Plato l ci ta c th gi l b mt ca sc sng chnh tr.
(So op. cit., vol. I, 344). V ng din gii on ny v tm nguyn nhn tht ca thay i
(c hi) nh i x vi mt s tm kim nguyn nhn v bn cht ca s pht trin tht
ca mt nh nc, tc l ca s tin b ca n ti s hon thin. (ng nhn mnh; so
vol. I, 345). Din gii ny khng th l ng, v on ny l mt dn nhp ti chuyn v
suy i chnh tr; song n chng t xu hng l tng ho Plato v gii thiu ng nh
ngi theo thuyt tin b lm m qung nhiu n th no ngay c nh ph bnh xut
sc nh vy i vi s khm ph ring ca ng, c th l, Plato tin thay i l c hi.
26
So Republic, 545d (xem c on tng t 465b). Trch dn l t Laws, 683e.
(Adam ln xut bn Republic ca ng, vol. II, 203, ct. cho 545d21, dn chiu n
on ny Laws). England, ln xut bn Laws ca ng, vol. I, 360 f., ct. cho 683e5,
nhc ti Republic, 609a, nhng c 545d ln 465b th khng, v cho rng dn chiu l
ti mt tho lun trc, hay tho lun c ghi trong mt i thoi mt. Ti khng
thy v sao Plato khng m ch n Republic, bng dng h cu rng vi trong cc ch
ca n c tho lun bi cc ngi i thoi c mt. Nh Cornford ni, trong nhm
cui ca cc i thoi ca Plato khng c ng c no duy tr o tng l cc i
thoi thc s xy ra; v ng cng ng khi ni l Plato khng l n l ca cc h cu
ca ng. (So Cornford, Platos Cosmology, p. 5 v 4). Qui lut cch mng ca Plato
c V. Pareto ti pht hin m khng c ch dn n Plato; so Treaties on General
Sociology ca ng, 2054, 2057, 2058. ( cui 2055, cng c mt l thuyt v lm
ngng lch s). Rousseau cng ti pht hin qui lut. (Social Contract, Q. III, ch. X).
27
(1) ng lu l cc nt tiu biu phi-lch s c ca nh nc tt nht, c bit
s cai tr ca cc trit gia, khng c Plato nhc n trong tm tt u Timaeus, v
rng Quyn VIII ca Republic ng cho l cc nh cai tr ca nh nc tt nht khng
snh v thuyt thn b s Pythagorean; so Republic, 564c/d, ni cc nh cai tr c ni
l dt nt v cc vn ny. (So c nhn xt, Rep., 543d/544a, theo nh nc tt
nht ca Quyn VIII vn c th b vt, c th, nh Adam ni, bi thnh ph ca
Quyn V-VII thnh ph l tng trn thin ng).
Trong cun Platos Cosmology ca mnh, pp. 6 ff., Cornford dng li cc im chnh
v ni dung ca tc phm ba b cha hon tt ca Plato, Timaeus-Critias-Hermocrates,
v cho thy chng lin quan th no n cc phn lch s ca Laws (Quyn III). Vic
dng li ny, ti ngh, l s chng thc c gi tr cho l thuyt ca ti rng ci nhn ca
Plato v th gii c bn mang tnh lch s, v rng mi quan tm ca ng v n c
sinh ra th no (v n suy tn ra sao) ni kt vi l thuyt ca ng v cc nim, v
qu thc da vo n. Song nu ng th, th khng c l do v sao ta phi cho rng cc
cun sau ca Republic li bt u t cu hi n (tc l thnh ph) c th c thc
hin ra sao trong tng lai v phc ho s sa st kh d ca n qua cc dng thp hn
ca chnh tr (Cornford, op. cit., 6; ti nhn mnh); thay vo chng ta phi coi cc
Quyn VIII v IX ca Republic, v s tng ng st ca chng vi Quyn III ca
Laws, nh phc ho lch s gin lc v s sa st thc s ca thnh ph l tng ca
224
CHNG /CH THCH -
qu kh, v nh mt gii thch v ngun gc ca cc nh nc hin tn, tng t nh

nhim v ln hn do bn thn Plato ra Timaeus, b ba thng nht, v Laws.
(2) Lin quan n nhn xt ca ti, mun hn on vn, rng Plato chc bit l ng
khng c t liu cn thit, xem th d Laws, 683d, v ct. ca England cho 683d2.
(3) Vi nhn xt ca ti, di na trong on vn, rng Plato cng nhn cc x hi
Ctretan v Spartan nh cc hnh thc c ho hay ngng (v vi nhn xt on
vn tip rng nh nc tt nht ca Plato khng ch l mt nh nc giai cp m l nh
nc ng cp) c th a thm nh sau. (So c ct. 2 ch. ny v ct. 24 ch. 10).
Trong Laws, 797d ( on m u cho li tuyn b quan trng nh England gi n,
c trch vn bn cho ct. 3 ch. ny), Plato lm r hon ton rng nhng ngi i
thoi Ctretan v Spartan ca ng bit v tnh cht ngng li ca cc th ch x hi ca
h; Clenias, ngi i thoi Cretan, nhn mnh rng ng kht khao nghe bt c s bin
h no v tnh cht c xa ca mt nh nc. Mun hn mt cht (799a), v trong cng
ng cnh, a ra mt s dn chiu trc tip n phng php Ai cp lm ngng s
pht trin ca cc th ch; r rng l mt du hiu rng Plato nhn ra mt xu hng
Crete v Sparta tng t nh ca Ai Cp, c th l, lm ngng mi thay i x hi.
Trong ng cnh ny, mt on t Timaeus (xem c bit 24a-b) c v quan trng.
on ny, Plato th chng t (a) l mt s phn chia giai cp rt ging ci ca Republic
c thit lp ti Athens giai on rt xa ca pht trin tin s, v (b) rng cc th
ch ny rt thn thuc vi h thng ng cp ca Ai cp (m cc th ch ng cp b
ngng ca n ng cho l bt ngun t nh nc Athenian c xa ca ng). Nh vy bn
thn Plato bng n tha nhn l nh nc c v hon ho l tng ca Republic l mt
nh nc ng cp. L th l Crantor, nh bnh lun u tin ca Timaeus, k li, ch hai
th h sau Plato, rng Plato b ln n v ri b truyn thng Athenian, v v tr thnh
mn ca nhng ngi Ai cp. (So Gomperz, Greek Thinkers, Germ. ed., II, 476).
Crantor m ch c l n Busiris ca Isocrates, 8, c trch ct. 3 ch. 13.
V vn ca cc ng cp trong Republic, xem thm cc ct. 31 v 32 (1, d) ch.
ny, ct. 40 ch. 6, v cc ct. 11-14 ch. 8. A. E. Taylor, Plato: The Man and His Work,
pp. 269 f., kch lit phn i quan im rng Plato ng h mt nh nc ng cp.
28
So Republic, 416a. Vn c xem xt y hn chng ny, vn bn cho ct.
35. (V vn ng cp, ni ti on vn tip, xem cc ct. 27 (3) v 31 ch. ny).
29
V li khuyn ca Plato chng vic lp php cho ngi dn thng vi s tranh
chp th trng th tc ca h, v.v., xem Republic, 425b-427a/b; c bit 425d-e v
427a. Cc on ny, tt nhin, tn cng nn dn ch Athens, v mi s lp php tng
phn theo ngha ca chng 9. *Rng iu ny cng c Cornford, The Republic of
Plato (1941) thy; v ng vit, trong mt ch thch cho on trong Plato kin ngh k
thut Khng tng (l Republic 500d, f., kin ngh lm sch bc vi v v ch ngha
cp tin lng mn; so ct. 12 chng 9 v vn bn): Tng phn s chp v tng phn
ci cch b ch nho 425e ... Cornford c v khng thch cc ci cch tng phn, v
ng c v thch cc phng php ca Plato hn; nhng din gii ca ng v ca ti v
cc nh ca Plato dng nh trng nhau.*
Bn trch dn thm di trong on vn ny l t Republic, 371d/e; 463a-b (nhng
ngi c v v cc ng ch); 549a; v 471b/c. Cc bnh lun ca Adam (op. cit., vol.
I, 97, ch thch cho 371e32): Plato khng cho php lao ng n l trong thnh ph ca
ng, c l tr phi l bn thn nhng ngi man r. Ti ng rng Republic, (469b470c) Plato phn i s n dch ho cc t nhn chin tranh Hy Lp; song ng tip tc
( 471b-c) khuyn khch nhng ngi Hy Lp, v c bit cc cng dn ca thnh ph
CHNG /CH THCH -
225
tt nht ca ng, n dch ho nhng ngi man r. (y c v cng l kin ca Tarn;

so ct. 13 (2) chng 15). V Plato tn cng d di phong tro Athenian chng n l,
v c i quyn ti sn khi ti sn l mt n l (so vn bn cho cc ct. 17 v 18
chng ny). Nh iu ny cng c chng t bi trch dn th ba (t Rep., 548e/
549a) on vn m ch thch c gn vo, ng khng xo b cnh n l trong
thnh ph tt nht ca mnh. (Xem c Rep., 590c/d, ni ng bo v i hi rng thng
dn th l phi l n l cho ngi tt nht). A. E. Taylor v th sai khi hai ln khng
nh (trong Plato, 1908 v 1914 ca ng, pp. 197 v 198) l Plato ng rng khng c
giai cp n l trong cng ng. V cc quan im tng t trong Plato: The Man and
His Work (1926) ca Taylor, so cui ca ct. 27 chng ny.
cp v n l trong Statesman ca Plato, ti ngh, ri nhiu nh sng ln thi ca
ng trong Republic. V y cng vy, ng khng ni nhiu v n l, mc d ng gi
s r rng l c cc n l nh nc ca ng (Xem nhn xt c trng ca ng, 289b/c,
rng mi ti sn v cc th vt thun ho, tr cc n l c tho lun ri; v
mt nhn xt c trng tng t, 309a, rng vng nghip tht s bin nhng ngi
m mnh trong ngu mui v a v thp hn thnh n l. L do v sao Plato khng ni
rt nhiu v n l l kh r t 289c, ff., c bit t 289d/e. ng khng thy mt s phn
bit ln gia cc n l v nhng ngi y t khc, nh nhng ngi lao ng, ngi
giao hng, cc nh bun (tc l tt c nhng k my mc chuyn kim tin; so ct. 4
chng 11); cc n l c phn bit vi nhng k khc ch nh cc y t kim c
bng cch mua. Ni cch khc, ng l rt cao trn nhng ngi xut thn tm thng
n mc hu nh khng b ng y ny v nhng s khc bit t nh. Tt c iu ny
l rt ging Republic, ch r rng hn mt cht. (Xem c ct. 57 (2) chng 8).
V i x vi cnh n l trong Laws, xem c bit G. R. Morrow, Plato and Greek
Slavery (Mind, N. S., vol. 48, 186-201; xem c p. 402), mt bi bo cho mt tng quan
xut sc v ph phn v ti, v n mt kt lun rt cng bng, mc d tc gi, theo
ti, vn thin v mt cht c li cho Plato. (Bi bo khng nhn mnh s thc rng
thi Plato c mt phong tro chng n l kh tin trin; so ct. 13 chng 5).
30
Trch dn l t tm tt Republic ca Plato trong Timaeus (18c/d). Vi nhn xt v
thiu ci mi ca cng ng gi ca n b v tr con, so ln xut bn ca Adam The
Republic of Plato, vol. I, p. 292 (ct. cho 457b, ff.) v p. 308 (ct. cho 463c17), cng nh
pp. 345-55, c bit 354; vi yu t Pythagorean trong ch ngha cng sn ca Plato, so
op. cit., p. 199, ct. cho 416d22. (V cc kim loi qu, xem ct. 24 chng 10. V cc
kim loi thng, xem ct. 34 chng 6; v v cc nguyn l cng sn ch ngha Plato
v nhng ngi k tc ng, xem ct. 29 (2) chng 5, v cc on c nhc ti ).
31
on trch l t Republic, 434b/c. V i hi mt nh nc ng cp, Plato n o
mt thi gian di. iu ny l kh tch bch khi li ni u di dng cho on c
bn n (s c tho lun chng 6; so cc ct. 24 v 40 chng ); v khi ln u
ni v cc vn ny, 415a, ff., ng ni c nh s ni t mt giai cp thp ln mt
giai cp cao c cho php, vi iu kin l cc giai cp thp tr con c sinh ra
vi mt hn hp ca vng v bc (415c), tc l ca mu v c hnh ca giai cp trn.
Nhng 434b-d, v, thm ch r hn, 547a, s cho php ny, thc ra, b rt li; v
547a bt c hn hp no ca cc kim loi b tuyn b l u, phi l tai ho i vi nh
nc. Xem c vn bn cho cc ct. 11-14 chng 8 (v ct. 27 (3) chng ny).
32
So Statesman, 271e. Cc on trong Laws v nhng ngi chn cu du c nguyn
thu v cc tc trng ca h l 677e-680e. on c trch l Laws, 680e. on trch
tip l t Huyn thoi v Ngi sinh ra t t, Republic, 415d/e. Trch dn kt thc ca
226
CHNG /CH THCH -
on vn l t Republic, 440d. C th cn a thm vi bnh lun v cc nhn xt nht

nh trong on vn m ch thch ny c gn vo.
(1) c ni r trong vn bn l khng c gii thch rt r vic nh c xy ra th
no. C Laws v Republic u tin chng ta nghe (xem (a) v (b) di y) v mt
loi tho c hay kh c x hi (v kh c x hi, so ct. 29 ch. 5 v cc ct. 43-54
ch. 6, v vn bn), v mun hn (xem (b) v (c) di y) v s chinh phc mnh m.
(a) Trong Laws, cc b lc chn cu khc nhau nh c trn cc bnh nguyn sau khi
hp li vi nhau to ra cc ton th ch ln hn m lut ca n t ti bi mt
tho c hay kh c, do cc quan to c ban vng quyn lm ra (681b v c/d; v
ngun gc ca lut c m t 681b, so ct. 17 (2) chng 3). Song by gi Plato tr
nn lng trnh. Thay cho m t cc ton ny nh c ra sao Hy Lp, v cc thnh ph
Hy Lp c thnh lp th no, Plato chuyn sang cu chuyn ca Homer v thnh lp
Troy, v chin tranh Trojan. T , Plato ni, nhng ngi Achaean quay tr li ly tn
ca nhng ngi Dorian, v phn cn li ca cu chuyn l .. phn ca lch s
Lacedaemonian (682e/683a). Cho n y ta khng nghe g v cch nh c ny, v
tip theo ngay l mt s lc na (bn thn Plato ni v mch quanh co ca l l) cho
n khi ta nhn c m ch cui cng ( 683c/d) c nhc vn bn; xem (b).
(b) Pht biu vn bn l ta nhn mt m ch rng nh c Dorian Peloponnese
thc ra l mt cuc xm chim d di, dn chiu n Laws (683c/d), ni Plato gii thiu
ci thc ra l cc nhn xt lch s u tin ca ng v Sparta. ng ni rng ng bt u
thi im khi ton b Peloponnese b nhng ngi Dorian chinh phc. Trong
Menexenus, m tnh xc thc ca n kh c th b nghi ng; so ct. 35 chng 10)
245c c mt m ch n s thc rng nhng ngi Peloponnesian l nhng ngi nhp
c t nc ngoi (nh Grote din t: so Plato ca ng, III, p. 5).
(c) Trong Republic (369b) thnh ph c nhng ngi lao ng thnh lp vi tm
nhn v cc li th ca phn cng lao ng v hp tc, ph hp vi l thuyt kh c.
(d) Nhng mun hn ( Rep., 415d/e; xem trch dn trong vn bn, on vn ny)
ta nhn c mt m t v xm ln chin thng ca giai cp chin binh c ngun gc
hi b n ngi sinh ra t t. on quyt nh ca din t ny ni rng ngi sinh
ra t t phi nhn quanh tm ch ph hp nht cho ni h tri ca h (nguyn vn)
gi li nhng ngi bn trong, tc l km nhng ngi sng trong thnh
ph li, tc l gi li dn c.
(e) Trong Statesman (271a, f.) nhng ngi sinh ra t t ny c ng nht vi
nhng ngi chn cu du mc rt sm ca thi k trc-nh c. So c m ch n chu
chu bn a trong Symposium, 191b; so ct. 6 (4) ch. 3, v 11 (2) ch. 8.
(f) Tm li, dng nh Plato c tng kh r rng v s xm chim Dorian, m
ng thch, v cc l do hin nhin, che du trong b n. Cng dng nh l c mt truyn
thng rng cc m th ch xm ln c dng di du c.
(2) Vi nhn xt mun hn trong vn bn on vn ny v nhn mnh lin tc ca
Plato n s thc rng cai tr l chn dt, so, th d, on tip theo: Republic, 343b, ni
tng c gii thiu; 345c, f., ni dng v von v ngi chn cu gii, n tr thnh
mt trong cc ch trung tm ca nghin cu; 375a-376b, 404a, 440d, 451b-e, 459a460c, v 466c-d (c trch ct. 30 ch. 5), ni cc ph t c v nh cc ch chn
cu v ni s phi ging v gio dc ca chng c tho lun mt cch ph hp;
416a, ff., ni vn v ch si khng c nh nc v trong nh nc c gii thiu;
so thm Statesman, ni tng c tip tc qua nhiu trang, c bit 261d-276d. Lin
quan n Laws, ti c th dn chiu n on (694e), ni Plato ni v Cyrus m ng
CHNG /CH THCH -
227
kim c cho cc con mnh gia sc v cu v nhiu by ngi v cc th vt khc.

(So c Laws, 735, v Theaet., 174d).
(3) Vi tt c iu ny, so c A. J. Toynbee, A Study of History, c bit Vol. III, p.
32 (ct. 1), ni A. H. Lybyer, The Government of the Ottoman Empire, v.v., c trch
dn, 33 (ct. 2), 5-100; xem c bit nhn xt ca ng v dn du c xm chim (p. 22)
nhng ngi c quan h vi .. n ng, v v cc con ch ngi gi nh ca Plato
(p. 94, ct. 2). Ti c cc tng li lc ca Toynbee gy nhiu ho hng v c
nhiu nhn xt ca ng khch l nhiu, m ti coi nh lm vng thm cc din gii ca
ti, v ti cng c th nh gi cao khi cc gi thit c bn ca Toynbee v ca ti cng
khng thng nht vi nhau. Ti cng hm n Toynbee mt s thut ng c dng
trong vn bn ca ti, c bit gia sc ngi, n ngi, v ch ngi gi nh.
Study of History ca Toynbee, t quan im ca ti, l mt hnh mu ca ci ti gi l
ch ngha lch s; ti khng cn ni nhiu hn biu l s bt ng c bn ca ti vi
n; v mt s im bt ng c bit s c tho lun cc ch khc nhau (so cc ct.
43 v 45 (2) ch. ny, ct. 7 v 8 ch. 10, v ch. 24; c ph phn Toynbee ca ti ch.
24, v S khn cng ca Ch ngha lch s, p. 110 ff.). Nhng n cha nhiu tng
l th v gy hng th. V Plato, Toynbee nhn mnh mt s im m ti c th theo
ng, c bit l nh nc tt nht ca Plato c gy cm hng bi s tri nghim ca
ng v cc cuc cch mng x hi v bi mun ca ng lm ngng mi thay i,
v rng n l mt loi ca Sparta b ngng li (bn thn n cng b ngng). Bt chp
cc im thng nht ny, thm ch c s bt ng c bn trong din gii v Plato gia
cc quan im ca Toynbee v ca ring ti. Toynbee coi nh nc tt nht ca Plato
nh mt Khng tng (phn ng) in hnh , trong khi ti din gii phn ln n, trong
mi quan h vi ci ti coi l l thuyt tng qut ca Plato v thay i, nh mt n lc
xy dng li mt dng nguyn thu ca x hi. Ti cng khng ngh rng Toynbee
s ng vi din gii ca ti v cu chuyn ca Plato v giai on trc nh c, v v
bn thn s nh c, c phc ho ch thch ny v trong vn bn; v Toynbee ni
(op. cit., vol. III, 80) l x hi Spartan khng c ngun gc du c. Toynbee nhn mnh
mnh m (op. cit., III, 50 ff.) tnh cht l k ca x hi Sparta, m, ng ni, b ngng
s pht trin ca n do mt n lc siu nhn gi sc vt ngi ca h li. Song ti
ngh l s nhn mnh ny v tnh hnh l k ca Sparta lm cho kh hiu cc s ging
nhau gia cc th ch ca Sparta v Crete m Plato thy ni bt n vy (Rep., 544c;
Laws, 683a). Ti tin, cc iu ny c th c gii thch ch nh cc hnh thc b ngng
ca cc th ch b lc rt c xa, phi gi hn ng k n lc ca nhng ngi Spartan
trong chin tranh Cu th ln hai (khong 650-620 trc cng nguyn; so Toynbee, op.
cit., III, 53). V cc iu kin tn ti ca cc th ch ny hai a im rt khc nhau
n mc, s ging nhau ca chng l mt l l mnh m ng h vic chng l nguyn
thu v chng li gii thch bng cc yu t ch nh hng n mt trong hai ni.
*V cc vn ca s nh c Dorian, xem c R. Eisler trong Caucasia, vol. V,
1928, c bit p. 113, ct. 84, ni t Hellenes c dch l nhng ngi nh c, v
Greeks l nhng ngi nui gia sc -tc l nhng ngi gy ging gia sc hay du
c. Cng tc gi chng t (Orphisch-Dionisische Mysteriengedanken, 1925, p. 58,
ct. 2) rng tng v Thn-Chn cu c ngun gc Orphic. cng ch, cc con ch
chn cu ca Thn (Domini Canes) c nhc n.*
33
S thc rng gio dc trong nh nc ca Plato l c quyn giai cp b mt vi
nh gio dc nhit tnh, nhng ngi ghi cng cho Plato vi t tng v lm cho gio
dc c lp vi cc phng tin ti chnh, b qua; h khng thy rng ci c l c
228
CHNG /CH THCH -
quyn giai cp theo ngha ca t, v rng tng i khng quan trng liu c quyn
ny da vo s c tin hay vo bt c tiu chun no khc m theo t cch thnh
vin ca giai cp c quyt nh. So cc ct. 12 v 13 chng 7, v vn bn. V mang
v kh, xem c Laws, 753b.
34
So Republic, 460c. (Xem c ct. 31 ch. ny). V kin ngh ca Plato v ti git tr
con, xem Adam, op. cit., vol. I, p. 299, ct. cho 460c18, v p. 357 ff. D cho Adam nhn
mnh ng l Plato ng h vic git tr con, v mc d ng loi b nh khng thch
ng mi n lc tha trng Plato v tha nhn mt thi quen kinh khip nh vy,
ng c bo cha cho Plato bng ch ra rng thi quen thnh hnh rng ri Hy
Lp c. Nhng khng th Athens. Plato chn t u n cui chung ch ngha
d man v ch ngha phn bit chng tc Spartan hn s khai sng ca Athens ca
Pericles; v v s la chn ny ng phi chu trch nhim. V mt gi thuyt gii thch
tp qun Spartan, xem ct. 7 ch. 10 (v vn bn); xem c cc dn chiu cho .
Cc trch dn mun hn trong on vn ny ng h p dng cc nguyn l phi ging
th vt cho con ngi l t Republic, 459b (so ct. 39 ch. 8, v vn bn); cc trch dn
v s tng t gia ch v chin binh, v.v., t Republic, 404a; 375a; 376a/b; v 376b.
Xem c ct. 40 (2) ch. 5, v ch thch tip theo.
35
Hai trch dn trc s ch thch c hai l t Republic, 375b. Trch dn tip theo l
t 416a (so ct. 28 chng ny); cc ct. cn li l t 375e. Vn pha trn cc bn
cht i lp (hay thm ch cc Hnh thc; so cc ct. 18-20 v 40 (2) ch. 5, v vn bn
v ct. 39 ch. 8) l mt trong cc ch a thch ca Plato. (Trong Statesman, 283e, f.,
v mun hn trong Aristotle, n hp nht thnh hc thuyt v trung dung).
36
Cc trch dn l t Republic, 410c; 410d; 410e; 411e/412a v 412b.
37
Trong Laws (680b ff.) bn thn Plato cp n Crete vi mt cht ma mai bi v
s dt nt man r ca n v vn hc. S ngu dt ny m rng thm ch ra c Homer,
ngi m ngi i thoi Cretan khng bit, v v ng ta ng ni: nhng ngi Cretan
rt t c cc nh th ngoi quc. (Nhng h c c Sparta, ngi i thoi
Cretan p li). V s a chung cc tp qun Spartan ca Plato, xem c ct. 34 ch. 6,
v vn bn cho ct. 30 chng ny.
38
V quan im ca Plato v s i x ca Sparta vi gia sc ngi, xem ct. 29 ch.
ny, Republic, 548e/549a, ni ngi theo chnh th ho hip (timocratic) c so snh
vi Glaucon anh ca Plato: anh ta cng cp hn (Glaucon) v t gii nhc hn; tip
tc ca on ny c trch vn bn cho ct. 29. Thucydides tng thut (IV, 80) s
tn st xo tr 2.000 n l, cc n l gii nht trong cc n l c chn git bi mt
li ha t do. Hu nh chc chn l Plato bit k Thucydides, v chng ta c th chc
chn rng ng c thm nhiu ngun thng tin trc tip hn.
V cc quan im ca Plato v s i x bung lng vi cc n l ca Athens, xem
ct. 18 chng ny.
39
Cn nhc xu hng kin quyt chng-Athens v v th chng t do ca Republic,
khng kh my gii thch v sao nhiu nh gio dc n nh vy li nhit tnh n
th vi cc l thuyt gio dc ca Plato. Ti ch c th thy ba gii thch kh d. Hoc h
khng hiu Republic, bt chp s th ch thng thng nht ca n vi s gio dc vn
hc khi Athens; hoc h n gin c tng bc bi s nhn mnh khoa trng v
quyn nng chnh tr ca gio dc, ht nh rt nhiu trit gia, v thm ch mt s nhc
s, c tng bc (xem vn bn cho ct. 41); hoc c hai.
Cng kh thy nhng ngi yu ngh thut v vn hc Hy Lp c th thy nim
c v Plato, ngi, c bit Quyn th Mi ca Republic, pht ng mt cuc
CHNG /CH THCH -
229
tn cng d di nht chng mi nh th v cc din vin bi kch, v c bit chng li

Homer (v thm ch Hesiod). Xem Republic, 600a, ni Homer b t di mc ca mt
k thut vin hay mt th c kh gii (ngi b Plato khinh mit l my mc v sa o;
so Rep., 495e v 590c, v ct. 4 ch. 11); Republic, 600c, ni Homer b t xung di
mc ca cc Sophist Protagoras v Prodicus (xem c Gomperz, Greek Thinkers,
Gernam ed., II, 401); v Republic, 605a/b, ni cc nh th thng thng b cm bc vo
bt c thnh ph c cai qun tt no.
Cc biu l r rng ny v thi ca Plato, tuy vy, thng b cc nh bnh ch l
i, nhng ngi, mc khc, li chm ch vo cc nhn xt ging nh nhn xt m Plato
a ra khi chun b tn cng Homer (.. d cho lng yu v s ngng m Homer hu
nh khng cho php ti ni ci ti phi ni; Rep., 595b). Adam bnh lun v iu ny
(ct. cho 595b11) bng cch ni l Plato ni vi cm nhn tht; song ti ngh l nhn
xt ca Plato ch minh ho mt phng php c chp nhn kh ph bin Republic,
c th l, a ra nhn nhng no cho tnh cm ca ngi c (so ch. 10, c bit
vn bn cho ct. 65) trc khi khi ng cuc tn cng chnh vo cc t tng nhn o.
40
V kim duyt kht khe nhm ti k lut giai cp, xem Republic, 377e, ff., v c
bit 378c: Nhng ngi bo v thnh ph chng ta phi coi vic d ci nhau nh ti
nguy hi nht. L th l Plato khng tuyn b nguyn l chnh tr ny ngay lp tc, khi
gii thiu l thuyt ca ng v kim duyt 376e, ff., m u tin ng ni ch v s tht,
ci p, v.v. Kim duyt c sit cht thm 595a, ff., c bit 605a/b (xem ct. trc,
v cc ct. 18-22 ch. 7, v vn bn). V vai tr kim duyt trong Laws, xem 801c/d.
Xem c ch thch tip.
V vic Plato hay qun nguyn l ca mnh (Rep., 410c-412b, xem ct. 36 ch. ny)
rng nhc phi tng cng yu t ho nh con ngi i lp vi d tn, xem c bit
399a, f., ni iu nhc cn phi khng lm mn yu con ngi, m phi hp vi nhng
ngi chin binh. So c ct. tip, (2). - Phi lm r l Plato khng qun mt nguyn
l c cng b trc, m ch qun nguyn l m tho lun ca ng sp hng n.
41
(1) V thi ca Plato vi m nhc, c bit m nhc ch thc, xem, th d,
Republic, 397b, ff.; 398e, ff.; 400a, ff.; 410b, 424b, f., 546d. Laws, 657e, ff., 673a,
700b, ff., 798d, ff., 801d, ff., 802b, ff., 816c. Thi ca ng, c bn, l phi cn thn
vi s thay i mt nhc; iu ny gy nguy him cho mi th v bt c thay i no
v phong cch m nhc lun dn n mt s thay i trong cc th ch quan trng nht
ca ton quc gia. Damon ni vy, v ti tin ng. (Rep., 424c). Plato, nh thng l,
theo tm gng Spartan. Adam (op. cit., vol. I, p. 216, ct. cho 424c20; ti nhn mnh;
so c cc dn chiu ca ng) ni rng mi quan h gia nhng thay i m nhc v
chnh tr .. c nhn ra khp Hy Lp, v c bit Sparta, ni .. cy n lyre ca
Timotheus b tch thu v gn thm bn dy n mi. Rng th tc ca Sparta
nh hng n Plato l khng th nghi ng; s tha nhn ph bin ca n khp Hy
Lp, v c bit Athens ca Pericles, l hu nh khng chc. (So (2) ca ct. ny).
(2) Trong vn bn ti gi thi ca Plato vi m nhc (so c bit Rep., 389e, ff.)
l m tn v lc hu nu so snh vi ph phn ng thi c khai sng hn. Ph
phn m ti ngh ti l ca mt tc gi n danh, c l mt nhc s ca th k th nm
(hay u th k th t), tc gi ca mt din vn (c l mt bi din vn Olympian) m
by gi c bit n nh bi th mi ba ca Grenfell v Hunt, The Hibeh Payri,
1906, pp. 45 ff. Dng nh c th ngi vit l mt trong cc nhc s khc nhau nhng
ngi ph phn Socrates (tc l Socrates ca Republic ca Plato), c Aristotle
nhc n ( mt on cng m tn ngang th ca Politics ca ng, 1342b, ni lp li hu
230
CHNG /CH THCH -
ht l l ca Plato); nhng ph phn ca tc gi n danh i xa hn biu l ca Aristotle

nhiu . Plato (v Aristotle) tin l cc iu nhc no , th d, cc iu Ionian v Lydian
mm yu, lm cho con ngi mm yu v o l, trong khi cc iu khc, c bit iu
Dorian, lm cho h can m. Quan im ny b tc gi n danh tn cng. H ni, ng
vit, l cc iu no to ra ngi n ho v cc iu khc ngi ng n; cc iu
khc li (to ra) cc anh hng, v cc iu khc nhng k nht nht. ng phi by ti
tnh s ng ngn ca cch nhn ny bng cch ch ra l mt vi trong s cc b lc Hy
Lp hiu chin nht dng cc iu ni ting to ra nhng k nht nht, trong khi cc
ca s chuyn nghip (opera) no thng ht theo iu hng trng m khng h c
du hiu tr thnh anh hng. Ph phn ny c th c nhm chng nhc s Damon x
Athens, thng xuyn c Plato trch dn nh mt ngi c thm quyn, mt bn ca
Pericles (ngi rng ri khoan dung thi ng h Sparta trong lnh vc ph bnh
ngh thut). Nhng n c th d dng c nhm chng bn thn Plato. V Damon,
xem Diels5; v mt gi thuyt v tc gi n danh, xem ibid., vol. II, p. 334, ch thch.
(3) Xt s thc rng ti tn cng thi phn ng i vi m nhc, c l ti c th
lu rng s tn cng ca ti khng h c gy cm hng bi s ng cm c nhn
vi s tin b v m nhc. Thc ra, ti tnh c thch nhc c (cng c cng hay) v rt
khng thch nhc hin i (c bit hu ht cc tc phm c vit ra k t ngy
Wagner bt u vit nhc). Ti hon ton chng thuyt v lai, bt lun trong lnh vc
ngh thut hay o c (so ch. 22, v ct. 19 ch. 25). Nhng ti cng chng p t ci
thch v khng thch ca mt ngi ln ngi khc, v chng kim duyt trong cc vn
nh vy. Chng ta c th yu v khng thch, c bit trong ngh thut, m khng
ng h cc bin php php l cm ci ta khng thch, hay phong thnh ci ta yu.
42
So Republic, 537a; v 466e-467e. S m t c im ca ch ngha ton tr hin i
l do A. Kolnai, The War against the West (1938), p. 318.
43
L thuyt ng ch ca Plato rng nh nc, tc l quyn lc chnh tr tp trung
v c t chc, bt ngun thng qua s xm chim (dn du c hay ngi i sn chinh
phc dn c nng nghip tnh ti), trong chng mc ti bit, c Hume u tin tikhm ph (nu ta tr hao vi nhn xt bi Machiavelli) trong ph phn ca ng i vi
phin bn lch s ca l thuyt kh c (so tc phm ca ng Essays, Moral, Political,
and Literacy, vol. II, 1752, Essay XII, Of the Original Contract): -Hu nh mi chnh
th, Hume vit, tn ti hin nay, hoc cn bt c t liu tng thut no, khi u u
c thnh lp, hoc trn s chim quyn hay xm chim, hay c hai .. V ng ch ra
rng i vi mt ngi tinh ranh v to bo .., thng d .., bng i khi dng bo lc,
i khi dng c gi, thit lp s thng tr ca mnh i vi dn chng ng gp trm
ln nhng ngi theo ng ta. .. Bng cc mu k nh th ny, nhiu chnh th c
thit lp; v y l ton b kh c gc, m h ly lm kiu hnh. L thuyt c ti
sinh tip bi Renan, trong What is a Nation? (1882), v bi Nietzsche trong Genealogy
of Morals (1887) ca ng; xem n bn ting c ln ba nm 1894, p. 98. Ngi sau vit
v ngun gc ca nh nc (m khng c dn chiu n Hume): Mt vi by sc vt
tc hoe, mt chng tc ch nhn chinh phc vi mt t chc thin chin .. t bn chn
gy khip s ca h nng ln dn c m c l cao hn rt nhiu v s lng. ..y l
cch theo nh nc bt u trn tri t; ti ngh l tnh a cm, ci khin n bt
u vi mt kh c, cht. L thuyt ny hp dn Nietzsche v ng thch cc con
th tc hoe. Song n cng c ngh mi gn y bi F. Oppenheimer (The State,
transl. Gitterman, 1914, p. 68); bi mt nh Marxist, K. Kautsky (cun The Materialist
Interpretation of History); v bi W. C. Macleod (The Origin and History of Politics,
CHNG /CH THCH -
231
1931). Ti ngh rt c th l loi g c Plato, Hume, v Nietzsche m t xy ra

trong nhiu, nu khng phi tt c cc, trng hp. Ti ch ni v cc quc gia theo
ngha quyn lc chnh tr c t chc v thm ch c tp trung.
C th ni Toynbee c mt l thuyt rt khc. Song trc khi tho lun n, u tin
ti mun lm r, t quan im chng-lch s ch ngha, vn khng c tm quan trng
ln. C l l th xem cc quc gia bt ngun ra sao, song n khng lin quan n x
hi hc v nh nc, nh ti hiu, tc l cng ngh chnh tr (xem cc ch. 3, 9, v 25).
L thuyt ca Toynbee khng t gii hn cc quc gia theo ngha quyn lc chnh
tr c t chc v tp trung. ng hn, ng tho lun ngun gc cc nn vn minh.
Song kh khn bt u y; v mt vi nn vn minh ca ng l cc quc gia (nh
c m t y), mt vi l cc nhm hay cc chui cc quc gia; v mt s l cc x
hi ging nh ca ngi Eskimo, khng l cc quc gia; v nu ng ng liu nh
nc bt ngun theo mt s duy nht, th cng ng ng hn khi ta xem xt lp cc
hin tng x hi a dng nh cc quc gia Ai cp v Mesopotamian (Lng H) ban
u v cc th ch v k thut ca h mt bn, v cch sng Eskimo bn kia.
Nhng ta c th tp trung vo m t ca Toynbee (A Study of History, vol. I, pp. 305
ff.) v ngun gc ca cc nn vn minh Ai Cp v Lng H. L thuyt ca ng rng
s thch thc ca mt mi trng hn n kh khn khu ra mt phn ng t cc nh
lnh o mu tr v mnh dn; h dn nhng ngi theo h n cc thung lng m h
bt u trng cy, v lp ra cc quc gia. L thuyt (Hegelian v Bergsonian) ny v
thin ti sng to vi t cch l mt lnh t vn ho v chnh tr t ra vi ti l lng mn
nht. Nu xt Ai Cp, th trc tin ta phi n ngun gc ca h thng ng cp.
y, ti tin, c kh nng nht l kt qu ca cc cuc xm chim, ht nh n ni
mi ln sng ca cc k xm chim li p t mt ng cp mi ln cc ng cp c.
Song c cc l l khc. Bn thn Toynbee a thch mt l thuyt c l ng, c th l,
chn nui th v c bit dy th l mt giai on pht trin mun hn, v tin tin hn
v kh hn nng nghip thun tu, v rng bc tin tin ny c dn du c ca tho
nguyn tin hnh. Nhng Ai Cp ta thy c nng nghip v chn nui th, v cng
ng th hu ht cc quc gia ban u (d cho khng i vi tt c cc quc gia M,
ti hiu). iu ny c v l mt du hiu rng cc quc gia ny cha mt yu t du c;
v c v tht t nhin mo mui a ra gi thuyt l yu t ny l do nhng k xm
chim du c p t s cai tr ca h, mt s cai tr ng cp, ln dn c nng nghip ban
u. L thuyt ny bt ng vi lun im ca Toynbee (op. cit., III, 23 f.) rng cc
quc gia do dn du c xy dng thng tn li rt nhanh. Song s thc l nhiu quc
gia ng cp ban u tham gia chn nui th phi c gii thch bng cch no .
tng v dn du c hay nhng k sn th to nn giai cp trn c chng thc bi
truyn thng giai cp trn lu i v vn tn ti, theo chin tranh, sn bn, v nga l
biu tng ca giai cp nhn h; truyn thng to thnh c s ca o c v chnh tr
ca Aristotle, v vn cn tn ti, nh Veblen (The Theory of the Leisure Class) v
Toynbee chng t; v c bit v tnh u vit chng tc ca giai cp trn. Nim tin sau
rt d thy cc nh nc ng cp v Plato v Aristotle c Toynbee cho l mt
trong .. cc ti li ca .. thi hin i ca chng ta v l ci g xa l vi thin ti Hy
Lp (Op. cit., III, 93). Song d cho nhiu ngi Hy Lp c th pht trin xa hn ch
ngha chng tc, c v chc l cc l thuyt ca Plato v Aristotle da trn cc truyn
thng c, c bit xt n vic cc tng chng tc ng vai tr nh vy Sparta.
44
So Laws, 694a-698a.
232
CHNG /CH THCH -
(1) Decline of the West ca Spangler theo ti khng c coi l nghim tc. Song
n l mt triu chng; l mt l thuyt v mt ngi tin vo mt giai cp trn i mt s
tht bi. Ging Plato, Spengler c chng t rng phi khin trch th gii, v qui lut
chung ca n v suy tn v dit vong. V ging Plato, ng i ( cun tip theo ca
ng, Prussianism and Socialism) mt trt t mi, mt cuc th nghim tuyt vng
ngn cc lc lng lch s, s ti sinh giai cp cai tr Ph bi s chp nhn ch ngha
x hi hay ch ngha cng sn, v s tit ch kinh t - V Spangler, ti phn ln ng
vi L. Nelson, cng b ph phn ca mnh di tiu ma mai di m bt u ca n
c th c dch l: Yu thut: Mt s Khai tm vo cc B mt v Ng thut Bi Ton
ca Oswald Spengler, v mt Chng minh R rt Nht ca Chn l Khng th bc c
v Li Bi ton ca ng, v.v. Ti ngh, y l mt m t c tnh ng v Spangler.
Nelson, ti c th ni thm, l mt trong nhng ngi u tin phn i ci ti coi l
ch ngha lch s (ng theo Kant y trong ph phn Herder; so ch. 12, ct. 56).
(2) Nhn xt ca ti rng nhn xt ca Spengler khng phi l Decline and Fall cui
cng c hiu c bit nh mt m ch n Toynbee. Tc phm ca Toynbee u vit
hn ca Spangler n mc ti do d nhc n n trong cng ng cnh; nhng tnh
u vit ch yu l do s phong ph v tng ca Toynbee v kin thc cao hn ca
ng (ci t biu th s thc l ng khng, nh Spengler ng thi x l mi th trn
i). Nhng mc tiu v phng php kho st l tng t. N c tnh lch s ch ngha
dt khot nht. (So ph phn Toynbee ca ti trong S khn cng ca Ch ngha lch
s, pp. 110 ff.) V n, v c bn, l Hegelian (mc d ti khng thy l Toynbee bit
vic ny). Tiu chun tng trng ca cc nn vn minh ca ng, l s tin b n t
quyt chng t iu ny; v qui lut ca Hegel v s tin b n t- thc v n
t do c th nhn ra qu d dng. (Ch ngha Hegel ca Toynbee c v n bng cch
no qua Bradley, nh c th thy, th d, t cc nhn xt ca ng v cc mi quan
h, op. cit., III, 223: Chnh khi nim v cc mi quan h gia cc s vt hay con
ngi ko theo mt mu thun logic Mu thun ny c th c vt qua ra sao?
( y ti khng th i tho lun vn cc quan h. Song ti c th tuyn b mt cch
v on l tt c cc vn v quan h c th c quy, bng cc phng php n
gin no ca logic hin i, v cc vn v ti sn hay giai cp; ni cch khc,
nhng kh khn trit hc c bit v cc quan h khng tn ti. Phng php c ni
n l do N. Wiener v K. Kuratowski; xem Quine, A System of Logistic, 1934, pp. 16
ff.) By gi ti khng tin l phn loi mt tc phm thuc mt trng phi no l
b qua n; song trong trng hp ch ngha lch s Hegelian ti ngh rng nh th,
v cc l do s c tho lun trong tp hai ca cun sch ny.
V ch ngha lch s ca Toynbee, ti c bit mun lm r l ti qu thc nghi ng
rt nhiu liu cc nn vn minh sinh ra, pht trin, sp , v cht hay khng. Ti buc
phi nhn mnh im ny v bn thn ti dng vi t m Toynbee dng, chng mc
ti ni v s sp v v lm ngng cc x hi. Song ti mun lm r l t s sp
ca ti dn chiu khng n mi loi nn vn minh m n mt loi hin tng c
bit - n cm gic hoang mang lin quan n s tan r ca x hi ng thn diu v
b lc. Do , ti khng tin, nh Toynbee tin, rng x hi Hy Lp chu s sp ca
n trong thi k chin tranh Peloponnesian; v ti thy cc triu chng sp m
Toynbee m t sm hn nhiu. (So vi ct. ny cc ct. 6 v 8 ch. 10, v vn bn). V
cc x hi b ngng, ti dng t ny ch ring, hoc cho mt x hi bm vo cc dng
ma thut ca n qua s t ng mnh li, bng v lc, chng li nh hng ca mt x
hi m, hoc cho mt x hi c quay li ci ci b lc.
45
CHNG /CH THCH -
233
Ti cng khng ngh l nn vn minh Phng Ty ca chng ta ch l mt thnh vin

ca mt loi. Ti ngh c nhiu x hi ng c th chu loi s phn; nhng mt x
hi m c th, ti cho rng, ch c th i tip, hay b ngng v buc quay li vo ci
ci, tc l thnh th vt. (So c ch. 10, c bit ct. cui cng).
(3) V cc chuyn Suy tn v Sp , c th ni l gn nh tt c u b nh hng
bi nhn xt ca Heraclitus: H nhi bng h nh cc con th, v bi l thuyt ca
Plato v bn nng th vt cp thp. ti mun ni, h u c chng t s suy tn l do
(giai cp cai tr) chp nhn cc tiu chun thp c coi l t nhin vi giai cp lao
ng. Ni cch khc, v nu vn mt cch th tc song thng thng, l thuyt l cc
nn vn minh, nh ch Ba T v Roman, suy tn do n qu mc. (So ct. 19 ch. 10).
CH THCH CHO CHNG 5
Vng m hoc c trch t Burnet, Greek Philosophy, I, 106, ni cc vn
tng t c cp. Tuy nhin, ti khng ng vi Burnett rng trong nhng ngy
ban u s u n ca cuc sng con ngi c hiu r hn nhiu so vi thm ch
tin trnh t nhin. iu ny gi nh trc s chnh thc ho mt s phn bit m, ti
tin, l c trng ca mt thi k mun hn, tc l thi k tan r ca vng m hoc ca
lut v tp qun. Hn na, cc chu k t nhin (cc ma, v.v.; so ct. 6 ch. 2, v
Epinomis, 987d, ff., ca Plato (?)) chng ta phi hiu r trong nhng ngy rt sm. - V
s phn bit gia cc qui lut t nhin v chun tc, xem c bit ct. 18 (4) ch. ny.
2
*So R. Eisler, The Royal Art of Astrology. Eisler ni l s l k ca chuyn ng ca
cc hnh tinh c ngi vit bi v Babylonian ngi to ra Th vin Assurbanipal
(op. cit. 288), din gii nh b sai khin bi cc qui lut hay cc quyt nh thng
tr tri v t (pirisht sham u irsiti), c cha sng th tuyn b lc ban u.
(ibid., 232 f.). V ng ch ra (ibid., 288) l nim v cc qui lut ph qut (ca t
nhin) khi u vi khi nim .. thn thoi v .. cc sc lnh ca tri v t ny *
V on t Heraclitus, so D5, B 29, v ct. 7 (2) ch. 2; c ct. 6 ch. , v vn bn.
Xem c Burnet, loc. cit., ngi cho mt din gii khc; ng ngh rng khi din tin u
n ca t nhin bt u c quan st, khng c th thy tn no cho n tt hn l
ng hay Cng bng .. m n c ngha ng n l tp qun khng thay i hng dn
cuc sng con ngi. Ti khng tin rng thut ng u tin c ngha l ci g mang
tnh x hi v sau c m rng ra, m ti ngh l c cc s u n (trt t) x hi
v t nhin ban u khng c phn bit, v c din gii nh ma thut.
3
S i lp i khi c din t nh s i lp gia t nhin v lut (hay quy
tc v quy c), i khi nh gia t nhin v t hay ra (tc l cc lut chun
tc), v i khi nh gia t nhin v ngh thut, hay t nhin v nhn to.
Phn gia t nhin v quy c thng c ni (cn c vo Diogenes Laertius, II,
16 v 4; Doxogr. 564b) l c a ra bi Archelaus, ngi c ni l thy gio ca
Socrates. Nhng ti ngh l, trong Laws, 690b, Plato nu r l ng coi Thi s Pindar
x Theban l ngi to ra phn (so cc ct. 10 v 28 ch. ny). Ngoi cc on ca
Pindar (do Plato trch dn; xem c Herodotus, III, 38), v vi nhn xt ca Herodotus
(loc. cit.), mt trong cc ngun nguyn bn sm nht c lu gi trong cc khc On
Truth ca nh Sophist Antiphon (xem cc ct. 11 v 12 ch. ny). Theo Protagoras ca
Plato, Sophist Hippias c v l mt ngi tin phong vi cc quan im tng t (xem
ct. 13 ch. ny). Nhng on sm c nh hng nht v vn dng nh l ca bn
thn Protagoras, mc d ng c th dng thut ng khc. (C l c th ni n l
1
234
CHNG /CH THCH -
Democritus cp n phn m ng cng p dng cho cc nh ch x hi loi

nh ngn ng; v Plato cng lm th trong Cratylus, th d, 384e).
4
Mt quan im rt ging c th thy A Free Mans Worship ca Russell (trong
Mysticism and Logic); v chng cui ca Man on His Nature ca Sherrington.
5
(1) Cc nh thc chng, tt nhin, s tr li, l do v sao khng th dn ra cc chun
mc t cc li tuyn b v s thc l do cc chun mc l v ngha; song iu ny ch
chng t (vi Tractatus ca Wittgenstein) h nh ngha ngha mt cch c on
sao cho ch cc tuyn b v s thc l c ngha (Xem c The Logic of Scientific
Discovery ca ti, pp. 35 ff. v 51 f.). Mc khc, nhng ngi theo ch ngha tm l s
c gii thch cc mnh lnh nh cc biu l xc cm, cc chun mc nh cc thi quen,
v cc tiu chun nh cc quan im. Song du cho thi quen khng n cp chc chn
l mt s thc, nh c gii thch trong vn bn, cn phn bit s thc ny vi chun
mc tng ng. -V vn logic ca cc chun mc, ti hon ton ng vi hu ht
quan im do K. Menger by t cun Moral, Wille und Weltgestaltung, 1935 ca ng.
ng l mt ngi u tin, ti tin, pht trin nn mng ca logic ca cc chun mc.
C l c th din t kin ca ti y l, s min cng tha nhn cc chun mc
l ci g quan trng v khng th gim bt, l mt trong cc ngun chnh ca s yu
km tr tu v yu km khc ca cc gii tin b hn trong thi i hin nay.
(2) V lun im ca ti l, khng th dn ra mt cu tuyn b mt chun mc hay
quyt nh t mt cu tuyn b mt s thc, c th ni thm iu sau. Trong phn tch
cc mi quan h gia cc cu v cc s tht, ta hot ng trong lnh vc thm vn logic
m A. Tarski gi l Ng ngha hc (so ct. 29 ch. 3 v ct. 23 ch. 8). Mt trong cc
khi nim c bn ca ng ngha hc l khi nim v chn l. Nh Tarski chng t, c
th (trong khun kh ci Carnap gi l h thng ng ngha) dn ra mt tuyn b m t
nh Napoleon cht St. Helena t tuyn b ng A ni rng Napoleon cht
St. Helena, cng vi tuyn b na l ci m ng A ni l ng. (V nu ta dng t s
thc theo ngha rng nh vy, rng ta khng ch ni v s thc c mt cu m t m
c v s thc rng cu ny l ng, th chng ta thm ch c th ni rng c th dn ra
Napoleon cht St. Helena t hai s thc rng ng A ni ra iu , v rng
ng ni s tht). By gi khng c l do v sao li khng tip tc theo cng cch
tng t lnh vc cc chun mc. Khi chng ta c th, ph hp vi khi nim chn
l, a vo khi nim v tnh hp l hay tnh ng n ca mt chun mc. iu ny c
th c ngha l mt chun mc N no c th c dn ra (theo mt loi ng ngha
ca cc chun mc) t mt cu tuyn b rng N l hp l hay ng; hay ni cch khc,
chun mc hay iu rn Mi khng c n cp c th c coi l tng ng vi
khng nh Chun mc Mi khng c n cp l hp l hay ng. (V hn na, nu
chng ta dng t s thc theo mt ngha rng nh vy l chng ta ni v s thc rng
mt chun mc l hp l hay ng, th thm ch chng ta c th dn ra cc chun mc
t cc s thc. iu ny, tuy vy, khng lm suy yu tnh ng n ca cc cn nhc
ca chng ta trong vn bn, ci ch lin quan n tnh bt kh ca vic dn ra cc chun
mc t cc s thc tm l hay x hi hay tng t, tc l t cc s thc phi-ng ngha).
* (3) Trong tho lun u tin ca ti v cc vn ny, ti ni v cc chun mc hay
cc quyt nh song khng h ni v cc xut. Kin ngh ni, thay cho, v cc
xut l do L. J. Russell; xem bi bo ca ng Propositions and Proposals, trong
Library of the Tenth International Congress of Philosophy (Amsterdam, August 11-18,
1948), vol. I, Proceedings of the Congress. Trong bi bo quan trng ny, cc tuyn b
CHNG /CH THCH -
235
v s thc hay cc nh c phn bit vi cc gi chp nhn mt cch c x

(mt chnh sch, hay cc chun mc, hay cc mc tiu hay mc ch no ), v nhng
ci sau c gi l cc xut, cc kin ngh. u im ln ca thut ng ny l, nh
mi ngi u bit, c th tho lun mt xut, trong khi khng r, v theo ngha no,
liu c th tho lun mt quyt nh hay mt chun mc khng; nh th khi ni v cc
chun mc hay cc quyt nh, ta hn phi ng h nhng ngi cho rng cc th ny
nm ngoi tho lun (hoc l trn n, nh vi nh thn hc gio iu hay nh siu hnh
hc c th ni, hay nh v ngha - di n, nh vi nh thc chng c th ni).
Theo thut ng ca Russell, ta c th ni rng mt nh c th c khng nh
hay tuyn b (hay mt gi thit c chp nhn) trong khi mt ngh c chp
nhn; v ta s phn bit s thc v s chp nhn n vi ci ngh c chp nhn.
Chnh nh nguyn ca chng ta khi tr thnh chnh rng cc xut l khng
th quy v cc s thc (hay quy v cc tuyn b v cc s thc, hay v cc nh ) cho
d chng gn vi cc s thc.*
6
So c ct. cui cng (71) ch. 10.
D lp trng ca ti, ti tin, hm r vn bn, c l ti c th nu ngn gn ci
vi ti c v l cc nguyn l quan trng nht ca o c hc nhn o v bnh ng.
(1) Khoan dung vi tt c nhng ngi khng c chp v nhng ngi khng truyn
b s khng khoan dung. (V ngoi l ny so ci c ni cc ct. 4 v 6 ch. 7). iu
ny ng , c bit, rng cc quyt nh o c ca nhng ngi khc phi c tn
trng, chng no cc quyt nh nh vy khng mu thun vi nguyn l khoan dung.
(2) Tha nhn l mi cp bch o c c c s ca n s cp bch v chu ng
hay au kh. Ti gi , v l do ny, thay cng thc v li Nhm ti lng hnh
phc ln nht cho s ng nht hay ngn gn, Ti a ho hnh phc bng cng thc
lng au kh c th trnh c t nht cho mi ngi, hay ngn gn, Ti thiu ho
au kh. Cng thc n gin nh vy c th, ti tin, tr thnh mt trong cc nguyn l
c bn (th nhn khng phi l duy nht) ca chnh sch cng. (Nguyn l Ti a ho
hnh phc, tri li, c th d to ra mt ch c ti nhn t). Ta phi nhn ra t quan
im o c rng s au kh v hnh phc khng c coi l i xng; tc l, y
mnh hnh phc trong mi trng hp l t cp bch hn nhiu so vi gip nhng
ngi au kh, v n lc ngn nga au kh. (Nhim v sau khng my lin quan
n vn s thch, ci trc th nhiu). So c ct. 2 ch. 9.
(3) u tranh chng chuyn ch; ni cch khc, n lc bo v cc nguyn l khc
bng cc phng tin th ch lp php hn l bng lng nhn t ca cc c nhn nm
quyn. (So mc 11 ca chng 7).
7
So Burnet, Greek Philosophy, I, 117. Thuyt Protagoras c nhc ti on vn
ny c th thy i thoi Protagoras ca Plato, 322a, ff.; so c Theaetetus, c bit
172b (xem c ct. 27 chng ny).
Khc bit gia ch ngha Plato v ch ngha Protagoras c l c th ni gn nh sau:
(Ch ngha Plato) C mt trt t t nhin c hu v cng bng trn th gii, tc l
trt t gc hay u tin theo th gii c to ra. Nh vy qu kh l tt, v bt c
s pht trin no dn n cc chun mc mi l xu.
(Ch ngha Protagoras) Ngi l sinh vt c o c trn th gii. T nhin chng
o c cng chng tri o c. Nh th l c th vi con ngi ci thin cc th. Chc Protagoras b nh hng bi Xenophanes, mt ngi u tin by t thi v x
hi m, v ph phn ch ngha bi quan lch s ca Hesiod: Khi u, cc Thn khng
ch cho con ngi tt c ci anh ta mun; song vi thi gian, anh ta c th tm kim ci
236
CHNG /CH THCH -
tt hn, v thy n. (So Diels5, 18). C v l Speusippus chu v ngi k v ca Plato

tr li quan im tin b ny (so Metaphysics ca Aristotle, 1072b30 v ct. 11 ch. 11)
v vi ng Vin Hn Lm c mt thi t do hn, c trong lnh vc chnh tr.
V quan h ca thuyt Protagoras vi cc gio l tn gio, c th l ng tin Cha
hot ng qua con ngi. Ti khng thy lm sao lp trng ca ng li c th mu
thun vi lp trng Thin cha gio. So n th d vi tuyn b ca K. Barth (Credo,
1936, p. 188): Kinh Thnh l mt ti liu thuc con ngi (tc l cng c ca Cha).
8
S bin h ca Socrates cho s t tr ca o c hc (lin quan mt thit n khng
nh ca ng l cc vn v t nhin chng quan trng) c pht biu c bit
thuyt ca ng v s t tc hay t cp t tc ca cc c nhn c c hnh. Rng l
thuyt ny tri ngc r rt vi quan im ca Plato v c nhn s thy mun hn; so
c bit cc ct. 25 ch. ny v 36 ch. tip, v vn bn. (So c ct. 56 ch. 10).
9
Ta khng th, th d, to ra cc th ch hot ng c lp vi cch chng c cp
nhn s. V cc vn ny, so ch. 7 (vn bn cho cc ct. 7-8, 22-23), v c bit ch. 9.
10
V tho lun ca Plato v ch ngha t nhin ca Pindar, xem c bit Gorgias,
484b; 488b; Laws, 690b (c trch di y ch. ny, so ct. 28); 714e/715a; so c
890a/b. (Xem c ct. ca Adam cho Rep., 359c20).
11
Antiphon dng t m, lin quan vi Parmenides v Plato, ti dch trn l
kin ho huyn (so ct. 15 ch. 3); v ng cng i lp n vi chn l. So c bn dch
ca Barker trong Greek Political Theory, I Plato and His Predecessors (1918), 83.
12
Xem Antiphon, On Truth; so Barker, op. cit., 83-5. Xem c ct. tip (2).
13
Hippias c trch Protagoras ca Plato, 337e. V bn trch dn tip, so (1) Ion
ca Euripides, 854 ff.; v (2) Phoenissae ca ng, 538; so c Gomperz, Greek Thinkers
(German ed., I, 325); v Barker, op. cit., 75; so c s tn cng Euripides d di ca
Plato Republic, 568a-d. Hn na (3) Alcidamas trong Schol. to Aristotles Rhet., I, 13,
1373b18. (4) Lycophron trong Fragm. ca Aristotle, 91 (Rose); (so c Pseudo-Plutarch,
De Nobil., 18.2). V phong tro Athenian chng ch n l, so vn bn cho ct. 18
ch. 4, v ct. 29 (vi cc dn chiu thm) ch. 4; c ct. 18 ch. 10 v Ph lc III (Tr li
mt nh ph bnh) di y, c bit cc trang 330 f.
(1) ng lu l hu ht cc nh Platonist t ng cm vi phong tro bnh ng ny.
Th d, Barker tho lun n di tiu Bi tr thnh tng chung; so op. cit., 75.
(Xem c trch dn th hai t Plato ca Field c trch vn bn cho ct. 3, ch. 6). S
thiu i xng ny, r rng, l do nh hng ca Plato.
(2) V ch ngha chng bnh ng ca Plato v Aristotle c nhc ti vn bn,
on tip, so c bit c ct. 49 (v vn bn) ch. 8, v cc ct. 3-4 (v vn bn) ch. 11.
Ch ngha chng bnh ng ny v cc tc ng tn ph ca n c W. W. Tarn m
t r bi bo xut sc Alexander the Great and the Unity of Mankind ca ng (Proc.
of the British Acad., XIX, 1933, pp. 123 ff.). Tarn nhn ra l th k th nm, c th
c mt phong tro tin ti ci g tt hn s phn chia cng nhc ca nhng ngi
Hy Lp v man r; nhng, ng ni, iu ny khng c tm quan trng lch s, bi
v bt c th g thuc loi y b cc trit l duy tm bp nght. Plato v Aristotle
khng li nghi ng g v quan im ca h. Plato ni l tt c ngi man r l k th
do bn cht; tin hnh chin tranh chng h, thm ch n dch .. h, l ng. Aristotle
ni rng tt c nhng ngi man r l n l do bn cht .. (p. 124, ti nhn mnh). Ti
hon ton ng vi nh gi v nh hng phn nhn o, c hi ca cc trit gia
duy tm, tc l ca Plato v Aristotle. Ti cng ng vi nhn mnh ca Tarn v tm
quan trng ln lao ca ch ngha bnh ng, ca t tng v s thng nht ca nhn loi
CHNG /CH THCH -
237
(so op. cit., p. 147). im chnh ti khng th hon ton ng l nh gi ca Tarn v

phong tro bnh ng th k th nm, v v cc k hoi nghi ban u. ng c th ng
hay c th khng, khi cho rng nh hng lch s ca cc phong tro ny l nh so vi
ca Alexander. Song ti tin l ng c th nh gi cc phong tro ny cao hn gi nh
ng theo di s song song gia phong tro th gii v chng tnh trng n l. S
song song gia cc quan h, ngi Hy Lp: ngi man r v ngi t do: n l, c
Tarn ch r on c trch ti y; v nu ta xt sc mnh khng th nghi ng ca
phong tro chng tnh trng n l (xem c bit ct. 18 ch. 4) th cc nhn xt ri rc
chng s phn bit gia ngi Hy Lp v ngi man r c tm quan trng hn nhiu.
So c Politics ca Aristotle, III, 5, 7 (1278a); IV (VI), 4, 16 (1319b); v III, 2, 2
(1275b). Xem c ct. 48 ch. 8, v dn chiu ti E. Badian cui ch thch .
14
V ch tr v th tnh, so ch. 10, ct. 71, v vn bn.
15
V thuyt ca Socrates v linh hn, xem vn bn cho ct. 44 ch. 10.
16
T quyn t nhin theo ngha bnh ng n Rome qua cc ngi Stoic (nh
hng ca Antisthenes c xem xt; so ct. 48 ch. 8) v c Lut Roman ph cp
(so Institutiones, II, 1, 2; I, 2, 2). N c c Thomas Aquinas dng (Summa, II, 91, 2).
Vic s dng ln ln t lut t nhin thay cho quyn t nhin bi cc nh Thomist
hin i l ng tic, cng nh s t nhn mnh ca h n ch ngha bnh ng.
17
Xu hng nht nguyn lun u tin dn n n lc din gii cc chun mc nh t
nhin gn y dn n n lc ngc li, c th l, din gii cc qui lut t nhin nh
quy c. Thuyt quy c loi (vt l) ny, c Poincar, t c s trn s tha nhn
c tnh quy c hay bng li ca cc nh ngha. Poincar, v mi y hn Eddington,
ch ra rng chng ta nh r cc thc th t nhin bng cc qui lut chng tun theo. T
y kt lun c rt ra l cc lut ny, tc l cc qui lut t nhin, l cc nh ngha,
tc l cc quy c bng li. So th ca Eddington trong Nature, 148 (1941), 141: Cc
nguyn l c bn (ca l thuyt vt l) .. ch c th c nh r .. bi cc lut chng
tun theo; cho nn chng ta ta thy mnh sn ui ci ui ca chnh mnh trong mt h
thng thun tu hnh thc. - Mt phn tch v mt ph phn dng ny ca thuyt quy
c c th thy trong The Logic of Scientific Discovery ca ti, c bit pp. 78 ff.
18
(1) Hi vng c c l l hay l thuyt no chia s cc trch nhim ca ta, ti tin,
l mt trong cc ng c cn bn ca o c khoa hc. o c khoa hc trong s
cn ci tuyt i ca n l mt trong cc hin tng x hi gy ngc nhin nht. N
nhm ti ci g? Ti ni cho ta ci ta nn lm, tc l hng ti xy dng mt b lut v
cc chun mc trn c s khoa hc, sao cho ta ch cn tm kim ch mc ca b lut nu
i mt vi mt kh khn quyt nh o c? y r rng l v l; ng l ngoi vic
c th t c chng, n s hu hoi mi trch nhim c nhn v v th mi o c.
Hay n s cho cc tiu chun khoa hc v s tht v s la di ca cc phn xt, tc l
cc phn xt dnh n cc t tt hay xu? Song r rng cc phn xt o c l hon
ton khng thch hp. Ch mt k gim pha mi quan tm n phn xt ngi dn hay
cc hnh ng ca h; ng phn x t ra i vi mt vi chng ta l mt trong cc
lut c bn v c nh gi qu t ca o c hc nhn o. (Ta c th tc v kh v
b t mt k ti phm ngn hn khi lp li cc ti phm ca hn, song qu nhiu
phn x o c v c bit phn n o c lun l mt du hiu v o c gi v
tnh gi di). Nh vy mt o c hc v cc phn x o c s khng ch l khng
thch hp m qu thc l mt chuyn tri o c. Tt c tm quan trng ca cc vn
o c, tt nhin, da trn s thc l, ta c th hnh ng vi s lo xa thng minh, v
ta c th hi chnh mnh cc mc tiu ca ta nn l g, tc l ta nn hnh ng ra sao.
238
CHNG /CH THCH -
Gn nh tt c cc trit gia o c, c cp vn v chng ta nn hnh ng th

no (vi ngoi l c l ca Kant), u th tr li n hoc bng dn chiu n bn tnh
con ngi (nh ngay c Kant cng th, khi ng dn chiu n l tnh con ngi) hay
n bn tnh ca ci tt. Cch u chng dn n u, v mi hnh ng kh d vi
chng ta u da trn bn tnh con ngi, cho nn vn ca o c hc cng c th
c t ra bng hi cc yu t no trong bn tnh con ngi ti nn chp thun v pht
trin, v cc mt no ti nn cm hay kim sot. Song cch th hai cng chng dn n
u; v cn c vo mt phn tch v ci tt dng mt cu nh: Ci tt l th no
(hay th no l tt), ta lun phi hi: N ra sao? V sao iu ny lin quan n ti?
Ch khi no m t tt c dng theo ngha o c, tc l ch nu n c dng
mun ni rng ti nn lm ci g, ti mi c th dn xut t thng tin x l tt ra kt
lun l ti nn lm x. Ni cch khc, nu t tt mun c bt c tm quan trng o
c no, n phi c nh ngha nh ci ti (hay chng ta) nn lm (hay thc y).
Nhng nu n c nh ngha nh vy, th ton b ngha ca n b cm t nh ngha
vt cn, v c th c thay th trong mi ng cnh bng cm t ny, tc l a vo t
tt khng th ng gp thit yu cho vn ca chng ta. (Xem c ct. 49 (3) ch. 11).
Tt c tho lun v nh ngha ci tt, hay v kh nng nh ngha n, v th l v
dng. Chng ch chng t o c hc khoa hc l xa cc vn cp bch ca i
sng o c n th no. V nh vy chng biu th rng o c hc khoa hc l
mt dng trn chy, v s trn chy khi thc t ca i sng o c, tc l khi cc
trch nhim o c ca chng ta. (Cn c vo cc cn nhc ny khng ngc nhin
thy rng khi u ca o c hc khoa hc, dng ch ngha t nhin o c,
trng v thi gian vi ci c th c gi l s khm ph ra trch nhim c nhn. So ci
c ni ch. 10, vn bn cho cc ct. 27-38 v 55-7, v x hi m v Th h V i).
(2) C th hp vi quan h ny dn chiu n mt dng c bit ca s trn chy
khi trch nhim c tho lun y, nh c by t c bit bi ch ngha thc
chng php l ca trng phi Hegel, cng nh bi mt ch ngha t nhin tinh thn
lin minh thn thit. Rng vn vn cn quan trng c th thy t s thc rng mt tc
gi xut sc nh Catlin vn gi im quan trng ny (nh nhiu im khc) ph thuc
vo Hegel; v phn tch ca ti s c dng ca mt ph phn cc l l ca Catlin ng h
ch ngha t nhin tinh thn, v chng s phn bit gia qui lut ca t nhin v lut
chun tc (so G. E. G. Catlin, A Study of the Principles of Politics, 1930, p. 96-99).
Catlin bt u vi vic a ra phn bit r gia lut t nhin v lut .. do cc nh lp
php lm ra; v ng tha nhn l, thot tin cm t lut t nhin, nu p dng cho cc
chun mc, t ra l hin nhin phi khoa hc, v n c v khng phn bit gia lut con
ngi cn thc thi v cc quy lut vt l khng th vi phm. Song ng c chng t l n
ch c v vy, v rng ph phn ca ta v cch dng t lut t nhin l qu vi v.
V ng tip vi mt trnh by r rng v ch ngha t nhin tinh thn, tc l mt s
phn bit gia lut ng n l ci theo t nhin, v lut khc: Lut ng n, khi
, ko theo mt s trnh by cc khuynh hng con ngi, hay, ngn gn, l mt bn
sao ca lut t nhin do khoa hc chnh tr tm thy. Lut ng n theo ngha ny
dt khot c tm thy ch khng c to ra. N l mt bn sao ca qui lut x hi t
nhin (tc l ci ti gi l cc qui lut x hi; so vn bn cho ct. 8 ch. ny). V ng
kt lun bng nhn mnh rng chng no h thng php l tr nn c l hn, cc qui tc
ca n ngng mang tnh cht ca cc lnh c on v tr thnh cc suy din thun tu
t cc qui lut x hi cn bn (tc l t ci ti phi gi l cc qui lut x hi).
CHNG /CH THCH -
239
(3) y l mt tuyn b rt mnh v ch ngha t nhin tinh thn. Ph phn n l

quan trng hn v Catlin kt hp hc thuyt ca ng vi mt l thuyt v k thut x
hi thot nhn c l ging ci c ch trng y (so vn bn cho ct. 9 ch. 3 v
vn bn cho cc ct. 1-3 v 8-11 ch. 9). Trc khi bn v n ti mun gii thch v sao
ti coi quan im ca Catlin ph thuc vo ch ngha thc chng Hegel. Mt gii thch
nh vy l cn, v Catlin dng ch ngha t nhin ca ng nhm phn bit gia lut
ng n v lut khc; ni cch khc, ng dng n phn bit gia lut cng bng
v bt cng; v s phn bit ny chc chn khng ging ch ngha thc chng, tc l
s tha nhn lut hin tn nh tiu chun duy nht v cng l. Bt chp tt c iu ,
ti tin rng quan im ca Catlin l rt gn vi ch ngha thc chng; l do ca ti l
ng tin rng ch lut ng n c th c hiu lc, v chng mc y hin tn chnh
xc theo ngha ca Hegel. V Catlin ni rng khi lut php l ca ta khng ng n,
tc l khng ph hp vi cc qui lut v bn tnh con ngi, th o lut ca ta vn l
giy. Tuyn b ny l thc chng ch ngha thun khit nht; v n cho php ta suy ra
t s thc rng b lut no khng ch l giy m c thc thi thnh cng, l lut
ng n; hay ni cch khc, rng mi php lut t ra khng ch l giy u l mt
bn sao ca bn tnh con ngi v v th cng bng.
(4) By gi ti tip tc mt ph phn ngn l l do Catlin xut chng s phn bit
gia (a) cc lut t nhin khng th b vi phm, v (b) cc lut chun tc, nhn to, tc
l c thc thi bi trng pht; mt s phn bit m bn thn ng lm r n vy lc
u. Lp lun ca Catlin c hai phn. ng chng t rng (a1) cc lut t nhin cng l
nhn to, theo mt ngha no , v chng c th, theo mt ngha, b vi phm; v (b1)
theo mt ngha no cc lut chun tc khng th b vi phm. Ti bt u vi (a1)
Cc lut t nhin ca nh vt l, Catlin vit, khng phi l cc s thc cc sc, chng
l s hp l ho ca th gii vt l, bt lun do con ngi t ln hay c bin minh bi
v th gii l hp l v c trt t mt cch c hu. V ng tip tc chng t rng lut t
nhin c th b v hiu ho khi cc s thc mi buc chng ta vit li qui lut. y
l tr li ca ti cho l l ny. Mt mnh c ch nh s trnh by mt qui lut t
nhin chc chn l nhn to. Ta a ra gi thuyt l c s u n khng i no ,
tc l ta m t s u n c gi thit vi s gip ca mt mnh , qui lut t
nhin. Song, vi t cch nh khoa hc, ta sn sng hc t t nhin l ta sai; ta sn
sng vit li qui lut nu cc s thc mi mu thun vi gi thuyt ca ta chng t rng
qui lut c gi thit ca ta khng phi l qui lut, v n b vi phm. Ni cch khc,
bng chp nhn s v hiu ho ca t nhin, nh khoa hc chng t l ng chp nhn
mt gi thuyt ch chng no n cha b chng minh l sai; n ht nh ni rng ng coi
mt qui lut t nhin nh mt qui tc khng th b vi phm, v ng chp nhn s vi
phm qui tc ca mnh nh s chng minh l qui tc ca ng khng trnh by mt qui
lut t nhin. Hn na: mc d gi thuyt l nhn to, ta c th khng c kh nng ngn
s chng minh n l sai (falsification). iu ny chng t rng, bng cch to ra gi
thuyt, ta khng to ra s u n m gi thuyt mun m t (d cho ta c to ra mt
tp mi cc vn , v c th gi cc quan st v din gii mi). (b1) Catlin ni,
khng ng rng k phm ti vi phm lut khi hn lm mt vic b cm .. lut khng
ni: Anh khng th; n ni Anh s khng, hoc s phi chu s trng pht ny.
Catlin tip tc, nh mt lnh n c th b vi phm, nhng vi t cch l lut, theo mt
ngha rt thc, n ch b vi phm khi khng phi chu s trng pht .. chng mc lut
c hon thin v s trng pht ca n c thc hin, .. n xp x qui lut vt l. Tr
li iu ny l n gin. Theo bt c ngha no ta ni v s vi phm lut, lut php l
240
CHNG /CH THCH -
c th b vi phm; khng s iu chnh cu ch no c th thay i iu . Hy chp

nhn quan im ca Catlin rng mt k ti phm khng th vi phm lut, v rng n
ch b vi phm nu k phm ti khng nhn s trng pht do lut quy nh. Song ngay
c t quan im ny, lut c th b vi phm; th d, bi cc quan chc nh nc t chi
trng pht phm nhn. V ngay c mt quc gia ni mi trng pht, thc t, c
thc hin, cc quan chc c th, nu h chn, ngn s thc hin nh vy, v v th vi
phm lut theo ngha ca Catlin. (Rng do h cng vi phm lut theo ngha thng
thng, tc l h c th tr thnh k phm ti, v cui cng h c th c l b trng
pht, li l vn khc hon ton). Ni cch khc: Mt lut chun tc lun c con
ngi thc thi bng cc trng pht ca h, v v th khc cn bn mt gi thuyt. V
php l, ta c th thc thi cm git ngi, hay cc hng ng t t; cm s la di, hay
s tht; cm s cng bng, hay bt cng. Song chng ta khng buc mt tri thay i
tin trnh ca n. Khng lng l l no c th lp c l hng ny.
19
Bn cht hnh phc v kh cc c ni n Theaetetus, 175c. V quan h gn
gia bn cht v Hnh thc hay nim, so c bit Republic, 597a-d, ni Plato u
tin bn v Hnh thc hay nim ca mt ci ging, v sau ni n n nh ci
ging tn ti do bn cht, v do Tri to ra (597b). cng ch ng ngh s phn
bit tng ng gia th nhn to (hay c lm ra, mt s bt chc) v s tht.
So c ct. ca Adam cho Republic, 597b10 (vi trch dn t Burnet ), v cc ct. cho
476b13, 501b9, 525c15; thm na Theaetetus, 174b (v ct. 1 cho p. 85 ca Cornford
Platos Theory of Knowledge ca ng). Xem c Metaphysics ca Aristotle, 1015a14.
20
V tn cng ca Plato ln ngh thut, xem cun cui ca Republic, v c bit cc
on Republic, 600a-605b, c nhc n ct. 39 ch. 4.
21
So cc ct. 11, 12 v 13 ch. ny, v vn bn. Lun im ca ti l Plato ng ch
t mt phn vi l thuyt v ch ngha bnh ng ca Antiphon (cho d, tt nhin, ng
khng ng vi ch ngha bnh ng Antiphon) s c v k l vi nhiu ngi, c
bit vi cc c gi ca Barker, op. cit. V n c th lm h ngc nhin hn na
nghe kin l s bt ng chnh khng phi l v l thuyt, m ng hn l v thc tin
o c, v Antiphon ch khng phi Plato l ng v o c, chng mc lin quan
n vn thc tin ca ch ngha bnh ng. (V s ng ca Plato vi nguyn l ca
Antiphon: t nhin l tht v ng, xem vn bn cho ct. 23 v 28, v ct. 30 ch. ny).
22
Cc trch dn ny l t Sophist, 266b v 265e. Nhng on cng cha (265c) mt
ph phn (ging nh Laws, trch vn bn cho ct. 23 v 30 ch. ny) v ci c th
c m t nh mt din gii duy vt ca ch ngha t nhin nh c, c l, Antiphon
nm gi; ti mun ni lng tin .. rng t nhin .. sinh ra khng c tr thng minh.
23
So Laws, 892a v c. V thuyt quan h gn ca linh hn vi cc nim, xem c ct.
15 (8) ch. 3. V quan h gn ca bn tnh v linh hn, xem Metaphysics ca
Aristotle, 1015a14, vi on ca Laws c trch, v vi 896d/e: linh hn mi th di
chuyn ..
So thm c bit cc on sau trong bn tnh v linh hn c dng theo cch
hin nhin l ng ngha: Republic, 485a/b, 485e/486a v d, 486b (bn tnh); 486b v
d (linh hn), 490e/491a (c hai), 491b (c hai), v nhiu ch khc (so c ct. ca Adam
cho 370a7). Quan h gn c ni trc tip 490b (10). V quan h gn gia bn tnh
v linh hn v dng ging, so 501e ni cm t bn tnh trit hc hay linh hn
thy trong cc on tng t c thay bng dng ging cc trit gia.
CHNG /CH THCH -
241
Cng c mt quan h gn gia linh hn hay bn tnh v giai cp hay ng cp x

hi; xem th d Republic, 435b. Quan h gia ng cp v dng ging l c bn, v t
phn u (415a), ng cp c ng nht vi dng ging.
Bn tnh c dng theo ngha ti nng hay iu kin ca linh hn trong Laws,
648d, 650b, 655e, 710b, 766a, 875c. u th v s u vit ca bn tnh trn ngh thut
c ni ti trong Laws, 889a, ff. V bn tnh theo ngha ng hay tht, xem Laws,
686d v 818e, tng ng.
24
So cc on trch ct. 32 (1), (a) v (c), ch. 4.
25
Hc thuyt Socratic v t cp t tc c ni ti trong Republic, 387d/e (so
Apology, 41c, ff., v ct. ca Adam cho Rep., 387d25). y ch l mt trong vi on ri
rc gi li gio hun Socratic; song n mu thun trc tip vi thuyt chnh ca Rep.,
nh n c gii ngha trong vn bn (xem c ct. 36 ch. 6, v vn bn); iu ny c
th thy bng tng phn on c trch vi 369c, ff., v rt nhiu on trng t.
26
So th d on c trch trong vn bn cho ct. 29 ch. 4. V nhng ngi him
v t gp, so Republic, 491a/b, v nhiu on khc, th d Timaeus, 51e: l tr c cc
thn chia s vi rt t ngi. V mi trng x hi, xem 491d (so c ch. 23).
Trong khi Plato (v Aristotle; so c bit ct. 4 ch. 11 v vn bn) nht nh l cng
vic chn tay l hn h, Socrates c v chp nhn mt thi rt khc. (So Xenophon,
Memorabilia, II, 7; 7-10; chuyn ca Xenophon, mc no , c chng thc bi
thi ca Antisthenes v Diogenes i vi cng vic chn tay; so c ct. 56 ch. 10).
27
Xem c bit Theaetetus, 172b (so c bnh lun ca Cornford v on ny Platos
Theory of Knowledge). Xem c ct. 7 ch. ny. Cc yu t ca thuyt qui c trong gio
l ca Plato c l c th gii thch v sao mt s ngi vn c tc phm ca Protagoras
li ni l Republic ging cc iu ny. (So Diogenes Laertius, III, 37). V l thuyt kh
c ca Lycophron, xem cc ct. 43-54 ch. 6 (c bit ct. 46), v vn bn.
28
So Laws, 690b/c; xem ct. 10 ch. ny. Plato nhc n thuyt t nhin ca Pindar c
trong Gorgias, 484b, 488b; Laws, 714c, 890a. V s i lp gia mt mt s cng
bc bn ngoi, v mt khc (a) hnh ng t do, (b) t nhin, so c Republic, 603c,
v Timaeus, 64d. (So c Rep. 466c-d, c trch ct. 30 ch. ny).
29
So Republic, 369b-c. y l phn ca l thuyt kh c. Trch dn tip, l tuyn b
u tin v nguyn l t nhin ch ngha trong nh nc hon ho, l 370a/b-c. (Ch
ngha t nhin trong Republic c Glaucon nhc n u tin 358e, ff.; song y, tt
nhin, khng phi l hc thuyt ring ca Plato v ch ngha t nhin).
(1) V pht trin thm ca nguyn l t nhin ch ngha v phn cng lao ng v vai
tr do nguyn l ny ng trong l thuyt ca Plato v cng l, so c bit vn bn cho
cc ct. 6, 23 v 40 ch. 6.
(2) V mt phin bn cp tin hin i ca nguyn l t nhin ch ngha, xem cng
thc ca Marx v x hi cng sn (theo Louis Blanc): Lm theo nng lc: hng theo
nhu cu! (So th d A Hanbook of Marxism, E. Burns, 1935, p. 752; v ct. 8 ch. 13;
xem c ct. 3 ch. 13, v ct. 48 ch. 24, v vn bn).
V gc r lch s ca nguyn l ca ch ngha cng sn ny, xem chm ngn ca
Plato Bn b c chung mi th h c (xem ct. 36 ch. 6, v vn bn; v ch ngha
cng sn ca Plato xem c cc ct. 34 ch. 6 v 30 ch. 4, v vn bn) v so cc on
ny vi Acts: V tt c nhng ngi tin u cng nhau, v h c mi th chung; .. v
chia phn chng cho mi ngi, do mi ngi u c nhu cu. (2, 44-45). Chng c
ai thiu gia h: v .. phn phi c tin hnh cho mi ngi theo nhu cu. (4, 34-35).
242
CHNG /CH THCH -
Xem ct. 23, v vn bn. Cc trch dn on vn ny u t Laws: (1) 889, ArrowDebreu (so on rt ging trong Theaetetus, 172b); (2) 896c-e; (3) 890e/891a.
V on vn tip trong vn bn (tc l v lun im ca ti rng thuyt t nhin ca
Plato khng c kh nng gii quyt cc vn thc tin) phn tip c th dng nh mt
minh ho. Nhiu nh t nhin ch ngha cho rng n ng v n b l khc nhau do
bn tnh, c v thn th v tinh thn, v v th h phi thc hin cc chc nng khc
nhau trong i sng x hi. Plato, tuy vy, dng cng l l t nhin ch ngha chng
minh iu ngc li; v, ng l l, khng phi c ch ci v ch c u hu ch cho
canh gi cng nh sn bn? Anh c ng , ng vit (Rep., 466c-d), rng n b phi
tham gia cng n ng trong canh gi cng nh trong sn bn, nh ng vi ch; .. v
rng lm vy, h s hnh ng theo cch ng ao c nht, v iu ny s khng tri vi
t nhin, m ph hp vi cc quan h t nhin ca cc gii? (Xem c vn bn cho ct.
28 ch. ny; v ch nh k bo v l tng, so ch. 4, c bit ct. 32 (2), v vn bn).
31
V mt ph phn ngn l thuyt sinh hc v nh nc, xem ct. 7 ch. 10, v vn
bn. *V ngun gc ng phng ca l thuyt, xem R. Eisler, Revue de Synthse
Historique, vol. 41, p. 15.*
32
V vi p dng l thuyt v linh hn ca Plato, v v cc kt lun rt ra t n, xem
cc ct. 58-9 ch. 10, v vn bn. V s ging nhau c bn ca phng php lun gia
thnh ph v c nhn, xem c bit Republic, 368e, 445c, 577c. V l thuyt chnh tr v
c nhn con ngi, hay sinh l hc con ngi, ca Alcmaeon, so ct. 13 ch. 6.
33
So Republic, 423, b v d.
34
Trch dn ny cng nh ci tip l t G. Grote, Plato and the Other Companions of
Socrates (1875), vol. III, 124. Cc on chnh ca Republic l 439c, f. (cu chuyn v
Leontius); 571c, f. (phn th tnh i li phn l tr); 588c (Qui vt Khi huyn; so
Th vt s hu mt S Platonic, trong Revelation 13, 17 v 18); 603d v 604b (con
ngi i chi vi bn thn). Xem c Laws, 689a-b, v cc ct. 58-9 ch. 10.
35
So Republic, 519e, f. (so c ct. 10 ch. 8); c hai trch dn tip l t Laws, 903c.
(Ti o th t ca chng). C th nhc n l ci ton th c nhc ti hai on
ny (pan v holon) khng l quc gia m l th gii; tuy vy khng c nghi ng g
rng xu hng c bn ca chnh th lun v tr ny l mt chnh th lun chnh tr; so
Laws, 903d-e (ni thy thuc v th th cng kt hp vi chnh khch), v s thc l
Plato thng dng holon (c bit dng s nhiu) ni quc gia cng nh th
gii. Hn na, on u trong hai on ny (theo th t trch ca ti) l mt phin bn
ngn hn ca Republic, 420b-421c; on hai ca Republic, 520b, ff. (Chng ta to
ra mi v nh nc, cng nh v ring mi). Thm na cc on v chnh th lun hay
ch ngha tp th l: Republic, 424a, 449e, 462a, f., Laws, 715b, 739c, 875a, f., 903b,
923b, 942a, f. (Xem c cc ct. 31/32 ch. 6). V nhn xt on vn ny rng Plato ni
v nh nc nh mt c th, so Republic, 462c, v Laws, 964e, ni nh nc thm ch
c so snh vi thn th con ngi.
36
So Adam ln xut bn Rep. ca ng, vol. II, 303; xem c ct. 3 ch. 4, v vn bn.
37
im ny c Adam nhn mnh, op. cit., ct. 546a, b7, v pp. 288 v 307. Trch
dn tip trong on vn ny l Republic, 546a; so Republic, 485a/b, c trch ct. 26
(1) ch. 3 v vn bn cho ct. 33 ch. 8.
38
y l im chnh m ti phi xa ri din gii ca Adam. Ti tin Plato ng rng
vua trit gia ca Quyn VI-VII, m mi quan tm chnh ca ngi l cc th khng c
sinh ra v khng suy tn (Rep., 485b; xem ct. cui v on c tham kho), vi s o
to ton hc v bin chng ca mnh, ngi nhn c tri thc ca S Platonic v vi n
30
CHNG /CH THCH -
243
cc phng tin lm ngng suy i x hi v v th ngng s suy sp ca nh nc.

Xem c bit vn bn cho ct. 39.
Cc trch dn tip on vn ny l: gi thun chng ca nhng ngi bo v; so
Republic, 460c, v vn bn cho ct. 34 ch. 4. Mt thnh ph c thnh lp ..: 546a.
Tham kho s phn bit ca Plato, trong lnh vc ton hc, m hc, v thin vn hc,
gia tri thc duy l v d lun ho huyn da trn kinh nghim hay tri gic, l Republic,
523a, ff., 525d, ff. (ni tnh ton c tho lun; xem c bit 526a); 527d, ff., 529b,
f., 531a, ff. (xung n 534a v 537d); xem c 509d-511e.
39
*Ti b li thm vo cc t (m ti khng bao gi t trong du ngoc) thiu
mt phng php duy l thun tu; nhng cn c vo Rep., 523a n 537d, i vi ti
c v r rng l dn chiu ca Plato n tri gic' bao hm chnh s tng phn ny.*
Cc trch dn on vn ny l t Rep., 546b, ff. Lu rng, sut on ny, chnh
Nng Th l ngi ni qua ming ca Socrates.
Trong din gii ca ti v Cu chuyn v s Suy Sp v S, ti thn trng trnh
vn kh, nhng nhng, v c l khng th quyt nh c v s tnh ton ca bn
thn con S. (N c th khng th quyt nh c v Plato c th khng tit l hon
ton b mt ca ng). Ti gii hn din gii ca ti cc on ngay trc v ngay sau
on m t bn thn con S; cc on ny, ti tin, l r. Bt chp iu , din gii
ca ti xa ri, chng mc ti bit, khi cc n lc trc kia.
(1) Tuyn b ct li m ti ly lm c s cho din gii ca mnh l (A) nhng ngi
bo v lm vic bng tnh ton vi s gip ca tri gic. Tip theo iu ny ti dng
cc tuyn b (B) rng h s khng tnh c tm ra c (cch ng) c c con tt;
(C) rng h s lm hng, v sinh ra nhng a con theo cch sai; (D) rng h khng
bit cc vn nh th (tc l, cc vn nh S).
V (A), phi r vi mi bn c cn thn ca Plato rng mt dn chiu nh vy n
tri gic l nhm biu l mt ph phn phng php ang c ni n. Cch nhn ny
v on c xem xt (546a, f.) c h tr bi s thc l n n ngay sau cc on
523a-537d (xem cui ca ct. trc), trong s i lp gia tri thc duy l thun tu v
d lun da trn tri gic l mt trong cc ch chnh, v trong , c bit hn, t
tnh ton c dng trong ng cnh nhn mnh s i lp gia tri thc duy l v kinh
nghim, trong khi t tri gic (xem c 511c/d) c cho mt ngha k thut v m t
xc nh. (So c, th d, cch hnh vn ca Plutarch trong tho lun v s i lp ny:
trong Life of Marcellus ca ng, 306). V v th kin ca ti, v kin ny c cng
c bi ng cnh, c bit bi (B), (C), (D), l nhn xt (A) ca Plato ng (a) rng tnh
ton da vo tri gic l mt phng php ti, v (b) rng c cc phng php tt hn,
c th l cc phng php ton hc v bin chng, mang li tri thc duy l thun khit.
im m ti th ni thm, qu thc, l rt r rt, nn ti khng my kh nhc vi n gi
nh khng v s thc l ngay c Adam b st n. Trong ct. ca mnh cho 546a, b7,
ng din gii tnh ton nh mt dn chiu n nhim v ca cc nh cai tr v xc nh
s cc cuc hn nhn h s cho php, v tri gic nh phng tin theo h quyt
nh cp no phi kt giao, cc a b no c nui dng, v.v. Tc l, Adam coi
nhn xt ca Plato l mt m t n gin v khng nh mt bt chin chng s yu km
ca phng php kinh nghim. Do , ng khng lin kt, c tuyn b (C) rng cc nh
cai tr s lm hng ln tuyn b (D) rng h khng bit, vi s thc rng h dng cc
phng php kinh nghim. (Nhn xt (B) rng h s khng tm ra phng php ng
do tnh c n gin c th l i khng c dch, nu chng ta theo gi ca Adam).
244
CHNG /CH THCH -
Trong din gii on ca chng ta, phi nh l Quyn VIII, ngay trc on c
ni n, Plato quay li vn ca thnh ph u tin ca cc Quyn II n IV. (Xem
cc ct. ca Adam cho 449a, ff., v 543a, ff.) Song nhng ngi bo v ca thnh ph
ny khng l cc nh ton hc cng chng l cc nh bin chng. Nh th h khng h
c tng no v cc phng php duy l thun tu c nhn mnh nhiu n th
Quyn VII, 525-534. Trong mi quan h ny, ni dung ca cc nhn xt v tri gic, tc
l v s ngho nn ca cc phng php kinh nghim, v v s ngu dt ca nhng
ngi bo v, l khng th nhm ln c.
Tuyn b (B) l, cc nh cai tr khng tnh c v c (cch ng) c c con
tt, hay chng c g c, l ht sc r din gii ca ti. V cc nh cai tr ch sn c
phng php kinh nghim, s ch l may mn ngu nhin nu h tm ra phng php
m quyt nh ca n cn n cc phng php ton hc hay duy l khc. Adam gi
(ct. cho 546a, b7) cch dch: chng ai hn bng tnh ton cng vi tri gic h s thu
c con tt; v ch trong ngoc ng ni thm: ngha en, v c. Ti ngh, ng
khng hiu v c l mt h qu ca s tht bi ca ng thy cc ng ca (A).
Din gii c gi y lm cho (C) v (D) c th hiu c hon ton; v nhn
xt ca Plato rng S ca ng l ch trn dng di tt hn hay ti hn khp rt hon
ho. C th nhc n rng Adam khng bnh lun v (D), tc l s ngu dt, d cho mt
bnh lun nh vy l cn nht theo ci nhn ca l thuyt (ct. cho 546d22) rng con s
khng l mt s .. hn nhn, v rng n khng c ngha k thut u sinh no.
Rng ngha ca S qu thc l k thut v u sinh, ti ngh, l r, nu ta xt rng
on cha con S nm trong cc on cha cc dn chiu n tri thc u sinh, hay ng
hn, thiu tri thc u sinh. Ngay trc con S, (A), (B), (C), xut hin, v ngay sau ,
l (D), cng nh chuyn v c du v ch r v con thoi ho ca h. Ngoi ra, (C)
trc S v (D) sau S dn chiu n nhau; v (C), lm hng, lin kt vi dn chiu
n sinh ra theo cch sai, v (D), s ngu dt, khng bit lin kt vi mt dn chiu
hon ton tng t, tc l kt hn c du v ch r theo cch sai. (Xem c ct. tip).
im cui trong ti phi bo v din gii ca mnh l lun im cho rng nhng
ngi bit con S do c c nng lc chi phi dng di tt hn hay ti hn.
iu ny tt nhin khng suy ra t tuyn b ca Plato rng bn thn con S c nng lc
nh vy; v nu din gii ca Adam l ng, th S iu tit s sinh v n xc nh
mt giai on khng thay i c m sau s thoi ho nht thit bt u. Song ti
khng nh rng dn chiu ca Plato n tri gic, n lm hng v n ngu dt nh
nguyn nhn trc tip ca cc li u sinh s l v ngha, nu ng khng mun ni iu
, gi nh h c tri thc tho ng v cc phng php ton hc v duy l thun tu
thch hp, th nhng ngi bo v khng lm hng. Nhng iu ny lm cho suy
lun khng th trnh khi l S c ngha k thut u sinh, v rng hiu bit n l then
cht cho nng lc lm ngng thoi ho. (Suy lun ny i vi ti cng c v l suy lun
duy nht tng thch vi tt c ci chng ta bit v loi m tn ny; mi thut chim
tinh, th d, hin nhin ko theo quan nim hi mu thun rng tri thc v s phn
chng ta c th gip chi phi s phn ny).
Ti ngh loi b s gii thch v S nh mt cm k gy ging b mt ny sinh t s
min cng gn cho Plato cc tng th nh vy, du ta c th trnh by chng r
rng n u. Ni cch khc, chng ny sinh t xu hng l tng ho Plato.
(2) Trong mi quan h ny, ti phi dn n bi bo The Decline and Fall of the
State in Republic, VIII (Mind, N. S. 48, 1939, pp. 23 ff.) ca A. E. Taylor. Trong bi
bo ny, Taylor tn cng Adam (theo ti khng ng n), v l l chng li ng:
CHNG /CH THCH -
245
ng l, tt nhin, s suy tn ca Nh nc l tng c ni r rng 546b l bt u

khi giai cp cai tr sinh ra cc a tr khng ng ma .. Song iu ny khng cn
thit c ngha, v theo ti khng c ngha, rng bn thn Plato quan tm y n cc
vn v sinh sinh sn. ngh chnh l ngh n gin rng nu, ging mi th con
ngi lm ra, Nh nc mang cc mm mng ca s tan r trong bn thn n, tt nhin
iu ny c ngha l sm hay mun cc c nhn nm quyn ti cao s l thp km hn
nhng ngi i trc h (pp. 25 ff.). By gi din gii ny vi ti c v khng ch
khng th ng vng c, cn c vo cc tuyn b kh r ca Plato, m cng l mt
th d in hnh ca n lc loi b cc yu t gy bi ri n vy, nh ch ngha chng
tc hay m tn, khi tc phm ca Plato. Adam bt u bng t chi rng S c tm
quan trng k thut u sinh, v bng khng nh rng n khng l mt s hn nhn, m
ch l mt chu k v tr hc. Taylor by gi tip tc bng t chi rng y Plato c
quan tm cht no n cc vn v v sinh sinh . Song on ca Plato y cc m
ch n cc vn ny, v bn thn Taylor tha nhn hai trang trc (p. 23) rng
khng u c gi rng S l mt yu t quyt nh ca bt c th g tr cc
dng ging tt hn v ti hn. V li, khng ch on c ni n m ton b
Republic (v tng t Statesman, c bit 310b, 310e) n gin y nhn mnh n
cc vn v sinh sinh . L thuyt ca Taylor rng Plato, khi ni v sinh vt ngi
(hay, nh Taylor din t, v mt th ca s sinh sn con ngi), ni nh nc, v
rng Plato mun m ch n s thc rng nh nc l s sng tc ca mt nh lp php,
ti ngh, l khng c s ng h trong vn bn ca Plato. Ton b on bt u vi mt
dn chiu n cc th ca th gii cm nhn c trong dng chy, n cc th c
sinh ra v suy tn (xem cc ct. 37 v 38 ch. ny), v c bit hn, n cc th sng,
thc vt cng nh ng vt, v n cc vn chng tc ca chng. V li, mt th do
ngi lm ra s, nu c Plato nhn mnh trong ng cnh nh vy, c ngha l mt
th nhn to thp km bi v n hai ln xa thc t. (So vn bn cho cc ct. 20-23
ch. ny, v ton b Quyn Mi ca Republic xung n cui 608b). Plato s chng bao
gi trng ch bt c ai i din gii cm t mt th do ngi lm ra nh c ngha l
nh nc hon ho, t nhin; ng hn ng s k vng h ngh v ci g rt thp
km (nh thi ca; so ct. 39 ch. 4). Cm t m Taylor dch l th do ngi sinh ra
thng n gin c dch l sinh vt ngi, v iu ny loi b mi kh khn.
(3) Gi s l din gii ca ti v on c ni n l ng, c th a ra mt gi
vi nh kt ni nim tin ca Plato vo tm quan trng ca s thoi ho chng tc vi
li khuyn lp i lp li ca ng rng s thnh vin ca giai cp cai tr phi c gi
khng i (li khuyn chng t nh x hi hc Plato hiu tc ng ng lo ca tng dn
s). Cch ngh ca Plato, c m t cui chng ny (so vn bn cho ct. 45; v ct. 37
ch. 8), c bit cch ng phn i quc vng Duy nht, s t nh ph ho, v s
ng ngi khng l g c m l mt m ng, c th gi cho ng lng tin rng mt
s tng v s lng l tng ng mt s st gim v cht lng. (Ci g theo cch
ny qu thc c gi Laws, 710d). Nu gi thuyt ny l ng, th ng d dng kt
lun rng tng dn s l ph thuc ln nhau vi, hay c l thm ch b gy nn bi, s
thoi ho chng tc. V tng dn s thc ra l nguyn nhn chnh ca s bt n nh
v tan r ca cc x hi b lc Hy Lp ban u (so cc ct. 6, 7, v 63 ch. 10, v vn
bn), gi thuyt ny s gii thch v sao Plato tin rng nguyn nhn thc t l s thoi
ho chng tc (ph hp vi cc l thuyt chung ca ng v t nhin, v v thay i).
40
(1) Hay khng ng lc. Adam khng nh (ct. cho 546d22), ta khng c dch
l khng ng lc m l khng hp thi. Ti c th nhn xt l din gii ca ti kh
246
CHNG /CH THCH -
c lp vi vn ny; n hon ton tng hp vi khng hp thi hay khng ng

hay khng ng lc hay khng ng ma. (Cm t c ni n khi u c ngha
l ci g nh tri vi mc thch ng; thng c ngha l khng ng lc).
*(2) V cc nhn xt ca Plato v trn ln v hn hp, c th thy rng Plato c v
tin mt l thuyt di truyn th s song ph bin (r rng vn c cc nh nui nga ua
tin) theo con l mt hn hp u hay trn ln ca cc c tnh hay bn tnh ca cha
m, v rng c tnh, hay bn tnh, hay c hnh ca chng (sc chu ng, tc ,
v.v., hay, theo Republic, Statesman, v Laws, cc tnh hin lnh, d tn, to bo, t
kim ch, v.v) c trn ln trong n theo t l vi s t tin (ng b, c, v.v) c cc c
tnh ny. Do , ngh thut phi ging l ngh thut ch l v khoa hc- ton hc hay hi
ho- v pha trn hay ho trn cc bn tnh. Xem c bit Statesman, ni vng mu v
ngh thut qun l nh nc hay chn dt thn dn c v nh ngh dt, v ni ngi
th dt vng gi phi pha trn tnh to bo vi tnh t kim ch. (Xem c Rep., 375c-e,
v 410c, ff.; Laws, 731b; v cc ct. 34 f. ch. 4; 13 v 39 f. ch. 8, v vn bn).*
41
V qui lut cch mng x hi ca Plato, xem c bit ct. 26 ch. 4, v vn bn.
42
Thut ng siu-sinh hc c G. B. Shaw dng theo ngha ny, tc l nh biu
th mt loi tn gio. (So li ni u cho Back to Methuselah; xem c ct. 66 ch. 12).
43
So ch thch ca Adam cho Republic, 547a 3.
44
V mt ph phn ci ti gi l thuyt tm l lun trong phng php x hi hc,
so vn bn cho ct. 19 ch. 13 v ch. 14, ni thuyt tm l phng php lun vn cn
ph bin ca Mill c tho lun.
45
Ngi ta thng ni rng khng c p t tng ca Plato vo mt h thng; do
, cc n lc ca ti on vn ny (v khng ch on vn ny) chng t s
thng nht c h thng ca t tng Plato, iu hin nhin da vo bng cc i lp
Pythagorean, c l s gi ra ph phn. Song ti tin rng mt s h thng ho l mt
kim tra cn thit ca bt c din gii no. Nhng ngi tin l h khng cn mt din
gii, v h c th bit mt trit gia hay tc phm ca ng, v coi ng ng nh ng
l, hay tc phm ca ng ng nh n l, l sai lm. H khng th lm g ngoi din
gii c tc gi v tc phm; song v h khng bit l h din gii (rng cch nhn ca h
b truyn thng, tnh kh, v.v lm bin sc), din gii ca h hn nht thit ngy th v
khng ph phn. (So c ch. 10 (ct. 1-5 v 56), v ch. 25). Mt din gii ph phn, tuy
vy, phi c dng ca mt s dng li hp l, v phi c h thng; n phi th dng li
t tng ca trit gia nh mt to lu i nht qun. So c ci A. C. Ewing ni v Kant
(A Short Commentary on Kants Critique of Pure Reason, 1938, p. 4): .. ta phi bt
u vi gi thit rng mt i trit gia chc khng lun mu thun vi chnh mnh, v
do , bt k u c hai din gii, mt lm cho Kant nht qun v ci khc lm cho
ng khng nht qun, ta a din gii trc hn ci sau, nu c th hp l. iu ny
chc chn cng p dng cho Plato, v thm ch cho din gii ni chung.
CH THCH CHO CHNG 6
So ct. 3 ch. 4 v vn bn, c bit cui on vn . Hn na, ct. 2 (2) ch. .
V cng thc Quay li vi T nhin, ti mun lu n s thc l Rousseau rt b Plato
nh hng. Thc vy, thong nhn vo Social Contract s tit l nhiu s tng t c
bit vi cc on Platonic v ch ngha t nhin c bnh lun chng trc. So
c bit ct. 14 ch. 9. Cng c s ging nhau l th gia Republic, 591a, ff. (v
Gorgias, 472e, ff., ni mt tng tng t xut hin trong mt ng cnh c nhn ch
1
CHNG /CH THCH -
247
ngha), v l thuyt ni ting v trng pht ca Rousseau (v ca Hegel). (Barker, Greek

Political Theory, I, 388 ff., nhn mnh ng n nh hng ca Plato ln Rousseau.
Song ng khng thy yu t mnh ca ch ngha lng mn Plato; v ni chung khng
c hiu r l ch ngha lng mn thn qu nh hng ln c nc Php v nc
Anh ca Shakespeare qua trung gian Arcadia ca Sanazzaro c ngun gc ca n cc
ngi chn cu Dorian ca Plato; so cc ct. 11 (3), 26, v 32 ch. 4, v ct. 14 ch. 9).
2
So R. H. S. Crossman, Plato To-Day (1937), 132; trch dn tip l t p. 111. Cun
sch l th ny (ging cc tc phm ca Grote v T. Gomperz) c v ti rt nhiu
pht trin cc quan im kh khng chnh thng ca ti v Plato, v theo mit h n
cc kt lun kh kh chu ca h. V cc trch dn t C. E. M. Joad, so Guide to the
Philosophy of Morals and Politics (1938) ca ng, 661, v 660. Ti cng c th nhc
n cc nhn xt rt l th ca C. L. Stevenson v quan im ca Plato v cng l, trong
bi bo Persuasive Definitions (Mind, N. S., vol. 47, 1938, pp. 331 ff.) ca ng.
3
So Crossman, op. cit., 132f. Hai trch dn tip l: Field, Plato, .., 91; so cc nhn xt
tng t Barker, Greek Political Theory, .. (xem ct. 13 ch. 5).
L tng ho Plato ng mt phn ng k trong cc tranh lun v tnh chn tht
ca cc tc phm khc nhau c truyn di tn ng. Nhiu trong s b vi nh
ph bnh loi b n gin v chng cha cc on khng khp vi cch nhn l tng
ho ca h v Plato. Mt din t kh ngy th v in hnh v thi ny c th thy
Introductory Notice ca Davies v Vaughan (so ln xut bn Golden Treasury [Kho
Bu] ca Republic, p. vi): ng Grote, hng hi h Plato khi b siu nhn ca ng, c
th hi c qui cho ng cc tc phm c nh gi l khng xng vi mt trit gia
siu phm n vy. C v cc tc gi ny khng thy rng nh gi ca h v Plato
phi ph thuc vo ci ng vit, ch khng phi ngc li; v rng, nu cc tc phm
ny l tht v khng xng ng, th Plato l mt trit gia khng my siu phm. (V tnh
siu phm ca Plato, xem c Simplicius trong Arist. de coelo, 32b44, 319a15, v.v).
4
Cch pht biu (a) tranh ua vi cch ca Kant, ngi m t mt hin php ng
nh mt hin php t c quyn t do ln nht c th ca cc c nhn bng nh
khung cc lut theo cch sao cho quyn t do ca mi ngi c th cng tn ti vi
quyn t do ca tt c nhng ngi khc. (Critique of Pure Reason2, 373); xem c
Theory of Right ca ng, ni ng ni: ng (hay cng bng) l tng ca cc iu kin
cn thit cho s la chn t do ca mi ngi cng tn ti vi la chn ca mi ngi
khc, ph hp vi lut chung v t do. Kant tin rng y l mc tiu c Plato theo
ui trong Republic; t c th thy Kant l mt trong nhiu trit gia hoc b Plato
nh la, hoc l tng ho Plato bng qui cc t tng nhn o ca ring h cho
Plato. Trong quan h ny, ti c th nhn xt rng ch ngha t do nng nhit ca Kant
c nh gi qu t trong cc tc phm Anh v M v trit hc chnh tr (bt chp
Kants Principles of Politics ca Hastie). Ngi ta qu thng xuyn cho rng ng l
mt tin bi ca Hegel; song cn c vo s thc rng ng nhn ra ch ngha lng mn
ca c Herder v Fichte mt hc thuyt hon ton ngc vi ca ring ng, yu sch
ny l ht sc bt cng i vi Kant, v khng th nghi ng l ng ht sc phn n v
n. Chnh nh hng to ln ca ch ngha Hegel, ti tin, l ci dn n s chp nhn
rng ri yu sch hon ton khng th ng vng ny.
5
So vn bn cho cc ct. 32/33 ch. 5.
6
So vn bn cho cc ct. 25-29, ch. 5. Cc trch dn on vn ny l: (1) Republic,
433a; (2) Republic, 434a/b; (3) Republic, 441d. Vi tuyn b ca Plato, trong trch dn
u, chng ta lp i lp li, so c c bit Republic, 397e, ni l thuyt v cng l
248
CHNG /CH THCH -
c chun b cn thn, v, tt nhin, Republic, 369b-c, c trch vn bn cho ct. 29,

ch. 5. Xem c cc ct. 23 v 40 ch. ny.
7
Nh c ch ra ch. 4 (ct. 18 v vn bn, v ct. 29), Plato khng ni nhiu v cc
n l trong Republic, mc d ci ng ni l kh quan trng; song ng xua tan mi nghi
ng v thi ca ng trong Laws (so c bit bi bo ca G. R. Morrow trong Mind,
c nhc ti ct. 29, ch.4).
8
Cc trch dn l t Barker, Greek Political Theory, I, p. 180. Barker ni r (pp. 176
f.) rng Cng bng Platonic l cng bng x hi, v nhn mnh ng bn cht chnh
th lun ca n. ng nhc n (pp. 178 f.) ph phn kh d rng cng thc ny khng ..
ng n bn cht ca ci con ngi thng hiu l cng bng, tc l mt nguyn l
gii quyt va chm v ch, tc l cng bng nh thuc v cc c nhn. Song ng
ngh rng mt s phn i nh vy l lc , v rng tng ca Plato khng l vn
v lut m l mt quan nim v tnh o c x hi (179); v ng tip tc khng
nh rng s lun bn ny v cng bng tng ng, theo mt cch, vi cc t tng Hy
Lp hin thi v cng bng: Trong thuyt phc cng bng theo ngha ny, Plato cng
khng qu xa cc tng hin thi Hy Lp. ng thm ch khng nhc n l c bng
chng no cho iu ngc li, nh c tho lun y ti cc ct. tip v vn bn.
9
So Gorgias, 488e, ff.; on ny c trch v tho lun y hn mc VIII di
y (xem ct. 48 ch. ny, v vn bn). V l thuyt ca Aristotle v n l, xem ct. 3
ch. 11 v vn bn. Cc trch dn t Aristotle on vn ny l: (1) v (2) Nicom. Ethics,
V, 4, 7, v 8; (3) Politics, III, 12, 1 (1282b; xem c cc ct. 20 v 30 ch. ny. on ny
cha mt dn chiu n Nicom. Eth.); (4) Nicom Ethics, V, 4, 9; (5) Politics, V (VI), 2,
1 (1317b). Trong Nicom Ethics, V, 3, 7 (so c Pol. III, 9, 1; 1280a), Aristotle cng
nhc n ngha ca cng bng thay i trong cc nh nc dn ch, u s, v qu
tc, ph hp vi cc tng khc nhau v cng trng. *(Phn tip theo c thm vo
u tin trong ln xut bn M 1950).
V quan im ca Plato, Laws, v cng bng chnh tr v bnh ng, xem c bit
on v hai loi bnh ng (Laws, 757b-d) c trch (1) di y. V s thc, nhc
ti trong vn bn, rng khng ch c hnh v gy ging m c ca ci phi c tnh
trong phn chia vinh d v chin li phm (v thm ch kch c v nt p), xem Laws,
744c, c trch ct. 20 (1) ch. ny, ni cc on lin quan khc cng c tho lun.
(1) Laws, 757b-d, Plato tho lun hai loi bnh ng. Mt trong s ny .. l bnh
ng v s o, trng lng, hay s [tc l bnh ng s hay s hc]; nhng s bnh ng
tht nht v tt nht .. phn chia nhiu hn cho ngi ln hn v t hn cho ngi nh
hn, cho mi ngi s o xng ng, ph hp vi bn tnh. .. Bng ban nhiu vinh d
hn cho ngi c c hnh hn, v t vinh d hn cho ngi thp km hn v c hnh
v gy ging, n chia cho mi ngi ci l ng, ph hp vi nguyn l ny v t l
[hp l]. V y chnh xc l ci ta s gi l cng bng chnh tr. V ai c th lp mt
nh nc u phi ly iu ny lm mc tiu lp php duy nht ca mnh ..: ch c s
cng bng ny, nh ni r, l bnh ng t nhin, l ci c chia, nh tnh hnh i
hi, cho nhng ngi khng ngang nhau. Loi th hai ny ca hai s bnh ng to
thnh ci Plato gi y l cng bng chnh tr (v Aristotle gi l cng bng phn
phi) v c Plato (v Aristotle) m t nh bnh ng t l - tht nht, tt nht, v t
nhin nht - mun hn c gi l bnh ng hnh hc (Gorgias 508a; xem c 465b/c,
v Plutarch, Moralia 719b, f.), i lp vi bnh ng s hc thp km hn v dn ch.
V s pht hin ny, cc nhn xt di (2) c th soi sng mt cht.
CHNG /CH THCH -
249
(2) Theo truyn thuyt (xem Comm. in Arist. Graeca, pars XV, Berlin, 1897, p. 117,
29, v pars XVIII, Berlin, 1900, p. 118, 18) cu ghi trn ca Vin Hn Lm ca Plato:
Khng ai cha tho hnh hc c th vo nh ti! Ti nghi ngha ca cu ny khng
ch l nhn mnh v tm quan trng ca vn nghin cu ton hc, m n c ngha l:
S hc (chnh xc hn, l thuyt s Pythagorean) l khng ; ngi phi bit hnh
hc! V ti s th phc ho cc l do lm cho ti tin rng cu sau tm tt tho ng mt
trong cc ng gp quan trng nht ca Plato cho khoa hc. Xem c Ph Lc, p. 319.
Nh by gi ni chung ngi ta tin, lun bn Pythagorean ban u v hnh hc
chp nhn mt phng php hi ging ci ngy nay c gi l s hc ho. Hnh hc
c coi l mt phn ca l thuyt v cc s nguyn (hay s t nhin, tc l cc s bao
gm cc monad hay cc n v khng th chia c; so Republic, 525e) v cc logoi
ca chng, tc l cc t l hu t ca chng. Th d cc tam gic vung Pythagorean l
nhng ci vi cc cnh theo cc t l nh vy. (Cc th d l 3: 4: 5; hay 5: 12: 13).
Cng thc tng qut c gn cho Pythagoras l th ny: 2n+1: 2n(n+1): 2n(n+1)+1.
Song cng thc ny c dn ra t gnomn, l khng tng qut, nh th d 8: 15:
17 chng t. Mt cng thc tng qut, t nh Pythagorean c th thu c bng t
m = n+1, l th ny: m2 n2: 2mn: m2 + n2 (ni m > n). V cng thc ny l mt h qu
cht ch ca ci gi l nh l Pythagoras (nu hiu cng vi loi i s m c v cc
nh Pythagorean ban u bit), v v cng thc ny, hnh nh, khng ch khng
c Pythagoras m ngay c Plato (ngi xut, theo Proclus, mt cng thc khng
tng qut khc) bit n, c v l nh l Pythagoras dng tng qut khng c
hoc Pythagoras hoc c Plato bit n. (V mt ci nhn t cc oan hn v vn ny,
xem T. Heath, A History of Greek Mathematics, 1921, vol. I, p. 80-2. Cng thc c
ti m t l tng qut v c bn l cng thc ca Euclid; c th nhn c n t cng
thc phc tp khng cn thit ca Heath p. 82 bng cch u tin ly ba cnh ca tam
gic v nhn chng vi 2/mn, v sau thay trong kt qu m v n v p v q).
S khm ph ra tnh v t ca cn bc hai ca 2 (c Plato m ch n trong Greater
Hippias v trong Meno; so ct. 10 ch. 8; xem c Aristotle, Anal. Priora, 41a26 f.) ph
hu chng trnh Pythagorean v s hc ho hnh hc, v vi n, ph hu sc sng
ca bn thn Trt t Pythagorean. Truyn thuyt l khm ph ny u tin b gi b
mt, c ng h bi s thc l Plato vn gi v t ban u l arrhtos, tc l b mt,
s b n khng nhc n; so Greater Hippias, 303b/c; Republic, 546c. (Mt thut ng
mun hn l khng so c; so Theaetetus, 147c, v Laws, 820c. T alogos c v
xut hin u tin Democritus, ngi vit hai cun sch On Illogical Lines and Atoms
(hay and Full Bodies) b mt; Plato bit t ny, nh c chng minh bi m ch hi
bt knh ca ng n nhan [sch] ca Democritus trong Republic, 534d, song bn
thn ng khng bao gi dng n nh t ng ngha cho arrhtos. Vic s dng u
tin, hn cn v khng th nghi ng, theo ngha ny, l trong Anal. Post., ca Aristotle,
76b9. Xem c T. Heath, op. cit., vol. I, p. 84 f., 156 f. v Ph lc I ca ti di).
C v s tan v ca chng trnh Pythagorean, tc l phng php s hc ca hnh
hc, dn n s pht trin phng php tin ca Euclid, tc l, mt phng php
mi, mt mt c nh cu ci cn c th cu khi s tan r (bao gm phng php
chng minh duy l), v mt khc, chp nhn tnh bt kh qui ca hnh hc v s hc.
Gi s tt c iu ny, c v rt c th l vai tr ca Plato trong qu t phng php
Pythagorean xa hn sang phng php Euclid l mt vai tr cc k quan trng - thc
ra, Plato l mt ngi u tin pht trin mt phng php hnh hc c bit nhm cu
ci cn c th cu, v ct bt thit hi ca, s v ca ch ngha Pythagoras. Phn ln
250
CHNG /CH THCH -
iu ny phi c coi nh mt gi thuyt lch s rt bp bnh, song c th thy s xc

nhn no Anal. Post., ca Aristotle, 76b9 (c nhc n trn), c bit nu on
ny c so vi Laws, 818c, 895e (chn v l), v 819e/820a, 820c (khng so c).
on ny l: S hc gi thit ngha ca l v chn, hnh hc [gi thit ngha] ca
v t .. (Hay khng so c; so Anal. Priora, 41a26 f., 50a37. Xem c Metaphysics,
983a20, 1061b1-3, ni vn tnh v t c cp c nh l proprium* ca hnh hc,
v 1089a, ni, nh Anal. Post., 76b40, c m ch n phng php square foot* ca
Theaetetus, 147d). Mi quan tm ln ca Plato n tnh v t c t ra c bit hai
on ni trn, Theaetetus, 147-148a, v Laws, 819d-822d, ni Plato tuyn b l ng
xu h v ngi Hy Lp khng hiu r vn ln lao ca cc i lng khng so c.
By gi ti gi rng L thuyt v cc Vt Th Nguyn thu ( Timaeus, 53c n
62c, v c l xung c n 64a; xem c Republic, 528b-d) l phn ca tr li ca Plato
cho thch thc. Mt mt, n duy tr c tnh nguyn t lun ca ch ngha Pythagoras
cc n v khng th chia c (monad), ci cng ng mt vai tr trong trng phi
ca cc nh Nguyn t lun v, mt khc, n a vo tnh v t (cn bc hai ca 2 v
3) m s nhn chng vo th gii tr nn khng th trnh c. N lm vy bng
cch ly hai tam gic vung kh chu - mt ci l na ca mt hnh vung v kt hp
cn bc hai ca 2, v ci kia l na ca mt tam gic cn v v kt hp cn bc hai ca
3 nh cc n v m t mi th c to thnh. Qu vy, thuyt cho l hai tam
gic v t ny l cc gii hn (peras; so Meno, 75d-76a) hay cc Hnh thc ca tt c
cc vt th vt l c bn c th ni l mt trong cc thuyt vt l trung tm ca Timaeus.
Tt c iu ny gi rng li cnh bo chng nhng ngi cha thng tho hnh hc
(mt m ch c l c th thy Timaeus, 54a) c th c tm quan trng ni bt hn
c nhc ti trn, v rng n c th c lin quan n lng tin rng hnh hc l ci g
c tm quan trng hn s hc. (So Timaeus, 31c). V iu ny, ln lt, gii thch v
sao bnh ng t l ca Plato, mun hn c ng nht vi bnh ng hnh hc,
c ng ni l ci g qu tc hn bnh ng dn ch s hc hay s, c Plato nhc
ti Gorgias, 508a (so ct. 48 ch. ny), v v sao (th d bi Plutarch, loc. cit.) s hc
v hnh hc li lin kt tng ng vi dn ch v ch qu tc Sparta - bt chp s
thc, sau hnh nh b b qun) rng cc nh Pythagorean u c u c qu tc nh
bn thn Plato; rng chng trnh ca h mang nng tnh s hc; v rng t l hnh
hc, trong ngn ng ca h, l tn ca mt loi t l s (tc, s hc) no .
(3) Trong Timaeus, xy dng cc Vt Th Nguyn thu Plato cn mt Hnh vung
C bn v mt Tam gic Cn C bn. Hai hnh ny, ln lt, bao gm hai loi khc
nhau ca cc tam gic di-c bn - na tam gic vung kt hp 2 , v na tam gic
cn kt hp 3 tng ng. Cu hi v sao ng chn hai tam gic di-c bn ny, thay
cho bn thn Hnh vung v Tam gic Cn, c tho lun nhiu; v tng t cu
hi th hai xem di y (4) v sao ng xy dng cc Hnh vung c bn ca mnh
t bn na tam gic vung di-c bn, thay cho hai, v Tam gic Cn C bn t su
na tam gic cn thay cho hai. (Xem hai hnh u trong ba hnh di y).
V cu hi u trong hai cu hi ny, c v ngi ta thng khng ch l Plato, vi
s quan tm chy bng ca mnh n vn v t, li khng a ra hai s v t 2 v
3 (m ng nhc n dt khot 54b) gi nh ng khng y ny a chnh xc
ch thc; trong t tng Aristotlean, mt tnh cht c th tin on, chung cho tt c cc thnh vin ca
mt loi nhng khng to thnh mt phn nh ngha ca loi .
*
Phng php o din tch bng cch xp cc hnh vung, hay hnh c din tch bit, ln mt cn o.
*
CHNG /CH THCH -
251
cc s v t ny nh cc nguyn t bt kh qui vo th gii ca ng. (Cornford, Platos

Cosmology, pp. 214 v 231 ff., a ra mt tho lun di v c hai cu hi, song li gii
chung m ng kin ngh cho c hai gi thuyt ca ng nh ng gi p. 234 - t ra l
khng th chp nhn c vi ti; gi nh Plato mun t c s phn loi no
nh ci c Cornford bn lun lu l khng c m ch no Plato rng tn ti bt
c th g nh hn ci Cornford gi l Loi B th s l chia i cc cnh ca
cc Hnh vung C bn v cc Tam gic Cn ca ci Cornford gi l Loi B, dng
mi ci trong s chng t bn hnh c bn m khng cha bt c s v t no). Song
nu Plato y ny a cc s v t ny vo th gii, nh cc cnh ca cc tam gic
di-c bn m t mi th c to thnh, th ng hn tin l, bng cch ny, ng
c th gii quyt mt vn ; v vn ny, ti ngh, l vn v bn cht ca ci (c
th so c v) khng th so c (Laws, 820c). Vn ny, r rng, l c bit kh
gii trn c s mt v tr hc s dng bt c th g ging cc tng nguyn t lun,
v cc s v t khng l bi s ca bt c n v no c kh nng o cc s hu t; song
nu cc n v t o mnh cha cc cnh theo cc t l v t, th nghch l ln c th
c gii quyt; v khi chng c th o c hai, v s tn ti ca cc s v t khng
cn kh hiu hoc phi l na.
Song Plato bit c nhiu s v t hn 2 v 3 , v trong Theaetetus ng ni n s
khm ph ra mt dy v tn cc cn bc hai v t (ng cng ni, 148b, v nhng xem
xt tng t v cc khi, song iu ny khng cn thit m ch n cn bc ba m c
th m ch n ng cho ca khi lp phng, tc l n 3 ); v Greater Hippias
(303b-c, so Heath, op. cit., 304) ng cng ni n s thc rng, bng cch cng (hay
bng php khc ca) cc s v t, c th nhn c cc s v t khc, th d, 2- 2 l
v t; v s ny, cng vi 2 , tt nhin cho mt s hu t). Cn c vo cc tnh hung
ny c v l, nu Plato mun gii vn tnh v t bng cch a cc tam gic c bn
ca ng vo, hn ng ngh rng tt c cc s v t (hay t nht bi s ca chng) c
th c cu thnh bng cng (a) n v; (b) 2 ; (c) 3 ; v bi s ca cc s ny.
iu ny, tt nhin, l mt sai lm, song ta c mi l do tin rng lc khng tn ti
phn chng minh no; v nh rng ch c hai loi s v t nguyn t - cc ng
cho ca hnh vung v ca khi lp phng v rng tt c cc s v t khc l c th
so c mt cch tng i vi (a) n v; (b) 2 ; v (c) 3 , c mt mc hin
nhin no nu xem xt c tnh tng i ca cc s v t. (Ti mun ni l ta c th
ni vi l l bin h ngang nhau rng ng cho ca mt hnh vung c cnh bng n
v l v t, hoc rng cnh ca mt hnh vung c ng cho bng n v l v t. Ta
cng phi nh rng Euclid, Quyn X, nh ngha 2, vn gi mi cn bc hai khng so
c l so c bng bnh phng ca chng). Nh th Plato rt c th tin vo nh
ny, du cho ng c th khng c mt chng minh hp l cho phng on ca
mnh. (Mt phn chng minh dng nh u tin do Euclid a ra). M khng nghi
ng g c mt dn chiu n phng on cha c chng minh no trong chnh
on Timaeus m Plato ni n l do chn cc tam gic di-c bn ca ng, v ng
vit (Timaeus, 53c/d): tt c cc tam gic c dn ra t hai [tam gic], mi ci c mt
gc vung ..; trong cc tam gic ny, mt [na-vung] c mi bn na gc vung, ..
v cc cnh bng nhau; ci khc [lch] .. c cc cnh khng bng nhau. Hai ci ny ta
gi s nh cc nguyn l u tin .. theo mt tnh ton kt hp s c th ng [hay phn
on c th ng] vi s bt buc [chng minh]. Cc nguyn l cn xa hn cc th ny
na l c bit i vi tri, v i vi nhng ngi c tri u i. V mun hn,
CHNG /CH THCH -
252
sau khi gii thch rng c v s tam gic lch, t ci tt nht phi c chn, v sau
khi gii thch rng ng coi na tam gic cn nh ci tt nht, Plato ni (Timaeus, 54a/b;
Cornford sa on ny cho hp vi din gii ca ng; so ct. 3 cho p. 214 ca ng):
L do l mt chuyn qu di; song nu bt c ai a vn ny kim tra, v chng
minh rng n c tnh cht ny, th phn thng l ca anh ta, vi ton b thin ch ca
chng ta. Plato khng ni r tnh cht ny ngha l g; n hn l mt tnh cht ton
hc (c th chng minh c hay bc b c) tnh cht bin minh rng, sau khi
chn tam gic kt hp 2 , s la chn ci kt hp 3 l tt nht; v ti ngh rng, cn
c vo cc cn nhc trn, tnh cht m ng ngh l tnh hu t tng i c phng
on ca cc s v t khc, tc l tng i vi n v, v cn bc hai ca 2 v ca 3.
(4) Mt l do thm cho din gii ca chng ta, d cho l l do m ti khng thy bt c
bng chng thm no trong vn bn ca Plato, c l ni ln t xem xt sau. L mt s
thc l k rng 2 + 3 rt gn ng vi . (So E. Borel, Space and Time, 1926, 1960,
p. 216; W. Marinelli lu ti v s thc ny, mt bi cnh khc). S di ra l nh
hn 0,0047, tc l t hn 1,5 phn nghn ca , v mt s gn ng tt hn cho hu
nh khng c bit n lc . Mt loi gii thch v s thc l k ny l trung bnh s
Hnh vung C bn ca Plato

gm bn tam gic vung cn
di-c bn
Tam gic Cn C bn ca Plato

gm su tam gic vung lch
di-c s
Hnh ch nht ABCD c din tch vt qu din tch hnh trn

t hn 1,5 phn nghn
CHNG /CH THCH -
253
hc ca din tch ca lc gic ngoi tip v ca bt gic ni tip l mt gn ng tt ca

din tch hnh trn. M c v, mt mt, l Bryson hot ng vi trung bnh ca cc
a gic ngoi tip v ni tip (so Heath, op. cit., 224) v ta bit, mt khc (t Greater
Hippias), rng Plato quan tm n cng cc s v t, cho nn ng hn cng
2 + 3 . Nh th c hai cch theo Plato c th tm ra phng trnh gn ng
2 + 3 , v cch th hai ca cc cch ny c v hu nh khng th trnh c. C
v l mt gi thuyt hp l l Plato bit phng trnh ny, nhng khng c kh
nng chng minh liu n l mt ng thc nghim ngt hay ch l mt s gn ng.
Nhng nu iu ny l nh vy, th c l chng ta c th tr li cu hi th hai c
nhc ti trn ti (3), tc l vn v sao Plato to tc hnh vng c bn ca mnh t
bn tam gic (na vung) di-c bn thay cho t hai, v tam gic cn c bn ca ng
t su tam gic (na cn) di-c bn thay cho t hai. Nu nhn vo hai hnh u trong
cc hnh ny, th ta thy l s dng hnh ny nhn mnh tm ca cc vng trn ngoi v
ni tip, v c hai trng hp, bn knh ca ng trn ngoi tip. ( trng hp tam
gic cn, bn knh ca vng trn ni tip cng xut hin; song c v l Plato ngh ti
bn knh ca vng trn ngoi tip, v ng ni n n trong m t ca ng v phng
php dng tam gic cn, nh ng cho; so Timaeus, 54d/e; so c 54b).
Nu by gi ta v hai vng trn ngoi tip ny, hay chnh xc hn, nu ta t hnh
vung v tam gic cn c bn vo mt vng trn c bn knh r, th ta thy l tng ca
cnh ca hai tam gic ny gn bng r; ni cch khc cch dng hnh ca Plato gi
mt trong cc li gii gn ng n gin nht ca bi ton lm vung hnh trn, nh ba
hnh ca chng ta chng t. Cn c vo tt c iu ny, d c th ng l phng on
ca Plato v vic trao mt gii thng vi mi thin ch ca chng ta, c trch
trn ti (3), dnh dng khng ch n vn chung v tnh khng so c ca cc s v
t, m c n vn c bit liu 2 + 3 c lm vung ng trn n v khng.
Ti phi nhn mnh li l ti khng bit bng chng trc tip no chng t rng y
l ci Plato ngh n; song nu ta xt bng chng gin tip c a ra y, th gi
thuyt c l khng t ra qu gng go. Ti khng ngh n gng go hn gi thuyt
ca Cornford; v nu ng, n s cho mt gii thch tt hn v cc on lin quan.
(5) Nu c bt c g trong lun im ca chng ta c by t mc (2) ca ct. ny,
rng cu ghi ca Plato c ngha l S hc l khng ; mi phi bit hnh hc! v trong
lun im ca chng ta rng s nhn mnh ny c quan h vi s khm ph ra tnh v t
ca cn bc hai ca 2 v 3, th iu ny c th ri nh sng no ln L thuyt v
nim, v ln cc tng thut gy nhiu tranh ci ca Aristotle. N s gii thch v sao,
cn c vo khm ph ny, quan im Pythagorean rng cc s vt (hnh thc, hnh th)
l cc s, v cc nim o c l cc t l s, phi bin mt c l b thay, nh
Timaeus, bi hc thuyt l cc hnh thc c bn, hay gii hn (peras; so on t Meno,
75d-76a, ni ti trn), hay hnh th, hay cc nim v cc s vt, l cc tam gic.
Song n cng gii thch v sao, mt th h sau, Vin Hn Lm c th quay li thuyt
Pythagorean. Mt khi c sc do s khm ph ra tnh v t bin i, cc nh ton hc
bt u quen vi tng rng cc s v t phi l cc s, bt chp mi th, v chng
ng trong cc mi quan h c bn v ln hn hay nh hn vi cc s (hu t) khc.
t n giai on ny, cc l do chng li thuyt Pythagoras tan bin, du cho l thuyt
rng cc hnh th l cc s hay cc t l ca cc s, sau khi chp nhn cc s v t, c
254
CHNG /CH THCH -
ngha l ci g khc vi ci n c ngha trc kia (mt im c l khng c cc

mn ca l thuyt mi hiu thu o). Xem c Ph lc I, p. 319 di y.*
10
Din t ni ting ca Themis nh b bt mt, tc khng m xa n a v ca
ngi cu xin, v nh cm cn, tc nh phn s bnh ng hoc nh cn i cc yu
sch v li ch ca cc c nhn tranh nhau, l mt din t tng trng ca tng bnh
ng v cng bng. Din t ny, tuy vy, khng th dng c y nh mt l l ng
h lun im rng tng ny l ph bin thi Plato; v nh Gio s E. H. Gombrich
vui lng cho ti bit, n c t thi Phc Hng, v ly cm hng t mt on De Iside
et Osiride ca Plutarch, ch khng t Hy Lp c in. *Mt khc, din t v Dik vi
ci cn l c in (v mt din t nh vy, bi Timochares, mt th h sau Plato, xem
R. Eisler, The Royal Art of Astrology, 1946, p. 100, 266, v Bn 5), v lui li, c l, n
s ng nht hnh trng ca Virgo vi Dik ca Hesiod (cn c vo ci cn bn cnh).
V cn c vo chng c khc a ra y chng t s lin tng v Cng l hay
Dik vi s bnh ng phn phi, ci cn chc c ngha ht nh trng hp Themis.*
11
Republic, 440c-d. on ny kt thc vi mt n d ch chn cu c trng: Hoc
khc i, cho n anh ta c gi li, v trm tnh li, bi ting ni l tr ring ca anh ta,
ging mt con ch bi ngi ch chn cu ca n? So ct. 32 (2) ch. 4.
12
Plato, thc ra, ng iu ny khi hai ln gii thiu Socrates nh kh ng ng ni
m by gi ng phi n cng bng. (So 368b, ff., 432b, ff.).
13
Adam r rng khng ch (do nh hng ca Plato) ti l thuyt bnh ng
ch thch ca ng cho Republic, 331e, ff., ni ng ni, c l ng, rng quan im rng
Cng bng bao gm lm tt cho b bn v lm hi cho k th, l mt phn nh trung
thnh ca o c Hy Lp thnh hnh. Nhng ng sai khi ni thm rng iu ny l
gn nh mt quan im ph qut; v ng qun chng c ring ca ng (ct. cho
561e28), chng t rng bnh ng trc php lut (isonomy) l i hi ng t ho
ca nn dn ch. Xem c cc ct. 14 v 17 ch. ny.
Mt trong cc dn chiu xa nht (nu khng phi l xa nht) n isonomy c
thy mu [fragment] do Alcmaeon thy thuc (u th k th nm; xem Diels5, ch. 24,
mu 4); ng ni v isonomy nh mt iu kin sc kho, v i lp n vi ch qun
ch- s thng tr ca mt trn mun ngi. y ta c mt l thuyt chnh tr v thn
th, hay chnh xc hn, v sinh l hc con ngi. So c cc ct. 5 ch. 5 v 59 ch. 10.
14
Mt dn chiu thong qua n bnh ng (ging nh Gorgias, 483c/d; xem c ct.
ny, di y, v ct. 47 ch. ny) c a ra trong bi ni ca Glaucon Republic,
359c; nhng vn khng c tip tc. (V on ny so ct. 50 ch. ny).
Trong tn cng lng m nn dn ch ca Plato (xem vn bn cho cc ct. 14-18, ch. 4),
xut hin ba dn chiu bng a khinh b n ch ngha bnh ng. Th nht l mt
nhn xt i vi kt qu l nn dn ch phn u bnh ng cho nhng ngi ngang
nhau v khng ngang nhau (558c; so ct. ca Adam cho 558c16; xem c ct. 21 ch.
ny); y c nh nh mt ph phn chm bim. (Bnh ng c quan h vi dn
ch t trc, tc l trong m t cch mng dn ch; so Rep., 557a, c trch vn bn
cho ct. 13, ch. 4). Th hai nu c im ngi dn ch nh lm va lng mi thm
mun ca mnh ngang nhau, bt lun chng c th l tt hay xu; v th anh ta c
gi l mt nh bnh ng ch ngha (isonomist), mt s chi ch bng gi i vi t
tng v lut bnh ng cho mi ngi hay s bnh ng trc php lut (isonomy;
so cc ct. 13 v 17 ch. ny). S chi ch ny xut hin Republic, 561e. Con ng
cho n c lt kho lo, v t bnh ng c dng ba ln ri (Rep., 561b v c)
nu c trng mt thi ca ngi m tt c tham mun v cc thch bt cht l
CHNG /CH THCH -
255
ngang nhau. Ci th ba ca cc chuyn phim r tin ny l mt s ku gi n c

tng tng ca ngi c, in hnh ngay c ngy nay v loi tuyn truyn ny: ti
gn nh qun nhc n vai tr to ln m cc lut bnh ng ni ting ny, v s t
do ni ting ny, ng trong cc mi tng tc gia n ng v n b .. (Rep., 563b).
Ngoi chng c v tm quan trng ca ch ngha bnh ng ni ti y (v vn
bn cho cc ct. 9-10 ch. ny), ta phi xt c bit li khai ca ring Plato trong (1)
Gorgias, ni (488a/489a; xem c cc ct. 47, 48, v 50 ch. ny) ng vit: Khng phi
m ng (tc l: a s dn chng) tin .. rng cng bng l bnh ng?. (2) Menexenus
(238e-239a; xem ct. 19 ch. ny, v vn bn). Cc on trong Laws v bnh ng l
mun hn Republic, v khng th c dng nh li chng cho vic bit ca Plato v
vn ny khi vit Republic; song xem vn bn cho cc ct. 9, 20 v 21 ch. ny.
15
Bn thn Plato ni, trong quan h vi nhn xt th ba (563b; so ct. trn): Ta s ni
ra bt c g ny sinh ming mnh?; bng iu ng hnh nh mun by t rng ng
khng thy bt c l do no km li ni a.
16
Ti tin phin bn ca Thucydides (II, 37 ff.) v bi din thuyt ca Parmenides c
th c coi l hu nh ch thc. Rt c th, ng c mt khi Parmenides din
thuyt; v trong mi trng hp ng dng li n trung thc nh c th. C nhiu l
do tin l thi khng phi l thng i vi mt ngi hc bi din thuyt ca
ngi khc thm ch thuc lng (so Phaedrus ca Plato), v thut li trung thnh mt
bi ni thuc loi ny qu thc khng kh, nh ngi ta c th ngh. Plato bit bi din
thuyt, coi phin bn ca Thucydides hay ngun khc, hn rt ging n, nh ch thc.
So c cc ct. 31 v 43/35 ch. 10. (C th nhc n y l ban u trong s nghip
ca mnh, Pericles c cc nhng b kh ng ng cho cc bn nng b lc ph bin
v cho tnh ch k nhm cng ph bin ngang th ca ngi dn; ti ngh n s lp
php v t cch cng dn nm 451 trc cng nguyn. Song mun hn ng xt li thi
ca mnh vi cc vn ny, c l do nh hng ca nhng ngi nh Protagoras).
17
So Herodotus, III, 80, v c bit bi ca ngi isonomy, tc s bnh ng trc
lut (III, 80, 6); xem c cc ct. 13 v 14 ch. ny. on t Herodotus, on cng nh
hng n Plato theo cch khc (so ct. 24 ch. 4), l on Plato ch nho Republic
ht nh ng ch nho din thuyt ca Pericles; so ct. 14 ch. 4 v ct. 34 ch. 10.
18
Ngay c nh t nhin ch ngha Aristotle khng lun nhc n phin bn t nhin
ch ngha ny ca ch ngha bnh ng; th d, trnh by ca ng v cc nguyn l dn
ch trong Politics, 1317b (so ct. 9 ch. ny, v vn bn), l hon ton c lp vi n.
Nhng c l thm ch l th hn l Gorgias, trong s i lp ca t nhin v quy
c ng mt vai tr quan trng nh vy, Plato trnh by ch ngha bnh ng m
khng cht nng n vi l thuyt ng ng v s bnh ng t nhin ca tt c mi
ngi (xem 488e/489a, c trch ct. 14 ch. ny, v 483d, 484a, v 508a).
19
So Menexenus, 238e/239a. on tip ngay mt m ch r n bi ni ca Pericles
(tc cu th hai c trch vn bn cho ct. 17 ch. ny). C v khng l khng chc
rng s lp li t dng di bnh ng trong on c ngha nh mt m ch khinh b
n dng di thp ca cc con trai ca Pericles v Aspasia, nhng ngi c cng
nhn l cng dn Athens ch bi s ban hnh lut c bit nm 429 trc cng nguyn.
(So E. Meyer, Gesch. d. Altertums, vol. IV, p. 14, ct. cho No. 392, v p. 323, No. 558).
Ngi ta (ngay c Grote; so Plato ca ng III, p. 11) cho l Menexenus, Plato trong
bi din thuyt hng bin ca mnh, ..b li ma mai, tc l phn gia ca Menexenus,
m t trch dn vn bn c ly ra, khng c ngha mt cch ma mai. Song cn
c vo on c trch v s bnh ng, v cn c vo s khinh b cng khai ca Plato
256
CHNG /CH THCH -
Republic khi ng cp n im ny (so ct. 14 ch. ny), kin ny ti cho l

khng ng vng c. V vi ti dng nh bt kh ngang th nghi ng tnh ma
mai ca on ngay trc on c trch vn bn ni Plato ni v Athens (so 238c/d):
Thi gian ny cng nh hin ti .. chnh th ca chng ta lun l mt ch qu tc
..; d cho i khi n c gi l mt nn dn ch, n thc s l mt ch qu tc, ni
cch khc, mt s cai tr ca ngi gii nht, vi s chp thun ca s ng .. Cn c
vo s cm ght dn ch ca Plato, s din t ny khng cn bnh lun thm. *Mt on
khc r rng ma mai l 245c-d (so ct. 48 ch. 8) ni Socrates ca ngi Athens v s
kin nh cm ght ngi nc ngoi v ngi man r ca n. V ni khc (
Republic, 562e, f., c trch ct. 48, ch. 8) trong mt tn cng ln nn dn ch - c
ngha l nn dn ch Athens- Plato khinh mit Athens v s i x t do ca n vi
ngi nc ngoi, ca ngi ca ng Menexenus khng th l g tr s ma mai, ln na
tnh t do ca Athens b mt ngi ng h Sparta nho bng. (Ngi l b cm c tr
Sparta, bi lut Lycurgus; so Birds, ca Aristophanes, 1012). Trong mi quan h ny, l
th l Menexenus (236a; so ct. 15 (1) ch. 10) ni Socrates nh hng bin tn cng
Athens, Plato ni v Socrates rng ng l hc tr ca lnh t ng u s Anthiphon
Nh hng bin (x Rhamnus; ng ln vi Anthiphon Nh Sophist, mt ngi Athens);
c bit bi v Socrates to ra mt bi nhi ca mt bi ni chuyn do Thucydides ghi
li, ngi thc ra c v l mt hc tr ca Anthiphon m ng rt ngng m.*
V tnh xc thc ca Menexenus, xem c ct. 35 ch. 10.
20
Laws, 757a; so ton b on, 757a-e, m phn ln ca on c trch trn, trong
ct. 9 (1) ch. ny.
(1) V ci ti gi l s phn i chun chng ch ngha bnh ng, so c Laws, 744b,
ff. S tht tuyt vi nu mi ngi c th .. c mi th ngang nhau; song v iu ny l
khng th c .., v.v. on ny l c bit l th bi v Plato thng c m t nh k
th ca ch ti phit bi nhiu tc gi nhng ngi nh gi ng ch qua Republic.
Song on quan trng ny ca Laws (tc l 744b, ff.) Plato i rng cc chc v
chnh tr, v phn ng gp, cng nh phn phi, phi t l vi gi tr ca ci ca mt
cng dn. V chng phi ph thuc khng ch vo c hnh ca anh ta hay ca t tin
anh ta hay vo ln ca thn th v v p ca anh ta, m cng vo s giu c hay
ngho kh ca anh ta. Theo cch ny, mt ngi s nhn c vinh d v chc v mt
cch bnh ng nht c th, tc l t l vi ca ci ca anh ta, d cho ph hp vi
nguyn l phn phi khng bnh ng. *Thuyt v phn phi khng u vinh d v, ta
c th gi thit, chin li phm, theo t l ca ci v ln thn th, c l l tn d t
thi k xm chim ho hng. Ngi giu c v trang nng v t tin, v ngi
mnh, ng gp cho chin thng nhiu hn cc ngi khc. (Nguyn l c chp nhn
thi Homeric, v c th thy, nh R. Eisler m bo, hu nh mi trng hp c
bit v by ngi th ch xm chim).* nim c bn ca thi ny, tc l, bt cng
i x vi nhng ngi khng bnh ng mt cch bnh ng, c th thy, mt
nhn xt thong qua, sm nh Protagoras, 337a (xem c Gorgias, 508a, f., ni ti cc
ct. 9 v 48 ch. ny); song Plato khng dng nhiu tng ny trc khi vit Laws.
(2) V s tho cng phu ca Aristotle v cc tng ny, so c bit Politics, ca
ng, III, 9, 1, 1280a (xem c 1282b-1284b v 1301b29), ni ng vit: Mi ngi bm
ly s cng bng loi no , song quan nim ca h l khng hon ho, v khng bao
hm ton b nim. Th d, cng bng c (cc nh dn ch) ngh l bnh ng; v
n l vy, du cho n khng l s bnh ng cho mi ngi, m ch cho nhng ngi
ngang nhau. V cng bng c (cc nh u s) ngh l bt bnh ng; v n l vy,
CHNG /CH THCH -
257
du cho khng phi l bt bnh ng cho mi ngi, m ch cho nhng ngi khng
ngang nhau. So c Nichom. Eth., 1131b27, 1158b30 ff.
(3) Chng li tt c ch ngha phn bnh ng ny, ti, cng vi Kant, cho rng phi
l nguyn l ca mi o c: khng ai c coi mnh l c gi tr hn bt c ngi no
khc. V ti khng nh, nguyn l ny l nguyn l duy nht c th chp nhn c, xt
n tnh bt kh kht ting v t nh gi mnh mt cch v t. V th ti bi ri hiu
nhn xt sau ca mt tc gi xut sc nh Catlin (Principles, 314): C ci g ht sc
tri o l trong o c ca Kant n lc co bng mi tnh cch .. v l i gio hun
Aristotlean tr li s bnh ng cho nhng ngi bnh ng v bt bnh ng cho
nhng ngi bt bnh ng. Mt ngi c cc quyn x hi khng ht nh ngi khc ..
Tc gi ny khng h sn sng t chi l .. c ci g trong mu. By gi ti hi:
Gi nh c ci g trong mu, hay trong bt bnh ng v ti nng, v.v.; v d l gi
nh ng ph thi gian i nh gi cc s khc bit ny; v d l ta c th nh gi
chng; th, v sao chng li l c s cho cc quyn ln hn m khng phi cho cc ngha
v nng hn? (So vn bn cho cc ct. 31/32 ch. 4). Ti khng thy s ht sc tri o
c ca ch ngha bnh ng ca Kant. V ti khng thy trn ci g Catlin t c s
cho phn xt o c ca mnh, v ng coi o c nh mt vn s thch. V sao s
thch ca Kant li ht sc tri o l? (N cng l s thch Thin cha gio). Tr li
duy nht cho cu hi ny, m ti c th ngh n, l Catlin phn xt t quan im thc
chng ca ng (so ct. 18 (2) ch. 5), v rng ng ngh i hi thin cha gio v
Kantian l tri o c v n mu thun vi cc nh gi o c c tng cng mt
cch tch cc ca x hi ng thi ca chng ta.
(4) Mt trong cc tr li hay nht tng c cho tt c cc nh chng-bnh ng ch
ngha ny l ca Rousseau. Ti ni iu ny bt chp kin ca ti rng ch ngha lng
mn ca ng (so ct. 1 ch. ny) l mt trong nhng nh hng c hi nht trong lch
s trit hc x hi. Song ng cng l mt trong vi tc gi thc s li lc lnh vc ny.
Ti trch mt trong cc nhn xt xut sc ca ng t Origin of Inequality (xem, th d
ln xut bn Everyman ca Social Contract, p. 174; ti nhn mnh); v ti mun lu
bn c n cch trnh by ng tn qu ca cu cui ca on ny. Ti hiu l c hai
loi bt bnh ng gia loi ngi; mt, m ti gi l t nhin hay vt l v n do t
nhin xc lp, v bao gm s khc nhau v tui tc, sc kho, sc mnh c th, v cc
phm cht v tr c hay linh hn; v ci khc, c th c gi l s bt bnh ng o
c hay chnh tr, v n ph thuc vo mt loi quy c, v c xc lp, hay ch t
c cho php, bi s ng thun ca con ngi. Loi sau bao gm cc c quyn khc
nhau, m mt s ngi c hng ..; nh nhng ngi giu c hn, vinh d hn, hay
quyn th hn .. V ch i hi ngun gc ca bt bnh ng t nhin l g, bi v cu hi
c tr li bng s nh ngha n gin ca t. V li, cn v ch hn i thm tra
liu c bt c mi quan h c bn no gia hai loi bt bnh ng hay khng; v iu
ny ch l hi, liu nhng ngi ch huy c nht thit gii hn nhng ngi tun lnh
hay khng, v liu sc mnh th xc hay tinh thn, hay s sng sut, hay c hnh, lun
c thy .. t l vi quyn lc hay ca ci ca mt ngi hay khng; mt cu hi hp
c tho lun bi cc n l trong nghe li ch ca h, nhng rt khng hp vi
nhng ngi bit iu v t do trong tm kim s tht.
21
Republic, 558c; so ct. 14 ch. ny (on u trong tn cng nn dn ch).
22
Republic, 433b. Adam, ngi cng nhn ra rng on ny c nh nh mt l l,
th dng li l l (ct. cho 433b11); nhng ng th nhn rng Plato him khi li cn
phi b sung nhiu n th v tinh thn trong suy lun ca ng.
258
CHNG /CH THCH -
Republic, 433e/434a. - V tip tc ca on ny, so vn bn cho ct. 40 ch. ny; v

s chun b cho n cc phn sm hn ca Republic, xem ct. 6 ch. ny. Adam bnh
ch v on ti gi l l l th hai nh sau (ct. cho 433e35): Plato tm mt im tip
xc gia quan im ring ca ng v Cng l v ngha php l ph bin ca t ..
(Xem on c trch on vn tip trong vn bn). Adam th bo v l l ca Plato
chng li mt nh ph bnh (Krohn) ngi thy, du cho c l khng rt r rng, rng c
ci g sai vi n.
24
Cc trch dn on vn ny l t Republic, 430d, ff.
25
K ny c v thnh cng thm ch vi mt nh ph bnh sc so nh Gomperz,
ngi, trong ph phn ngn ca mnh (Greek Thinkers, Book V, II, 10; Germ. ed., vol.
II. p. 378/379) khng nhc n im yu ca l l; v ng thm ch cn ni, bnh lun
hai cun u (V, II, 5, p. 368): Mt s trnh by tip theo ci c th c m t nh
mt php mu v tnh sng sa, chnh xc, v c tnh khoa hc xc thc .., ni thm
rng cc nh i thoi ca Plato Glaucon v Adeimantus, dn dt bi s nhit tnh chy
bng ca h .. gt b v chn trc mi gii php hi ht.
V cc nhn xt ca ti v s iu , on vn tip ca vn bn, xem on sau t
Phn tch ca Davies v Vaughan (so ln xut bn Kho Bu ca Republic, p. xviii; ti
nhn mnh): Bn cht ca iu l s kim ch. Bn cht ca s iu chnh tr
nm s nhn ra quyn ca hi ng cai tr i vi lng trung thnh v s phc tng
ca ngi b tr. iu ny c th chng t l din gii ca ti v tng ca Plato v
s iu c cc mn ca Plato chia s (tuy pht biu theo thut ng khc). Ti
c th ni thm l s chng mc, tc l tho mn vi a v ca mnh, l c hnh m
c ba giai cp chia s, mc d n l c hnh duy nht m nhng ngi lao ng c th
c. Nh th c hnh c th t c bi nhng ngi lao ng hay ngi kim tin l
chng mc; bi nhng ngi bo v l chng mc, can m, v sng sut.
Li ni u di dng, cng c trch on vn tip, l t Republic, 432b, ff.
26
V thut ng ch ngha tp th, mt bnh lun thut ng c th a ra y. Ci
H. G. Wells gi l ch ngha tp th chng lin quan g n ci ti gi bng tn y.
Wells l mt nh c nhn ch ngha (theo ngha ca ti v t), nh chng t c bit bi
Rights of Man v Common Sense of War and Peace ca ng, cha cc trnh by rt c
th chp nhn c ca i hi v mt ch ngha c nhn bnh ng. Song ng cng tin,
ng, vo lp k hoch cc th ch chnh tr, vi mc tiu y mnh quyn t do v
phc li ca cc c nhn con ngi. ng gi ci ny l ch ngha tp th; m t ci
ti tin l cng nh ch ngha tp th ca ng, ti s dng mt din t nh: lp k
hoch th ch duy l cho t do. Din t ny c th di v vng, song n trnh c
mi nguy him rng ch ngha tp th c th c din gii theo ngha phn-c nhn
ch ngha theo n thng c dng, khng ch trong cun sch ny.
27
Laws, 903c; so vn bn cho ct. 35, ch. 5. Li m u ni ti vn bn (Song anh
ta cn .. vi li khuyn hot ng nh mt ba m ln anh ta, v.v. l t Laws, 903b.
28
C v s ch Republic v Laws ni Plato cho mt li cnh bo chng ch ngha
v k nhm v ; so, th d, Republic, 519e, v cc on nhc n ct. 41 ch. ny.
V tnh ng nht thng c cho l tn ti gia ch ngha tp th v ch ngha v
tha, ti c th dn chiu, trong quan h ny, ti cu hi rt thch ng ca Sherrington,
ng hi trong Man on His Nature (p. 388): m ng v by n l ch ngha v tha?
29
V s coi khinh sai lm v Quc hi ca Dickens, so c ct. 23 ch. 7.
30
Aristotle, Politics, III, 12, 1 (1282b); so vn bn cho cc ct. 9 v 20, ch. ny. (So c
nhn xt ca Aristotle trong Pol., III, 9, 3, 1280a, i vi n tng rng cng bng
23
CHNG /CH THCH -
259
thuc v cc c nhn cng nh cc s vt). Vi trch dn t Pericles mun hn trong

on vn ny, so vn bn cho ct. 16 ch. ny, v cho ct. 31 ch. 10.
31
Nhn xt ny l t mt on (Rep., 519e, f.) c trch vn bn cho ct. 35 ch. 5.
32
Cc on quan trng t Laws c trch (1) on vn ny v (2) on tip l:
(1) Laws, 739c, ff. Plato dn chiu y n Republic, v hnh nh c bit n
Republic, 462a ff., 424a, v 449e. (Mt danh mc cc on v ch ngha tp th v v
chnh th lun c th tm thy ct. 35, chng 5. V ch ngha cng sn ca ng, xem
ct. 29 (2) ch. 5 v cc ch khc c ni ti ). on c trch y bt u, mt
cch c trng, vi mt trch dn ca chm ngn Pythagorean Bn b c chung mi
th m h s hu. So ct. 36 v vn bn; c cc ba n chung c nhc ti ct. 34.
(2) Laws, 942a, f.; xem ct. tip. C hai on ny c Gomperz (op. cit., vo. II, 406)
nhc n nh chng-c nhn ch ngha. Xem c Laws, 807d/e.
33
So ct. 42, ch. 4, v vn bn. Trch dn tip theo trong on vn l Laws, 942a, f.
(xem ct. trc).
Chng ta khng c qun l gio dc qun s Laws (nh Republic) l bt buc
vi tt c nhng ngi c php mang v kh, tc l mi cng dn tt c nhng
ngi c bt c th g ging cc quyn cng dn (so Laws, 753b). Tt c nhng ngi
khc u l tm thng, nu khng l n l (so Laws, 741e v 743d, v ct. 4 ch. 11).
L th l Barker, ngi ght ch ngha qun phit, tin rng Plato c quan im tng
t (Greek Political Theory, 298-301). ng l Plato khng ca tng chin tranh, v thm
ch ln ting chng chin tranh. Song nhiu nh qun phit ming ni ho bnh tay
lm chin tranh; v nh nc ca Plato c ng cp qun s, tc cc cu-qun nhn
tng tri, cai tr. Nhn xt ny ng cho Laws (so 753b) nh ng cho Republic.
34
Lut php kht khe nht v cc ba n - c bit cc ba n chung- v c cc thi
quen ung ng mt phn ng k Plato; so, th d, Republic, 416e, 458c, 547d/e;
Laws, 625e, 633a (ni ni l cc ba n chung bt buc c tin hnh vi tm nhn
n chin tranh), 762b, 780-783, 806c, f., 839c, 842b. Plato lun nhn mnh tm quan
trng ca cc ba n chung, hp vi cc phong tc Cretan v Spartan. Cng l th l
Cristias, cu ca Plato, bn tm vi cc vn ny. (So Diels5, Cristias, fr. 33).
Vi m ch n tnh trng hn lon ca cc d th, cui ca trch dn ny, so c
Republic, 563c.
35
So Laws, ln xut bn ca E. B. England, vol. I, p. 514, ct. cho 739b8 ff. Cc trch
dn Barker l t op. cit.; pp. 149 v 148. C th thy v s cc on tng t trong cc
tc phm ca hu ht cc nh Platonist. Tuy vy, xem nhn xt ca Sherrington (so ct.
28 ch. ny) rng hu nh khng ng ni rng mt m ng hay mt by ngi
c truyn cm hng bi ch ngha v tha. Bn nng by n v ch ngha v k b lc,
v ku gi n cc bn nng ny, khng dnh lu g n tnh khng ch k c.
36
So Republic, 424a, 449c; Phaedrus, 279; Laws, 739c; xem ct. 32 (1). (So c Lysis,
207c v Euripides, Orest., 752). V mi quan h kh d ca nguyn l ny vi ch ngha
cng sn Thin cha gio ban u v CNCS Marxian, xem ct. 29(2) ch. 5.
V l thuyt c nhn ch ngha v cng bng v bt cng ca Gorgias, v d so cc th
d Gorgias, 468b, ff., 508d/e. Cc on ny c l vn cho thy nh hng Socratic (so
ct. 56 ch. 10). Ch ngha c nhn ca Socrates c by t r rng nht trong hc
thuyt ni ting ca ng v s t tc, s c lp ca ngi tt; mt hc thuyt c
Plato nhc ti trong Republic (387d/e) bt chp s thc l n tri thng thng vi mt
trong cc ch chnh ca Republic, tc l ch duy nht c nh nc l c th t cung
t cp. (So ch. 5, ct. 25, v vn bn cho ct. v ct. tip theo).
260
37
CHNG /CH THCH -
Republic, 368b/c.
So c bit Republic, 344a, ff.
39
So Laws, 923b.
40
Republic, 434a-c. (So c vn bn cho ct. 6 v ct. 23 ch. ny, v cc ct. 27 (3) v
31 ch. 4).
41
Republic, 466b/c. So c Laws, 715b/c, v nhiu on khc chng s lm dng
mang tnh phn-chnh th lun ca cc c quyn giai cp. Xem c ct. 28 ch. ny, v
ct. 25 (4) ch. 7.
42
Vn c m ch n y l vn nghch l t do; so ct. 4 ch. 7.- V vn
kim sot nh nc trong gio dc, xem ct. 13 ch. 7.
43
So Aristotle, Politics, III, 9, 6 ff. (1280a). So Burke, French Revolution (ed. 1815;
vol. V, 184; on c Jowett trch kho trong ch gii ca ng cho on ca Aristotle;
xem ln xut bn Politics ca Aristotle ca ng, vol. II, 126).
Trch dn t Aristotle mun hn on vn ny l op. cit., III, 9, 8 (1280b).
Th d, Field xut mt ph phn tng t ( Plato and His Contemporaries ca
ng, 117): Khng c vn v thnh ph v lut php ca n thc hin bt c tc ng
gio dc no ln c tnh o c ca cc cng dn. Tuy vy, Green chng t r rng
( Lectures on Political Obligation ca ng) rng, l bt kh vi nh nc thc thi
o c bng lut. ng c th chc chn ng vi cng thc: Chng ta mun o
c ho hot ng chnh tr, v khng chnh tr ho o c. Xem cui on vn ny
vn bn). Quan im ca Green c Spinoza (Tract. Theol. Pol., ch. 20) bo trc:
Ngi tm cch iu tit mi th bng lut chc s c v tt xu hn l bp nght n.
44
Ti coi s tng t gia ho ho dn s vi ho bnh quc t, v gia ti bnh
thng vi ti c quc t, l c bn cho bt c n lc no kim sot ti phm quc
t. V s tng t ny v cc hn ch ca n cng nh v s ngho nn ca phng
php lch s ch ngha trong cc vn nh vy, so ct. 7 ch. 9.
* Gia nhng ngi coi cc phng php duy l cho thit lp ho bnh quc t nh
m c Khng tng, c th nhc n H. J. Morgenthau (so sch ca ng, Scientific
Man versus Power Politics, ln xut bn ting Anh, 1947). Lp trng ca Morgenthau
c th tm tt nh lp trng ca mt nh lch s ch ngha tht vng. ng nhn ra rng
cc tin on lch s l khng th c; song v ng gi s (cng, th d, cc nh Marxist)
rng lnh vc p dng ca l tr (hay ca phng php khoa hc) b gii hn cho lnh
vc c th tin on c, ng kt lun t tnh khng th tin on c ca cc s
kin lch s rng l tr khng p dng c cho cng vic quc t.
Khng th rt ra kt lun ny, bi v tin on khoa hc v tin on theo ngha tin
tri lch s l khng ht nh nhau. (Chng c khoa hc t nhin no, vi ngoi l hu
nh duy nht ca l thuyt v h thng mt tri, th bt c ci g ging tin tri lch s).
Nhim v ca cc khoa hc x hi khng phi l i tin on cc xu hng hay cc
khuynh hng pht trin, y cng khng l nhim v ca cc khoa hc t nhin. Gii
nht ci gi l cc qui lut x hi c th lm chnh xc l ci gii nht m ci gi l
cc qui lut t nhin c th lm, c th l, cho bit cc xu hng no .. Cc iu
kin no s thc s xut hin v gip mt xu hng c bit tr thnh hin thc, c cc
khoa hc t nhin ln cc khoa hc x hi u khng c kh nng on trc. Chng
cng khng c kh nng tin on vi nhiu hn mt xc sut cao rng vi s
hin din ca cc iu kin no mt xu hng no s tr thnh hin thc,
Morgenthau vit (pp. 120 ff.; ti nhn mnh). Nhng cc khoa hc t nhin khng th
tin on cc xu hng, v ch cc nh lch s ch ngha tin rng chng, v cc khoa
38
CHNG /CH THCH -
261
hc x hi, c cc mc tiu nh vy. Do , s tha nhn rng cc mc tiu ny khng

th thc hin c s ch lm tht vng nh lch s ch ngha. Nhiu ..nh khoa hc
chnh tr, tuy vy, cho rng h c th .. thc s .. tin on cc s kin x hi vi mt
chc chn cao. Thc ra, h ..l nn nhn ca ..cc o tng, Morgenthau vit. Ti chc
chn ng ; song iu ny ch chng t rng phi t b ch ngha lch s. Tuy vy, gi
s rng t b ch ngha lch s c ngha l t b ch ngha duy l trong chnh tr hc,
tit l mt nh kin lch s ch ngha c bn -nh kin, c th, l tin tri lch s l c
s ca mi hot ng chnh tr duy l. (Ti nhc n quan im ny nh c trng
ca ch ngha lch s u chng 1).
Morgenthau ch nho mi n lc a quyn lc di s kim sot ca l tr, v
ngn cn chin tranh, nh xut pht t mt ch ngha duy l v ch ngha khoa hc ci
khng p dng c cho x hi v chnh bn cht ca n. Nhng r rng, ng chng
minh qu nhiu. Ho ho dn s c xc lp nhiu x hi, bt chp rng kht
vng quyn lc bn cht l ci, theo l thuyt ca Morgenthau, phi ngn cn n. ng
tha nhn s thc, tt nhin, song khng thy rng n ph hu c s l thuyt ca cc
lun im lng mn ch ngha ca ng.*
45
Trch dn l t Politics ca Aristotle, III, 9, 8, (1280).
(1) Ti chn thm trong vn bn bi v ti tin rng cc on c m ch ti vn
bn, tc l Politics, III, 9, 6, v III, 9, 12, c th i din cho quan im ca Lycophron
na. Cc l do ca ti tin vo iu ny l nh sau. T III, 9, 6, n III, 9, 12, Aristotle
bn rn vi mt ph phn hc thuyt m ti gi l ch ngha bo h. III, 9, 8, c
trch trong vn bn, ng qui trc tip cho Lycophron mt trnh by c ng v rt sng
sa v hc thuyt ny. T cc dn chiu khc ca Aristotle n Lycophron (xem (2)
ct. ny), chc l do tui ca Lycophron l th nn ng hn phi l, nu khng phi ngi
u tin, ch t l mt trong nhng ngi u tin trnh by ch ngha bo h. Nh vy
l hp l cho rng (tuy khng chc chn) ton b cuc tn cng ln ch ngha bo h,
tc III, 9, 6 n III, 9, 12, c hng chng li Lycophron, v rng cc trnh by khc
nhau song tng ng v ch ngha bo h u l ca ng. (C th ni n rng Plato
m t ch ngha bo h nh mt quan im chung Rep., 358c).
S phn i ca Aristotle u c chng t l l thuyt bo h ch ngha khng c
kh nng gii thch s thng nht cc b cng nh ni ti ca nh nc. ng cho l (II,
9, 6) n b qua s thc l nh nc tn ti v cuc sng tt p trong c cc n l ln
k hung bo khng th c phn (tc l, v cuc sng tt p ca cc a ch c c, v
mi ngi kim tin nh ngh nghip tm thng b ngn khi t cch cng dn). N
cng b qua s thng nht b lc ca nh nc tht ci l (III, 9, 12) mt cng ng
ngi hnh phc trong cc gia nh, v mt tp hp cc gia nh, v cuc sng trn vn
v t tc .. c xc lp gia nhng ngi sng cng mt ch v ly ln nhau.
(2) V ch ngha bnh ng ca Lycophron, xem ct. 13 ch. 5. Jowett m t (trong
Aristotles Politics, II, 126) Lycophron nh mt nh hng bin v danh; song Aristotle
hn ngh khc, v cc tc phm vn cn ca ng ng nhc n Lycophron t nht
su ln (trong Pol., Rhet., Fragm., Metaph., Phys., Soph., El.).
Khng chc Lycophron tr hn nhiu Alcidamas, bn ng trng Gorgias, v ch
ngha bnh ng ca ng kh c th c ch nhiu n vy gi nh ng c bit sau
khi Alcidamas k v Gorgias nh hiu trng ca trng. Cc mi quan tm nhn thc
lun ca Lycophron (c Aristotle ni ti Metaphysics, 1045b9, v Physics, 185b27)
cng l trng hp in hnh, v chng lm cho c th l ng hc Gorgias thi u,
262
CHNG /CH THCH -
tc l trc khi Gorgias hu nh hn ch mnh ch ring cho thut hng bin. Tt nhin,
bt c kin no v Lycophron hn phi l rt t bin, do chng ta c t i thng tin.
46
Barker, Greek Political Theory, I, 160. V ph phn phin bn lch s ca l thuyt
kh c ca Hume, xem ct. 43 ch. 4. V lun im thm ca Barker (p. 161) rng
cng l ca Plato, i lp vi ca l thuyt kh c, khng l ci g bn ngoi, ng
hn, thuc ni ti linh hn, ti c th lu bn c v cc xut thng xuyn ca
Plato v cc trng pht gay gt nht theo cng l c th t c; ng lun xut s
dng thuyt phc v v lc (so cc ct. 5, 10 v 18 ch. 8). Mt khc, mt s nh nc
dn ch hin i chng t l c th l t do v nhn hu m khng tng s phm ti.
Vi nhn xt ca ti rng Barker thy (nh ti thy) Lycophron ngi sng to ra l
thuyt kh c, so Barker, op. cit., p. 63: Protagoras khng on bit trc Sophist
Lycophron trong lp ra hc thuyt Kh c. (So iu ny vi vn bn cho ct. 27, ch. 5).
47
So Gorgias, 483b, f.
48
So Gorgias, 488e-489b; xem c 527b.
T cch Socrates tr li Callicles y, c v l c th rng Socrates lch s (so ct.
56 ch. 10) c th chng li cc l l ng h mt ch ngha t nhin sinh hc kiu
Pindar bng lp lun th ny: Nu l t nhin rng k mnh hn phi cai tr, th cng l
t nhin rng bnh ng phi cai tr, v m ng chng t sc mnh ca n bng s
thc l n cai tr i s bnh ng. Ni cch khc, ng c th chng minh tnh rng
tuych v m h ca i hi t nhin ch ngha. V thnh cng ca ng c th gy
cm hng cho Plato xut phin bn ring ca ng v ch ngha t nhin.
Ti khng mun khng nh rng nhn xt mun hn ca Socrates (508a) v bnh
ng hnh hc nht thit phi c din gii nh chng-bnh ng, tc l v sao n phi
c cng ngha nh bnh ng t l ca Laws, 744b, ff., v 757a-e (so cc ct. 9 v 20 (1)
ch. ny). y l ci Adam gi trong ct. th hai ca ng cho Republic, 558c15. Song
c l c ci g trong gi ca ng; v bnh ng hnh hc ca Gorgias, 508a, c v
m ch n cc vn Pythagorean (so ct. 56 (6) ch. 10; xem c cc nhn xt ct.
v Cratylus) v rt c th l mt m ch n cc t l hnh hc.
49
Republic, 358e. Glaucon t chi l tc gi 358c. c on ny, s ch ca bn
c d b ri tr bi vn t nhin i li quy c, vn ng mt vai tr ln
on ny cng nh bi ni ca Callicles trong Gorgias. Tuy vy, ni lo chnh ca
Plato trong Republic khng phi l nh bi ch ngha quy c, m l ln n cch tip
cn bo h ch ngha duy l nh ch k. (Rng l thuyt kh c quy c ch ngha
khng phi l k th ch yu ca Plato hin ra t cc ct. 27-28 ch. 5, v vn bn).
50
Nu ta so trnh by ca Plato v ch ngha bo h Republic vi ci trong Gorgias,
th ta thy rng n qu thc l cng mt l thuyt, mc d Republic nhn mnh t hn
nhiu n bnh ng. Song ngay bnh ng c nhc n, d cho ch lt qua, tc l,
Republic, 359c: T nhin .., bi lut quy c, b xoay v p bi v lc tn trng
bnh ng. Nhn xt ny lm tng s ging nhau vi bi ni ca Callicles. (Xem
Gorgias, c bit 483c/d). Song tri vi Gorgias, Plato b ngay bnh ng (hay ng
hn, ng thm ch khng bn n vn ) v khng bao gi quay li vi n; iu ch
lm cho hin nhin hn l ng chu kh trnh vn . Thay vo , Plato say sa
trong m t ch ngha v k v lim s m ng trnh by nh ngun duy nht t ch
ngha bo h bt ngun. (V s im lng ca Plato v ch ngha bnh ng, so c bit ct.
14 ch. ny, v vn bn). A. E. Taylor, Plato: The Man and His Work (1926), p. 268,
cho rng trong khi Callicles xut pht t t nhin, Glaucon xut pht t quy c.
CHNG /CH THCH -
263
So Republic, 359a; m ch thm ca ti trong vn bn l n 359b, 360d, ff.; xem

c 358c. V nhn i nhn li, so 359a-362c, v tho chi tit thm xung n 367e. M
t ca Plato v cc xu hng h v ch ngha ca ch ngha bo h ton b lp kn chn
trang trong Republic ca ln xut bn Everyman; mt ch bo v tm quan trng m
Plato gn cho n. (C mt on tng t trong Laws, 800a, f.).
52
Khi Glaucon trnh by xong, Adeimantus chim ch ng (vi mt thch thc rt l
th v qu l thch ng nht i vi Socrates ph phn thuyt v li), nhng khng
trc khi Socrates ni rng ng ngh trnh by ca Glaucon l xut sc (362d). Bi ni
ca Adeimantus l b sung cho bi ca Glaucon, v n lp li i hi rng ci ti gi l
ch ngha bo h dn xut t ch ngha h v ca Thrasymachus (xem c bit 367a,
ff.). Sau Adeimantus, bn thn Socrates pht biu, y cm phc Glaucon cng nh
Adeimantus, bi v lng tin ca h vo cng l khng b lung lay bt chp s thc l h
bnh vc s bt cng, tc l thuyt cho l tt gy ra bt cng chng no ta c th
thot khi n, xut sc n vy. Bng nhn mnh s xut sc ca cc l l do Glaucon
v Adeimantus xut, Socrates (tc Plato) ng l cc l l ny trnh by ngay thng
cc quan im c tho lun; v cui cng ng pht biu l thuyt ring ca mnh,
khng theo th t chng t l trnh by ca Glaucon cn sa cha, m, nh ng nhn
mnh, chng t, tri vi kin ca cc nh bo h ch ngha, rng cng bng l tt,
bt cng l xu. (Khng c qun l so ct. 49 ch. ny - s tn cng ca Plato khng
hng chng li l thuyt kh c nh n vn l, m ch chng ch ngha bo h; v l
thuyt kh c mau chng c bn thn Plato chp nhn (Rep., 369b-c; so vn bn cho
ct. 29 ch. 5), ch t mt phn; bao gm l thuyt rng ngi dn t hp cc khu nh
c v bng cch ny mi ngi k vng thc y cc li ch ring ca mnh).
Cng phi ni on vn ln cao im vi nhn xt xc ng ca Socrates c trch
vn bn cho ct. 37 ch. ny. iu ny chng t Plato chin u vi ch ngha bo h
ch bng trnh by n nh mt dng tri o c v tht kinh khng ca ch ngha v k.
Cui cng, trong hnh thnh nh gi ca chng ta v th tc ca Plato, khng c
qun rng Plato thch l l chng li hng bin v ngu bin; v qu thc, ng l ngi
bng s tn cng ca mnh ln cc nh Sophist to ra cc lin tng xu gn vi t
. Ti tin rng v th chng ta c mi l do kim duyt ng khi bn thn ng dng
hng bin v ngu bin thay th cho l l. (So c ct. 10 ch. 10).
53
Ta c th coi Adam v Barker nh i in ca cc nh Platonist c ni ti
y. Adam ni (ct. cho 358e, ff.) v Glaucon rng ng bin l thuyt ca Thrasymachus
thnh c a chung li, v ng ni (ct. cho 373a, ff.) v Thrasymachus rng l thuyt
ca ng l cng l thuyt sau ny c ( 358e, ff.) Glaucon trnh by. Barker ni (op.
cit., 159) v l thuyt m ti gi l ch ngha bo h v ng gi l ch ngha thc
dng, rng n c cng tinh thn nh ca Thrasymachus.
54
V nh hoi nghi ln Carneades tin vo li k ca Plato c th thy t Cicero (De
Republica, III, 8, 13, 23), ni bi ca Glaucon c k, hu nh khng thay i, nh l
thuyt c Carneades chp nhn (Xem c vn bn cho cc ct. 65, 66 v ct. 56, ch. 10).
Trong mi quan h ny ti c th by t kin ca mnh, rng c th thy nhiu an i
s thc rng cc nh phn-nhn o lun thy cn thit ku gi cc tnh cm nhn
o ca chng ta; v c s thc rng h thng xuyn thnh cng trong thuyt phc
chng ta v tnh chn tht ca h. N chng t rng h bit rt k l cc tnh cm ny n
su trong hu ht chng ta, v rng s ng b khinh mit l qu tt, qu tht th, v
qu ngy th, hn l qu xu; trong khi h thm ch d dng c nhng ngi tt
51
264
CHNG /CH THCH -
hn thng v lim s bo rng h l nhng k ch k khng xng ng v c u c

vt cht nhng ngi ch mun nhi y bng nh cc con th.
CH THCH CHO CHNG 7
t cho chng ny l t Laws, 690b. (So ct. 28 ch. 5).
1
So vn bn cho cc ct. 2/3 ch. 6.
2
Cc tng tng t c J. S. Mill by t; v th ng vit Logic (1st ed., p. 557
f.): Mc d hnh ng ca cc nh cai tr khng hon ton do li ch v k ca h quyt
nh, nh mt s m bo chng li cc li ch v k m cn n nhng kim tra
hin nh. Tng t ng vit trong The Subjection of Women (p. 251 ca ln xut bn
Everyman; ti nhn mnh): Ai nghi ng l c th c lng tt ln, hnh phc ln v tnh
yu thng ln, di s cai tr tuyt i ca mt ngi tt? Trong khi cc lut v cc
nh ch cn phi thch ng, khng phi vi ngi tt, m vi ngi xu. Tuy ti ng
vi cu in nghing, ti cm thy th nhn phn u cu thc s khng cn n. (So
c bit ct. 25 (3) ch. ny). Mt th nhn tng t c th thy mt on xut sc ca
Representative Government ca ng (1861; xem c bit p. 49) ni Mill u tranh vi l
tng Platonic v vua trit gia, c bit nu s cai tr ca ng l nhn t, bi v n s
ko theo s t b ch v kh nng nh gi chnh sch ca cc cng dn thng.
C th nhn xt l s th nhn ny ca J. S. Mill l phn ca n lc gii quyt mu
thun gia Essay on Government ca James Mill v tn cng ni ting ca Macaulay
chng n (nh J. S. Mill gi th; so Authobioraphy ca ng, ch. V, One Stage Onward;
1st edition, 1873, pp. 157-61; ph bnh ca Macaulay u tin ng Edinburgh
Review, March, 1829, June 1829, and October 1829). Xung t ny ng phn quan
trng trong s pht trin ca J. S. Mill; n lc ca ng gii quyt n, qu thc, l
mc tiu cui cng v c tnh ca Logic ca ng (cc chng c bn ca ci m sau
ti cng b v Logic of the Moral Sciences) ta nghe t Authobioraphy ca ng.
S gii quyt xung t gia cha ng v Macaulay m J. S. Mill kin ngh l th ny.
ng ni rng cha ng ng trong tin rng chnh tr hc l mt khoa hc suy din, nhng
sai trong tin rng loi suy din ( l) suy din .. thun tu hnh hc, cn Macaulay
ng trong tin rng n ging phng php th nghim thun tu ca ho hc. Gii
php ng theo J. S. Mill (Authobioraphy, pp. 159 ff.) l th ny: phng php thch
hp ca chnh tr hc l phng php suy din ng hc - mt phng php, m ng
tin, c c trng bi tng kt cc tc ng nh c minh ho trong nguyn l Hp
thnh ca cc Lc. (Rng tng ny ca J. S. Mill d sao i na sng st mi n
1937 c chng t trong S khn cng ca Ch ngha Lch s ca ti, p. 63).
Ti khng ngh l c g nhiu phn tch ny (da, ngoi cc th khc, vo mt s
din gii sai ca ng hc v ho hc). Th m c v vn c th bo v c n vy.
James Mill, ging nhiu ngi trc v sau ng, th suy din khoa hc cai tr t cc
nguyn l ca bn tnh con ngi nh Macaulay ni (gn cui bi bo u tin ca
ng), v, ti ngh, Macaulay ng coi n lc ny l hon ton bt kh. Hn na,
phng php ca Macaulay c l c th c m t nh mang tnh kinh nghim hn,
chng mc ng dng y cc s thc lch s cho mc ch bc b cc l thuyt gio
iu ca J. Mill. Song phng php ng dng chng lin quan g n phng php ho
hc, hay phng php quy np Baconian, b thuyt tam on lun ca J. Mill chc tc,
v c Macaulay ca ngi). N n gin l phng php v loi b cc chng minh
khng hp l v logic mt lnh vc chng c g l th c th c chng minh, v v
CHNG /CH THCH -
265
tho lun cc l thuyt v cc tnh th kh d, di nh sng ca cc l thuyt v cc kh

nng la chn kh d khc, v v chng c lch s thc s. Mt trong cc im chnh
ang tranh ci l J. Mill tin rng ng chng minh s tt yu cho nn qun ch v qu
tc to ra s cai tr khng b - mt im d dng b cc th d bc b. Hai on ca J.
S. Mill c trch u ch thch ny cho thy nh hng ca s bc b ny.
Macaulay lun nhn mnh rng ng ch mun bc b chng minh ca Mill, v khng
tuyn b v s ng n hay sai lm ca cc kt lun c cho l ca ng. Ring iu
ny phi l r rng ng khng n lc thc hnh phng php qui np m ng ca ngi.
3
So th d nhn xt ca E. Meyer (Gesch. d. Altertums, V, p. 4) rng quyn lc, v
chnh bn cht ca n, l khng th phn chia.
4
So Republic, 562b-565e. Trong vn bn, ti m ch c bit n 562c: Khng phi
qu d (t do) a con ngi n mt trng thi m h rt cn mt bo cha? So
thm 563d/e: V cui cng, nh anh bit kh r, h hon ton khng h quan tm n
cc lut, bt lun thnh vn hay khng thnh vn, v h khng mun c bo cha bt k
loi no trn h. y sau chnh l ngun gc m ch chuyn ch ny sinh. (V
u ca on ny, xem ct. 19 ch. 4).
Cc nhn xt khc ca Plato v nghch l v quyn t do v nn dn ch l: Republic,
564a: Ri qu nhiu quyn t do c kh nng thay i thnh khng g khc ngoi qu
nhiu s n l, trong c nhn cng nh trong nh nc .. V th c l cho rng ch
chuyn ch c tn ln khng phi bi cc dng khc ca chnh th m bi chnh th
dn ch. T ci m ti tin l s qu d kh d ln nht ca quyn t do ny sinh ci l
hnh thc n l h khc nht v man r nht. Xem c Republic, 565c/d: V khng phi
ngi dn bnh thng c thi quen bin mt ngi thnh nh v ch hay lnh t ng
ca h, v cao a v ca ng ta v bin ng ta thnh v i hay sao? y l thi
quen ca h. Ri dng nh r rng rng h khi mt ch chuyn ch ln ln, s
lnh o ng dn ch ny l ngun gc m n ny sinh.
Ci gi l nghch l v quyn t do l l l cho rng quyn t do theo ngha thiu bt
c s kim sot kim ch no phi dn n s kim ch rt ln, v n lm cho k t do
c hip bt k nhu m thnh n l. tng ny, dng hi khc, v vi mt xu hng
rt khc, c Plato pht biu r rng.
Nghch l v s khoan dung c bit n t hn: S khoan dung v phi dn n
s bin mt khoan dung. Nu ta m rng khoan dung v thm ch cho c cc k
khng khoan dung, nu ta khng sn sng bo v mt x hi khoan dung chng li s
tn cng d di ca k khng khoan dung, th k khoan dung b tiu dit, v vi h s
khoan dung b tiu dit. Theo cch trnh by ny, ti khng m ch, th d, l chng ta
lun phi cm s by t cc trit l khng khoan dung; chng no ta c th chng li
chng bng l l hp l v cng lun kim sot chng, th vic cm chc chn l ngu
xun nht. Song ta phi i quyn cm chng nu cn thit thm ch bng v lc; v
c th d ho ra l h khng sn sng p ng ta mc l l hp l, m bt u lng m
mi l l; h c th cm cc mn ca h nghe l l hp l, v n l di tr, v dy h
tr li cc l l bng dng qu m hay sng lc ca h. V th chng ta phi, nhn danh
khoan dung, i quyn khng khoan dung vi k khng khoan dung. Ta phi i rng
bt c phong tro no thuyt ging s bt khoan dung l t t mnh ra ngoi vng php
lut, v phi coi s kch ng bt khoan dung nh ti phm, theo cng cch nh ta coi
kch ng git ngi, hay bt cc tng tin, hay khi phc mua bn n l, l ti phm.
Cc nghch l t ni ting hn l nghch l v nn dn ch, hay chnh xc hn, v s
cai tr a s; tc l kh nng a s c th quyt nh mt k bo cha nn cai tr. Rng
266
CHNG /CH THCH -
ph phn nn dn ch ca Plato c th c din gii theo cch c nu ra y, v

nguyn l a s cai tr c th dn n t mu thun, theo ti bit, u tin c Leonard
Nelson gi (so ct. 25 (2) ch. ny). Ti khng ngh, tuy vy, l Nelson, bt chp ch
ngha nhn o thit tha v s chin u si ni ca ng v t do, chp nhn nhiu t l
thuyt chnh tr ca Plato, v c bit nguyn l lnh o ca Plato, li bit s thc l
cc l l tng t c th nu ln chng mi dng c bit khc ca l thuyt v ch quyn.
C th d trnh tt c cc nghch l ny nu ta nh khung cc yu sch chnh tr ca
mnh theo cch c gi mc II ca chng ny, hay c l theo cch th ny. Ta i
mt chnh ph cai tr theo cc nguyn l ca ch ngha bnh ng v ch ngha bo h;
rng n khoan dung tt c nhng ngi sn sng p li nhau, tc l khoan dung; rng
n c kim sot bi, v chu trch nhim trc, cng chng. V c th ni thm rng
hnh thc biu quyt a s no , cng vi cc nh ch gi cho cng chng r tin
tc, l phng thc tt nht, tuy khng phi khng th sai, kim sot mt chnh ph
nh vy. (Khng khng-th-sai c ngha l tn ti). So c ch. 6, bn on vn cui trong
vn bn trc ct. 42; vn bn cho ct. 20 ch. 17; ct. 7 (4) ch. 24; v ct. 6 ch. ny.
5
Bn nhn xt v im ny s thy chng 19 di y.
6
So on (7) ct. 4 ch. 2.
Cc nhn xt sau y v cc nghch l v quyn t do v v ch quyn c l c th a
l l i qu xa; v, tuy vy, cc l l c tho lun ch ny hi mang tnh hnh thc,
c th ng cng nh tt lm cho chng kn k gn, cho d n ko theo ci g gn
s ch si tc lm t. Hn na, kinh nghim ca ti cc tranh lun loi ny dn ti
n k vng l nhng ngi bo v nguyn l v s lnh o, tc l v ch quyn ca
ngi gii nht hay thng thi nht, thc s c th a ra phn l l sau: (a) nu ngi
thng thi nht quyt nh rng a s phi cai tr, th ng ta thc t khng sng sut.
Nh mt cn nhc thm h c th ng h iu ny bng khng nh (b) rng mt ngi
sng sut khng bao gi thit lp mt nguyn l c th dn n cc mu thun, nh a
s cai tr. Tr li ca ti cho (b) l ta ch cn sa i quyt nh ny ca ngi sng
sut theo cch sao cho n tr nn khng b cc mu thun. (Th d, ng c th quyt
nh ng h mt chnh ph buc phi cai tr theo nguyn l ca ch ngha bnh ng v
ch ngha bo h, v b biu quyt a s kim sot. Quyt nh ny ca ngi sng sut
s t b nguyn l ch quyn; v t v th n s tr nn khng c cc mu thun, n
c th c mt ngi sng sut a ra. Nhng tt nhin, iu ny khng gii thot
nguyn l rng ngi sng sut nht phi cai tr khi cc mu thun ca n. L l khc,
(a), l chuyn khc. N tr nn gn mt cch nguy him vi nh ngha s sng sut
hay tnh tt ca mt chnh tr gia theo cch sao cho ng ta c gi l sng sut hay
tt ch nu ng ta kin quyt khng t b quyn lc ca mnh. V qu thc, l thuyt
ch quyn duy nht khng b cc mu thun l l thuyt i hi rng ch c ngi hon
ton kin quyt bm vo quyn lc ca mnh nn cai tr. Nhng ngi tin vo nguyn l
s lnh o phi i mt thng thn h qu logic ny ca tn iu ca h. Nu gii thot
khi cc mu thun, n ng , khng phi s cai tr ca ngi gii nht hay sng sut
nht, m l s cai tr ca k mnh, ca ngi c sc mnh. (So c ct. 7 ch. 24).
7
*So bi ging Towards a Rational Theory of Tradition ca ti (xut bn u tin
trong The Rationalist Yearbook, 1949; by gi trong Conjecture and Refutations ca
ti), ni ti th chng t rng cc truyn thng ng mt vai tr thuc loi trung gian
gia cc c nhn (v cc quyt nh c nhn) v cc nh ch.*
CHNG /CH THCH -
267
V ng x ca Socrates di Ba mi [bo cha], xem Apology, 32c. Ba mi th

ko Socrates vo cc ti li ca h, song ng cng li. Vi ng iu ny c ngha l
ci cht nu s cai tr ca Ba mi ko thm mt cht. So c cc ct. 53 v 56 ch. 10.
V lun im, mun hn trong on vn, rng s sng sut c ngha l bit cc hn
ch ca hiu bit ca mnh, xem Charmides, 167a, 170a, ni ngha ca bit mnh
c gii thch theo cch ny; Apology (so c bit 23a-b) by t mt xu hng tng
t (m v n vn c mt ting vng trong Timaeus, 72a). V s sa i quan trng
trong din gii bit mnh xy ra Phiebus, xem ct. 26 ch. ny. (So ct. 15 ch. 8).
9
So Phaedo ca Plato, 96-99. Phaedo, ti tin, vn mt phn Socratic, song phn rt
ln l Platonic. Chuyn v s pht trin trit hc ca ng do Socrates k Phaedo
gy nhiu bn ci. Ti tin, n l mt t truyn xc thc chng ca Socrates cng khng
ca Plato. Ti gi , n n gin l din gii ca Plato v s pht trin ca Socrates.
Thi ca Socrates vi khoa hc (mt thi kt hp s quan tm sc so nht n l
l duy l vi mt loi thuyt bt kh tri va phi) l kh hiu i vi Plato. ng c gii
thch n bng vin n s lc hu ca khoa hc Athenian thi Socrates, nh i lp vi
thuyt Pythagorean. Nh th Plato trnh by thi bt kh tri ny theo cch n khng
cn c bin minh theo nh sng ca thuyt Pythagorean mi thu c ca ng. (V
c chng t cc l thuyt siu hnh hc v linh hn li cun mi quan tm chy bng
ca Socrates n c nhn nhiu th no; so cc ct. 44 v 56 ch. 10, v ct. 58 ch. 8).
10
N l phin bn dnh n cn bc hai ca 2, v vn v t; tc l chnh vn gy
s tan r ca ch ngha Pythagoras. Bng bc b s s hc ho hnh hc Pythagorean,
n gy ra cc phng php suy din hnh hc c th m chng ta bit t Euclid. (So ct.
9 (2) ch. 6). Dng vn ny trong Meno c th lin h vi s thc rng c mt xu
hng mt s phn ca i thoi ny khoe khoang s hiu bit ca tc gi (hu
nh khng ca Socrates) v cc s pht trin trit hc v cc phng php mi nht.
11
Gorgias, 521d, f.
12
So Crossman, Plato To-Day, 118. i mt vi ba sai lm ct yu ca Nn Dn ch
Athenian .. - Crossman hiu Socrates ng th no c th thy t op. cit., 93: Tt c
ci l tt trong vn ho Phng Ty ca chng ta u xut pht t tinh thn ny, bt
lun n c thy cc nh khoa hc, hay cc thy tu, hay cc chnh tr gia, hay nhng
ngi n ng v n b rt bnh thng nhng ngi t chi s a thch la i chnh
tr hn s tht n gin .. cui cng, tm gng ca h l lc duy nht c th ph tan s
c ti v lc v tham lam Socrates chng t rng trit hc khng l g khc s
phn i tn tm vi nh kin v s v l.
13
So Crossman, op. cit., 117 f. (nhm ch in nghing u tin l ti nhn mnh). C
v l Crossman lc y qun rng, nh nc ca Plato, gio dc l c quyn giai
cp. ng l trong Republic c tin khng phi l cha kho cho gio dc bc cao. Song
iu ny l hon ton khng quan trng. im quan trng l ch cc thnh vin ca giai
cp thng tr c gio dc. (So ct. 33 ch. 4). Ngoi ra, ch t na sau ca i ng,
Plato khng l g ngoi mt i th ca ch ti phit, ch m ng a thch hn
nhiu so vi mt x hi khng giai cp hay bnh ng: so on t Laws, 744b, ff., c
trch ct. 20 (1) ch. 6. V vn kim sot nh nc trong gio dc, so c ct. 42
chng , v cc ct. 39-41, ch. 4.
14
Burnet (Greek Philosophy, I, 178) coi Republic l thun tu Socratic (hay thm ch
tin-Socratic - mt quan im c th gn hn vi s tht; so c bit A. D. Winspear,
The Genesis of Platos Thought, 1940). Song ng thm ch khng tht s th ho gii
8
268
CHNG /CH THCH -
kin ny vi mt tuyn b quan trng m ng trch t Seventh Letter ca Plato (326a,

so Greek Philosophy, I, 218) m ng tin l xc thc. So ct. 56 (5, d) ch. 10.
15
Laws, 942c, c trch y hn trong vn bn cho ct. 33, ch. 6.
16
Republic, 540c.
17
So trch dn t Republic, 473c-e, c trch vn bn cho ct. 44, ch. 8.
18
Republic, 498b/c. So Laws, 634d/e, trong Plato ca ngi lut Dorian cm bt c
thanh nin no hi lut no trong cc lut l ng v ci no l sai, v khin tt c h
ng lng tuyn b rng cc lut u tt. Ch mt ngi gi c th ph phn mt lut,
tc gi gi ni thm; v ngay c ng c th lm vy ch khi khng c ngi tr no c
th nghe ng. Xem c vn bn cho ct. 21 ch. ny, v cc ct. 17, 23, v 40 ch. 4.
19
Republic, 497d.
20
Op. cit., 537c. Cc trch dn tip l t 537d-e, v 539d. Tip tc ca on ny l
540b-c. Mt nhn xt l th nht khc l 536c-d, ni Plato ni l cc c nhn c chn
( on trc) cho nghin cu bin chng nht quyt l qu gi hc cc mn mi.
21
* So H. Cherniss, The Riddle of Early Academy, p. 79; v Parmenides, 135c-d.*
Grote, nh dn ch ln, bnh lun mnh m v im ny (tc l v cc on sng sa
hn ca Republic, 537c-540): Li qu quyt cm tranh lun bin chng vi thanh nin
.. l dt khot phn-Socratic. .. Qu thc n thuc v v ca Meletus v Anytus, trong
buc ti ca h chng li Socrates. .. N ging ht li buc ti ca h chng li ng, v
lm h hng thanh nin. .. V khi chng ta thy ng (=Plato) cm mi tho lun nh
vy trc tui ba mi chng ta nhn thy nh mt s trng khp khc thng rng
y chnh xc l s cm on m Cristias v Charicles thc s p t ln bn thn
Socrates, sut k thng tr ngn ngi ca Ba mi u s Athens. (Grote, Plato and
Other Companions of Socrates, ed. 1875, vol. III, 239).
22
tng, c bn ci trong vn bn, rng nhng ngi gii vng li s cng gii
trong ch huy l Platonic. So Laws, 762e.
Toynbee chng t mt cch ng phc l mt h thng Platonic v gio dc cc
nh cai tr c th hot ng thnh cng ra sao trong mt x hi b ngng; so A Study of
History, III, c bit 33 ff.; so cc ct. 32 (3) v 45 (2) ch. 4.
23
Vi ngi c l c th hi lm sao mt ngi c nhn ch ngha c th i s hin
dng cho bt c s nghip no, v c bit cho mt s nghip tru tng nh khm ph
khoa hc. Song mt cu hi nh vy ch tit l sai lm c (c tho lun ch. trc),
s ng nht ch ngha c nhn vi ch ngha v k. Mt ngi c nhn ch ngha c th
khng ch k, v c th hin thn mnh khng ch gip cc c nhn, m c cho s pht
trin cc phng tin th ch gip nhng ngi khc. (Ngoi iu ra, ti khng
ngh s hin dng phi c i hi, m ch l phi c c v). Ti tin l s hin dng
cho cc nh ch no , th d, cho cc nh ch ca mt nh nc dn ch, v thm
ch cho cc truyn thng no , hon ton c th nm trong phm vi ca ch ngha c
nhn, min l cc mc tiu nhn o ch ngha ca cc nh ch ny khng b mt ht.
Ch ngha c nhn khng c ng nht vi mt thuyt nhn cch phn-nh ch. y
l sai lm m cc nh c nhn ch ngha thng mc phi. H ng trong s th ch
ca h vi ch ngha tp th, song h hiu lm cc nh ch l cc tp th (ci c t
cho l cc mc tiu), v v th tr thnh cc nh c nhn ch ngha phn-nh ch; ci
dn h mt cch nguy him gn n nguyn l-lnh t. (Ti tin rng iu ny mt phn
gii thch thi th ch ca Dicken i vi Quc hi). V thut ng ca ti (ch
ngha c nhn v ch ngha tp th) xem vn bn cho cc ct. 26-29 ch. 6.
24
So Samuel Butler, Erewhon (1872), p. 135 ca ln xut bn Everyman.
CHNG /CH THCH 25
269
Cho cc s kin ny so: Meyer, Gesch. d. Altertums, V, pp. 522-525, v 488 f.; xem
c ct. 69 ch. 10. Vin Hn lm b kht ting v sn sinh ra cc bo cha. Gia cc hc
tr ca Plato c Chairon, sau l bo cha x Pellene; Eurastus v Coricus, cc bo cha
ca Skepsis (gn Atarneus); v Hermias, sau l bo cha ca Atarneus v Aross. (So
Athen., XI, 508, v Strabo, XIII, 610). Hermias, theo vi ngun, l mt hc tr trc tip
ca Plato; theo ci gi l Bc th Platonic th Su, m tnh xc thc ca n c th b
nghi ng, ng c l l mt ngi hm m duy nht ca Plato, sn sng chp nhn li
khuyn ca ng. Hermias tr thnh mt ngi u ca Aristotle, v ca lnh o th
ba ca Vin Hn lm, Xenocrates hc tr ca Plato.
V Perdiccas III, v quan h ca ng vi Euphacus hc tr ca Plato, xem Athen., XI,
508 ff., ni Callippus cng c nhc n nh hc tr ca Plato.
(1) S thiu thnh cng ca Plato nh mt nh gio dc l khng ng ngc nhin
nu ng ti cc nguyn l gio dc v chn lc c pht trin Quyn Nht ca Laws
(t 637d v c bit 643a: Hy ti nh r bn cht v ngha ca gio dc n
cui 650b). V on di ny ng bo l c mt cng c gio dc tuyt hay, hay ng
hn v s chn ngi ta c th tin. N l ru, s say ru, lm cho hn ru vo li
ra, v cho ta mt nim v hn thc s th no. C g hp hn l dng ru, u tin
kim tra c tnh ca mt ngi, v th hai, rn luyn anh ta? C g r hn, v t
ng ch trch hn? (649d/e). Cho n nay, ti khng thy phng php ung ru
c bt c nh gio dc no, nhng ngi tn vinh Plato, tho lun. y l iu l, v
phng php vn c dng ph bin, d cho c l khng cn r, c bit cc i hc.
(2) Cng bng vi nguyn l lnh t, phi tha nhn, tuy vy, l nhng ngi khc
may mn hn Plato trong la chn ca h. Leonard Nelson (so ct. 4 ch. ny), th d,
tin vo nguyn l ny, c v c nng lc c nht c thu ht v la chn mt s
ng n ng v n b nhng ngi vn trung thnh vi s nghip ca h, trong cc
hon cnh gay go v hp dn nht. Song s nghip ca h tt hn ca Plato; l tng
nhn o v quyn t do v cng l bnh ng ch ngha. *(Vi tiu lun ca Nelson va
c Yale Univeristy Press xut bn bng ting Anh, di tiu Socratic Method and
Critical Philosophy, 1949. Tiu lun dn nhp rt l th l do Julius Kraft).*
(3) Vn cn s yu km c bn ny trong l thuyt v nh c ti nhn t, mt l
thuyt vn hng thnh ngay c gia cc nh dn ch. Ti ngh n l thuyt v ngi
lnh o m cc nh ca ng ta phc v tt nht cho nhn dn v l ngi c th
tin c. Cho d l thuyt gi nh c hp l; cho d ta tin rng mt ngi c th tip
tc mt thi nh vy, m khng b kim sot hay kim tra: lm sao chng ta c th
cho rng ng ta s pht hin ra mt ngi k v cng xut sc him hoi nh vy? (So c
ct. 3 v 4 ch. 9, v ct. 69 ch. 10).
(4) V vn quyn lc, c nhc ti vn bn, l th i so snh Gorgias (525e, f.)
vi Republic (615d, f.). Hai on l gn tng t. Nhng Gorgias c nht nh l cc
ti phm ln nht lun lun l nhng ngi t giai cp nm quyn; ring cc c nhn
c th l xu, n ni, song khng l khng th cha c. Republic, s cnh bo r
ny chng li nh hng i bi ca quyn lc b b i. Hu ht cc k c c vn l
bn bo cha; song, n ni, cng c mt s c nhn gia chng. ( Republic, Plato
da vo t li, ci, ng tin, s ngn nhng ngi bo v khi lm dng quyn lc ca
h; so Rep. 466b/c, c trch vn bn cho ct. 41, ch. 6. Khng hon ton r v sao t
li li c tc ng c li nh vy ln nhng ngi bo v m khng ln cc bo cha).
26
* Trong cc i thoi (Socratic) ban u (th d Apology v Charmides; so ct. 8
ch. ny, ct. 15 ch. 8 v ct. 56 (5) ch. 10), cu ni bit mnh c din gii nh
270
CHNG /CH THCH -
bit l ta bit t nhng no. i thoi Philebus (Platonic) mun hn, tuy vy, a vo
mt s thay i tinh t song rt quan trng. u tin (48c/d, f.), cu ni c din gii
y, bng ng , theo cng cch; v nhiu ngi khng t bit mnh c ni l yu
sch, .. v ni di, rng h l sng sut. Nhng din gii ny ri c by t nh sau.
Plato chia ngi thnh hai loi, nhng ngi yu v cc k hng mnh. S ngu dt v
di dt ca ngi yu c m t nh nc ci, trong khi s ngu dt ca k mnh
c gi ph hp l xu v ng ght .. Nhng iu ny ng thuyt Platonic
rng k nm quyn phi sng sut hn l ngu dt (hay rng ch c ngi sng sut phi
nm quyn); tri ngc vi thuyt Socratic gc cho rng (tt c mi ngi, c bit)
ngi nm quyn phi bit v s ngu dt ca mnh. (Tt nhin, khng c gi no
trong Philebus rng s sng sut n lt n phi c din gii nh s nhn thc v
cc hn ch ca mnh; ngc li, s sng sut y dnh n tri thc chuyn gia v
gio hun Pythagorean, v L thuyt Platonic v cc Hnh thc, nh c by t
Sophist).*
CH THCH CHO CHNG 8
Vi t cho chng ny, ly t Republic 540c-d, so ct. 37 ch. ny, v ct. 12 ch.
9, ni on vn c trch y hn.
1
Republic, 475e; so th d c 485c, f., 501c.
2
Op. cit., 389b, f.
3
Op. cit., 389c/d; so c Laws, 730b, ff.
4
Vi trch dn ny v ba trch dn tip theo, so Republic, 407e v 406c. Xem c
Statesman, 293a, f., 295b-296e, v.v.
5
So Laws, 720c. L th lu l on (718c-722b) dng dn tng rng chnh
khch nn dng thuyt phc, cng vi v lc (722b); v v bng thuyt phc qun
chng, Plato hiu ch yu l tuyn truyn di tr so cc ct. 9 v 10 ch. ny v trch
dn t Republic, 414b/c c trch dn trong vn bn ho ra l t duy ca Plato
trong on ca chng ta t Laws, bt chp tnh ho nh mi ny, vn y ry cc lin
tng c chnh tr gia thy thuc a ra cc li ni di. Mun hn (Laws, 857c/d),
Plato phn nn v mt loi thy thuc i lp: ngi ni qu nhiu trit hc cho bnh
nhn ca mnh, thay cho tp trung vo iu tr. C v chc l Plato tng thut y
mt vi kinh nghim ca ng khi ng b au yu khi vit Laws.
6
Republic, 389b. -Vi cc trch dn ngn tip sau so Republic, 459c.
7
So Kant, On Eternal Peace, Ph lc. (Werke, ed. Cassirer, 1914, vol. VI, 457). So
M. Campbell bn dch ca Smith (1903), pp. 162 ff.
8
So Crossman, Plato To-Day (1937), 130; so c cc trang ngay trc. Dng nh l
Crossman vn tin rng tuyn truyn di tr ch dnh cho nhng ngi b tr tiu th, v
rng Plato c gio dc cc nh cai tr dng y nng lc ph phn ca h; v by
gi ti thy ( The Listener, vol. 27, p. 750) ng vit: Plato tin vo t do ngn lun, t
do tho lun ch cho s t chn lc. Song s thc l ng khng h tin vo n. C
Republic v Laws (so cc on c trch cc ct. 18-21 ch. 7, v vn bn), ng
by t ni s rng bt c ai ngi vn cha sp gi s ngh hay ni mt cch t do, v
nh th gy nguy him cho tnh cng nhc ca hc thuyt b ngng, v v th s ho
ca x hi b ngng. Xem c hai ch thch tip theo.
9
Republic, 414b/c. 414d, Plato ti khng nh hi vng ca ng v thuyt phc bn
thn cc nh cai tr v giai cp qun nhn, v sau phn cn li ca thnh ph, v s
CHNG /CH THCH -
271
tht ca s ni di ca ng. Mun hn ng c v hi tic s thng thn ca mnh; v

Statesman, 269b, ff. (xem c bit 271b; so c ct. 6 (4) ch. 3), ng ni c nh l ng
tin vo s tht ca cng Thn thoi v Ngi sinh ra t t m, trong Republic, ng
min cng (xem ct. 11 ch. ny) thm ch a vo nh mt s di tr vng gi.
* Ci m ti dch l s ni di vng gi thng c dch l ni di cao thng
hay li ni di cao thng hay thm ch l h cu sinh ng.
Ngha en ca t gennaios, m by gi ti dch l vng gi, l bm sinh cao
hay dng di cao qu. Nh th s ni di vng gi ch t cng st ngha nh ni
di cao thng, song n trnh cc lin tng m t ni di cao thng c th gi ,
v l ci khng sao c tnh th m bo, tc l mt s ni di m mt ngi cao qu
nhn ly ci g trn chnh mnh, ci gy nguy him cho ng ta nh s ni di ca
Tom Sawyer theo ng nhn ti ca Becky cho chnh mnh v l ci m Thm phn
Thatcher ( ch. XXXV) m t nh mt s ni di cao thng, rng lng, ho hip.
Khng c l do liu v sao s ni di vng gi phi c xem xt di nh sng ny;
nh th dch l s ni di cao thng ch l mt trong cc n lc in hnh l tng
ho Plato. Cornford dch l mt .. s phiu diu to bo ca ba t, v tranh ci
mt ch thch chng li cch dch s ni di cao thng; ng a ra cc on ni
gennaios c ngha v mt mc rng ri; v qu thc, s di tr ln hay s ni di
to ln s l mt bn dch hon ton ph hp. Nhng ng thi Cornford bn ci chng
vic s dng t s ni di; ng m t huyn thoi nh li ni bng v hi ca Plato
v bn ci chng tng rng Plato khuyn khch ni di, v a s l ti tin, by gi
c gi l tuyn truyn; v ch thch tip ng ni: Lu rng bn thn nhng
ngi bo v chp nhn vic ni bng ny, nu c th. N khng phi l tuyn truyn
do cc Nh Cai tr ln lt a vo qun chng. Song tt c cc n lc l tng ho ny
tht bi. Bn thn Plato ni kh r rng ni di l vic m ta phi cm thy xu h; xem
trch dn cui ct. 11, di y. ( ln xut bn u tin ca cun sch ny, ti dch l
s ni di y cm hng, m ch n dng di cao ca n, v gi s ni di kho
lo nh la chn kh d khc; vic ny b vi bn b Platonic ca ti ph phn c nh
qu t do ln thin v. Song cch dch s phiu diu to bo ca ba t ca Cornford
coi gennaios chnh xc theo cng ngha). Xem c cc ct. 10 v 18 ch. ny.*
10
So Republic, 519e, f., c trch vn bn cho ct. 35 ch. 5; v thuyt phc v v
lc, xem c Republic, 366d, c tho lun ct. ny, di y, v cc on c nhc
n trong cc ct. 5 v 18 chng ny.
T Hy Lp (peith; nhn cch ho n thnh mt n thn quyn r, mt c hu ca
Aphrodit) thng dch l thuyt phc c th c ngha l (a) thuyt phc bng mi gi
v (b) d dnh bng mi cch, tc l gi v (xem di y, on (D), tc Rep.
414c), v i khi thm ch c ngha l thuyt phc bng qu cp, tc l t lt (xem
di on (D), tc Rep. 390e). c bit trong thuyt phc v v lc, t thuyt phc
thng (Rep. 5486) c din gii theo ngha (a), v cm t thng (v thch ng)
c dch l bng mi gi (So cch Davies v Vaughan dch bng mi gi, ca on
(C), Rep., 365d, trch di y). Ti tin, tuy vy, l Plato, khi xut thuyt phc v
v lc nh cc cng c k thut chnh tr, dng t theo ngha en hn, v rng ng kin
ngh dng tuyn truyn hoa m cng vi bo lc. (So Laws, 661c, 711c, 722b, 753a).
Cc on sau l quan trng cho vic s dng t thuyt phc v v lc ca Plato theo
ngha (b), v c bit trong mi quan h vi tuyn truyn chnh tr. (A) Gorgias, 453a
n 466a, c bit 454b-455a; Phaedrus, 206b, ff., Theaetetus, 210a; Sophist, 222c;
Statesman, 296b, ff., 304c/d; Philebus, 58a. Trong tt c cc on ny, thuyt phc
272
CHNG /CH THCH -
(ngh thut thuyt phc i lp vi ngh thut ph bin tri thc tht) kt hp vi
hng bin, gi v, v tuyn truyn. Republic, 364b, f., c bit 364e-365d (so Laws,
909b), l ng lu . (B) 364e (h thuyt phc, tc l la di tin, khng ch cc
c nhn, m ton b cc thnh ph), t c dng nh ngha 414b/c (c trch
vn bn cho ct. 9 ch. ny), on v s ni di vng gi. (C) 365d l l th bi v n
dng t m Lindsay dch rt ng l la nh mt loi din gii cho thuyt phc. (
khi b tm .. chng ta c sn cc bc thy v thuyt phc dng; .. nh th bng
thuyt phc v v lc, ta s thot trng pht. Nhng, n c th b phn i, ta khng th
la, hay p buc, cc thn ..) Hn na, (D) Republic, 390e, f., t thuyt phc c
dng theo ngha t lt. (y phi l cch s dng c; on c cho l mt trch dn
t Hesiod. L th l Plato, ngi rt thng bn ci chng tng l con ngi c th
thuyt phc hay mua chuc cc thn, a ra nhg b no i vi n on tip,
399a/b). Tip theo ta ti 414b/c, on v ni di vng gi; ngay sau on ny,
414c (so c ct. tip ch. ny), Socrates a ra nhn xt tr trn (E): Cn nhiu thuyt
phc khin bt k ai tin vo cu chuyn ny. Cui cng, ti c th nhc n (F)
Republic, 511d v 533e, ni Plato ni v thuyt phc hay lng tin hay nim tin (gc ca
t Hy Lp thuyt phc l ht nh gc ca t nim tin ca chng ta) nh mt nng
lc nhn thc thp hn ca tm hn, tng ng vi s hnh thnh kin (ho huyn) v
cc s vt trong dng chy (so ct. 21 ch. 3, v c bit vic dng thuyt phc Tim.,
51e), nh i lp vi tri thc duy l v cc Hnh thc khng thay i. V vn v
thuyt phc o c, xem c ch. 6, c bit cc ct. 52/54 v vn bn, v ch. 10, c
bit vn bn cho cc ct. 56 v 65, v ct. 69.
11
Republic, 415a. Trch dn tip l t 415c. (Xem c Cratylus, 398a). So cc ct. 1214 ch. ny v vn bn, v cc ct. 27 (3), 29, v 31 ch. 4.
(1) V nhn xt ca ti trong vn bn, sm hn on vn ny, v s kh chu ca
Plato, xem Republic, 414c-d, v ct. trn, (E): Cn nhiu thuyt phc khin bt k ai
tin vo cu chuyn ny, Socrates ni. C v ng kh min cng ni n ra, Glaucon
phn ng.- Anh s hiu s min cng ca ti, Socrates ni, khi ti ni iu .
Ni i v ng hong s, Glaucon ni. i thoi ny gii thiu ci ti gi l tng
u tin v Huyn thoi (c Plato xut nh mt chuyn tht trong Statesman; so
ct. 9 ch. ny; xem c Laws, 740a). Nh c nhc n trong vn bn, Plato gi l
chnh tng u tin ny l l do cho s min cng ca ng, v Glaucon tr li cho
tng ny: Khng phi khng c l do anh xu h lu n vy ni ra s ni di
ca anh. Khng c nhn xt cng iu no c a ra na sau khi Socrates k phn
cn li ca cu chuyn, tc l, Huyn thoi v Ch ngha chng tc.
*(2) V cc chin binh bn a, ta phi nh rng gii qu tc Athens cho l (tri vi
nhng ngi Dorian) cc th dn ca t nc h, sinh ra t t ging cc con chu
chu (nh Plato ni Symposium, 191b; xem c cui ca ct. 52 ch. ny). Mt ph
bnh hu ho gi vi ti rng s kh chu ca Socrates, v bnh lun ca Glaucon rng
Socrates c l do xu h, c nhc ti (1), phi c din gii nh mt m ch
chm bim ca Plato n nhng ngi Athens, nhng ngi, bt chp yu sch ca h
l bn a, khng bo v nc mnh nh h bo v mt b m. Nhng s gi kho
lo ny khng t ra ng vng c i vi ti. Plato, vi s a thch Sparta c th
nhn cng khai, s l ngi cui cng i ln n nhng ngi Athens v thiu lng yu
nc; v khng c cng bng g trong mt s buc ti nh vy, v trong chin tranh
Peloponnesian, nhng ngi dn ch Athens khng bao gi chu thua Sparta (nh s
thy ch. 10), trong khi ngi cu yu qu ca Plato, Cristias, chu, v tr thnh
CHNG /CH THCH -
273
lnh t ca mt chnh ph b nhn di s bo h ca nhng ngi Spartan. Nu Plato

c m ch mt cch ma mai n s bo v khng tho ng ca Athens, th n ch c
th l mt m ch n chin tranh Peloponnesian, v nh th l mt ph phn Cristias ngi cui cng m Plato c th ph phn theo cch ny.
(3) Plato gi Huyn thoi ca ng l mt s ni di Phoenician. Mt gi c th
gii thch iu ny l do R. Eisler. ng ch ra l nhng ngi Ethiopi, Hy Lp (cc m
bc), Sudan, v Syrian (Damascus) Phng ng c m t, tng ng, l cc chng
tc vng, bc, ng thic, v st, v rng m t ny c Ai Cp dng cho cc mc ch
tuyn truyn chnh tr (so c Daniel, ii. 31-45); v ng gi rng cu chuyn v bn
chng tc ny c nhng ngi Phoenician a vo Hy Lp thi Hesiod (nh c th k
vng) v rng Plato m ch n s thc ny.*
12
on l t Republic, 546a, ff., so vn bn cho ct. 36-40 ch. 5. S trn ln cc giai
cp b cm r rng c 434c; so cc ct. 27 (3), 31 v 34 ch. 4, v ct. 40 ch. 6.
on t Laws (930d-e) cha nguyn l rng con ca hn nhn hn hp k tha ng
cp ca ngi c ng cp thp hn trong hai b m.
13
Republic, 547a. (V l thuyt di truyn trn ln, xem c vn bn cho ct. 39/40 ch.
5, c bit 40 (2), v cho cc ct. 39-43, v 52 ch. ny).
14
Op. cit., 415c.
15
So ch gii ca Adam cho Republic, 414b, ff., ti nhn mnh. Ngoi l ln l Grote
(Plato, and the Other Companions of Socrates, London, 1875, III, 240), ngi tm tt
tinh thn ca Republic, v s i lp ca n vi ca Apology: .. Apology, ta thy
Socrates th nhn s dt nt ca mnh . .. Song Republic gii thiu ng theo mt tnh
cch mi. ..Bn thn ng trn ngai ca Vua Nomos: quyn th khng th sai lm, th tc
cng nh tn gio, t mi tnh cm chung bt ngun, v tnh chnh thng do ng xc
nh. .. Nay ng k vng mi c nhn vo ch, v ly kin do uy quyn quy nh; bao
gm gia cc kin ny c cc h cu o c v chnh tr c ch tm, nh v .. ngi
sinh ra t t. ..C Socrates ca Apology ln Bin Chng ph nh ca ng khng th
c php tn ti Republic Platonic. (Ti nhn mnh; xem c Grote, op. cit., p. 188).
Thuyt cho tn gio l thuc phin cho dn, d khng dng trnh by c bit ny,
ho ra l mt trong cc gio l ca Plato v cc Platonist. (So c ct. 17 v vn bn, v
c bit ct. 18 ch. ny). N, c v, l mt trong cc thuyt b truyn hn ca trng
phi, tc l n ch c th c cc thnh vin gi ca cc giai cp trn tho lun (so
ct. 18 ch. 7). Song cc k l b mt b cc nh duy tm truy t v thuyt v thn.
16
Th d Adam, Barker, Field.
17
So Diels, Vorsokratiker5, on Cristias 25. (Ti la ra khong 11 dng c trng t
hn 40). C th thy l on m u vi mt phc ho kh c x hi (cn hi ging
ch ngha bnh ng ca Lycophron; so ct. 45 ch. 6). V Cristias, so c bit ct. 48
ch. 10. V Burnet gi l cc on th v kch c bit di tn Cristias phi quy
cho ngi ng ca th lnh ca Ba mi bo cha, phi lu rng Plato quy cho ngi
sau [ng] nng khiu thi ca Charmides, 157e; v 162d, ng m ch thm ch n s
thc rng Cristias l mt nh vit kch. (So c Memorabilia ca Xenophon, I, iv, 18).
18
So Laws, 909e. C v l quan im ca Cristias mun hn thm ch tr thnh mt
phn ca truyn thng trng phi Platonic, nh biu l bi on sau t Metaphysics
ca Aristotle (1074b3) m ng thi cho mt th d khc v s dng t thuyt phc
cho tuyn truyn (so cc ct. 5 v 10 ch. ny). Phn cn li .. c a thm vo
dng mt huyn thoi, vi nh thuyt phc m ng, v tnh thit thc php l v
274
CHNG /CH THCH -
(chnh tr) chung .. So c n lc ca Plato Statesman, 271a, f., bn ci ng h s

tht ca mt huyn thoi m ng chc chn khng tin. (Xem cc ct. 9 v 15 ch. ny).
19
Laws, 908b.
20
Op. cit., 909a.
21
V xung t gia ci tt v ci xu, xem op. cit., 904-906. Xem c bit 906a/b
(cng bng i li bt cng; cng bng y vn c ngha l cng bng tp th ch
ngha ca Republic). Ngay trc 903c, on c trch trong vn bn cho ct. 35 ch. 5
v cho ct. 27 ch. 6. Xem c ct. 32 ch. ny.
22
Op. cit., 905d-907b.
23
on vn m ct. ny gn vo biu l s gn b ca ti vi mt thuyt tuyt i v
chn l hp vi nim chung l mt mnh l ng nu (v ch nu) ph hp vi cc
s thc n m t. L thuyt tuyt i hay tng hp v chn l (truy n Aristotle)
u tin c A. Tarski (Der Wahrheitsbegriff in den formalisierten Sprachen, bn
ting c 1936, ting Ba Lan, 1933) trnh by r rng, v l c s ca mt l thuyt
logic c ng gi l Ng ngha hc (so ct. 29 ch. 3 v ct. 5 (2) ch. 5); xem c R.
Carnap, Introduction to Semantics, 1942, trnh by chi tit l thuyt chn l. Ti trch t
p. 28: c bit lu l khi nim v chn l theo ngha va c gii thch ta c th
gi l khi nim ng ngha v chn l - l khc c bn vi cc khi nim nh c tin,
c xc minh, rt c xc nhn, v.v.. Mt cch nhn tng t, mc d cha
c pht trin, c th thy Logik der Forschung [1934] ca ti (c dch, 1959, l
The Logic of Scientific Discovery), mc 84; iu ny c vit trc khi ti lm quen
vi Ng ngha hc Tarski, l l do v sao l thuyt ca ti ch th s. L thuyt thc dng
v chn l (c dn ra t ch ngha Hegel) b Bertrand Russel ph phn t quan
im ca mt thuyt tuyt i v chn l ngay t 1907; v mi y c cho thy mi
lin h gia l thuyt tng i v chn l v tn iu ca ch ngha pht xt. Xem
Russell, Let the People Think, p. 77, 79.
24
c bit Rep., 474c-502d. Trch dn tip theo l Rep., 475e.
25
V by trch dn tip theo, on vn ny, xem: (1) v (2), Republic, 476b; (3),
(4), (5), op. cit., 500d-e; (6) v (7), op. cit., 501a/b; vi (7) so c on tng t, op. cit.,
484c. Xem thm, Sophist, 253d/e; Laws, 964a-966a (c bit 965b/c).
26
So op. cit., 501c.
27
So c bit Republic, 509a, f.- Xem 509b: Mt tri khin cc s vt c th cm
nhn sinh ra (mc d bn thn n khng dnh vo qu trnh sinh ra); tng t, c th
ni v cc i tng ca tri thc duy l l, khng ch chng c n nh ci Tt m chng
c th c bit n, m thc ti v thm ch bn cht ca chng bt ngun t n; mc
d ci Tt t thn khng phi l mt bn cht m vt qu ngay c cc bn cht trong
phm gi v nng lc. (Vi 509b, so Aristotle, De Gen. et Corr., 336a 15, 31, v Phys.,
194b 13). - 510b, ci Tt c m t nh ngun gc tuyt i (khng ch c coi l
nh hay gi thit), v 511b, n c m t nh ngun gc u tin ca mi th.
28
So c bit Republic, 508b, ff. Xem 508b/c: Ci m ci Tt sinh ra trong s
ging nhau ca n (tc l chn l) l mi lin kt, trong th gii c th hiu c bng
tr c, gia l tr v cc i tng ca n (tc l cc nim) theo cng cch nh, trong
th gii hu hnh, th (tc l nh sng, con ca mt tri) l mi lin kt gia s
nhn v cc i tng ca n (tc l cc s vt c th cm nhn c).
29
So op. cit., 505a; 534b, ff.
30
So op. cit., 505d.
31
Philebus, 66a.
CHNG /CH THCH 32
275
Republic, 506d, ff., v 509-511.

nh ngha ca ci Tt, c trch y, nh lp ci xc nh (hay c hn, hay hn
ch) c ngh nh mt n nht, ti tin, l khng kh hiu, v n hon ton thng
nht vi cc nhn xt khc ca Plato. Lp ci xc nh l lp ca cc Hnh thc hay
nim, c ngh nh cc nguyn l nam, hay cc t tin, i lp vi n, khng gian v
hn hay khng xc nh (so ct. 15 (2) ch. 3). Cc Hnh thc hay cc t tin ny, tt
nhin, l tt, chng mc chng l cc bn gc c xa v khng thay i, v chng
mc mi trong s chng l mt, tri vi nhiu s vt c th cm nhn c do n sinh
ra. Nu chng ta ngh lp hay chng tc t tin l nhiu, th chng khng l tt tuyt
i; nh th ci Tt tuyt i c th c hnh dung nu ta ngh chng nh mt n
nht, nh ci Mt nh Mt ng t. (So c Aristotle, Metaphysics, 988a 10).
nim ca Plato v ci Tt v thc t l rng. N khng cho ta ch dn v ci g l
tt, theo ngha o c, tc l ci g ta nn lm. Nh c th thy c bit t cc ct. 27 v
28 ch. ny, tt c ci ta nghe l, ci Tt l cao nht trong vng quc ca cc Hnh
thc hay nim, mt loi siu- nim, t cc nim ny sinh, v nhn c s tn
ti ca chng. Tt c ci ta c th dn ra t iu ny l, ci Tt l khng thay i v b
trn hay nguyn thu v v th c xa (so ct. 3 ch. 4), v l Mt Ton th; v v vy,
cc th tham gia vo n m khng thay i, tc l, ci tt l ci bo ton (so cc ct. 2 v
3 ch. 4), v ci l c xa, c bit cc lut c (so ct. 23 ch. 4, ct. 7, on vn v ch
ngha Plato, ch. 5, v ct. 18 ch. 7), v chnh th lun l tt (so ct. 21 ch. ny); tc
l, trn thc t, ta li b qung tr li o c ton tr (so vn bn cho ct. 40/41 ch. 6).
Nu Seventh Letter l tht, th ta c mt tuyn b khc ca Plato rng thuyt ca
ng v ci Tt l khng th trnh by c; v ng ni v thuyt ny: n khng c kh
nng din t nh cc nghnh nghin cu khc. (So c vn bn cho ct. 57 ch. 10).
Li Grote l ngi thy r v ph phn tnh rng ca nim hay Hnh thc Platonic
v ci Tt. Sau khi hi ci Tt ny l g, ng ni (Plato, III, 241 f.): Cu hi ny c
nu ra .. Song ng tic n vn cha c tr li. ..Trong m t tnh trng tm tr ca
cc ngi khc m h on mt ci Tt Thc t .. lm mi th t c n, song
lm bi ri mnh mt cch v ch lnh hi v xc nh n l ci g ng (Plato)
m t mt cch v thc tnh trng ring ca mnh. ng ngc nhin thy c t n
nhng no cc tc gi hin i lu n ph phn tuyt vi ca Grote i vi Plato.
V cc trch dn trong on vn tip ca vn bn, xem (1): Republic, 500b-c; (2): op.
cit., 485a/b. on th hai ny rt l th. Nh Adam ti xc nhn (ct. cho 485ab9), n l
on u tin trong sinh ra v suy i c dng theo ngha na k thut ny. N
dn chiu n dng chy, n cc thc th khng thay i ca Parmenides. V n a
vo l l chnh ng h s cai tr ca cc trit gia. Xem c ct. 26 (1) ch. 3 v ct. 2 (2)
ch. 4. Trong Laws, 689c-d, khi tho lun s suy i (688c) ca vng quc Dorian
gy ra bi s ngu dt ti t nht (s ngu dt, c th l, khng bit vng li ra sao cc
k cai tr do bn cht; xem 689b), Plato gii thch ng mun ni sng sut ngha l g:
ch s sng sut nh cc nh nhm ti s thng nht hay nht tr ln nht cho mt
ngi quyn lc. V t s nht tr c gii thch Republic, 591b v d, nh s hi
ho ca cc tng v cng bng (tc gi ch ca mnh) v v chng mc (tho mn
vi a v ca mnh). Nh th ta li b qung tr li im xut pht.
33
*Mt nh ph bnh on ny khng nh rng ng khng th thy du vt no,
Plato, v bt c s s hi no v t duy c lp. Nhng ta phi nh s khng khng ca
Plato v kim duyt (xem cc ct. 40 v 41 ch. 4) v s cm on nghin cu bin
276
CHNG /CH THCH -
chng cao hn ca ng i vi bt c ai di 50 tui trong Republic (xem cc ct. 19 n

21 ch. 7), khng ni g v Laws (xem ct. 18 ch. 7, v nhiu on khc).*
34
V vn ca ng cp thy tu, xem Timaeus, 24a. mt on m ch r rng n
nh nc tt nht hay c ca Republic , ng cp thy tu ly ch ca dng ging trit
gia ca Republic. So c cc tn cng ln cc thy tu (v thm ch thy tu Ai Cp), cc
thy bi, v php s, Statesman, 290c, f.; xem c ct. 57 (2) ch. 8, v ct. 29 ch. 4.
Nhn xt ca Adam, c trch vn bn on vn sau on vn tip, l t ct. ca
ng cho Republic, 547a3 (c trch trn trong vn bn cho ct. 43 ch. 5).
35
So th d Republic, 484c, 500e, ff.
36
Republic, 535a/b. Tt c ci m Adam ni (so ct. ca ng cho 535b8) v t m ti
dch l gy kinh hong ng h cch nhn thng thng l, t c ngha l cng rn
hay kinh khng, c bit theo ngha xi gic khng b. Gi ca Adam rng ta dch
l n ng hay ra v n ng l theo xu hng chung lm du ci Plato ni, v n
mu thun l k vi Theaetetus 149a. Lindsay dch l: v .. o c vng vng.
37
Op. cit., 540c; xem c 500c-d: bn thn trit gia .. tr nn ging thn, v ct. 12
ch. 9, ni 540c, f., c trch y hn. L th nht lu Plato bin i ci Mt
Parmenidian ra sao khi ng l l ng h th bc qu tc. S i lp mt-nhiu khng
c duy tr, m to ra mt h thng cc mc: mt nim vi ngi gn ti n nhiu hn l cc ngi gip h - s nhiu, tc m ng (s phn chia ny l c bn
Statesman). Tri li, thuyt mt thn ca Antisthenes bo ton s i lp Eleatic gia
Mt (Thng ) vi Nhiu (c l ngi coi nh cc anh em v khong cch bng nhau
ca h t Thng ). Antisthenes b Parmenides nh hng qua nh hng ca Zeno
ln Gorgias. C l c c nh hng ca Democritus, ng dy: Ngi sng sut c th
thuc v tt c cc nc nh nhau, v nh ca mt tm hn v i l ton th gii.
38
Republic, 500d.
39
Cc trch dn l t Republic, 459b, v ff.; so c cc ct. 34 f. ch. 4, v c bit 40
(2) ch. 5. So c ba v von ca Statesman, ni nh cai tr c so vi (1) ngi chn
cu, (2) thy thuc, (3) th dt m chc nng c gii thch nh nhng ngi pha trn
cc c tnh bng phi ging ti gii (310b, f.).
40
Op. cit., 460a. Tuyn b ca ti rng Plato coi lut ny rt quan trng l da trn s
thc l Plato nhc ti n trong phc ho ca Republic trong Timaeus, 18d/e.
41
Op. cit., 460b. Gi c tip tc 468c; xem ct. tip.
42
Op. cit., 468c. Mc d b cc nh ph bnh ca ti t chi, bn dch ca ti l ng,
v nhn xt ca ti v iu li sau cng th. Shorey gi on ny l ng trch.
43
V Chuyn ca S v Suy Sp, so cc ct. 13 v 52 ch. ny, cc ct. 39/40 ch. 5,
v vn bn.
44
Republic, 473c-e. Lu s i lp gia s ngng li (siu phm) v ci xu, tc l
s thay i dng mc nt, hay thoi ho. V t c dch y l u s so cui ca
ct. 57 di y. N tng ng vi qu tc di truyn.
Cm t m, v l do vn phong, ti t trong ngoc, l quan trng, v trong Plato
i cm tt c cc trit gia thun tu (v cc chnh tr gia phi trit hc). Mt cch dch
theo ngha en hn ca cm t l th ny: trong khi s ng (nhng ngi c) bn
tnh (c thin hng hay nng khiu) bung tri, ngy nay, theo ring mt trong hai
th ny, b loi b bng v lc. Adam th nhn rng ngha ca cm t ca Plato l
Plato t chi chun y s theo ui ring v tri thc; song gi ca ng l, ta lm du
ngha ca cc t cui ca cm t bng dch l: b ngn cn bng v lc khi theo ui
ring mt trong hai th (ng nhn mnh; so ct. cho 473d24, vol. I, 330, ca ln xut
CHNG /CH THCH -
277
bn Republic ca ng) khng c c s no trong nguyn bn, - ch trong khunh hng l

tng ho Plato ca ng. Cng ng th vi bn dch ca Lindsay (b ngn cn bng v
lc khi ng x ny).- Plato mun cm ai? Ti tin rng s ng, m ti nng hay bn
tnh hn ch hay khng ca h b Plato ch trch, l ng nht y vi ( chng
mc lin quan n cc trit gia) s ng m bn tnh ca h khng , c nhc ti
Republic, 495d; v c vi s ng (cc trit gia t xng) m s i bi ca h l
khng th trnh khi, c nhc ti 489e (so c 490e/491a); so cc ct. 47, 56, v 59
ch. ny (v ct. 23 ch. 5). S tn cng, v th, mt mt hng chng cc chnh tr gia
dn ch v hc, v mt khc c kh nng nht ch yu chng Antisthenes naThracian, thng v hc, trit gia bnh ng ch ngha; so ct. 47 di y.
45
Kant, On Eternal Peace, Second Supplement (Werke, ed. Cassirer, 1914, vol. VI.
456). Ti nhn mnh; Ti cng rt ngn on vn. (Chim hu quyn lc rt c th
m ch n Frederick i ).
46
So th d Gomperz, Greek Thinkers, V, 12, 2 (German ed., vol. II2, 382); hay bn
dch Republic ca Lindsay. (V ph phn din gii ny, so ct. 50 di y).
47
Phi tha nhn l, thi ca Plato i vi Antisthenes gy ra mt vn suy on
cao; iu ny tt nhin lin quan n s thc l Antisthenes rt t c bit t cc ngun
loi mt. Ngay c truyn thng Stoic c rng trng phi hay phong tro Cynic c th
truy nguyn v Antisthenes hin nay thng b nghi ng (so, th d, Plato ca G. C.
Field, 1930, hay D. R. Dudley, A History of Cynicism, 1937) du cho c l khng trn
c s hon ton (so tng quan ca Fritz v cun sch cui trong Mind, vol. 47, p.
390). Cn c vo ci ta bit, c bit t Aristotle, v Antisthenes, dng nh vi ti rt
c th l c nhiu m ch n ng trong cc tc phm ca Plato; v ngay c mt s thc
rng Antisthenes, ngoi Plato, l thnh vin duy nht ca nhm ni b ca Socrates, dy
trit hc Athens, c th l mt s bin h tm tc phm ca Plato cho cc m ch
nh vy. M c v vi ti rt c th l mt lot tn cng trong tc phm ca Plato c
Duemmler ch ra ln u tin (c bit Rep., 495d/e, ni ti di y ct. 56 ch. ny;
Rep., 535e, f., soph., 251b-e) trnh by cc m ch ny. C mt s ging nhau r rng
(hay ch t dng nh i vi ti) gia cc on ny v cc tn cng y khinh b ca
Aristotle ln Antisthenes. Aristotle, ngi nhc n tn Antisthenes, ni v ng nh v
mt ngi ngc, v ni v nhng ngi v hc nh cc Antisthenean (so ct. 54 ch.
11). Plato, cc on c nhc n, ni mt cch tng t, nhng cay c hn. on
u m ti ngh n l t Sophist, 251b, f., qu thc tng ng rt st vi on u ca
Aristotle. V hai on t Republic, ta phi nh l, theo truyn thuyt, Antisthenes l mt
con lai (m ng n t x Thrace man r), v rng ng dy trng trung hc Athens
dnh cho bn lai cng. M ta thy, Republic, 535e, f. (so cui ca ct. 52 ch. ny),
mt cng kch r rng n mc mt c nhn phi l ngi c c ni n. Plato ni
v nhng ngi hc i v trit hc m khng b kim ch bi cm nhn v s khng
xng ng ca h, v ng cho rng ngi tin phi b ngn cn khi lm vy. ng
ni v nhng ngi nh khng cn bng (hay lch hay khp khing) trong tnh yu
lao ng v gii tr ca h; v tr nn c nhn hn, ng m ch n ai vi mt tm
hn qu qut ngi, mc d yu s tht (nh mt Socratic), khng t c n, v hn
chm m trong ngu si (c l v hn khng chp nhn l thuyt v cc Hnh thc); v
ng cnh bo thnh ph ng c tin cc thng lai cng khp khing nh vy. Ti ngh
chc Antisthenes l i tng ca s cng kch r rng mang tnh c nhn ny; s th
nhn rng k th yu s tht dng nh i vi ti l mt l l c bit mnh, xut hin
nh trong mt cng kch v cng th bo. Nhng nu on ny ni n Antisthenes, th
278
CHNG /CH THCH -
rt c th l mt on rt ging cng ni n ng, tc l Republic, 495d/e, ni Plato li

m t nn nhn ca ng nh c mt tm hn cng nh th xc mo m hay khp
khing. ng khng khng trong on ny rng i tng b ng khinh b, bt chp kht
khao thnh mt trit gia, i tru n mc hn khng thm ch xu h i lm vic chn
tay hn h (tm thng; so ct. 4 ch. 11). M ta bit v Antisthenes rng ng ngh
lao ng chn tay, vic ng coi l cao qu (v thi ca Socrates, so Xenophon, Mem.,
II, 7, 10), v rng ng thc hnh ci ng dy; mt l l mnh na rng ngi vi tm
hn khp khing l Antisthenes.
M cng on, Republic, 495d, cng c mt nhn xt v s ng m bn tnh ca
h cha , tuy vy vn kht khao vi trit hc. iu ny c v ni n cng nhm
(cc Antisthenean ca Aristotle) c nhiu bn tnh m vic cm h c i hi
Republic, 473c-e, c tho lun ct. 44 ch. ny. So c Republic, 489e, c nhc
ti cc ct. 59 v 56 ch. ny.
48
Ta bit (t Cicero, De Natura Deorum, v Philodemus, De Pietale) Antisthenes l
ngi theo thuyt mt thn; v dng, trong ng trnh by thuyt mt thn (ch c Mt
Thng duy nht theo t nhin, tc l, s tht, mc d c nhiu theo quy c) ca
mnh, chng t rng ng ngh n s i lp t nhin-quy c m, trong tm tr ca mt
cu thnh vin ca trng Gorgias v ngi ng thi ca Alcidamas v Lycophron
(so ct. 13 ch. 5), hn phi c quan h vi ch ngha bnh ng.
Bn thn iu ny tt nhin khng xc lp kt lun rng Antisthenes na-d man tin
vo tnh anh em ca nhng ngi Hy Lp v ngi d man. Th m i vi ti dng
nh v cng chc rng ng l vy.
W. W. Tarn (Alexander the Great and the Unity of Mandkind; so ct. 13 (2) ch. 5)
c chng t - trc kia ti ngh, mt cch thnh cng- l tng v s thng nht ca
nhn loi c th truy v t nht n Alexander i . Ti ngh l vi mt dng suy ngh
rt ging vy, ta c th truy nguyn xa thm na; n Diogenes, Antisthenes, v thm
ch n Socrates v Th h V i ca thi Periclean (so ct. 27 ch. 10, v vn bn).
iu ny dng nh l kh c kh nng, ngay c khng xt chng c chi tit hn; v
mt t tng th gii ch ngha c th c ch xut hin nh h qu ca cc xu th
quc ch ngha nh ca thi Periclean (so Rep., 494c/d, ni ti ct. 50 (5) ch. ny, v
First Alcibiades, 105b, ff.; xem c vn bn cho cc ct. 9-22, 36 v 47 ch. 10). iu
ny l c bit c th nu cc xu hng bnh ng ch ngha khc tn ti. Ti khng c
xem thng cc k cng ca Alexander, song cc tng c Tarn quy cho ng, i
vi ti c v, mt chng mc, l s phc hng ca mt s tng hay nht ca ch
ngha quc Athens th k th nm. Xem c Ph lc III, di y, pp. 329 f.
Tip tc vo chi tit, u tin ti c th ni l c bng chng mnh rng ch t thi
Plato (Aristotle), vn v ch ngha bnh ng c thy r l c lin quan n hai
s phn bit hon ton ging nhau, mt mt gia nhng ngi Hy lp v ngi man r
v mt khc gia cc ch nhn (hay ngi t do) v cc n l; so vi ct. 13 ch. 5. Nay
ta c bng chng r rt l phong tro Athenian th k th nm chng ch n l khng
ch gii hn t ngi duy l tr nh Euripides, Alcidamas, Lycophron, Antiphon,
Hippias, v.v., m n c thnh cng thc tin ng k. Bng chng ny c cha
ng trong cc tng thut hon ton nht tr ca cc k th ca nn dn ch Athenian
(c bit l u s C, Plato, Aristotle; so cc ct. 17, 18 v 29 ch. 4, 36 ch. 10).
Nu by gi di nh sng ny ta xt cc chng c sn c phi th nhn l him hoi
v s tn ti ca ch ngha th gii, hnh nh, ti tin, l mnh va phi - min l ta k
c cc cng kch ca cc k th ca phong tro ny vo gia cc chng c. Ni cch
CHNG /CH THCH -
279
khc, ta phi s dng y cc cng kch ca u s C, ca Plato, v ca Aristotle,

chng li phong tro nhn o ch ngha, nu ta mun nh gi tm quan trng tht s
ca n. Nh th u s C (2, 7) tn cng Athens v mt cch sng th gii ch ngha
chit trung. Cc cng kch ca Plato ln cc xu hng th gii ch ngha v tng t,
tuy khng thng xuyn, l c bit c gi tr. (Ti ngh n cc on nh Rep.,
562e/563a cc cng dn, ngi ngoi c tr, v nhng ngi l t nc ngoi, tt c
u trn c s bnh ng - mt on phi c so vi din t ma mai Menexenus,
245c-d, Plato ca ngi Athens mt cch ma mai v s cn ght kin nh ca n i
vi nhng ngi man r; Rep., 494c/d; tt nhin, on Rep., 469b-471c, cng phi c
xt trong ng cnh ny. Xem c cui ct. 19 ch. 6). D Tarn c ng hay khng v
Alexander, ng hu nh khng bit nh gi ng hon ton cc tuyn b khc nhau
ca phong tro th k th nm ny, th d vi Antiphon (so p. 149, ct. 6 ca bi bo ca
ng) hay Euripides hay Hippias, hay Democritus (so ct. 29 ch. 10) hay Diogenes (p.
150, ch. 12) v Antisthenes. Ti khng ngh l Antiphon ch mun nhn mnh mi quan
h h hng sinh hc gia nhng con ngi, v ng r rng l mt nh ci cch x hi;
v theo t nhin c ngha vi ng l s tht. V th dng nh i vi ti hu nh
chc chn l ng cng kch s phn bit gia nhng ngi Hy Lp v ngi man r l
h cu. Tarn bnh lun on ca Euripides, ni rng mt ngi cao qu c th i khp
th gii nh mt con i bng khp khng trung, bng nhn xt rng ng bit l mt
con i bng c mt t- c nh; song nhn xt ny khng nh gi ng hon ton
on ; v l mt ngi th gii ch ngha, ta khng cn t b t m c nh ca
mnh. Di nh sng ca tt c iu ny, ti khng hiu v sao ngha ca Diogenes li
l ph nh thun tu khi ng tr li cu hi ng t u n? bng cch tr li ng l
mt ngi theo th gii ch ngha, mt cng dn ca c th gii; c bit nu ta xt mt
cu tr li tng t (ti l mt ngi ca th gii) c ni l ca Socrates, v cu
khc ca Socrates (Ngi sng sut thuc v mi nc, v qu hng ca mt tm hn
v i l ton th gii; so Diels5, on 247; Tarn v Diels nghi ng tnh xc thc).
Thuyt mt thn ca Antisthenes cng phi c xem xt di nh sng ca chng
c ny. Khng nghi ng g l thuyt mt thn ny khng phi thuc Do Thi, tc l loi
b lc v c chim. (Nu cu chuyn ca Diog. Laert., VI, 13, rng Antisthenes dy
Cynosarges, trng trung hc cho bn lai cng, l ng, th ng phi c ch nhn
mnh dng di lai v d man ca ring ng). Tarn chc chn ng khi ng ch ra (p.
145) rng thuyt mt thn ca Alexander c quan h vi tng ca ng v s thng
nht ca nhn loi. Song cng th phi c ni v cc tng Cynic, b nh hng, ti
tin (xem ct. trn), bi Antisthenes, v theo cch ny bi Socrates. (So c bit chng c
ca Cicero, Tuscul, V., 37, v ca Epictetus, I, 9, 1, vi D. L., VI, 2, 63-71; xem c
Gorgias, 492e, vi D. L., VI, 105. Xem c Epictetus, III, 22 v 24).
Tt c iu ny lm cho trc kia dng nh vi ti l khng qu khng chc ng l
Alexander c th tht s c truyn cm, nh truyn thuyt thut li, bi cc tng
ca Diogenes; v nh th bi truyn thng bnh ng ch ngha. Nhng cn c vo ph
phn Tarn ca E. Bardin (Historia, 7, 1958, p. 425 ff.) by gi ti thin v bc b i
hi ca Tarn; song, tt nhin, khng b quan im ca ti v phong tro th k th nm.
49
So Republic, 469b-471c, c bit 470b-d, v 469b/c. Qu thc y ta c du vt
(so ct. tip) ca ci g ging s gii thiu mt ci ton th o c mi, bao hm hn
thnh ph; c th l s thng nht ca tnh u vit Hellenic (Hy Lp). Nh c mong
i (xem ct. tip (1) (b)), Plato trau chut im ny chi tit mt cht. * (Cornford tm
280
CHNG /CH THCH -
tt ng on ny khi ng ni rng Plato khng biu l s ng cm nhn o no ko

ra ngoi bin gii ca Hellas; so The Republic of Plato, 1941, p. 165). *
50
Trong ct. ny, cc l l thm c thu thp c lin quan n din gii ca Republic,
473e, v vn v ch ngha nhn o ca Plato. Ti mun cm n ng nghip ca
ti, Gio s H. D. Broadhead, ph phn ca ng gip ti rt nhiu hon thin v
lm sng t l l ca ti.
(1) Mt trong cc ch chun ca Plato (so cc nhn xt phng php lun, Rep.,
368e, 445c, 577c, v ct. 32 ch. 5) l s i lp v so snh gia c th v ton th, tc
l thnh ph. S a vo ci ton th mi, thm ch bao qut hn thnh ph, tc nhn
loi, s l mt bc quan trng nht cho nh chnh th lun ly; n s cn (a) chun
b v (b) tho t m. (a) Thay cho mt s chun b nh vy ta c cc on c ni ti
trn v s i lp gia nhng ngi Hy Lp v ngi man r (Rep., 469b-471c). (b)
Thay cho tho t m, ta thy, nu c th ni vy, mt s rt b t ng m h chng tc
ngi. Th nht, ngay tip ca on then cht c xem xt, tc ca on v vua
trit gia (Republic, 473d/e), xut hin mt li din gii ca thnh ng ng ng, dng
mt tm tt hay kt thc ton b bi ni; v li din gii ny, s i lp chun ca
Plato, thnh ph-c nhn, thay cho i lp v thnh ph-nhn loi. Li din gii l:
Khng hin php no khc c th thit lp mt nh nc hnh phc, c trong cng vic
ring ln trong cng vic ca thnh ph. Th hai, ta thy kt qu tng t nu ta phn
tch su lp li hay bin th (tc 487e, 499b, 500e, 501e, 536a-b, c tho lun ct. 52
di y, v tm tt 540d/e vi ci thm vo sau 541b) ca on then cht ang xem
xt (tc Rep., 473d/e). hai trong s (487e, 500e) ch ni ti ring thnh ph; tt
c cc bin th khc, s i lp chun ca Plato thnh ph-c th li thay s i lp
thnh ph-nhn loi. Khng u c s m ch thm n tng c cho l Platonic
rng mt mnh ch trit gia (sophocracy) c th phc v, khng ch cc thnh ph
au kh, m c ton b nhn loi au kh. Cn c vo tt c iu ny c v r rng l
tt c cc ch ny ch c s i lp chun ca ng cn st li trong tm tr Plato (m,
tuy vy, khng c mong mun cho n bt c s ni bt no trong mi quan h ny), c
l theo ngha rng mt mnh sophocracy c th t s n nh v hnh phc - s ngng
ngh siu phm - ca bt c nh nc no, cng nh ca mi cng dn c th ca n v
con ci ca h ( trong mt khc ci xu phi tng ln ci xu ca s suy i).
(2) T con ngi (anthrpinos) c Plato dng, nh mt quy tc, hoc i lp
vi thn thnh (v, do , i khi theo ngha hi coi thng, c bit nu cc hn ch
ca tri thc con ngi hay ngh thut con ngi c nhn mnh, so Timaeus, 29c/d;
77a, hay Sophist, 266c, 268d, hay Laws, 691e, f., 854a), hoc theo mt ngha ng vt
hc, i lp vi, hay vi dn chiu ti cc ng vt, th d, i bng. Khng u tr
cc i thoi Socratic ban u (v mt ngoi l na, xem (6) ca ct. ny) ti tm thy t
ny (hay t ngi) c dng theo ngha nhn o, tc l biu l ci g vt ln s
phn bit v dn tc, chng tc, hay giai cp. Ngay c s s dng tinh thn ca t con
ngi cng him. (Ti ngh n s s dng nh Laws, 737b: s in r khng th c
v mt con ngi). Thc ra, cc quan im dn tc ch ngha cc oan ca Fichte v
Spengler, c trch dn ch. 12, vn bn cho ct. 79, l mt din t ni bt v cch
dng Platonic ca t con ngi, bi v n nu tm quan trng ca phm tr ng vt
hc hn l phm tr o c. C th a ra mt s on Platonic biu th cch s dng
ny v tng t: Rep., 365d; 486a; 459b/c; 514b; 522c; 606e, f. (ni Homer vi t cch
mt hng dn vin cho cng vic con ngi i lp vi t cch nhc s ca tng thnh
thn); 620b. Phaedo, 82b. Cratylus, 392b. Parmenides, 134e. Theaetetus, 107b.
CHNG /CH THCH -
281
Crito, 46e. Protagoras, 344c. Statesman, 274d (ngi chn n ngi l mt thn,
khng phi mt ngi).- Laws, 673d; 688d; 737b (890b c l l mt th d khc v s
s dng xem thng con ngi dng nh y tng ng vi m ng).
(3) Tt nhin ng l Plato gi thit mt Hnh thc hay nim v Ngi; song l sai
i ngh l n i in ci m tt c mi ngi c chung; ng hn, n l mt l tng
qu tc v mt siu nhn-Hy Lp kiu hnh; v trn mt nim tin da vo, khng
vo tnh anh em ca con ngi, m vo th bc ca cc bn cht qu tc hay n l,
ph hp vi s ging nhiu hay t vi bn gc, t tin c xa ca dng ging ngi.
(Ngi Hy Lp ging ng ta hn bt c chng tc khc no). Nh th cc thn chia tr
thng minh ch cho rt t ngi (Tim., 51e; so Aristotle, vn bn cho ct. 3 ch. 11).
(4) Thnh ph Thin ng (Rep., 592b) v cc cng dn ca n l, nh Adam ch
ra ng n, khng phi Hy Lp; song iu ny khng ng l h thuc v nhn loi
nh ng ngh (ct. cho 470e30, v khc); ng hn h l siu-c nht, siu-Hy Lp (h
trn th Hy Lp ca 470e, ff.) xa nhng ngi man r hn bao gi ht. (Nhn
xt ny khng ng l nim v Thnh ph Thin ng nh cc nim v, th d,
S t Thin ng, v v cc hnh trng khc c th khng c gc ng phng).
(5) Cui cng, c th nhc ti l, on 499c/d hu b s phn bit gia nhng ngi
Hy Lp v ngi man r khng hn s phn bit gia qu kh, hin ti, v tng li:
y Plato c cho mt din t mnh m cho mt khi qut ho bao qut v thi gian v
khng gian; ng mun ni khng nhiu hn: Nu bt c thi gian no, hay nu bt
c ch no (ta c th ni thm: ngay c mt ch cc k khng chc c nh mt nc
man r) mt vic nh th xy ra, th .. Nhn xt, Republic, 494c/d, biu th mt cm
nhn tng t, tuy mnh hn, v b i mt vi ci g ti gn s ng ngn bt knh,
mt cm nhn ny sinh y bi cc hi vng ca Alcibiades v mt ch ph qut
ca nhng ngi Hy Lp v ngi nc ngoi. (Ti ng vi quan im c Field,
Plato and His Contemporaries, 130, ct. 1, v Tarn by t; so ct. 13 (2) ch. 5).
Tm li, ti khng th tm thy bt c th g ngoi s th ch i vi tng nhn
o ch ngha v s thng nht ca loi ngi vt ln chng tc v giai cp, v ti tin
l nhng ngi thy iu ngc li ch l tng ho Plato (so ct. 3 ch. 6, v vn bn)
v khng thy mi lin h gia tnh c chim qu tc v phn nhn o ch ngha ca
ng v l thuyt v cc nim ca ng. Xem c ch. ny, cc ct. 51, 52, v 57, di y.
* (6) Theo ti bit, c mt ngoi l thc s duy nht, mt on r rng tri vi tt c
iu ny. mt on (Theaetetus, 174e, f.) c minh ho t tng phng khong v
cch nhn ph qut ca trit gia, ta c: Mi ngi c v s t tin, v gia h trong
mi trng hp c ngi giu v ngho, vua v n l, man r v Hy Lp. Ti khng
bit lm sao ho gii on l th v r rng nhn o ny - s nhn mnh ca n n
s tng ng ch nhn i li n l v Hy Lp i li man r gi li tt c cc l
thuyt m Plato phn i - vi quan im ca Plato. C l, nh rt ging Gorgias, l
Socratic; v Theaetetus c l (tri vi gi thit thng thng) l sm hn Republic. Xem
c Ph lc III ca ti, p. 320, di y.*
51
S m ch, ti tin, l cho hai ch trong Chuyn v S ni Plato (bng cch ni v
chng tc ca mi) dn chiu n chng tc ngi: chng tc ca ring mi (546a/b;
so ct. 39 ch. 5, v vn bn) v kim tra kim loi trong ni b chng tc mi (546d/e,
f; so ct. 39 v 40 ch. 5, v on tip sau). So c cc l l ct. 52 ch. ny, v ci cu
gia hai on, tc l on then cht v vua trit gia, v Chuyn v S.
52
Republic, 546d/e, f. on c trch y l phn ca Chuyn v S v Suy sp
ca con Ngi, 546a-547a, c trch vn bn cho cc ct. 39/40 ch. 5; xem c cc
282
CHNG /CH THCH -
ct. 13 v 43 ch. ny. - Lun im ca ti (so vn bn cho ct. trn) rng nhn xt trong
on then cht v vua trit gia, Republic, 473e (so cc ct. 44 v 50 ch. ny), bo hiu
trc Chuyn v S, c cng c bi quan st l c mt ci cu, c th ni nh vy,
gia hai on. Chuyn v S r rng c bo hiu trc bi Republic, 536a/b, mt
on m, mt khc, c th c m t nh [on] o [ngc] (v v th nh mt bin
th) ca on vua trit gia; v n thc t ni rng iu ti nht phi xy ra nu chn sai
ngi lm nh cai tr, v n thm ch kt thc vi s nh li trc tip v ln sng ln:
nu ta ly ngi loi khc .. th ta s mang li cc ting ci ti tp ln trit hc. S
nh li r rng ny, ti tin, l mt ch bo rng Plato bit r c tnh ca on (n tip
tc, c th ni nh vy, t cui ca 473c-e quay li n u), cho thy ci g s phi xy
ra nu li khuyn a ra on v vua trit gia b b qua. M on o ny (536a/b)
c th c m t nh mt ci cu gia on then cht (473e) v on v S (546a,
ff.); v n cha cc dn chiu n ch ngha chng tc, bo trc on (546d, f.) v
cng ch m ct. ny gn vo. (iu ny c th c din gii nh bng chng thm
rng Plato ngh n ch ngha chng tc, v c m ch ti, khi ng vit on v vua
trit gia). By gi ti trch phn u ca on o (536a/b): Ta phi phn bit thn
trng gia con chnh cng v con hoang. V nu mt c nhn hay mt thnh ph khng
bit phi xem xt cc vn nh th ny, th h s kh ngy th chp nhn s phc
v ca cc a con hoang mt thng bng (hay khp khing) vi bt c t cch no; c
l nh bn b, hay thm ch nh cc nh cai tr. (So c ct. 47 ch. ny).
V ci g ging mt s gii thch v mi bn tm ca Plato vi cc vn thoi
ho chng tc v gy ging chng tc, xem vn bn cho cc ct. 6, 7, v 63 ch. 10,
trong mi quan h vi ct. 39 (3) v 40 (2) ch. 5.
* V on v Codrus k t v o, c trch dn trong on vn tip vn bn, xem
Symposium, 208d, c trch y hn ct. 4 ch. 3. R. Eisler (Caucasica, 5, 1928,
p. 129, ct. 237) khng nh rng Codrus l mt t tin-Hellenic c ngha l vua. iu
ny s cho thm sc thi no cho truyn thuyt rng gii qu tc Athens l bn a.
(Xem ct. 11 (2) ch. ny; 52 ch. 8; v Republic, 368a v 580b/c).*
53
A. E. Taylor, Plato (1908, 1914), pp. 122 f. Ti ng vi on l th ny chng
mc n c trch trong vn bn. Tuy vy, ti b t yu nc trc ch Athenian
v ti khng hon ton ng vi m t c im ny v Plato theo ngha m Taylor
dng. V ch ngha yu nc ca Plato so vn bn cho cc ct. 14-18 ch. 4. V t
ch ngha yu nc, v nh nc gia trng, so cc ct. 23-26 v 45 ch. 10.
54
Republic, 494b: Nhng khng phi s l ngi thuc loi ny l ngi ng u
v mi th, t tui u th tr i?
55
Op. cit. 496c: V du hiu thing ling ca ring ti, ti khng cn phi ni.
56
So ci Adam ni trong ln xut bn Republic ca ng cc ct. cho 495d23 v
495e31, v ct. 47 ca ti ch. ny. (Xem c ct. 59 ch. ny).
57
Republic, 496c-d; so Seventh Letter, 325. (Ti khng ngh l Barker, Greek
Political Theory, I, 107, n. 2, a ra mt phng on tt khi ng ni v on c trch
rng c th .. l Plato ngh v cc Cynic. on chc chn khng ni n Antisthenes;
v Diogenes, ngi m Barker phi nh, hu nh khng ni ting khi n c vit,
ng l tr s thc rng Plato c th khng ni n ng theo cch ny).
(1) Sm hn cng on ca Republic, c mt nhn xt khc c th l mt dn chiu
n bn thn Plato. Ni v mt ton nh ng knh v nhng ngi thuc ton , ng
ni n mt nhn vt bm sinh cao thng v c gio dc tt ngi c cu bi s
chy trn (hay bi lu y; c cu, tc l, khi s phn ca Alcibiades, ngi tr
CHNG /CH THCH -
283
thnh nn nhn ca s xu nnh v trit hc Socratic b rung b). Adam ngh (ct. cho
496b9) rng Plato hu nh khng b lu y; song s chy trn ca cc mn ca
Socrates n Megara sau ci cht ca thy h c th ni bt ln trong k c ca Plato
nh mt trong cc im ngot ca i ng. Rng on ny ni n Dio l hu nh
khng th v Dio khong 40 tui khi ng i lu y, v v th vt xa tui thanh nin
nguy kch; v khng c mt s tng t (nh trng hp Plato) vi ngi bn
Socratic Alcibiades (ng l tr s thc rng Plato phn i s trc xut Dio, v
c khin n b hu b). Nu ta cho rng on ny ni v Plato, th ta s phi gi s ng
th v 502a: Ai s nghi ng kh nng rng cc vua v cc nh qu tc c th c mt
hu du l mt trit gia bm sinh?; v tip tc ca on ging on trc n mc
c v chng ni v cng nhn vt bm sinh cao thng. Din gii ny ca 502 bn
thn n l c kh nng, v ta phi nh rng Plato lun cho thy nim t ho gia nh ca
mnh, th d, trong bi tn dng cha v anh em mnh, ng gi h l thn thnh. (Rep.,
368a; ti khng th ng vi Adam, ngi coi nhn xt nh chm bim; so c nhn
xt v t tin ca Plato c cho l Codrus Symp., 208d, cng vi dng di ca ng
c cho l t cc vua b lc Attica). Nu din gii ny c chp nhn, dn chiu
499b-c n cc nh cai tr, cc vua, hay cc con trai ca h, khp hon ho vi Plato
(ng khng ch l mt Codride, m cng l mt hu du ca nh cai tr Dropides), c th
phi c xem xt di cng nh sng, tc l nh s chun b cho 502a. Nhng iu
ny s gii c cu khc. Ti ngh n 499b v 502a. Kh, nu khng bt kh, gii
thch cc on ny nh cc n lc tng bc Dionysius tr, v mt gii thch nh vy
kh c th ho gii vi s th bo hon ton v ci nn phi th nhn (576a) mang tnh
c nhn ca cc cng kch ca Plato (572-580) ln Dionysius gi. Quan trng lu
rng Plato ni c ba on (473d, 499b, 502a) v k truyn vng quc (m ng i
lp mnh n vy vi cc chnh th chuyn ch) v v cc triu i; song ta bit t
Politics ca Aristotle, 1292b2 (so Meyer, Gesch. d. Altertums, V, p. 56) v 1293a11,
rng cc triu i l cc gia tc u s k truyn, v v th khng my l cc gia nh
chuyn ch nh ca Dionysius, m ng hn l ci nay ta gi l cc gia nh qu tc,
ging nh gia nh ca bn thn Plato. Tuyn b ca Aristotle c ng h bi
Thucydides, IV, 78, v Xenophon, Hellenica, V, 4, 46. (Cc l l ny hng chng ch
thch th hai ca Adam cho 499b13). Xem c ct. 4 ch. 3.
* (2) Mt on quan trng khc cha mt tit l t-m ch c th thy Statesman.
y c tnh ct yu ca chnh khch vng gi (258b, 292c) c cho l tri thc hay
kin thc ca ng ta; v kt qu l mt li bin h khc cho sophocracy: Chnh th
ng duy nht l chnh th trong cc nh cai tr l cc Bc Thy tht s v Khoa hc
(293c). V Plato chng minh rng ngi nm c Khoa hc Vng gi, bt lun ng
cai tr hay khng cai tr, phi, nh l l ca chng ta cho thy, c tuyn b l vng
gi (292e/293a). Plato chc chn t cho l nm c Khoa hc Vng gi; do , on
ny ng dt khot rng ng coi mnh l mt ngi phi c tuyn b l vng gi.
Khng c b on lm sng t ny trong bt c n lc no gii thch Republic.
(Khoa hc Vng gi, tt nhin, li l khoa hc v nh s phm v nh nhn ging lng
mn ca giai cp ch nhn, giai cp phi cung cp ci khung che v gi cc giai cp
khc li vi nhau cc n l, ngi lao ng, nhn vin, v.v., c tho lun 289c, ff.
Nhim c ca Khoa hc Vng gi nh th c m t nh nhim v dt ln vi nhau
(pha trn, ho ln) cc c tnh ca nhng ngi n ho v dng cm, khi h c ko
li vi nhau, bi vng mu, thnh mt cuc sng cng ng nht tr v thn hu.
Xem c cc ct. 40 (2) ch. 5; 29 ch. 4; v ct. 34 ch. ny).*
284
CHNG /CH THCH -
Trong mt on ni ting trong Phaedo (89d) Socrates cnh bo chng li tnh ght
ngi hay s cm ght ngi ( vi n ng so snh tnh ght tho lun hay s khng tin
vo l l duy l). Xem c ct. 28 v 56 ch. 10, v ct. 9 ch. 7.
Trch dn tip on vn ny l t Republic, 489b/c. - Mi quan h vi cc on
trc l hin nhin hn nu ton b 488 v 489 c xem xt, v c bit cng kch
489e ln s ng trit gia m s i bi ca h l khng th trnh khi, tc l cng s
ng v bn tnh khng m s cm h c tho lun ct. 44 v 47 ch. ny.
Mt du hiu rng Plato trc kia m c tr thnh vua trit gia v v cu tinh ca
Athens c th thy, ti tin, Laws, 704a-707c, ni Plato c ch ra cc nguy him o
c ca bin, ca s i bin, thng mi, v ch ngha quc. (So Aristotle, Pol.,
1326b-1327a, v cc ct. ca ti 9-22 v 36 ch. 10, v vn bn).
Xem c bit Laws, 704d: Nu thnh ph c xy trn b bin, v may mn c cc
cng t nhin .. th n cn n mt v cu tinh phi thng, v qu vy, mt nh lp php
siu-nhn, lm cho n thot tnh hay thay i v s thoi ho. Chng phi iu ny
cho l c nh Plato mun chng t rng s tht bi ca ng Athens l do cc kh
khn siu nhn c to ra bi a l ca v tr? (Nhng bt chp tt c cc tht vng
ny so ct. 25 ch. 7- Plato vn tin vo phng php li ko mt bo cha; so Laws,
710c/d, c trch trong vn bn cho ct. 24 ch. 4).
59
C mt on (bt u Republic, 498d/e; so ct. 12 ch. 9) Plato thm ch
biu l hi vng ca ng rng s ng c th thay i kin ca h v chp nhn cc
trit gia nh cc nh cai tr, mt khi h hc c (c l t Republic?) phn bit
gia trit gia tht vi gi-trit gia.
Vi hai dng cui ca on vn trong vn bn, so Republic, 473e-474a, v 517a/b.
60
i khi cc m c nh vy thm ch c th nhn cng khai. F. Nietzsche, The
Will to Power (ed. 1911, Book IV, Aphor. 958; tham kho n Theages, 125e/126a),
vit: Trong Theages Plato vit: Mi chng ta u mun l cha t ca mi ngi, nu
nh c th - v trn ht hn mun l Bn thn Cha Tri. y l tinh thn ci phi tr
li. Ti khng cn bnh lun v quan im chnh tr ca Nietzsche; nhng c cc trit
gia khc, cc Platonist, nhng ngi gi ngy th rng nu gi nh mt Platonist,
do may mn no , nm c quyn lc mt nh nc hin i, ng s tin ti L
tng Platonic, v cc s vt ch t gn s hon ho hn ng thy chng. .. nhng
ngi sinh ra trong mt chnh th u s hay nn dn ch, ta c thy ( ng cnh
ny rt c th l mt m ch n nc Anh nm 1939), vi cc l tng ca cc trit gia
Platonic v thy mnh, do din bin may mn no ca hon cnh, nm quyn chnh
tr ti cao, chc chn s th thc hin Nh nc Platonic, v cho d h khng thnh
cng hon ton, nh h c th, t nht s quc gia gn m hnh hn h thy n
(Trch t A. E. Taylor, The Decline and Fall of the State in Republic, VIII, Mind, N. S.
48, 1939, p. 31). L l chng tip hng chng li cc m c lng mn nh vy.
* Mt phn tch nghin cu s thm kht quyn lc ca Plato c th thy bi bo
xut sc Platonic Love ca H. Kelsen (The American Imago, vol. III, 1942, pp. 1 ff.)*
61
Op. cit., 520a-521c, trch dn l t 520d.
62
So G. B. Stern, The Ugly Dachshund, 1938.
58
CH THCH CHO CHNG 9

t, l t Les Thibaults, ca Roger Martin du Gard, trch t p. 575 ca bn ting
Anh (Summer 1914, London, 1940).
CHNG /CH THCH 1
285
M t ca ti v k thut x hi Khng tng c v trng vi loi k thut x hi do

M. Eastman ch trng trong Marxism: is it Science?; xem c bit pp. 22 ff. Ti c n
tng l quan im ca Eastman trnh by s u a ca con lc t ch ngha lch s
sang k thut Khng tng. Nhng ti c th sai, v ci Eastman thc s ngh n c th
nhiu hn theo hng ca ci ti gi l k thut tng phn. Quan nim v k thut x
hi ca Roscoe Pound r rng l tng phn; so ct. 9 ch. 3. Xem c ct. 18 (3) ch. 5.
2
Ti tin, t quan im o c, l khng c s i xng gia au kh v hnh phc,
hay gia au kh v thch th. C nguyn l hnh phc ln nht ca cc nh V li ln
nguyn l ca Kant Thc y hnh phc ca nhng ngi khc .. dng nh i vi
ti (ch t trong cch trnh by ca h) l sai v im ny ci, tuy vy, khng th quyt
nh c bi l l duy l. (V kha cnh phi l ca cc nim tin o c, xem ct. 11
ch. ny, v v kha cnh hp l, xem mc II v c bit mc III ca ch. 24). Theo ti
(so ct. 6 (2) ch. 5) s au kh ca con ngi gy ra mt ku gi trc tip, c th, l s
cu cu gip , trong khi khng c s cu cu tng t tng hnh phc ca mt
ngi ng no cng lm n khm kh. (Mt ph phn na v cng thc V li Ti a
ho vui th l n gi thit, v nguyn tc, mt thang vui th-au kh lin tc ci cho
php ta xem xt cc mc au kh nh cc mc vui th m. Song, t quan im
o c, au kh khng th c vui th b tri, v c bit khng phi vui th ca
ngi khc b tri cho au kh ca mt ngi. Thay cho hnh phc ln nht cho nhiu
ngi nht, ta phi i, khim tn hn, t au kh c th trnh c nht cho tt c mi
ngi; v thm na, s au kh c th trnh c nh i thi k c th trnh thiu
thc phm - phi c phn chia u nhau mc c th). C mt s ging nhau no
gia quan im ny v o c v quan im v phng php khoa hc m ti ch
trng The Logic of Scientific Discovery ca ti. N lm tng s sng sa trong lnh
vc o c hc nu ta trnh by cc i hi ca mnh mt cch ph nh, tc l nu ta
i loi tr au kh hn l thc y hnh phc. Tng t, c ch i trnh by nhim v
ca phng php khoa hc nh loi tr cc l thuyt sai (t cc l thuyt khc nhau c
xut mt cch thm d) hn l s t c cc chn l xc lp.
3
Mt th d rt hay v loi k thut tng phn ny, hay c l v cng ngh tng phn
tng ng, l hai bi bo Budgetary Reform ca C. G. F. Simkin trong Australian
Economic Record (1941, pp. 192 ff., v 1942, pp. 16 ff.). Ti vui l c th ni n hai
bi bo ny v chng dng c ch cc nguyn l phng php lun m ti ng h; nh
th chng t rng cc nguyn l ny l hu ch trong thc tin nghin cu cng ngh.
Ti khng m ch l k thut tng phn khng th to bo, hay n phi gii hn cc
vn nho nh. Song ti ngh mc phc tp m ta c th gii quyt b chi phi bi
mc kinh nghim thu c ca ta trong k thut tng phn c ch v c h thng.
4
Quan im ny gn y c F. A. von Hayek nhn mnh cc bi bo l th khc
nhau (so th d Freedom and the Economic System ca ng, Public Policy Pamphlets,
Chicago, 1939). Ci ti gi l k thut Khng tng v c bn tng ng, ti tin, vi
ci Hayek gi l k hoch ho tp trung hay tp th ch ngha. Bn thn Hayek
ngh ci ng gi l k hoch ho cho t do. Ti tin ng s ng rng vic ny mang
c tnh k thut tng phn. Ti tin, c th trnh by cc phn i ca Hayek i vi k
hoch ho tp th ch ngha i loi ging th ny. Nu ta th kin to x hi theo mt
bn thit k, th c th thy l ta khng th kt hp quyn t do c nhn vo bn thit k
ca mnh; hay nu ta lm vy, th ta khng th thc hin n c. L do l k hoch ho
kinh t tp trung loi b khi i sng kinh t mt trong cc chc nng quan trng nht
ca c nhn, c th l chc nng ca anh ta nh ngi la chn sn phm, nh mt
286
CHNG /CH THCH -
ngi tiu dng t do. Ni cch khc, ph phn ca Hayek thuc v lnh vc cng ngh
x hi. ng ch ra tnh bt kh cng ngh no , c th l tnh bt kh ca phc tho
mt k hoch cho mt x hi ng thi l tp trung v kinh t v c nhn ch ngha.
* Ngi c The Road to Serfdom (1944) ca Hayek c th thy bi ri bi ct. ny; v
thi ca Hayek cun sch ny l r n mc khng cn ch cho cc bnh lun hi
m h ca ct. ca ti. Song ct. ca ti c in trc khi cun sch ca Hayek c xut
bn; v tuy nhiu tng ch o ca ng c bo trc cc tc phm trc ca
ng, chng vn cha tht r nh The Road to Serfdom. V nhiu t tng, nh chuyn
d nhin, nay ta gn vi Hayek, cha c bit vi ti khi ti vit ch thch ca mnh.
Di nh sng ca ci ti bit by gi v lp trng ca Hayek, tm tt ca ti v n
i vi ti khng c v sai, tuy, khng nghi ng g, n lm nh bt lp trng ca ng.
Nhng sa i sau c l c th sa vn cho ng.
(a) Bn thn Hayek khng dng t k thut x hi cho bt c hot ng chnh tr no
m ng chun b ch trng. ng ght t ny v n gn vi mt xu hng chung m
ng gi l ch ngha khoa hc - nim tin u tr rng cc phng php ca cc khoa hc
t nhin (hay ng hn, ci nhiu ngi tin l cc phng php ca cc khoa hc t
nhin) phi to ra cc kt qu n tng tng t trong lnh vc x hi. (So hai lot bi
bo ca Hayek, Scientism and the Study of Society, Economica, IX, XI 1942-44, v The
Counter-revolution of Science, ibid., VIII, 1941).
Nu di ch ngha khoa hc ta hiu mt xu hng bt chc ci c coi l cc
phng php khoa hc t nhin trong lnh vc khoa hc x hi, th ch ngha lch s c
th c m t nh mt dng ca ch ngha khoa hc. Mt l l in hnh v c nh
hng khoa hc ng h ch ngha lch s, ngn gn, l th ny: Ta c th tin on cc
thin thc; v sao khng c kh nng tin on cc cuc cch mng?; hay dng tinh
vi hn: Nhim v ca khoa hc l tin on; nh th nhim v ca cc khoa hc x hi
phi a ra cc tin on x hi, tc lch s. Ti th bc b loi l l ny (so The
Poverty of Historicism, v Prediction and Prophecy, and their Significance for Social
Theory, Proc. of the Xth Int. Congress of Philosophy, Amsterdam, 1948 ca ti; nay
trong Conjectures and Refutations); theo ngha ny, ti phn i ch ngha khoa hc.
Nu di ch ngha khoa hc ta mun ni quan im rng cc phng php khoa
hc x hi, mc rt ng k, l ht nh ca cc khoa hc t nhin, th ti phi bit n
nhn l c ti v l ngi ng h ch ngha khoa hc; qu thc, ti tin l s ging
nhau gia cc khoa hc x hi v t nhin thm ch c th dng sa cc tng sai
v cc khoa hc t nhin bng chng t rng chng ging cc khoa hc x hi hn
nhiu so vi ni chung c cho l.
Chnh v l do ny m ti tip tc dng t k thut x hi ca Roscoe Pound theo
ngha ca Roscoe Pound, m chng mc ti c th thy, thot khi ngha ca ch
ngha khoa hc m, ti ngh, phi b loi b.
Ngoi thut ng ra, ti vn ngh quan im ca Hayek c th c din gii nh tn
thnh ci ti gi l k thut tng phn. Mt khc, Hayek trnh by quan im ca mnh
r hn nhiu phc ho c ca ti. Phn quan im ca ng tng ng vi ci ti gi l
k thut x hi (theo ngha ca Pound) l gi ca ng rng c mt nhu cu cp bch,
mt x hi t do, ti xy dng ci ng m t nh khung kh php l ca n.*
5
Bryan Magee lu ti n ci ng gi ng l l l tuyt vi do de Tocqueville
a ra trong Lancien rgime.
6
Vn liu mc ch tt c bin minh cho phng tin xu hay khng, c v ni ln
t cc trng hp nh, liu ta nn ni di ngi m lm cho tm tr anh ta thanh
CHNG /CH THCH -
287
thn; hay liu phi gi ngi dn ngu dt lm h hnh phc; hay liu phi tin hnh
mt cuc ni chin di v m mu thit lp mt th gii ho bnh v ti p.
Trong tt c cc trng hp ny hnh ng d tnh l dn n u tin mt kt qu
trc tip hn (gi l phng tin) c coi l mt ci xu, c th gy ra mt kt
qu th hai (gi l mc ch) ci c coi l tt.
Ti ngh rng trong cc trng hp nh vy ba loi cu hi khc nhau ny sinh.
(a) Ta c quyn n u cho l phng tin s tht s dn n mc ch mong
i? V phng tin l kt qu trc tip hn, trong hu ht trng hp chng l kt qu
chc chn hn ca hnh ng d tnh, v mc ch, ci l xa hn, s t chc chn hn.
Cu hi ni ln y l cu hi thc s hn l cu hi v nh gi o c. N l cu
hi liu, v thc cht, c th tin vo mi quan h nhn qu c cho l gia phng tin
v mc ch hay khng; v v th c th tr li rng, nu mi quan h nhn qu c gi
s khng ng, th n gin khng cn l trng hp v phng tin v mc ch.
iu ny c th ng. Song trn thc tin, im c xem xt y cha ci c l l
vn o c quan trng nht. V tuy cu hi (liu phng tin d tnh s mang li
mc ch d tnh khng) l mt cu hi thc s, thi ca chng ta vi cu hi ny
lm ny sinh mt s vn o c c bn nht vn liu ta nn da, cc trng
hp nh vy, vo nim tin chc ca chng ta rng c mt mi quan h nhn qu; hay
ni cch khc, liu ta nn da, mt cch gio iu, vo cc l thuyt nhn qu, hay liu
ta phi chp nhn thi nghi ng i vi chng, c bit khi kt qu trc tip ca hnh
ng ca chng ta, bn thn n, c coi l xu.
Vn ny c l khng quan trng lm th d u trong ba th d trn, song n
quan trng hai th d sau. Mt s ngi c th cm thy rt chc l quan h nhn qu
c cho l ng hai trng hp ny; song mi quan h c th l rt xa; v ngay c s
chc chn xc cm ca nim tin ca h, bn thn n, c th l kt qu ca mt n lc
km nn s nghi ng ca h. ( Vn ny, ni cch khc, l vn gia k cung tn v
ngi duy l theo ngha Socratic -ngi c gng bit cc gii hn tr tu ca mnh). Vn
s cng quan trng khi ci xu ca phng tin cng ln. D c th ra sao, t rn
luyn mnh chp nhn mt thi nghi ng i vi cc l thuyt nhn qu ca mnh,
v thi khim tn tr tu, r rng, l mt trong cc ngha v o c quan trng nht.
Nhng hy gi s rng mi quan h nhn qu c cho l ng, hay ni cch khc, c
tnh trng trong ta c th ni mt cch thch ng v phng tin v mc ch. Th ta
phi phn bit gia hai cu hi na, (b) v (c).
(b) Gi s c quan h nhn qu, v ta c th chc chn va phi v n, vn , ch
yu, tr thnh vn chn ci t xu hn trong hai ci xu ci xu ca phng tin d
tnh v ci xu hn ny sinh nu cc phng tin ny khng c chp nhn. Ni cch
khc, cc mc ch hay nht, nh n vn l, khng bin minh cho cc phng tin xu,
nhng n lc trnh cc kt qu c th bin minh cho cc hnh ng m bn thn chng
gy ra cc kt qu xu. (Hu ht chng ta khng nghi ng rng l ng ct chn ca
mt ngi nhm cu cuc sng ca anh ta).
Trong mi quan h ny c th tr nn rt quan trng l chng ta thc s khng c kh
nng nh gi nhng ci xu ang c ni n. Mt s nh Marxist, th d (so ct. 9
ch. 19), tin rng s c t au kh hn nhiu dnh lu n mt cuc cch mng x hi
d di so vi ci xu kinh nin ci m h gi l Ch ngha t bn. Nhng ngay c
gi s l cuc cch mng ny dn n mt trng thi tt hn lm sao h c th nh
gi s au kh mt trng thi v trng thi kia? Liu ta c chc l phng tin khc
khng t kt qu tt hn, vi ci gi t hn?
288
CHNG /CH THCH -
Nhng cng th d ny nu ra mt cu hi rt quan trng khc. Li gi s rng tng

au kh di Ch ngha t bn, nu n tip tc vi th h, s nng hn s au kh ca
mt cuc ni chin ta c th p mt th h chu au kh v cc th h sau? (C s
khc bit ln gia hi sinh mnh v ngi khc, v hi sinh ngi khc hay hi sinh mnh
v ngi khc- cho mt mc ch no ).
(c) im quan trng th ba l ta khng c ngh ci gi l mc ch, nh kt qu
cui cng, l quan trng hn kt qu trung gian, phng tin. tng ny, c cc
chm ngn nh Tt c tt l ci kt thc tt gi , l d lm lc li nht. Th nht, ci
gi l mc ch hu nh khng bao gi l mc ch ca vn . Th hai, c th ni,
cc phng tin khng b b mt khi t mc ch. Th d, phng tin xu, nh
mt v kh mi hng mnh c dng trong chin tranh v chin thng, sau khi mc
ch ny t c, c th to ra rc ri mi. Ni cch khc, du cho ci g c th
c m t ng n nh phng tin cho mt mc ch, rt thng xuyn, n l nhiu
hn th nhiu. N to ra cc kt qu khc ngoi mc tiu c ni ti; v ci chng ta
phi cn i khng ch l cc phng tin (qu kh hay hin ti) i li mc ch
(tng lai), m l cc kt qu tng th, chng mc c th thy trc chng, ca mt
ng li hnh ng i li cc kt qu tng th ca ng li hot ng khc. Cc kt
qu ny tri ra trong mt giai on bao gm c cc kt qu trung gian; v mc ch d
tnh s khng phi l ci cui cng cn xem xt.
7
(1) Ti tin s tng t gia cc vn th ch v bnh an dn s v ho bnh quc t
l quan trng nht. Bt c t chc quc t no c cc nh ch lp php, hnh chnh v
t php cng nh mt hnh php c v trang sn sng hnh ng phi thnh cng
trong duy tr ho bnh quc t nh cc nh ch tng t phm vi quc gia. Song c
v i vi ti khng nn mong i nhiu hn. Ta c kh nng lm gim ti phm
phm vi cc quc gia xung mc tng i khng cn quan trng, song ta khng c
kh nng dp n hon ton. V th ta s cn, di di, cn n mt lc lng cnh st sn
sng tn cng, v i khi tn cng tht. Tng t, ti tin ta phi sn sng cho kh nng
l chng ta c th khng c kh nng dp ht ti phm quc t. Nu tuyn b mc tiu
ca chng ta l lm cho chin tranh l khng th c mt ln cho mi mi, th ta c th
cam kt qu nhiu, vi kt qu tai ho l c th khng c mt lc lng sn sng tn
cng khi cc hi vng ny gy tht vng. (Tht bi ca Hi Quc Lin hnh ng
chng nhng k xm lc, ch t trng hp tn cng Mn Chu, ch yu l cm gic
chung rng Hi c thnh lp chm dt mi cuc chin tranh v khng tin
hnh chng. iu ny cho thy tuyn truyn cho chm dt mi cuc chin tranh l t
tht bi. Ta phi chm dt tnh trng hn lon quc t, v sn sng i vo chin tranh
chng bt c ti phm quc t no. (So c bit H. Mannheim, War and Crime, 1941;
v A. D. Linday, War to End War, trong Background and Issues, 1940).
Song cng quan trng i tm im yu trong s tng t gia an bnh dn s v ho
bnh quc t, tc l, tm im m s tng t sp . trng hp an bnh dn s, do
nh nc duy tr, c c nhn cng dn c nh nc bo v. Cng dn, c th ni nh
vy, l mt n v t nhin hay nguyn t (tuy c mt yu t quy c no ngay
c trong cc iu kin v quyn cng dn). Mt khc, cc thnh vin hay n v hay
nguyn t ca trt t quc t ca chng ta s l cc quc gia. Song mt quc gia khng
bao gi c th l mt n v t nhin nh cng dn; khng c cc bin gii t nhin
cho mt quc gia. Cc ng bin gii ca mt quc gia thay i, v c th c xc
nh ch bng p dng nguyn l v hin trng; v v mi hin trng phi ni n mt
ngy thng c chn tu , xc nh bin gii ca mt quc gia l thun tu quy c.
CHNG /CH THCH -
289
N lc i tm bin gii t nhin no cho cc quc gia, v do , coi quc gia nh

mt n v t nhin dn n nguyn l v nh nc quc gia v n cc iu h cu
lng mn v ch ngha dn tc, ch ngha chng tc, v ch ngha b lc. Song nguyn
l ny l khng t nhin, v tng rng tn ti cc n v t nhin nh cc dn tc,
hay cc nhm ngn ng hay chng tc, l hon ton h cu. y, nu bt c u, ta
phi hc t lch s; v t bui bnh minh lch s, con ngi lin tc ho nhp, hp nht,
tan v, v li ho nhp; v iu ny khng th lm li c, cho d n c ng mong
mun.
C mt im th hai s tng t gia ho bnh dn s v quc t tan v. Nh
nc phi bo v c nhn cng dn, cc n v hay nguyn t ca n; song t chc quc
t cng phi cui cng bo v cc con ngi c th, ch khng phi cc n v hay
nguyn t ca n, cc nh nc hay cc quc gia.
S ti thng nht hon ton ca nguyn l v quc gia dn tc (nguyn l c c tnh
i chng ca n nh s thc duy nht l n quyn r cc bn nng b lc v l phng
php r nht v chc chn nht m mt chnh tr gia, ngi chng c g tt hn
ngh, c th thng tin), v s tha nhn s phn nh ranh gii ca mi quc gia tt yu
l quy c, cng vi s thu hiu thm rng cc c nhn con ngi ch khng phi cc
nh nc hay cc quc gia phi l ni lo cui cng ca ngay c cc t chc quc t, s
gip chng ta nhn ra r rng, v vt qua, nhng kh khn ny sinh t s v ca s
tng t c bn ca chng ta. (So c ch. 12, ct. 51-64, v vn bn, v ct. 2 ch. 13).
(2) C v vi ti l nhn xt rng cc c nhn phi c tha nhn l mi quan tm
cui cng khng ch ca cc t chc quc t, m ca mi hot ng chnh tr, quc t
cng nh quc gia hay a phng, c cc p dng quan trng. Phi hiu r l chng
ta c th i x t t vi cc c nhn, cho d ta quyt nh ph v t chc-quyn lc
ca mt nh nc gy hn hay quc gia m cc c nhn ny thuc v. C mt nh
kin ph bin rng ph hu v kim sot quyn lc qun s, chnh tr v thm ch kinh
t ca mt nh nc hay quc gia hm s kh cc hay khut phc i vi cc c
nhn cng dn ca n. Song nh kin ny cng khng xc ng nh n l nguy him.
N khng xc ng min l mt t chc quc t bo v cng dn ca mt nh nc b
lm yu nh vy chng li s li dng s yu km chnh tr v qun s ca h. Thit hi
duy nht khng th trnh c i vi cng dn l nim t ho quc gia ca anh ta; v
nu ta gi s rng anh ta l cng dn ca mt nc xm lc, th thit hi ny l khng
th trnh c trong mi trng hp, min l s xm lc c ngn nga.
nh kin rng ta khng th phn bit gia s i x vi mt nh nc v vi ring
cc cng dn ca n cng l rt nguy him, v khi c vn phi i ph vi mt nc
xm lc, n nht thit gy ra hai phe trong cc nc chin thng, tc l, phe i i x
tn nhn v phe i khoan dung. Nh mt quy tc, c hai b qua kh nng i x tn
nhn vi mt quc gia, v, ng thi, khoan dung vi cc cng dn ca n.
Nhng nu kh nng ny b b qua, th iu sau chc s xy ra. Ngay sau chin thng
nh nc xm lc v cc cng dn ca n s b i x tng i tn nhn. Nhng nh
nc, t chc quyn lc, c l s khng b i x tn nhn nh c th l hp l bi v s
min cng i x tn nhn vi cc c nhn v ti, tc l, v nh hng ca phe
khoan dung s c tc ng no . Bt chp s min cng ny, chc l cc c nhn s
chu qu mc h ng chu. Sau mt thi gian ngn, v th, mt phn ng chc s xy ra
cc nc chin thng. Cc xu hng bnh ng v nhn o ch ngha chc s cng c
phe khoan dung cho n khi chnh sch tn nhn o ngc. Song din tin ny khng
ch c th cho nh nc xm lc mt c hi xm lc mi; n cng cp cho n v kh
290
CHNG /CH THCH -
ca s phn n o c ca mt ngi sai, trong khi cc nc chin thng chc s

tr nn au bun vi s thiu t tin ca nhng ngi cm thy rng h lm sai.
Din tin rt khng ng mong mun ny cui cng hn dn n mt s xm lc
mi. N c th trnh c nu, v ch nu, t khi u, mt s phn bit r rng c
a ra gia nh nc xm lc (v nhng ngi c trch nhim v cc hnh ng ca
n) mt bn, v cc cng dn ca n bn kia. S tn nhn i vi nh nc xm
lc, v thm ch s gim bt trit b my quyn lc ca n, s khng to ra phn
ng o c v cm gic nhn o ny cc nc chin thng nu n c kt hp vi
mt chnh sch cng bng i vi cc c nhn cng dn.
Nhng c th ph v quyn lc chnh tr ca mt nh nc m khng lm tn thng
cc cng dn ca n mt cch ba bi? chng minh rng iu ny l c th ti s
xy dng mt th d v mt chnh sch ph v quyn lc chnh tr v qun s ca mt
nh nc xm lc m khng vi phm cc li ch ca cc cng dn ca n.
Vin ca nc xm lc, bao gm b bin, v cc ngun chnh (khng phi tt c)
ca n v thu nng, than, v st thp, c th ct ri khi nh nc, v c cai qun
nh mt a ht quc t, khng bao gi c tr li. Cc cng cng nh nguyn liu c
th cho cng dn ca quc gia c tip cn cho cc hot ng kinh t hp php ca
h, m khng p bt c bt li no ln h, vi iu kin l h mi cc u ban quc t
kim tra vic s dng ng n cc phng tin ny. Bt c vic s dng no gip tch
lu tim nng chin tranh u b cm, v nu c l do nghi ng rng cc phng tin
quc t v nguyn liu c th c dng nh vy, th vic s dng chng b chn li
ngay. Khi tu thuc vo bn nghi ng mi v to thun tin cho mt iu tra k
lng, v kin ngh cc m bo tho mn cho vic s dng ng cc ngun lc ca n.
Mt th tc nh vy s khng loi tr kh nng ca mt tn cng mi, song n buc
nh nc xm lc tn cng ln cc a ht quc t ho trc khi tch t mt tim
nng chin tranh mi. Nh th mt tn cng nh vy s l v vng min l cc nc
khc vn c v pht trin tim nng chin tranh ca h. i mt vi tnh th ny nh
nc xm lc trc kia buc phi thay i thi ca mnh mt cch trit , v chp
nhn ti hp tc. N buc phi mi kim sot quc t v cng nghip ca n v to
thun li cho iu tra ca cc nh chc trch kim tra quc t (thay cho cn tr h) bi
v ch mt thi nh vy mi m bo cho vic s dng cc phng tin cn thit cho
cc ngnh cng nghip ca n; v mt din tin nh vy chc xy ra m khng c bt
c s can thip thm no vo hot ng chnh tr ni b ca nh nc.
Mi nguy him rng s quc t ho cc phng tin nh vy c th b lm dng cho
mc ch li dng hay lm nhc dn c ca nc b tht bi c th c lm mt tc
dng bi cc bin php php l quc t cung cp to phc thm, v. v.
Th d ny chng t rng khng phi l khng th i x tn nhn vi quc gia v
khoan dung vi cc cng dn ca n.
* (Ti phn (1) v (2) ca ct. ny chnh xc nh chng c vit nm 1942. Ch c
phn (3), khng in hnh, l ti c thm, sau hai on u).*
(3) Song mt cch tip cn k thut nh vy vi vn ho bnh l khoa hc? Nhiu
ngi, ti tin, s cho l mt thi tht s khoa hc i vi cc vn chin tranh v
ho bnh phi khc. H s ni, u tin chng ta phi nghin cu cc nguyn nhn ca
chin tranh. Ta phi nghin cu cc lc lng dn n chin tranh, v c ci c th dn
n ho bnh. Th d, gn y ngi ta cho l ho bnh lu di c th n ch nu ta
xem xt y cc ng lc c bn trong x hi ci c th gy ra chin tranh hay ho
bnh. tm ra cc lc ny, tt nhin, chng ta phi nghin cu lch s. Ni cch khc,
CHNG /CH THCH -
291
ta phi tip cn vn ho bnh bng mt phng php lch s ch ngha, v khng

bng phng php k thut. y, ngi ta cho rng, l cch tip cn khoa hc duy nht.
Cch lch s ch ngha, vi gip ca lch s, chng t cc nguyn nhn chin tranh
c th thy l do xung t li ch kinh t; hay do xung t giai cp; hay thc h, th
d, t do i li chuyn ch; hay do xung t chng tc, hay ca cc quc gia, hay ca
ch ngha quc, hay ca cc h thng qun s; hay v lng cm th; hay do s hi;
hay do gen t; hay do mun tr th; hay do tt c cc th ny cng nhau, v do v s th
khc. V v th anh ta s cho thy nhim v loi b cc nguyn nhn ny l cc k kh.
V anh ta s chng t l khng c l do xy dng mt t chc quc t, chng no ta
cha loi b cc nguyn nhn chin tranh, th d cc nguyn nhn kinh t, v.v.
Tng t, thuyt tm l c th l l l cc nguyn nhn chin tranh phi tm bn
tnh con ngi, hay, c th hn, tnh th bo ca n, v con ng n ho bnh l
chun b cc li thot khc cho s gy hn. (c cc truyn git gn c gi rt
nghim tc - bt chp s thc l mt s cu c ti ca chng ta nghin chng).
Ti khng ngh l cc phng php gii quyt vn quan trng ny l rt ha hn.
V ti khng tin, c bit hn, vo l l c v hp l rng thit lp ho bnh ta phi
bit chc nguyn nhn hay cc nguyn nhn chin tranh.
Phi th nhn, c cc trng hp ni phng php tm cc nguyn nhn ca ci xu
no , v loi b chng, c th thnh cng. Nu cm thy au chn ti c th thy l
do mt hn si gy ra v vt n i. Song khng c khi qut ho vic ny. Cch loi
b si thm ch khng ph mi trng hp au chn. mt s trng hp c th khng
tm thy nguyn nhn; v cc trng hp khc c th khng c kh nng loi b n.
Ni chung, phng php loi b cc nguyn nhn ca s kin khng mong mun no
c th p dng c ch nu ta bit mt danh mc ngn v cc iu kin cn (tc mt
danh mc cc iu kin nh s kin c ni n khng bao gi xy ra tr khi c t
nht mt iu kin trong danh mc) v nu tt c cc iu kin ny c th c kim
sot, hay, chnh xc hn, c ngn chn. (C th nhn xt rng cc iu kin cn hu
nh khng l ci c m t bng t nguyn nhn m h; ng hn, chng l ci
thng c gi l cc nguyn nhn gp phn; nh mt quy tc, khi ta ni v cc
nguyn nhn ta hiu mt tp cc iu kin ). Song ti khng ngh l ta c th hi vng
xy dng mt danh mc cc iu kin cn ca chin tranh. Cc cuc chin tranh
khng phi l cc hin tng n gin, c l nh, ma bo sm st. Khng c l do
tin rng bng cch gi mt loi bao la cc hin tng l cc cuc chin tranh, ta m
bo rng chng u b gy ra theo cng cch.
Tt c iu ny cho thy cch tip cn hnh nh v t v khoa hc mt cch thuyt
phc, vic nghin cu cc nguyn nhn chin tranh, thc ra, khng ch c nh kin,
m cng nht thit cn ng i vi mt gii php hp l; n, thc ra, l gi khoa hc.
Ta tin b n u nu, thay cho a ra cc lut v mt lc lng cnh st, ta li tip
cn vn ti phm mt cch khoa hc, tc l bng cch c tm ra ci g chnh xc l
cc nguyn nhn ca ti phm? Ti khng ng rng y ta khng th khm ph ra
cc nhn t quan trng gp phn vo ti phm hay chin tranh, v rng ta khng th
trnh nhiu tai hi theo cch ny; nhng vic ny c th c lm tt sau khi ta kim
sot c ti phm, tc l sau khi a lc lng cnh st ca chng ta ra. Mt khc,
nghin cu kinh t, tm l, di truyn, o c, v.v. v ti phm, v n lc loi b cc
nguyn nhn ny, hu nh khng dn chng ta n khm ph ra rng mt lc lng
cnh st (lc lng khng loi b nguyn nhn) c th lm cho ti phm c kim
sot. ng l ngoi tnh m h ca cc li ni nh nguyn nhn chin tranh, ton b
292
CHNG /CH THCH -
cch tip cn l bt c th g tr khoa hc. C nh l ngi ta khng khng rng mc o

bnh t khi tri lnh l khng khoa hc; v rng ng hn ta phi nghin cu cc
nguyn nhn ca thi tit lnh, v loi b chng. Hay, c l, rng bi trn l khng khoa
hc, v ng hn chng ta phi tm ra cc nguyn nhn ca ma st v loi b chng. Th
d cui ny cho thy, ti tin, s phi l ca ph phn hnh nh khoa hc; v ht nh bi
trn chc chn lm gim cc nguyn nhn ca ma st, cng th mt lc lng cnh st
quc t (hay mt t chc v trang khc thuc loi ny) c th lm gim mt nguyn
nhn quan trng ca chin tranh, c th l hi vng khng b trng pht.
8
Ti c chng t iu ny The Logic of Scientific Discovery. Ti tin, ph hp
vi phng php lun c phc ho, k thut tng phn c h thng s gip ta xy
dng mt cng ngh x hi thc nghim, t c bi phng php th v sai. Ch theo
cch ny, ti tin, ta c th bt u xy dng mt khoa hc x hi thc nghim. S thc
l mt khoa hc x hi nh vy hu nh khng tn ti n nay, v phng php lch s
khng c kh nng tin trin nhiu, l mt trong cc l l mnh m nht chng li k
thut x hi quy m ln hay Khng tng. Xem c The Poverty of Historicism ca ti.
9
V mt trnh by rt ging, xem Socialism & Radicalism ca John Carruthers (c
Hammersmith Socialist Society xut bn nh mt pamphlet, 1894). ng l l theo cch
in hnh chng li ci cch tng phn: Mi bin php c tnh tm thi u c ci xu
ring ca n, v ci xu thng ln hn ci n nh cha. Tr phi ta quyt nh c
vi hon ton mi, ta phi chun b n mc rch ri, v v vu s khng ci thin ci
c. (Phi lu l ch ngha cp tin do Carruthers dng trong tiu , l gn i lp
vi ngha c dng y. Carruthers ch trng mt chng trnh khng tho hip v
lm sch bc vi v v tn cng ch ngha cp tin, tc l chng trnh v ci cch
nhanh chng do cc nh t do ch ngha cp tin ch trng. Cch s dng ny ca
t cp tin, tt nhin, l quen thuc hn ca ti; tuy vy, ngha gc ca n l i n
tn gc -ca ci xu, th d - hay xo b ci xu; v khng c t thay th thch hp).
V cc trch dn on vn tip ca vn bn (bn gc siu phm m chnh tr gia
ngh s phi sao chp), xem Republic, 500e/501a. Xem c ct. 25 v 26 ch. 8.
Trong L thuyt v cc Hnh thc ca Plato, ti tin, c cc yu t c tm quan trng
ln cho hiu bit, v cho l thuyt, v ngh thut. Kha cnh ny ca ch ngha Plato
c J. A. Stewart cp cun Platos Doctrine of Ideas ca ng (1909), 128 ff. Tuy
vy, ti tin l ng nhn mnh qu nhiu i tng suy ngm thun tu (nh i lp vi
hnh mu m ngh s khng ch hnh dung, m ng c ti to, trn bc v ca mnh).
10
Republic, 520c. V Ngh thut Vng gi, xem c bit Statesman; so ct. 57 (2)
ch. 8.
11
Thng ni rng o c hc ch l mt phn ca thm m hc, v cc vn o
c cui cng l vn s thch. (So th d G. E. G. Catlin, The Science and Methods of
Politics, 315 ff.). Nu ni iu ny, c ngha khng nhiu hn l cc vn o c
khng th c gii quyt bng cc phng php khoa hc duy l, th ti ng . Song
ta khng c b qua s khc bit to ln gia cc vn s thch o c v cc vn
s thch thm m. Nu ti khng thch mt truyn, mt bn nhc, hay c l mt bc
tranh, ti ch cn c n, nghe n, hay ng ti n. Cc vn thm m (c l vi ngoi
l ca kin trc) ch yu mang tnh c nhn, song cc vn o c lin quan n con
ngi, v i sng ca h. chng mc ny, c s khc bit c bn gia chng.
12
V trch dn ny v trch dn trc, so Republic, 500d-501a (ti nhn mnh); so c
(cui) ct. 29 ch. 4, v cc ct. 25, 26, 37, 38 (c bit 25 v 38) ch. 8.
Hai trch dn on vn tip l t Republic, 541a, v t Statesman, 293c-e.
CHNG /CH THCH -
293
L th (v, ti tin, n l c tnh ca chng cung lon ca ch ngha cp tin vi s

xc xc ca n - s ngo mn y tham vng v sng o ca n) thy rng mt
dn chiu n s sng o ca cc trit gia ng trc c hai on ca Republic lm
sch vi v ca 500d, ff., v thanh lc ca 541a ; so 500c-d, bn thn trit gia tr thnh
.. nh thn, v 540c-d (so ct. 37 ch. 8 v vn bn), V nh nc s dng cc tng
i, vi chi ph cng, tng nh h; v cng t h, nh cc thn, .. hay t nht nh
nhng ngi c tri ban phc, v nh thn.
Cng l th (v cng l do) rng ng trc on u tin ca cc on ny l on
(498d/e, f. xem ct. 59 ch. 8) trong Plato by t hi vng ca mnh rng cc trit gia
c th tr nn chp nhn c thm ch vi s ng, nh cc nh cai tr.
*V t thanh ton s bt pht hin i sau y ca ch ngha cp tin c th c
trch dn: Khng hin nhin l nu chng ta phi c ch ngha x hi ch ngha x
hi thc s v vnh cu - phi thanh ton mi phe i lp ch yu (tc l lm cho t
lit v mt chnh tr bng tc quyn cng dn, v nu cn bng t y?) Cu hi khoa
trng ni bt ny c Gilbert Cope in p. 18 ca mt pamphlet cn c bit hn
Chistians in the Class Struggle, vi Li Ni u ca Gim mc x Bradford (1942; v
ch ngha lch s ca pamphlet ny, xem ct. 3 ch. 1). Gim mc, trong Li Ni u
ca mnh, ln n h thng kinh t hin nay ca chng ta l tri o c v phi-Thin
cha, v ni rng khi ci g l sn phm ca ma qu r rng n vy .. chng g c
th tha th mt mc s Nh th khi lm vic ph hu n. Do , ng gii thiu
pamphlet nh mt phn tch sng sa v su sc.
Thm vi cu t pamphlet c th c trch: Hai ng c th m bo dn ch mt
phn, song mt nn dn ch y ch c th c thit lp bi ch mt ng .. (p. 17).
giai on qu .. ngi lao ng .. phi c lnh o v t chc bi ch mt
ng khng khoan dung s tn ti ca bt c ng khc no c bn phn i n .. (p.
19). Quyn t do mt nh nc x hi ch ngha c ngha l khng ai c php
cng kch nguyn l s hu chung, song mi ngi c khuyn khch lao ng v s
thc hin v hot ng hu hiu hn ca n .. Vn quan trng v phe i lp b v
hiu ho ra sao ph thuc vo cc phng php m bn thn phe i lp dng (p. 18).
L th nht c l l l l sau y (cng thy p. 18) ng c c cn thn: V sao
li c th c mt ng x hi ch ngha mt nc t bn ch ngha nu khng th c
mt ng t bn ch ngha mt nh nc x hi ch ngha? Cu tr li n gin l
mt bn l mt phong tro gn vi tt c cc lc lng sn xut ca mt a s ln
chng li mt thiu s nh, cn bn kia l mt n lc ca mt thiu s khi phc v
tr quyn lc v c quyn ca h bng s bc lt a s c tip tc li. Ni cch
khc, thiu s nh thng tr c th c sc l khoan dung, cn a s ln khng
th c sc khoan dung mt thiu s nh. Cu tr li n gin ny qu thc l
mt tm gng v mt phn tch sng sa v su sc, nh Gim mc ni.*
13
V s pht trin ny so c ch. 13, c bit ct. 7 v vn bn.
14
C v l ch ngha lng mn, trong vn hc cng nh trong trit hc, c th truy
nguyn v Plato. Ai cng bit l Rousseau trc tip b ng nh hng (so ct. 1 ch. 6).
Roussaeu cng bit Statesman ca Plato (so Social Contract, Book II, ch. VII, v Book
III, ch. VI) vi s ca tng nhng ngi chn cu trn i ban u ca n. Nhng ngoi
nh hng trc tip ny, c kh nng l Rousseau dn ch ngha lng mn ng qu v
tnh yu ci th s ca mnh gin tip t Plato; v ng chc chn b Phong tro Phc
hng Italia nh hng, phong tro ti khm ph ra Plato, v c bit ch ngha t
nhin ca ng v cc c m ca ng v mt x hi hon ho ca nhng ngi chn
294
CHNG /CH THCH -
cu ban s (so cc ct. 11 (3) v 32 ch. 4 v ct. 1 ch. 6). L th l Voltaire nhn ra
ngay mi nguy him ca chnh sch ngu dn lng mn ca Rousseau; ht nh Kant
khng b cn bi s hm m Rousseau ca ng khi nhn ra mi nguy him ny khi ng
i mt vi n trong cc nim ca Herder (so c ct. 56 ch. 12, v vn bn).
CH THCH CHO CHNG 10
T ca chng ny ly t Symposium, 193d.
1
So Republic, 419a, ff., 421b, 465c, ff., v 519e; xem c ch. 6, c bit mc II v IV.
2
Ti ngh khng ch v cc n lc c xa lm ngng x hi, cc n lc da vo l
thuyt Platonic rng cc nh cai tr chu trch nhim v linh hn, phc li tinh thn ca
nhng ngi b tr (v vo nhiu phng k thc tin do Plato pht trin trong Republic
v trong Laws), nhng ti ngh c v nhiu tin trin mun hn.
3
Ti th, ni cch khc, p dng mc c th phng php m ti m t trong
The Logic of Scientific Discovery ca ti.
4
So c bit Republic, 566e; xem c ct. 63 di y ch. ny.
5
cu chuyn ca ti khng c cc k hung c .. Ti phm khng ng quan tm ..
Ci m con ngi lm mc tt nht ca h, vi cc nh tt .. l ci ta tht s quan
tm. Ti c th p dng mc c th nguyn l phng php lun ny cho din gii
ca ti v Plato. (Trnh by nguyn l c trch dn ct. ny ti ly t Li Ni u ca
G. B. Shaw cho Saint Joan; xem cc cu u ca mc Tragedy, not Melodrama).
6
V Heraclitus, xem ch. 2. V cc l thuyt quyn bnh ng chnh tr ca Alcmaeon
v Herodotus, xem ct. 13, 14, v 17, ch. 6. V Phaleas ca ch ngha bnh ng kinh
t ca Chalcedon, xem Aristotle, Politics, 1266a, v Diels5, ch. 39 (c v Hippodamus).
V Hippodamus x Miletus, xem Aristotle, Politics, 1267b22, v ct. 9 ch. 3. Gia cc
nh l lun chnh tr u tin, tt nhin, ta cng phi tnh c cc Sophist, Protagoras,
Antiphon, Hippias, Alcidamas, Lycophron; Cristias (so Diels5, on 6, 30-38, v ct. 17
ch. 8), v u s C (nu h l hai ngi); v Democritus.
V thut ng x hi ng v x hi m, v vic Bergson dng chng theo mt
ngha hi ging, xem Ch thch cho Dn nhp. Vic ti c trng x hi ng nh ma
thut v x hi m nh duy l v ph phn tt nhin lm cho vic p dng cc thut ng
ny m khng l tng ho x hi c bn n l khng th lm c. Thi ma
thut khng h bin mt khi i sng ca chng ta, khng ngay c cc x hi m
nht c thc hin n nay, v ti ngh n khng chc bao gi c th bin mt hon
ton. Bt chp tt c iu ny, c v c th a ra mt s tiu chun hu ch v qu
t x hi ng sang x hi m. Qu xy ra khi cc nh ch x hi u tin c
nhn ra l nhn to, v khi s sa i chng mt cch c thc c tho lun v mt
tnh thch hp ca chng t c cc mc tiu hay mc ch ca con ngi. Hay,
din t vn theo cch t tru tng hn, x hi ng v khi ni knh s siu
nhin m vi n trt t x hi c coi l nhng ng cho s can thip tch cc, v
cho s theo ui c thc cc li ch c nhn hay nhm. R rng l s tip xc vn ho
qua khai ho c th gy ra s v nh vy, v cn hn na, l s pht trin ca mt
b phn b bn cng ho, tc l khng c rung t, ca giai cp cai tr.
Ti c th ni y l ti khng mun ni v v x hi ni chung. Ti ngh rng
s v ca mt x hi ng, nh c m t y, l mt chuyn kh r, nhng ni
chung t v x hi i vi ti c v chuyn rt t [thng tin] hn l nh quan st
khng thch din tin m ng ta m t. Ti ngh thut ng b dng sai nhiu. Song ti
CHNG /CH THCH -
295
th nhn rng, c hay khng c l do, thnh vin ca x hi no c th c cm gic l

mi th u v. Khng my nghi ng rng vi cc thnh vin ca ch c hay
ca gii qu tc Nga, cch mng Php hay Nga t ra nh mt s v x hi hon
ton; song vi cc nh cai tr mi n t ra rt khc.
Toynbee (so A Study of History, V, 23-35; 338) m t s xut hin ca s li gio
trong c th x hi nh mt tiu chun ca mt x hi b tan v. V s li gio, dng
chia r giai cp, r rng xy ra x hi Hy Lp trc xa chin tranh Peloponnesian,
khng tht r v sao ng cho l cuc chin tranh ny (ch khng phi s v ca ch
ngha b lc) nh du ci ng m t nh s sp ca nn vn minh Hellenic. (So c
ct. 45 (2) ch. 4, v ct. 8 ch. ny).
V s ging nhau ca nhng ngi Hy Lp v ngi Maori, c th thy vi nhn xt
trong Early Greek Philosophy2 ca Burnet, c bit pp. 2 v 9.
7
Ti c ph phn ny v l thuyt hu c ca nh nc, cng vi nhiu gi khc, l
nh n J. Popper-Lynkeus; ng vit (Die allgemeine Nhrpflicht, 2nd ed., 1923, p. 71 f.):
Menenius Agrippa xut sc .. thuyt phc qun chng ni lon quay v (Rome)
bng cch ni cho h s v von ca ng v cc chi ca c th ni lon chng li bng
..V sao mt trong s h khng ni: ng, Agrippa! Nu phi c mt ci bng, th
chng ta, dn chng, mun t nay l ci bng; v ng .. c th ng vai ca t chi!
(v s v von, xem Livy II, 32, v Coriolanus ca Shakespeare, Hi 1, Cnh 1). C l l
th lu rng ngay c mt phong tro hin i v hnh nh tin b nh MassObservation tuyn truyn cho l thuyt hu c v x hi (trn ba ca pamphet First
Years Work ca n, 1937-38). Xem c ct. 31 ch. 5.
Mt khc, phi th nhn l x hi ng b lc c ci g ging mt c tnh hu
c, chnh bi v thiu cng thng x hi. S thc rng mt x hi c th da vo tnh
trng n l (nh trng hp vi ngi Hy Lp) bn thn n khng gy ra cng thng x
hi, bi v cc n l i khi to thnh mt phn ca x hi khng nhiu hn gia sc ca
n; cc kht vng v vn ca h khng nht thit to ra ci g c cc nh cai tr
cm nhn nh mt vn trong x hi. S tng dn s, tuy vy, c gy ra vn nh
vy. Sparta, m khng to ra cc thuc a, n u tin dn n n dch ho cc b
lc ln cn v mc ch chim lnh th, v sau n mt n lc c thc lm
ngng mi thay i bng cc bin php bao gm kim sot tng dn s qua th ch git
tr con, kim sot sinh , v ng tnh luyn i. Tt c iu ny c Plato thy kh r,
ngi lun khng khng v nhu cu c nh s cng dn (c l di nh hng ca
Hippodamus), v l ngi Laws ngh thuc a ho v kim sot sinh , nh
trc ng ngh ng tnh luyn i (c gii thch theo cng cch Politics
ca Aristotle, 1272a23) nh phng tin gi dn s khng i; xem Laws, 740d741a, v 838e. (V kin ngh git tr con ca Plato Republic, v v cc vn tng
t, xem c bit ct. 34 ch. 4; ngoi ra, cc ct. 22 v 63 ch. 10, v 39 (3) ch. 5).
Tt nhin, tt c cc thi quen ny l khng h c th gii thch c hon ton v
mt duy l; v ng tnh luyn i Dorian, c th hn, gn cht vi thc tin chin tranh,
v vi cc n lc, trong cuc sng ca by n th ch, ot li mt s tho mn
xc cm phn nhiu b s sp ca ch ngha b lc ph hu; xem c bit by th
ch gm c nhng ngi tnh, c Plato ca ngi trong Symposium, 178e. Trong
Laws, 636b, f., 836b/c, phn i ng tnh luyn i (so, tuy vy, 838e).
8
Ti gi s rng ci ti gi l s cng thng ca nn vn minh l ging nh hin
tng m Freud ngh n khi vit Civilization and its Discontents. Toynbee ni v
mt Cm gic Tri dt (A Study of History, V, 412 ff.), nhng ng gii hn n cc
296
CHNG /CH THCH -
thi i tan r, trong khi s cng thng ca ti c by t rt r Heraclitus (thc ra,

cc du vt c th thy Hesiod) - trc xa thi k khi, theo Toynbee, x hi Hellenic
ca ng bt u tan r. Meyer ni v s bin mt ca a v v dng ging, ci
quyt nh v tr ca mi ngi trong cuc i, cc quyn v ngha v dn s v x hi
ca anh ta, cng vi s an ton v kim sng (Geschichte des Altertums, III, 542). y
l mt m t ng v cng thng trong x hi Hy Lp th k th nm trc C.N.
9
Mt ngh thuc loi ny ngh dn n s c lp tr tu tng i, l ngh ca
mt thi s lang thang. Ti ngh y ch yu v Xenophanes, ngi theo thuyt tin b;
so on vn v ch ngha Protagoras ct. 7, ch. 5. (Homer c th cng l trng hp
nh th). R rng l rt t ngi c th tip cn n ngh ny.
Tnh c ti khng c quan tm ring no n cc vn thng mi, hay n nhng
ngi c u c thng mi. Song nh hng ca sng kin thng mi t ra i vi ti
kh quan trng. Hu nh khng ngu nhin l nn vn minh c nht c bit n, nn
vn minh Sumer, chng mc chng ta bit, l mt nn vn minh thng mi vi
cc c tnh dn ch mnh m; v rng ngh thut vit v s hc, v khi u ca khoa
hc, gn cht vi i sng thng mi ca n. (So c vn bn cho ct. 24 ch. ny).
10
Thucydides, I, 93 (Ch yu ti theo bn dch ca Jowett). V vn thnh kin ca
Thucydides, so ct. 15 (1) ch. ny.
11
Trch dn ny v tip: op. cit., I, 107. Chuyn ca Thucydides v cc u s phn
bi kh c th nhn ra phin bn bin h ca Meyer (Gesch. d. Altertums, III, 594),
bt chp s thc l ng khng c ngun tt hn; n n gin b bp mo n khng
nhn ra c na. (V tnh v t ca Meyer, xem ct. 15 (2) ch. ny). - V s phn bi
tng t (vo nm 479 trc C.N., trc trn Plataea) so Aristides ca Plutarch, 13.
12
Thucydides, III, 82-84. Kt lun sau ca on l c trng v mt yu t c nhn
ch ngha v nhn o ch ngha c Thucydides, mt thnh vin ca Th h Ln (xem
di, v ct. 27 ch. ny) v, nh ni trn, mt ngi n ho: Khi ngi ta tr th,
h liu lnh; h khng xem xt tng lai, v khng do d b cc quy tc chung ca loi
ngi trn mi c nhn phi da vo v s gii thot ca ring h nu tai ho thnh
lnh xy ra vi h; h qun l vo gi pht hon nn, h s mong chng mt cch v
vng. V mt tho lun thm v thnh kin ca Thucydides xem ct. 15 (1) ch. ny.
13
Aristotle, Politics, VIII, (V), 9, 10/11; 1310a. Aristotle khng tn thnh s th ch
cng khai nh vy; ng ngh khn ngoan hn l cc u s tht phi gi b l nhng
ngi ng h s nghip ca nhn dn; v ng khao kht cho h li khuyn hay: H
phi ly, hoc h phi t nht gi v ly, ng li ngc li, bng tnh c li th trong
li th ca h: Ti s khng lm hi nhn dn.
14
Thucydides, II, 9.
15
So E. Mayer, Geschicte des Altertums, IV (1915), 386.
(1) nh gi s v t c cho l ca Thucydides, hay ng hn, nh kin v tnh
ca ng, phi so i x ca ng vi v quan trng nht ca Plataea nh du s bng n
ca on u ca chin tranh Peloponnesian (Meyer, theo Lysias, gi phn ny l chin
tranh Archiadamian; so Meyer, Gesch. d. Altertums, VI, 307, v V, p. VII) vi s i x
ca ng vi v Melian, bc xm lc u tin ca Athens ca phn th hai (chin
tranh Alcibiades). Chin tranh Archiadamian n ra vi mt tn cng ln Plataes dn ch
- tn cng chp nhong c tin hnh m khng c tuyn b chin tranh bi Thebes,
mt i tc ca Sparta ton tr, m cc bn ca ng, cc gin ip u s, vo ban m
m ca thnh Plataea cho k th. Mc d quan trng nht nh nguyn nhn trc tip
ca chin tranh, s c c Thucydides thut li tng i ngn (II, 1-7); ng khng
CHNG /CH THCH -
297
bnh lun v kha cnh o c, ngoi vic gi v Plataea l mt s vi phm rnh rnh
ca ba mi nm ngng bn; nhng ng ch trch (II, 5) nhng ngi dn ch Plataea
v s i x tn nhn ca h vi bn xm ln, v thm ch by t s nghi ng liu h
khng vi phm li th hay khng. Cch trnh by ny tng phn mnh vi i thoi
Melian ni ting v t m nht, d cho tt nhin l h cu (Thuc., V, 85-113) trong
Thucydides c lm danh ch ngha quc Athenian. B sc nh v Melian c v
xy ra (c th Alcibiades chu trch nhim; so Plutarch, Alc., 16), nhng ngi Athenian
khng tn cng m khng c cnh co, v c m phn trc khi dng v lc.
Mt trng hp in hnh khc, lin quan n thi ca Thucydides, l ng ca ngi
( VIII, 68) lnh t ng u s, nh hng bin Antiphon (ngi c ni n
Menexenus ca Plato, 236a, nh mt thy gio ca Socrates; so cui ct. 19 ch. 6).
(2) E. Meyer l mt trong cc chuyn gia hin i ln nht v giai on ny. Song
nh gi quan im ca ng ta phi c cc nhn xt y khinh b sau y v cc chnh
th dn ch (c rt nhiu on thuc loi ny): Quan trng hn nhiu (tc, so vi v
kh) l tip tc tiu khin tr chi ci c-ng phi, v t c quyn t do v hn,
nh c mi ngi gii thch theo cc li ch c bit ca mnh. (V, 61). Nhng, ti
hi, nhiu hn mt gii thch theo cc li ch c bit ca mnh khi Meyer vit: Quyn
t do tuyt vi ca nn dn ch, v ca cc lnh t ca n, chng minh r rng s bt
ti ca h. (V, 69). V cc lnh t dn ch Athenian nhng ngi vo nm 403 trc
C.N. t chi u hng Sparta (v s t chi ca h mun hn thm ch c chin
thng bin minh tuy khng cn s bin minh nh vy), Meyer ni: Mt vi lnh t
ny c th l ngi cung tn chn tht; .. h c th hon ton khng c kh nng phn
xt lnh mnh no m h thc s tin (ci h ni, c th l:) Athens khng bao gi
c u hng. (IV, 659). Meyer ch trch cc s gia khc bng cc li nng n v thin
v. (So th d cc ct. V, 89 v 102, ni ng bo v Dionysius gi chng li cc tn
cng c cho l thin lch, v t y 113 ln nh 114, ni ng cng b cc s gia ni
nh vt chng-Dionysius lm in tit). Nh th ng gi Grote l mt lnh t cp tin
Anh v cng trnh ca ng ta khng l lch s, m l mt bin bch cho Athens, v
ng t mn tng phn mnh vi nhng ngi nh vy: S hu nh khng th ph
nhn rng chng ta tr nn v t hn trong cc vn chnh tr hc, v rng chng ta v
th t mt nh gi lch s chnh xc hn v ton din hn. (Tt c III, 239).
ng sau quan im ca Meyer l Hegel. iu ny gii thch mi th (nh s r, ti
hi vng, i vi bn c ca ch. 12). Ch ngha Hegel ca Meyer tr nn hin nhin
nhn xt sau, ci l v song gn nh l trch dn nguyn vn t Hegel; n l III, 256,
khi Meyer ni v mt s nh gi nng cn v ln mt dy i, nh gi cc nhim v
chnh tr ln vi thc o ca o c thng (Hegel ni v mt trng cc c hnh
ring), b qua cc nhn t o c tht, su hn ca nh nc, v ca cc trch nhim
lch s. (iu ny tng ng chnh xc vi cc on t Hegel c trch dn ch. 12,
di y; so ct. 75 ch. 12). Ti mun nhn c hi ny mt ln na lm r l ti khng
lm ra v v t trong nh gi lch s ca ti. Tt nhin ti lm ci ti c th lm bit
chc cc s thc c lin quan. Nhng ti thc c l cc nh gi ca ti (ging ca
bt c ai khc) phi da hon ton vo quan im ca ti. Ti th nhn iu ny, mc
d ti hon ton tin vo quan im ca ti, tc l tin vo nh gi ca ti l ng.
16
So Meyer, op. cit., IV, 367.
17
298
CHNG /CH THCH -
Tuy vy phi nh rng, nh nhng k phn ng phn nn, ch n l Athens

trn b tan r. So chng c c ni n cc ct. 17, 18 v 29 ch. 4; hn na, cc ct.
13 ch. 5, 48 ch. 8, v 27-37 ch. ny.
19
Meyer bnh lun v nc i ny ca cc nh dn ch Athens: By gi khi qu
mun h tin hnh mt nc i tin ti mt hin php chnh tr ci sau ny gip
Rome .. t nn mng cho s v i ca n. Ni cch khc, thay ghi cng cho nhng
ngi Athens v pht minh ra hin php loi u tin, ng li trch mng h; v ghi
cng cho Rome, m ch ngha bo th ca n hp vi gu ca Meyer hn.
S c trong lch s Rome m Meyer m ch ti l lin minh, hay lin bang, ca Rome
vi Gabii. Nhng ngay trc, v trong chnh trang m Meyer m t lin bang ny ( V,
135) ta cng c thy: Tt c cc th ny, khi st nhp vi Rome, mt s tn ti ca
chng .. m thm ch khng c c mt t chc chnh tr thuc loi ca cc deme*
ca Attica. Mun hn mt cht, V, 147, Gabii li c ni n, v Rome trong tnh
t do ho phng ca n li c tng phn vi Athens; nhng ch r ca cng trang
Meyer tng thut m khng c bnh lun v s cp bc v s ph hu hon ton Veii
ca Rome, vic c ngha l s chm dt ca nn vn minh Etruscan.
Ti t nht c l ca tt c s ph hu Roman ny l s ph hu Carthage. N xy ra
thi im khi Carthage khng cn nguy him cho Rome, v n tc mt ca
Rome, v ca chng ta, cc ng gp c gi tr nht m Carthage c th gp cho nn
vn minh. Ti ch ni n cc kho bu to ln v thng tin a l b ph hu y.
(Chuyn suy sp ca Carthage l khng khc s suy sp ca Athens nm 404 trc
C.N., c tho lun di y ch. ny; xem ct. 48. Cc u s ca Carthage thch s
suy sp ca thnh ph ca h hn thng li ca nn dn ch).
Mun hn, di nh hng ca ch ngha Stoic, xut pht gin tip t Antisthenes,
Rome bt u by t mt cch nhn rt t do v nhn o. N t nh cao ca s pht
trin ny cc th k ho bnh sau Augustus (so th d Toynbee, A Study of History, V,
pp. 343-346), song chnh y vi s gia lng mn thy khi u v s suy sp ca n.
V bn thn s suy tn ny, tt nhin, l ngy th v lng mn i tin, nh nhiu ngi
vn tin, l do s thoi ho m ho bnh lin tc lu di gy ra, hay do suy i o c,
hay do tnh u vit ca cc dn tc man r tr hn, v.v.; tm li, do n qu nhiu. (So ct.
45 (3) ch. 4). Kt qu tn ph ca bnh dch bo lc (so H. Zinsser, Rats, Lice, and
History, 1937, pp. 131 ff.) v s vt kit t ai khng c kim sot v tng khng
ngng, v vi n l s tan v ca c s nng nghip ca h thng kinh t Roman (so V.
G. Simkhovitch, Hay and History, v Romes Fall Reconsidered, trong Towards the
Understanding of Jesus, 1927), c v c vi nguyn nhn chnh. So c W. Hegemann,
Entlarvte Geschichte (1934).
20
Thucydides, VII, 28. So Meyer, op. cit., IV, 535. Nhn xt quan trng rng iu
ny s sinh li nhiu hn, tt nhin, cho php chng ta nh mt gii hn trn cho t l
gia thu c p trc v khi lng thng mi.
21
y l mt m ch n s chi ch ngn c nghit m ti c nh P. Milford: Ch
Ti phit c a hn Ch cp bc = A Plutocracy is preferable to a Lootocracy.
22
Plato, Republic, 423b. V vn gi quy m dn s khng i, so ct. 7 trn.
23
So Meyer, Geschichte des Altertums, IV, 577.
18
s chia nh lnh th ca Attica (c ca Hy Lp hin i) tng ng vi th trn.
CHNG /CH THCH -
299
Op. cit., V, 27. So c ct. 9 ch. ny, v vn bn cho ct. 30 ch. 4. *V on t

Laws, xem 742a-c. y Plato bn chi tit v thi Spartan. N ra mt lut cm
cc c nhn s hu vng hay bc .. Cc cng dn ca chng ta ch c php c cc
ng nh vy vi t cch l ng tin hp php gia chng ta, nhng v gi tr ni
khc. .. Cho mc ch ca mt lc lng vin chinh, hay thm chnh thc ra nc ngoi,
nh cc s qun hay cc cuc i cng tc cn thit khc .. tt yu l nh nc lun phi
c tin (vng) c Hellenic. V nu mt c nhn cng dn c bao gi buc phi ra nc
ngoi, anh ta c th lm vy, min l anh ta nhn c php thch ng t cc quan a
phng. V khi tr li, nu cn bt c tin nc ngoi no, th phi np li cho nh
nc, v chp nhn lng tin trong nc tng ng. V nu thy bt c ai gi n,
th b tch thu, v ngi nhp khu n, v bt c ai bit m khng t gic anh ta, phi
b nguyn ra v ln n, v ngoi ra, b pht khng t hn s tin b lin lu. c on
ny, ta ngc nhin liu ta c lm hi Plato khng khi m t ng nh mt k phn ng
sao chp cc lut ca th ton tr Sparta; v y ng thy trc hn 2000 nm cc
nguyn l v thng l m ngy nay gn nh c chp nhn mt cch ph qut nh
chnh sch lnh mnh bi hu ht cc chnh ph dn ch Ty u tin b (ging Plato,
h hi vng rng chnh ph khc no s lo v ng tin vng Hellenic Ph qut).
Mt on mun hn (Laws, 950d), tuy vy, c t v t do Ty phng hn. Th
nht, khng n ng no di 40 tui c php i ra bt c ni no nc ngoi. Th
hai, khng ai nhn c php nh vy vi t cch c nhn: vi t cch cng, giy php
ch c th cp cho cc s gi, cc i s, v cho cc cng v thanh tra nht nh .. V
nhng ngi ny, sau khi tr v nc, s dy thanh nin rng cc th ch chnh tr ca
cc nc khc l km hn [th ch chnh tr] ca ring h.
Cc lut tng t c a ra n tip nhng ngi l. V s lin thng gia cc
quc gia tt yu dn n s pha ln c tnh .. v du nhp cc tp qun mi; v iu ny
hn gy ra tai hi ln nht cho ngi dn hng .. cc lut ng n (949e/950a).*
25
iu ny c Meyer (op. cit., IV, 433 f.) th nhn, mt on rt l th ng ni
v hai ng: mi ng u cho rng n bo v nh nc gia trng .., v rng i th
b nhim t tng hin i v tnh ch k v bo lc cch mng. Trong thc t, c hai
u b nhim. .. Cc tp qun truyn thng v tn gio bn r su hn ng dn ch;
cc k th qu tc ca n nhng ngi chin u di ngn c phc hi cc thi k c
xa, c .. hin i ho hon ton. So c op. cit., V, 4 f., 14, v ct. tip.
26
T Athenian Constitution ca Aristotle, ch. 34, 3, ta bit l Ba mi Bo cha
u tin by t ci vi Aristotle t ra l mt chng trnh n ho, tc l cng lnh v
nh nc gia trng. - V ch ngha h v v tnh hin i ca Cristias, so l thuyt
tn gio ca ng c bn lun ch. 8 (xem c bit ct. 17 ch. ) v ct. 48 ch. ny.
27
L th nht i tng phn thi i vi nim tin mi ca Sophocles vi thi
ca Euripides. Sophocles than phin (so Meyer, op. cit., IV, III): Sai l .. ngi bm
sinh hn mn li thnh vng, cn ngi bm sinh can m v cao thng li khng
may. Euripides tr li (vi Antiphon; so ct. 13 ch. 5) rng s phn bit gia ngi
bm sinh cao thng v hn mn (c bit cc n l) ch thun tu l li ni: Ring ci
tn gy ra ni nhc ln n l. -V yu t nhn o ch ngha Thucydides, so trch dn
ct. 12 ch. ny. V vn Th h V i lin h n u vi cc xu hng th gii
ch ngha, xem chng c c lit k ct. 48 ch. 8- c bit cc nhn chng th ch,
tc l u s C, Plato, v Aristotle.
24
300
CHNG /CH THCH -
Misologist, hay ngi ght l l duy l, c Socrates so vi misantrophist, hay

ngi ght ngi; so Phaedo, 89c. Tri li, so nhn xt ght ngi ca Plato trong
Republic, 496c-d (so cc ct. 57 v 58 ch. 8).
29
Cc trch dn on vn ny l t cc on ca Democritus, Diels, Vorsokratiker5,
cc on s 41; 179; 34; 261; 62; 55; 251; 247 (tnh xc thc b Diels v Tarn nghi ng,
so ct. 48 ch. 8); 118.
30
So vn bn cho ct. 16, ch. 6.
31
So Thucydides, II, 37-41. So c cc nhn xt ch. 16 ch. 6.
32
So T. Gomperz, Greek Thinkers, Book V, ch. 13, 3 (Germ. ed., II, 407).
33
Cng trnh ca Herodotus vi xu hng ng h dn ch ca n (so, th d, III, 80)
xut hin khong mt hay hai nm sau din thuyt ca Parmenides (So Meyer, Gesch. d.
Altertums, IV, 369).
34
iu ny c th d T. Gomperz, Greek Thinkers, V, 13, 2 (Germ. ed., II, 406 f.)
ch ra; cc on Republic m ng lu l: 557d v 561c, ff. S ging nhau r rng l
c . So c Republic ln xut bn ca Adam, vol. II, 235, ct. cho 557d26. Xem c Laws,
699d/e, ff., v 704d-707d. V quan st tng t v Herodotus III, 80, xem ct. 17 ch. 6.
35
Vi ngi cho rng Menexenus l gi, song ti tin iu ny ch cho thy xu hng l
tng ho Plato ca h. Menexenus c Aristotle xc nhn, ng trch mt nhn xt t
n nh mn n i vi Socrates ca i thoi m Tang (Rhetoric, I, 9, 30 = 1367b8;
v III, 14, 11= 1415b30). Xem c bit c cui ca ct. 19 ch. 6; c ct. 48 ch. 8 v
cc ct. 15 (1) v 61 ch. ny.
36
Constitution of Athens ca u s C (hay ca Xenophon gi) c xut bn nm
424 trc C.N. (theo Kirchhoff, c Gomperz trch dn, Greek Thinkers, Germ. ed., I,
477). V s quy n cho Cristias, so J. E. Sandys, Aristotles Constitution of Athens, Dn
nhp X, c bit ct. 3. Xem c cc ct 18 v 48 ch. ny. nh hng ca n ln
Thucydides, ti ngh, l c th thy r cc on c trch trong cc ct. 10 v 11 ch.
ny. V nh hng ca n ln Plato, xem c bit ct. 59 ch. 8, v Laws, 704a-707d.
(So Aristotle, Politics, 1326b-1327a; Cicero, De Republica, II, 3 v 4).
37
Ti m ch n cun No Compromise The Conflict between Two Worlds (1939)
ca M. M. Rader, mt ph phn xut sc v thc h ca ch ngha pht xt.
Vi m ch, mun hn on vn ny, n cnh bo ca Socrates chng s ght
ngi v ght l l duy l, so ct. 28 trn.
38
* (1) V l thuyt c th c gi l pht minh t duy ph phn ct nn tng ca
mt truyn thng mi - truyn thng tho lun cc huyn thoi v l thuyt truyn thng
mt cch ph phn xem Towards a Rational Theory of Tradition, The Rationalist
Annuals, 1949 ca ti; by gi trong Conjectures and Refutations. (Ch mt truyn
thng mi nh vy mi c th gii thch s thc rng, Trng Ionian, ba th h to ra
ba trit l khc nhau).*
(2) Cc trng (c bit cc i hc) vn gi cc kha cnh no ca ch ngha b
lc sut t . Nhng ta phi ngh khng ch v cc biu tng ca chng, hay v Mi
Rng buc Trung thnh vi tt c cc mi quan h x hi mt thit v ng cp, v.v, m
c v c tnh gia trng v c on ca rt nhiu trng. Khng phi ch ngu nhin
m Plato, khi tht bi ti lp ch ngha b lc, thay vo lp mt trng hc;
cng chng ngu nhin l cc trng hc rt thng xuyn l cc thnh lu phn ng,
v cc thy gio ging ht cc k c ti.
Nh mt minh ho v c tnh b lc ca cc trng hc ban u ny, ti a ra
y mt danh mc cc cm k ca cc nh Pythagorean ban u. (Danh mc l t Early
28
CHNG /CH THCH 2
301
5
Greek Philosophy ca Burnet, 106, ng ly t Diels; so Vorsokratiker , vol. I, pp. 97

ff.; nhng xem c chng c ca Aristoxenus op. cit., p. 101). Burnet ni v cc cm
k tht thuc loi hon ton nguyn thu. King u. Khng nht ln ci b ri.
Khng s g trng trng. Khng b gy bnh m. Khng bc ln mt thanh ngang.
Khng ci la bng st. Khng n c bnh m. Khng vt vng hoa. Khng
ngi ln mt ci u. Khng n tim.- Khng do chi trn quc l. Khng chim
nhn lm t trn mi nh. Khi nhc ni khi la, ng vt ni trn tro, m khuy
chng vi nhau. Khng nhn vo gng bn cnh ngun sng. Khi dy khi b tri
ging, cun chng li v lm phng du thn th trn chng.
39
Mt s tng ng l th vi s pht trin ny l s ph hu ch ngha b lc qua
cc cuc xm chim Ba t. Cch mng x hi ny dn, nh Meyer ch ra (op. cit.,
vol. III, 167 ff.), n s ni ln ca mt lot cc tn gio tin tri, tc theo thut ng ca
chng ta l lch s ch ngha, v s phn, s thoi ho, v cu ri linh hn, gia chng
l cc tn gio v dn tc c chn, nhng ngi Do Thi (so ch. 1).
Mt s tn gio ny cng c c trng bi hc thuyt rng s to ra th gii vn
cha kt thc, m vn ang tip din. iu ny phi c so snh vi quan nim Hy
Lp ban u v th gii nh mt dinh th v vi s ph hu Heraclitean ca quan nim
ny, c m t ch. 2 (xem ct. 1 ch. ). C th nhc n y rng ngay c
Anaximander cm thy kh chu v dinh th. S nhn mnh ca ng n c tnh bao la
hay v hn hay khng gii hn ca vt liu xy dng c th l biu l mt cm gic l
dinh th c th khng c khung xc nh, rng n c th trong dng chy (so ct. tip).
Din bin ca cc huyn b Dionysian v Orphic Hy Lp c l ph thuc vo s m
rng tn gio phng ng (so Herodotus, II, 81). Thuyt Pythagoras, nh nhiu ngi
bit, c nhiu ci chung vi gio hun Orphic, c bit v l thuyt linh hn (xem c ct.
44 di y). Song thuyt Pythagoras c v qu tc r rng, tri vi gio hun Orphic
i din cho mt dng kiu v sn ca phong tro ny. Meyer (op. cit., III, p. 428,
246) c l ng khi m t khi u ca trit hc nh mt dng nc ngc duy l chng
li phong tro thn b; so thi ca Heraclitus v cc vn ny (on 5, 14, 15; v
40, 129, Diels5; 124-129; v 16-17, Bywater). ng ght cc iu thn b v Pythagoras;
nh Pythagorean Plato coi khinh cc iu thn b. (Rep., 364e, f.; so tuy vy Ph lc IV
ca Adam cho Quyn IX ca Republic, vol. II, 378 ff., ln xut bn ca ng).
40
V Anaximander (so ct. trn), xem Diels5, on 9: Ngun gc ca cc th .. l bn
cht v nh (hay v hn) no ; .. t cc th m t cc s vt hin tn sinh ra,
chng li tan r thnh cc th ny, do tt yu. V chng sm hi vi nhau v s phm ti
(hay bt cng) ca chng, do vi trt t thi gian. Rng s tn ti ring hin ra vi
Anaximander nh s bt cng l din gii ca Gomperz (Greek Thinkers, Germ. ed.,
vol. I, p. 46; lu nt ging nhau vi l thuyt v cng bng ca Plato); nhng din gii
ny b ph phn gay gt.
41
Parmenides l ngi u tin tm s cu ri ca mnh t cng thng bng din gii
c m ca ng v th gii b ngng nh mt tit l ca thc ti tht, v th gii thay
i trong ng sng nh mt gic m. Ci tn ti tht l v hnh. N lun l ci ton
th tch hp, khng bao gi thot khi trt t ca n; khng bao gi tn mc, v nh th
khng cn ti-thng nht. (D5, on 4). V Parmenides, so c ct. 22 ch. 3, v vn bn.
42
So ct. 9 ch. ny (v ct. 7 ch. 5).
43
So Meyer, Geschichte des Altertums, III, 443, v IV, 120 f.
44
J. Burnet, The Socratic Doctrine of Soul, Proceedings of the British Academy,
VIII (1915/16), 235 ff. Ti y ny hn nhn mnh s ng mt phn ny v ti
302
CHNG /CH THCH -
khng th ng vi Burnet v hu ht cc l thuyt khc ca ng, c bit cc th lin

quan n cc mi quan h ca Socrates vi Plato; c bit kin ca ng rng trong hai
ngi th Socrates l phn ng hn v mt chnh tr (Greek Philosophy, I, 210) vi ti
t ra khng th ng vng. So ct. 56 ch. ny.
V hc thuyt Socratic v tm hn, ti tin l Burnet ng trong khng nh rng chm
ngn hy lo n linh hn mi l Socratic; v chm ngn ny by t mi quan tm o
c ca Socrates. Song ti ngh rt t c kh nng l Socrates gi bt k l thuyt siu
hnh hc no v linh hn. Cc l thuyt ca Phaedo, Republic, v.v., i vi ti c v r
rng l Pythagorean. (V l thuyt Orphic-Pythagorean rng th xc l m ca linh hn,
so Adam, Ph lc IV cho Quyn IX ca Republic; xem c ct. 39 ch. ny). V cn c
vo tuyn b r ca Socrates Apology, 19c, rng ng chng c dnh dng g vi cc
th nh vy (tc l vi cc suy on v t nhin; xem ct. 56 (5) ch. ny), ti rt
khng ng vi kin ca Burnet rng Socrates l mt nh Pythagorean; v c vi
kin l ng c bt c hc thuyt siu hnh hc xc nh no v bn cht ca linh hn.
Ti tin rng chm ngn ca Socrates hy lo n linh hn mi l mt biu l ca ch
ngha c nhn o c (v tr tu) ca ng. Vi hc thuyt ca ng c chng thc
rt nhiu nh l thuyt c nhn ch ngha ca ng v s c lp o c ca ngi c
c hnh. (Xem chng c c ni n cc ct. 25 ch. 5 v 36 ch. 6). Nhng iu
ny c lin quan cht nht vi tng biu l trong cu hy lo n linh hn mi. Trong
nhn mnh v tnh c lp, Socrates mun ni: Chng c th ph hu th xc anh, song
chng khng th ph hu tnh ton vn o c ca anh. Nu ci sau l mi lo chnh ca
anh, chng thc t khng th gy ra thit hi nghim trng no cho anh.
Dng nh Plato, khi quen vi l thuyt siu hnh hc Pythagorean v linh hn, cm
thy l thi o c ca Socrates cn mt nn tng siu hnh hc, c bit l thuyt
v sng st. V th ng thay chng khng th ph hu tnh ton vn o c ca anh
bng tng v tnh khng th ph hu c ca linh hn. (So c cc ct. 9 f. ch. 7).
Chng li din gii ca ti, c cc nh siu hnh hc ln cc nh thc chng c th
cho l khng th c tng o c v phi siu hnh hc nh th v linh hn nh ti
quy cho Socrates, v bt c cch ni no v linh hn u l siu hnh hc. Ti khng
ngh mnh c nhiu hi vng thuyt phc cc nh siu hnh hc Platonic; song ti s c
cho cc nh thc chng (hay duy vt) thy l h cng tin vo mt linh hn, theo ngha
rt ging ci m ti quy cho Socrates, v hu ht h nh gi linh hn cao hn th xc.
u tin, ngay c cc nh thc chng c th tha nhn l c th a ra s phn bit
hon ton kinh nghim v c ngha, tuy hi khng chnh xc, gia cc bnh th
xc v tm l. Thc ra, s phn bit ny c tm quan trng ng k cho vic t chc
cc bnh vin, v.v. (Rt c th mt ngy no c th c thay bng ci g chnh
xc hn, song li l vn khc). M hu ht chng ta, ngay c cc nh thc chng,
s, nu phi chn, thch mt bnh nh v th xc hn l mt bnh in nh. V li ngay
c cc nh thc chng c l a mt bnh ko di v cui cng khng cha c v th
xc (min l khng qu au, v.v.) hn mt bnh in khng th cha c cng di th,
v c l thm ch hn mt thi k in c th cha c. Theo cch ny, ti tin, ta c th
ni m khng dng cc thut ng siu hnh hc rng h lo cho tm hn h hn th
xc h. (So Phaedo, 82d: h lo cho tm hn h v khng l n l ca th xc h; xem
c Apology, 29d-30b). V cch ni ny c th kh c lp vi bt c l thuyt no h c
th c v tm hn; cho d h xc nhn, phn tch cui, n ch l mt phn ca th
xc, v mi bnh in ch l bnh th xc, th kt lun ca ta vn ng. (C th dn n
ci g ging th ny: h nh gi u c h cao hn cc phn khc ca thn th h).
CHNG /CH THCH -
303
By gi c th tip tc cn nhc tng t v tng tm hn ci cn gn hn vi

nim Socratic. Nhiu ngi chng ta sn sng chu gian kh th xc ng k v cc mc
ch thun tu tr tu. Ta, th d, sn sng chu ng thc y hiu bit khoa hc; v
cng thc y s pht trin tr tu ca ring chng ta, tc l t s sng sut.
(V thuyt duy l tr ca Socrates, so th d Crito, 44d/e, v 47b). C th ni cc th
tng t v thc y cc mc ch o c, th d, cng l bnh ng, ho bnh, v.v. (So
Crito, 47e/48a, ni Socrates gii thch ng hiu tm hn l phn ca ta c ci thin
bi cng bng v b suy i bi bt cng). V nhiu ngi chng ta s ni, cng vi
Socrates, rng cc th ny vi ta l quan trng hn cc th nh sc kho, cho d ta u
mun kho mnh. V nhiu ngi thm ch ng vi Socrates rng kh nng chp
nhn mt thi nh vy l ci lm cho ta t ho l ngi, ch khng l sc vt.
Ti tin, c th ni tt c iu ny m khng c dn chiu no n mt l thuyt siu
hnh hc v bn cht ca tm hn. V ti khng thy l do v sao ta phi quy mt l
thuyt nh vy cho Socrates i din vi tuyn b r rng ca ng l ng chng dnh lu
g n cc suy on thuc loi .
45
Gorgias, m ti tin, mt phn l Socratic (tuy cc yu t Pythagorean m
Gomperz lu chng t, ti tin, rng ch yu l Platonic; so ct. 56 ch. ny), Plato
t vo ming Socrates mt tn cng ln cc cng v xng tu v thnh quch ca
Athens, v ln cng np hay thu p ln cc ng minh ca n. Cc cng kch ny,
nh chng c, chc chn l ca Plato, ci c th gii thch v sao chng nghe rt ging
ca cc u s. Song ti ngh rt c th l Socrates c th a ra cc nhn xt tng
t, trong s lo u ca ng nhn mnh cc th, theo ng, c ngha nht. Song ng
c th, ti tin, gh tm tng rng ph phn o c ca ng c th tr thnh tuyn
truyn u s phn bi chng li x hi m, v c bit, chng li i din ca n,
Athens. (V vn trung thnh ca Socrates, so c bit ct. 53 ch. ny, v vn bn).
46
Cc nhn vt in hnh, cc tc phm ca Plato, l Callicles v Thrasymachus. V
mt lch s, s th hin ging nht c l l Theramenes v Cristias; Alcibiades na, m
tnh nt v vic lm ca ng, l rt kh nh gi.
47
Cc nhn xt sau mang tnh suy on cao v khng lin quan ti cc l l ca ti.
Ti coi nh c th l, c s ca Alcibiades I l s chuyn i ring ca Plato bi
Socrates, tc l i thoi ny Plato c th chn nhn vt Alcibiades che giu chnh
mnh. C th c s khch l mnh i vi ng k chuyn v s chuyn i ca
ng; v Socrates, khi b kt ti chu trch nhim v cc hnh ng xu ca Alcibiades,
Cristias, v Charmides (xem di y), dn chiu, trong li ci ca ng trc to,
n Plato nh mt tm gng sng, v nh mt nhn chng, v nh hng gio dc tht
s ca ng. C v khng phi khng chc l Plato vi s thi thc ca ng n li
chng vn hc cm thy l ng phi k chuyn v quan h ca Socrates vi bn thn
ng, mt chuyn m ng khng th k trc to (so Taylor, Socrates, ct. 1 cho p. 105).
Bng dng tn Alcibiades v hon cnh c bit quanh ng (th d cc m c chnh tr
ca ng rt c th ging vi cc c m ca Plato trc chuyn i) ng c th t mc
ch bin gii ca ng (so vn bn cho cc ct. 49-50) chng t nh hng o c ca
Socrates ni chung, v c bit ln Alcibiades, l rt khc ci m nhng k khi t ng
coi l. Ti ngh khng phi khng chc Charmides cng, ch yu, l mt chn dung t
ho. (Khng phi khng l th lu l bn thn Plato tri qua cc chuyn i
tng t, song chng mc ta c th nh gi, theo mt cch khc; khng my bi s
quyn r o c c nhn trc tip, m ng hn bi mt gio hun ch nh ca ton
hc Pythagorean, nh mt iu kin tin quyt cho trc gic bin chng v nim ci
304
CHNG /CH THCH -
Tt. So cu chuyn v s chuyn i c th ca ng i vi Dionysius tr). V

Alcibiades I v cc vn lin quan, xem Plato ca Grote, I, c bit cc pp. 351-355.
48
So Meyer, Geschichte des Altertums, V, 38 (v Hellenica ca Xenophon, II, 4, 22).
cng tp, cc pp. 19-23 v 36-44 (xem c bit p. 36) c th thy tt c bng chng
cn thit cho bin minh din gii a ra vn bn. Cambridge Ancient History (1927,
vol. V; so c bit pp. 369 ff.) cho mt din gii rt ging v cc s kin.
C th ni thm l s cc cng dn y b Ba mi Bo cha git trong tm thng
khng b c l n gn 1.500, chng mc chng ta bit, con s ny khng my t hn
mt phn mi (c l khong 8 phn trm) ca s cng dn y cn li sau chin
tranh, hay 1 phn trm mt thng- mt thnh tch thm ch ngy nay kh b vt qua.
Taylor vit v Ba mi bo cha (Socrates, Short Biographies, 1937, p. 100, ct. 1):
Tht ng nh rng nhng ngi ny c l mt bnh tnh di s cm d do
tnh th ca h by ra. Cristias trc kia c bit n nh mt ngi c vn ho rng
m cc thin hng chnh tr ca ng dt khot l dn ch. Ti tin rng n lc ny
ti thiu ho trch nhim ca chnh ph b nhn, v c bit ca ngi cu yu du ca
Plato, phi sai. Chng ta bit r ci ngh v cc tnh cm dn ch ngn ngi do cc
qu tc tr by t trong nhng ngy cc dp thch hp. Ngoi ra, cha ca Cristias
(so Meyer, vol. IV, p. 579, v Lys., 12, 43, v 12, 66), v c l bn thn Cristias,
thuc v tp on Bn Trm u s; v cc tc phm vn cn ca Cristias cho thy cc
thin hng phn bi ng h Spartan cng nh cch nhn u s ca ng (so, th d
Diels5, 45) v ch ngha h v thng thng ca ng (so ct. 17 ch. 8) v tham vng ca
ng (so Diels5, 15; so c Memorabilia ca Xenophon, I, 2, 24; v Hellenica ca ng, II,
3, 36 v 47). Song im quyt nh l ng n gin th cho n tng nht qun i vi
chng trnh ca u s C, tc gi ca Constitution of Athens gi-Xenophonic (so ct.
36 ch. ny): xo b nn dn ch; v a ra mt n lc kin quyt lm vy vi s
gip ca Sparta, nu Athens b nh bi. Mc bo lc c dng l kt qu logic
ca tnh th. N khng ng l Cristias mt bnh tnh; ng hn, ng bit rt k v cc
kh khn, tc l v sc mnh khng c vn kinh khng ca nhng ngi dn ch.
Meyer, m s ng cm ln ca ng cho Dionysius I chng minh rng t nht ng
khng c nh kin chng li cc bo cha, ni v Cristias (op. cit., V, p. 17), sau mt
phc ho v s nghip chnh tr c hi n kinh ngc ca ng, rng ng v lng tm
ht nh Lysander, ngi Spartan-k xm chim, v v th l ngi ng u ph hp
ca chnh ph b nhn ca Lysander.
Dng nh i vi ti c s ging nhau ni bt gia cc c tnh ca Cristias, ngi
lnh, nh duy m, thi s, v bn a nghi ca Socrates, v ca Frederick II ca Ph, c
gi l i , ngi cng l mt ngi lnh, mt nh duy m, mt thi s, v hc tr a
nghi ca Voltaire, cng nh mt trong cc bo cha ti t nht v cc k p bc tn
nhn nht trong lch s cn i. (V Frederick, so W. Hegemann, Entlarvte Geschichte,
1934; xem c bit p. 90 v thi ca ng vi tn gio, gi nh thi ca Cristias).
49
im ny c gii thch rt hay bi Taylor, Socrates, Short Biographies, 1937, p.
103, y ng theo ct. ca Burnet cho Euthyphro ca Plato, 4c, 4. - Ch c mt im ti
cm thy c trch i, tuy ch mt cht xu, khi lun bn xut sc ca Taylor (op. cit.,
103, 120) v phin to x Socrates l s din gii v cc xu hng ca li buc ti, c
bit ca li buc ti v a cc tp qun tn gio mi vo (op. cit., 109 v 111 f.).
50
Chng c chng t iu ny c th thy Socrates ca Taylor, 113-115; so c
bit 115, ct. 1, ni Aeschines, I, 173, c trch dn: Cc ng em git Socrates v
thy ng dy Cristias.
CHNG /CH THCH -
305
Chnh sch ca Ba mi bo cha l ko cng nhiu ngi vo cc hnh ng

khng b ca h cng tt; so cc nhn xt xut sc ca Taylor Socrates, 101 f. (c
bit ct. 3 cho p. 101). V Chaerephon, xem ct. 56, (5) e6, ch. ny.
52
Nh Crossman v cc ngi khc tin; so Crossman, Plato To-Day, 91/92. V im
ny ti ng vi Taylor, Socrates, 116; xem c cc ct. 1 v 2 ca ng cho trang .
Rng k hoch truy t khng phi bin Socrates thnh mt k t v o; rng vic
xt x c th trnh c, hay c gii quyt khc i, gi nh Socrates sn sng
tho hip, tc l ri khi Athens, hay thm ch ha s im lng, tt c cc iu ny dng
nh kh r cn c vo cc m ch ca Plato (hay Socrates) Apology cng nh Crito.
(So Crito, 45e v c bit 52b/c, ni Socrates ni rng ng c th c php di c gi
nh ng t mun lm vy phin to).
53
So c bit Crito, 53b/c, ni Socrates gii thch rng, gi nh nu ng chp nhn c
hi chy trn, ng s xc nhn cc thm phn ca ng v nim tin ca h; v ng ngi
lm h lut php chc cng lm h hng thanh nin.
Apology v Crito c l c vit khng lu sau ci cht ca Socrates. Crito (c l sm
hn Apology) c l c vit theo yu cu ca Socrates rng cc ng c ca ng v t
chi chy trn phi mi ngi bit. Qu thc, mt mong mun nh vy c th l s
cm hng u tin ca cc i thoi Socratic. T. Gomperz (Greek Thinkers, V, 11, 1,
Germ. ed., II, 358) tin l Crito l tc phm mun hn v gii thch xu hng ca n
bng gi s rng chnh Plato l ngi lo lng nhn mnh lng trung thnh ca ng.
Gomperz vit chng ta khng bit tnh th trc tip nh m c i thoi nh ny;
nhng kh cng li n tng rng y Plato l ngi quan tm nht n bo v
bn thn ng v nhm ca ng chng li s b nghi ng v nui dng cc quan im
phn ng. Mc d gi ca Gomperz c th d khp vo din gii chung ca ti v
quan im ca Plato, ti cm thy rng Crito chc l bo v ca Socrates nhiu hn l
ca Plato. Song ti ng vi Gomperz v xu hng ca n. Socrates chc chn c mi
quan tm ln nht v t bo v mnh chng li mt s nghi ng c th lm nguy hi n
s nghip c i ca ng. V din gii ni dung ca Crito ny, ti li ng hon
ton vi Taylor (Socrates, 124 f.). Song lng trung thnh ca Crito v s tri ngc vi
s khng trung thnh hin nhin ca Republic ng v pha Sparta kh cng khai chng
li Athens dng nh bc b quan im ca Burnet v Taylor cho rng Republic l
Socratic, v Socrates phn i dn ch mnh hn Plato. (So ct. 56 ch. ny).
V s xc nhn ca Socrates v lng trung thnh ca ng vi dn ch, so c bit cc
on sau ca Crito: 51d/e, ni c tnh dn ch ca lut c nhn mnh, tc l kh
nng cng dn c th thay i lut, bng l l duy l m khng c bo lc (nh Socrates
din t, ng c th c thuyt phc lut); 52b, f., ni Socrates khng nh rng ng
khng c bt ho vi hin php Athenian; 53c/d, ni ng m t khng ch c hnh v
cng l m c bit cc nh ch v cc lut (ca Athens) nh cc th tt nht gia con
ngi; 54c, ni ng ni rng ng c th l nn nhn ca mt s ngi, nhng khng
nh rng ng khng l nn nhn ca lut.
Cn c vo tt c cc on ny (v c bit Apology, 32c; so ct. 8 ch. 7), ti tin,
chng ta phi tr hao mt on nhn rt khc, c th l 52e, ni Socrates bng ng ca
ngi hin php ca Sparta v Crete. c bit xt 52b/c, ni Socrates ni rng ng khng
t m bit cc quc gia khc hay lut ca h, ta c th b cm d gi rng nhn
xt v Sparta v Crete 52e l mt s t thm t vo on vn, do ai a vo
ngi c gng ho gii Crito vi cc tc phm mun hn, c bit vi Republic. D
c nh th hay d on l mt on Platonic thm vo hay khng, c v cc k khng
51
306
CHNG /CH THCH -
chc n l Socratic. Ta ch cn nh n mi lo ca Socrates ng lm bt c g c th

c din gii nh ng h Sparta, mt mi lo m ta bit v n t Anabasis, III, 1, 5 ca
Xenophon. Chng ta c thy Socrates s rng ng (tc bn ng, Xenophon tr mt con cu en tr) c th b li l khng trung thnh; v Cyrus c bit l
gip nhng ngi Spartan trong chin tranh chng Athens. (on ny chc chn t
ng ng hn nhiu so vi Memorabilia; khng c nh hng no ca Plato y, v
Xenophon thc s kt ti mnh, bng ng , v vic coi qu nh ngha v ca ng
vi t nc, v ng b trc xut, c ni n op. cit., V, 3, 7, v VII, 7, 57).
54
Apology, 30e/31a.
55
Cc Platonist, tt nhin, u ng vi Taylor ngi ni cu cui cng ca
Socrates ca ng: Socrates ch c mt ngi ni nghip Plato. Ch Grote c v i
khi c quan im ging cc quan im c nu trong vn bn; ci ng ni, th d,
on c trch y trong ct. 21 ch. 7 (xem c ct. 15 ch. 8) c th c din gii
ch t nh mt biu l s nghi ng liu Plato khng phn bi Socrates hay khng.
Grote lm rt r l Republic (khng ch Laws) c th cung cp c s l thuyt cho vic
kt ti Socrates ca Apology, v rng Socrates ny chng bao gi c khoan dung
nh nc tt nht ca Plato. V thm ch ng ch ra l l thuyt ca Plato ph hp vi s
i x thc tin c Ba mi bo cha a ra i vi Socrates. (Mt th d chng t
rng s xuyn tc gio hun ca thy bi hc tr l chuyn c th thnh cng, ngay d
l thy vn cn sng, ni ting, v cng khai phn i, c th thy ct. 58 ch. 12).
V cc nhn xt v Laws, nu ra mun hn on vn ny, xem c bit cc on t
Laws c ni n cc ct. 19-23 ch. 8. Ngay c Taylor, m kin ca ng v cc
vn ny l ngc hon ton vi kin c trnh by y (xem c ct. tip), cng
th nhn: Ngi u tin xut coi cc kin sai v thn hc l mt s vi phm
chng nh nc, l bn thn Plato, Cun mi ca Laws. (Taylor, op. cit., 108, ct. 1).
Trong vn bn, ti tng phn c bit Apology v Crito ca Plato vi Laws ca ng.
L do cho la chn ny l gn nh mi ngi, ngay c Burnet v Taylor (xem ct. tip),
thng nht rng Apology v Crito trnh by hc thuyt Socratic, v rng Laws c th
c m t nh Platonic. V th i vi ti c v rt kh hiu lm sao Burnet v
Taylor li c th bo v kin ca h rng thi ca Socrates i vi dn ch l th
ch hn ca Plato. ( kin ny c din t Greek Philosophy ca Burnet, I, 209 f.,
v Socrates ca Taylor, 150 f., v 170 f.). Ti khng thy n lc no bo v cch
nhn ny v Socrates, ngi chin u v t do (so c bit ct. 53 ch. ny) v
cht v n, v v Plato, ngi vit Laws.
Burnet v Taylor gi quan im l lng ny v h bm theo kin l Republic l
Socratic v khng phi l Platonic; v v c th ni rng Republic l t phn dn ch hn
Statesman v Laws Platonic mt cht. Song s khc bit gia Republic v Statesman
cng nh Laws qu thc l rt nh, c bit nu xem xt khng ch cc cun u ca
Laws m c cun cui; thc ra, s thng nht v hc thuyt l kh gn hn ta c th
mong i hai quyn tch ri nhau t nht mt thp nin, v c l ba thp nin hay hn,
v hu ht s khc nhau l v tnh kh v phong cch (xem ct. 6 ch. 4, v nhiu ch
khc quyn sch ny ni s ging nhau, nu khng l s ng nht, gia cc hc
thuyt ca Laws v Republic c ch ra). Khng c mt cht kh khn ni ti no
cho rng c Republic v Laws l Platonic; song s th nhn ring ca Burnet v Taylor
l, l thuyt ca h dn n kt lun rng Socrates khng ch l mt k th ca dn ch
m thm ch mt k th ln hn Plato, cho thy iu kh khn nu khng phi iu phi
CHNG /CH THCH -
307
l ca cch nhn ca h rng khng ch Apology v Crito l Socratic m Republic cng

vy. V tt c cc vn ny, xem c ct. tip, v Ph lc, III, B(2), di y.
56
Ti hu nh khng cn ni rng cu ny l mt n lc tng kt din gii ca ti
v vai tr lch s ca l thuyt v cng l ca Plato (v tht bi o c ca Ba mi bo
cha, so Hellenica ca Xenophon, II, 4, 40-42); v c bit ca cc hc thuyt chnh tr
ch yu ca Republic; mt din gii th gii thch cc mu thun gia cc i thoi ban
u, c bit Gorgias, v Republic, ny sinh t s khc bit cn bn gia quan im ca
Socrates v quan im ca Plato mun hn. Tm quan trng ct yu ca vn thng
c gi l Vn Socratic c th bin minh y cho ti i vo mt tranh lun di
dng v mt phn v phng php lun.
(1) Li gii c hn ca Vn Socratic gi s rng mt nhm ca cc i thoi
Platonic, c bit Apology v Crito, l Socratic (tc l, v mt lch s ch yu l ng,
v c nh l nh vy) cn a s i thoi l Platonic, bao gm c nhiu i thoi
trong Socrates l ngi pht ngn chnh, th d nh Phaedo v Republic. Cc bc lo
luyn gi hn bin minh cho quan im ny thng bng dn chiu n mt nhn
chng c lp, Xenophon, v bng ch ra s ging nhau gia Socrates Xenophonic v
Socrates ca nhm cc i thoi Socratic, v nhng khc bit gia Socrates
Xenophonic v Socrates ca nhm cc i thoi Platonic. L thuyt siu hnh hc v
cc Hnh thc hay nim, c bit hn, thng c coi l Platonic.
(2) Chng li quan im ny, J. Burnet, c A. E. Taylor ng h, m mt cuc
tn cng. Burnet ln n l l trn li gii c hn (nh ti gi n) l vng vo v
khng thuyt phc. Khng vng, ng cho l, chn mt nhm cc i thoi ch bi v
l thuyt v cc Hnh thc l t ni bt trong chng, gi chng l Socratic, v sau
ni rng l thuyt v cc Hnh thc khng phi l sng ch ca Socrates m ca Plato.
V khng vng cho rng Xenophon l mt nhn chng c lp v chng ta khng c
bt c l do no tin vo s c lp ca ng, v c l do tt tin rng ng phi bit
mt lot i thoi ca Plato khi ng bt u vit Memorabilia. Burnet i hi rng
chng ta phi tin hnh t gi thit rng Plato thc s mun ni ci ng ni, v rng,
khi ng khin Socrates pht biu hc thuyt no , ng tin, v mun cc bn c tin,
rng hc thuyt ny l c trng ca gio hun ca Socrates.
(3) Mc d cc quan im ca Burnet v Vn Socratic t ra i vi ti l khng
th ng vng c, chng cc k c gi tr v kch thch. Mt l thuyt to bo thuc
loi ny, cho d sai, lun c ngha l s tin ti; v cc sch ca Burnet y cc quan
im to bo v cc k c o v ch ca ng. iu ny cn c nh gi cao hn
v mt ch lch s lun c xu hng tr nn c rch. Nhng mc d ti cm phc
Burnet v cc l thuyt xut sc v to bo ca ng, v mc d ti nh gi cao tc ng
c li ca chng, xt n bng chng sn c cho ti, ti khng c kh nng thuyt phc
mnh rng cc l thuyt ny c th ng vng. Trong nhit tnh v gi ca ng, ti tin,
Burnet khng lun lun ph phn i vi cc tng ca ring ng. y l l do
v sao nhng ngi khc thy cn ph phn cc tng ny.
V Vn Socratic, ti tin cng nhiu ngi khc rng cch nhn m ti m t l li
gii c hn v c bn l ng. Quan im ny va qua c bo v tt, chng li
Burnet v Taylor, c bit bi G. C. Field (Plato and His Contemporaries, 1930) v A.
K. Rogers (The Socratic Problem, 1933); v nhiu hc gi khc c v tn thnh n. Bt
chp s thc rng cc l l c kin ngh n nay i vi ti t ra thuyt phc, c th
cho php ti c b sung cho chng, s dng mt s kt qu ca cun sch ny.
Nhng trc khi ph phn Burnet, ti c th ni rng chnh nh Burnet m ta c s nhn
308
CHNG /CH THCH -
thu ca chng ta vo nguyn l sau v phng php. Chng c ca Plato l chng c

loi mt duy nht sn c cho chng ta; tt c bng chng khc l th cp. (Burnet p
dng nguyn l ny cho Xenophon; nhng ta cng phi p dng n cho Aristophanes,
m chng c ca ng b bn thn Socrates t chi, Apology; xem (5), di y).
(4) Burnet gii thch rng chnh phng php ca ng l i gi thit rng Plato thc
s c ni ci ng ni. Theo nguyn l phng php lun ny, Socrates ca Plato
phi c ni l chn dung ca Socrates lch s. (So Greek Philosophy, I, 128, 212 f., v
ct. v p. 349/50; so Socrates ca Taylor, 14 f., 32 f., 153). Ti tha nhn nguyn l
phng php lun ca Burnet l im xut pht hp l. Song ti s c chng t, (5),
rng cc s thc nh vn c s mau chng buc mi ngi, k c Burnet v Taylor, t
b n. H cng buc phi, nh tt c nhng ngi khc, din gii ci Plato ni. Nhng
trong khi nhng ngi thc c v s thc ny, v v th cn thn v ph phn trong
cc din gii ca h, khng th trnh khi l nhng ngi c bm vo nim tin rng h
khng din gii Plato m n gin chp nhn ci ng ni lm cho l bt kh i vi bn
thn h thm tra cc din gii ca h mt cch ph phn.
(5) Cc s thc lm cho phng php ca Burnet khng p dng c v buc ng v
tt c nhng ngi khc din gii ci Plato ni, tt nhin, l cc mu thun trong chn
dung c cho l ca Socrates do Plato v. Cho d ta chp nhn nguyn l l khng c
bng c no tt hn ca Plato, cc mu thun ni ti cc tc phm ca ng buc ta
khng phi hiu ng theo li ng, v t b gi thit rng ng thc s mun ni ci ng
ni. Nu mt nhn chng ko mnh vo cc mu thun, th ta khng th chp nhn
li khai ca anh ta m khng din gii n, du cho anh ta c l nhn chng tt nht c
th kim c. u tin ti ch a ra ba th d v cc mu thun ni ti nh vy.
(a) Socrates ca Apology lp li rt n tng ba ln (18b-c; 19c-d; 23d) rng ng
khng quan tm n trit hc t nhin (v v th khng l mt Pythagorean): Ti khng
bit g, khng nhiu cng chng t, v cc th nh vy, ng ni (19c); Ti, ngi
Athens, chng lin quan g n cc th nh vy (tc l n cc suy on v t nhin).
Socrates khng nh rng nhiu ngi hin din phin to c th lm chng cho s
tht ca tuyn b ny; h nghe ng ni, nhng chng ai tng nghe ng ni t li hay
nhiu li v cc vn trit hc t nhin. (Ap., 19, c-d). Mt khc, ta c (a) Phaedo (so
c bit 108d, f., vi cc on ca Apology c ni ti) v Republic. Trong cc i
thoi ny, Socrates t ra l mt trit gia Pythagorean v t nhin; nhiu n mc c
Burnet v Taylor c th ni rng ng thc ra l mt thnh vin lnh o ca trng phi
t duy Pythagorean. (So Aristotle, ngi ni v cc Pythagorean cc tho lun ca h ..
tt c u v t nhin; xem Metaphysics, cui ca 989b).
M ti cho l (a) v (a) mu thun hon ton vi nhau; v tnh hnh cn b lm cho
ti hn bi s thc l nin i y kch tnh ca Republic sm hn ca Phaedo v mun
hn nin i ca Apology. iu ny lm cho khng th ho gii (a) vi (a) bng gi
thit l Socrates hoc b thuyt Pythagoras cc nm cui i ng, gia Republic v
Apology, hoc rng ng chuyn sang thuyt Pythagoras v thng cui ca i ng.
Ti khng gi b l khng c cch no loi b mu thun ny bng gi thit hay
din gii no . Burnet v Taylor c th c cc l do, thm ch c l cc l do tt, tin
Phaedo v Republic hn Apology. (Song h phi nhn ra rng, gi thit s ng n ca
chn dung ca Plato, bt c nghi ng no v tnh trung thc ca Socrates trong Apology
bin ng thnh mt ngi ni di v mc ch thot thn). Cc vn nh vy, tuy
nhin, hin thi khng lin quan n ti. ng hn im thit yu ca ti l bng cch
CHNG /CH THCH -
309
chp nhn chng c (a) chng li (a), Burnet v Taylor buc phi b gi thit phng
php lun c bn ca h rng Plato thc s mun ni ci ng ni; h phi din gii.
Nhng cc din gii lm cho nhng ngi khng bit phi l thiu ph phn; iu ny
c th c minh ho bng chng c ca Aristophanes do Burnet v Taylor s dng.
H cho rng cc li ch nho ca Aristophanes s v ngha nu Socrates khng phi l
mt trit gia t nhin. Nhng li tnh c l Socrates (ti lun cho, vi Burnet v Taylor,
rng Apology l lch s) thy trc chnh l l ny. Trong li bin bch ca ng, ng
cnh bo cc thm phn chng li chnh xc din gii ny ca Aristophanes, khng nh
mt cch tha thit nht (Ap., 19c, ff.; xem c 20c-e) rng ng khng lin quan t hay
nhiu n trit hc t nhin, m n gin l khng h. Socrates cm thy c nh ng
chin u vi cc ci bng v vn ny, chng li cc ci bng ca qu kh (Ap., 18de); nhng by gi ta c th ni rng ng cng chin u vi cc ci bng ca tng
lai. V khi ng thch cc ng bo mnh nhng ngi tin Aristophanes v dm gi
Socrates l k ni lo- hy tin ln pha trc khng mt ai tin ln. N xy ra 2.300
nm trc khi mt s Platonist quyt nh tr li thch thc ny.
C th nhc n, mi quan h ny, rng Aristophanes, mt ngi chng-dn ch n
ho, tn cng Socrates nh mt sophist, v hu ht cc sophist l cc nh dn ch.
(b) Trong Apology (40c, ff.) Socrates ly mt thi bt kh tri i vi vn sng
st; (b) Phaedo ch yu bao gm cc chng minh chi tit v tnh bt t ca linh hn.
Kh khn ny c Burnet tho lun (trong Phaedo ln xut bn ca ng, 1911, p. xlviii
ff.), theo cch khng h thuyt phc c ti cht no. (So cc ct. 9 ch. 7, v 44 ch.
ny). Nhng d ng ng hay khng, tho lun ca ring ng chng minh rng ng
buc phi t b nguyn l phng php lun ca ng v phi din gii ci Plato ni.
(c) Socrates ca Apology cho l s sng sut ngay c ca ngi sng sut nht ct
s hiu r ng ta bit t ra sao, v, do , chm ngn Delphian bit mnh phi c
din gii nh bit cc hn ch ca mnh; v ng ng rng cc nh cai tr, hn bt k
ai khc, phi bit cc hn ch ca h. Cc quan im tng t c th thy cc i
thoi ban u khc. Song ngi pht ngn chnh ca Statesman v Laws xut thuyt
rng k hng mnh phi l sng sut; v vi s sng sut h khng cn hiu l nhn bit
v cc hn ch ca mnh, m ng hn l s khai tm vo cc iu b n su hn ca
trit hc bin chng - trc gic v th gii cc Hnh thc hay nim, hay s o to v
Khoa hc Vng gi ca chnh tr hc. Cng hc thuyt c xut, Philebus, thm
ch nh phn ca mt tho lun v chm ngn Delphian. (So ct. 26 ch. 7).
(d) Ngoi ba mu thun rnh rnh ny, ti c th ni thm hai mu thun d b nhng
ngi khng tin tnh xc thc ca Seventh Letter b qua, song i vi ti chng c v l
tai ho cho Burnet ngi cho Seventh Letter l ch thc. Cch nhn ca Burnet (khng
th ng vng cho d ta b qua bc th ny; so ct. 26 (5) ch. 3 v ton b vn )
rng Socrates ch khng phi Plato nm c l thuyt v cc Hnh thc, l mu thun
342a, ff., ca bc th by; v cch nhn ca ng rng Republic, c bit hn, l
Socratic, 326a (so ct. 14 ch. 7). Tt nhin, tt c cc kh khn ny c th c loi
b, nhng ch bng din gii.
(e) C mt lot cc mu thun tng t tuy ng thi t nh hn v quan trng hn
c tho lun vi mt s chi tit cc chng trc, c bit cc ch. 6, 7, v 8. Ti
c th tm tt cc mu thun quan trng nht trong s ny.
(e1) Thi vi con ngi, c bit vi thanh nin, thay i chn dung ca Plato
theo cch khng th l din bin ca Socrates. Socrates cht v quyn tr chuyn t do
vi thanh nin, cc ngi m ng qu mn. Song Republic, ta thy ng ly mt thi
310
CHNG /CH THCH -
h c v ng vc ging thi bc tc ca K L Athenian (phi tha nhn l bn

thn Plato) Laws v s ng vc chung ca loi ngi c biu l rt thng xuyn
tc phm ny. (So vn bn cho cc ct. 17-18 ch. 4; 18-21 ch. 7; v 57-57 ch. 8).
(e2) Cng c th ni th v thi ca Socrates i vi s tht v t do ngn lun.
ng cht v n. Song Republic, Socrates ch trng ni di; Statesman c tha
nhn l Platonic, ni di c a ra nh s tht, v Laws, t duy t do b n p bi
s thit lp To d gio. (So cng cc ch nh trc, v hn na cc ct. 1-23 v 40-41
ch. 8; v ct. 55 ch. ny).
(e3) Socrates ca Apology v vi i thoi khc l gin d v tr tu; Phaedo, ng
bin thnh ngi m bo s tht ca cc suy on siu hnh hc ca ng. Republic,
ng l mt ngi gio iu, chp nhn mt thi khng xa ch ngha c on ho
ca Statesman v ca Laws. (So vn bn cho cc ct. 8-14 v 26 ch. 8; v (c) ct. ny).
(e4) Socrates ca Apology l mt ngi c nhn ch ngha; ng tin vo s c lp ca
c nhn con ngi. Trong Gorgias, ng vn l c nhn ch ngha. Trong Republic, ng
l mt nh tp th ch ngha cp tin, rt ging lp trng ca Plato Laws. (So cc ct.
25 v 35 ch. 5; vn bn cho cc ct. 26, 32, 36 v 48-54 ch. 6 v ct. 45 ch. ny).
(e5) Li c th ni tng t v ch ngha bnh ng ca Socrates. Meno, ng tha
nhn n l c kh nng hiu bit chung ca mi ngi, v c th dy n ngay c ton
hc thun tu; Gorgias, ng bo v l thuyt bnh ng v cng l. Song Republic,
ng khinh mit ngi lao ng v n l v cng phn i ch ngha bnh ng nhiu
nh Plato trong Timaeus v Laws. (So cc on c nhc ti (e4); ngoi ra, cc ct. 18
v 29 ch. 4; ct. 10 ch. 7, v ct. 50 (3) ch. 8, ni Timaeus, 51e c trch dn).
(e6) Socrates ca Apology v Crito trung thnh vi nn dn ch Athenian. Meno v
Gorgias (so ct. 45 ch. ny) c cc gi v s ch trch th ch; Republic (v ti tin,
Menexenus), ng l mt k th cng khai ca dn ch; v tuy Plato din t mnh thn
trng hn Statesman v u ca Laws, cc xu hng chnh tr phn sau ca Laws
phi th nhn (so vn bn cho ct. 32 ch. 6) l ng nht vi xu hng ca Socrates
ca Republic. (So cc ct. 53 v 55 ch. ny v cc ct. 7 v 14-18 ch. 4).
im sau cng c th c nhng ci sau y h tr thm. C v l Socrates,
Apology, khng ch trung thnh vi nn dn ch Athenian, m ng li cun trc tip
n ng dn ch bng ch ra rng Chaerephon, mt trong cc hc tr hng hi nht ca
ng, thuc v i ng ca h. Chaerephon ng mt phn quyt nh trong Apology, v
bng ti gn Nh Tin tri, ng l cng c trong s nhn ra ca Socrates v s mnh ca
mnh trong cuc sng, v v th cui cng trong s khc t tho hip vi Demos ca
Socrates. Socrates gii thiu nhn vt quan trng ny bng nhn mnh s thc rng
Chaerephon khng ch l bn ng, m cng l bn ca nhn dn, ngi m s lu y
c ng chia s, v cng ng tr v (c l, ng tham gia vo u tranh chng Ba
mi bo cha); tc l, Socrates chn mt ngi dn ch nhit thnh nh nhn chng
chnh cho s bin h ca ng. (C chng c c lp no cho s ng cm ca
Chaerephon, nh Clouds ca Aristophanes, 104, 501 ff. S xut hin ca Chaerephon
Charmides c th c to mt loi cn bng; khc i th s ni bt ca Cristias v
Charmides to ra n tng ca mt bn tuyn ngn ng h Ba mi bo cha). V sao
Socrates li nhn mnh s thn tnh vi mt chin s ng vin ng dn ch? Chng ta
khng th gi s rng iu ny ch l s bin h c bit, lm mi lng cc thm
phn h khoan dung hn: ton b tinh thn ca li bin bch ca ng chng li gi
thit ny. Gi thuyt kh d nht l Socrates, bng ch ra l ng c hc tr trong phe dn
ch, c ph nhn, bng ng , li buc ti (cng ch ng ) rng ng l ngi theo
CHNG /CH THCH -
311
ng qu tc v l mt thy gio ca cc bo cha. Tinh thn ca Apology loi tr gi

thit rng Socrates bin h mi thn hu vi mt nh lnh o dn ch m khng thc
s ng cm vi s nghip dn ch. V phi rt ra cng kt lun t on (Apol,, 32b-d)
trong ng nhn mnh nim tin ca ng vo tnh hp php dn ch, v vch mt Ba
mi bo cha bng cc li l khng h ngp ngng.
(6) n gin chng c ni b ca cc i thoi Platonic l ci buc ta cho rng chng
khng hon ton l lch s. V vy ta phi th din gii chng c ny, bng cch xut
cc l thuyt c th so snh mt cch ph phn vi chng c, dng phng php th v
sai. M ta c l do r rt tin l Apology ch yu c tnh lch s, v n l i thoi duy
nht m t chuyn xy ra cng khai c tm quan trng ng k v c rt nhiu ngi
bit n. Mt khc, ta bit Laws l tc phm mun nht ca Plato (ngoi Epinomis ng
ng), v chng l Platonic tht s. V vy, gi thit n gin nht l cc i thoi l
lch s hay Socratic trong chng mc chng thng nht vi cc xu hng ca Apology,
v l Platonic ni chng mu thun vi cc xu hng ny. (Gi thit ny trn thc tin
a chng ta li lp trng m ti m t nh li gii c hn ca Vn Socratic).
Nu ta xt cc xu hng ni ti (e1) n (e6) k trn, ta thy rng chng ta c th d
dng sp xp cc i thoi quan trng nht theo cch sao cho bt c mt xu hng n
l no trong cc xu hng ny th ging vi Apology Socratic gim dn v ging
vi Laws Platonic tng dn. Chui l th ny.
Apology v Crito Meno Gorgias Phaedo Republic Statesman Timaeus
Laws.
M s thc rng chui ny sp xp cc i thoi theo tt c cc xu hng (e1) n
(e6) bn thn n l mt s lm vng thm ca l thuyt cho rng y ta i mt vi
mt din bin t duy ca Plato. Song ta c th kim chng c kh c lp. Cc kho st
o phong cch* cho thy chui ca chng ta ph hp vi th t thi gian theo Plato
vit cc i thoi. Cui cng, chui, ch t n Timaeus, cng biu l mt s quan tm
tng lin tc n thuyt Pythagoras (v thuyt Eleatic). V th y phi l mt xu hng
khc trong din bin t duy ca Plato.
Mt l l rt khc l th ny. Ta bit, t li khai ring ca Plato trong Phaedo, rng
Antisthenes l mt trong cc bn thn nht ca Socrates; v ta cng bit Antisthenes t
cho l bo v tn iu Socratic tht. Kh c th tin l Antisthenes li l bn ca Socrates
ca Republic. Nh th ta phi tm mt im xut pht chung cho gio hun ca Plato v
Antisthenes; v im chung ny ta tm thy Socrates ca Apology v Crito, v vi
hc thuyt c t vo ming ca Socrates ca Meno, Gorgias, v Phaedo.
Cc l l ny hon ton c lp vi bt c tc phm tng b nghi ng trm trng no
ca Plato (nh Alcibiades I hay Theages hay Letters). Chng cng c lp vi li khai
ca Xenophon. Chng ch da vo bng chng ni ti ca mt s i thoi Platonic ni
ting nht. Song chng hp vi bng chng th cp ny, c bit vi Seventh Letter, ni
trong mt phc ho v din tin tr tu ring ca mnh (325 f.), Plato thm ch dn chiu,
mt cch khng th nhm ln, n on ch cht ca Republic nh pht kin chnh ca
ring ng: Ti phi tuyn b .. rng.. chng bao gi loi ngi c cu khi cnh
tuyt vng trc khi hoc gii trit gia chnh cng v tht nm quyn lc chnh tr, hoc
cc nh cai tr thnh ph tr thnh cc trit gia tht, nh n Thng . (326a; so ct. 14
ch. 7, v (d) ct. ny trn). Ti khng th thy lm sao c th chp nhn, vi
Burnet, l th ny l xc thc m li khng tha nhn thuyt trung tm ca Republic l
*
Stylometric = thng k tu t tm hiu phong cch vit vn ca mt tc gi.
312
CHNG /CH THCH -
ca Plato ch khng phi ca Socrates; tc l, m khng t b iu h cu rng chn

dung ca Plato v Socrates Republic l lch s. (V bng chng thm, so th d
Aristotle, Sophist. El., 183b7: Socrates nu ra cc cu hi, song khng cho cu tr li
no; v ng th nhn l ng khng bit. iu hy hp vi Apology, song kh hp vi
Gorgias, v chc chn khng hp vi Phaedo hay Republic. Xem thm tng thut ni
ting ca Aristotle v lch s ca l thuyt v cc nim, c Field, op. cit., tho lun
mt cch ngng m v c ct. 26 ch. 3).
(7) Chng li bng chng c trng ny, loi bng chng do Burnet v Taylor dng
c th c t sc nng. Sau y l mt th d. Nh chng c cho kin ca mnh rng
Plato v chnh tr khim tn hn Socrates, v rng gia nh Plato l kh Whiggish*,
Burnet s dng l l rng mt thnh vin ca gia nh Plato c tn l Demos. (So
Gorg., 481d, 513b. Tuy vy, khng chc chn, d c kh nng, l Pyrilampes b
Demos c ni ti y thc s ng nht vi dng v b dng ca Plato c
nhc ti Charm., 158a, v Parm., 126b, tc l Demos l b con ca Plato). iu ny
c trng lng g, ti hi, so vi h s lch s v hai cu bo cha ca Plato; vi cc
on tc phm chnh tr cn tn ti ca Cristias (iu vn thuc gia nh d l Burnet c
ng, m ng kh c th ng, khi quy chng cho ng ca ng ta; so Greek Phil., I,
338, ct. 1, vi Charmides, 157e v 162d, ni m ch n nng khiu thi ca ca Cristias);
vi s thc rng b Cristias thuc v Bn Trm u s (Lys., 12, 66); v vi cc tc
phm ring ca Plato kt hp nim t ho gia nh vi cc xu hng khng ch phndn ch m thm ch chng-Athens na? (So bi ca tng, Timaeus, 20a, mt k th
ca Athens nh Hermocrates x Sicily, b v ca Dionysius gi). Mc ch ng sau l
l ca Burnet, tt nhin, l cng c l thuyt cho rng Republic l Socratic. Mt th d
khc v phng php ti c th ly t Taylor, ng l l (Socrates, ct. 2 p. 148 f.; so c
p. 162) ng h cch nhn cho rng Phaedo l Socratic (so ct. 9 ca ti ch. 7): Trong
Phaedo [72c] .. hc thuyt cho rng hc ch l s nhn ra c Simmias ni r rng
(y l mt s l bt ca Taylor; ngi pht ngn l Cebes) khi ni vi Socrates, l
hc thuyt anh lp i lp li khng ngt n vy. Tr phi chng ta mun coi Phaedo
l mt s lm bi ri hoang mang khng l v khng th tha th, i vi ti iu ny c
v l chng minh rng l thuyt thc s thuc v Socrates. (V mt l l tng t, xem
Phaedo ln xut bn ca Burnet, p. xii, cui chng ii). V iu ny ti c th a ra
cc bnh lun sau: (a) c gi s y rng Plato coi mnh l mt s gia khi vit on
ny, v khc i th tuyn b ca ng s khng l mt s lm bi ri hoang mang khng
l v khng th tha th; ni cch khc im ng nghi ng nht v trung tm nht ca
l thuyt li c gi s l ng. (b) Nhng cho d Plato c t coi mnh l s gia (ti
khng ngh l ng coi vy), s din t mt s.. khng l v xem ra qu mnh.
Taylor, ch khng phi Plato, nhn mnh ch anh. Plato c th ch mun t l ng
s gi s rng nhng ngi c i thoi quen bit vi l thuyt ny. Hoc ng c th c
dn chiu n Meno, nh vy n chnh mnh. (Gii thch cui ny ti ngh hu nh
chc chn ng, cn c vo Phaedo, 73a, f., vi m ch n cc biu ). Hoc ng l
bt, v l do ny hay l do khc. Nhng vic nh th c th xy ra ngay c vi cc s gia.
Th d, Burnet phi gii thch ch ngha Pythagoras ca Socrates; lm iu ny ng
bin Parmenides thnh mt Pythagorean hn l mt hc tr ca Xenophanes, v ngi
ng vit (Greek Philosophy, I, 64): chuyn rng ng lp ra trng Eleatic dng
nh c th c dn ra t nhn xt vui a ca Plato nhn xt cng chng minh Homer
*
mang tnh, thuc v, ng Whig, mt ng ch trng thay i Anh th k 17-19.
CHNG /CH THCH -
313
l mt Heraclitean. Lin quan n im ny Burnet a thm ch thch: Plato, Soph.,

242d. Xem E. Gorgias. Ph.2, p. 140. M ti tin rng tuyn b ny ca mt s gia ng
bn th, (1) rng on ca Plato dn chiu n Xenophanes l vui a, tc l khng c
nghim tc, (2) rng s vui a ny t biu l dn chiu n Homer, tc l (3) bng
nhn xt rng ng l mt Heraclitean, iu, tt nhin, l nhn xt rt tu v Homer sng
trc Heraclitus rt lu, v (4) rng khng c bng chng nghim tc khc no kt ni
Xenophanes vi Trng Eleatic. Nhng chng ci no trong bn ng c th ng
vng. V chng ta thy, (1) rng on Sophist (242d) dn chiu ti Xenophanes khng
phi vui a, m c bn thn Burnet kin ngh, trong ph lc phng php lun cho
Early Greek Phylosophy ca ng, nh quan trng v y thng tin lch s c gi tr; (2)
rng n khng cha dn chiu no c n Homer; v (3) rng mt on khc cha dn
chiu ny (Theaet., 179d/e; so 152d/e, 160d) vi ci Burnet xc nh nhm l Sophist,
242d, Greek Phylosophy, I (li khng xy ra Early Greek Phylosophy2), khng dn
chiu n Xenophanes; n cng khng gi Homer l mt Heraclitean, m n ni iu
ngc li, c th l, mt s tng ca Heraclitus l c nh ca Homer (iu, tt nhin,
t tu hn nhiu); v (4) c mt on r v quan trng Theophrastus (Phys. op., on 8
= Simplicius, Phys., 28, 4) gn cho Xenophanes mt s kin m ta bit Parmenides
chia s vi ng v gn kt ng vi Parmenides - chng ni v D. L. ix, 21-3, hay v
Timaeus ap. Clement Strom I, 64, 2. ng hiu lm, din gii lm, trch dn lm, v b
st lm lc li ny (v chuyn hoang ng c to ra, xem Kirk v Raven, p. 265) c
th thy mt nhn xt lch s duy nht ca mt s gia tht s ln nh Burnet. T y
chng ta phi bit rng nhng vic nh vy c xy ra, ngay c vi s gia gii nht: tt
c mi ngi u c th sai lm. (Mt th d nghim trng hn thuc loi tnh c th
mc sai lm ny l th d c tho lun ct. 26 (5) ch. 3).
(8) Th t thi gian ca cc i thoi Platonic c vai tr trong cc l l ny y
c cho l gn nh cng vi th t ca danh sch o phong cch ca Lutoslawski (The
Origin and Growth of Platos Logic, 1897). Mt danh mc cc i thoi ng vai tr
trong vn bn ca cun sch ny c thy ct. 5 ch. 3. N c sp xp theo cch,
c nhiu khng chc chn v nin hiu trong ni b mt nhm hn l gia cc nhm.
Mt s lch nh vi danh mc o phong cch l v tr ca Euthyphro m do cc l do v
ni dung ca n (c tho lun vn bn cho ct. 60 ch. ny) i vi ti dng nh
c l mun hn Crito; song im ny khng my quan trng. (So c ct. 47 ch. ny).
57
C mt on ni ting v hi gy bi ri Second Letter (314c): Khng c tc
phm no ca Plato cng s khng bao gi c. Ci mang tn ng thc s thuc Socrates
tr nn tr trung v p trai. Li gii kh d nht cho cu l on ny, nu khng
phi c bc th, l gi mo. (So Field, Plato and His Contemporaries, 200 f., ni ng
a ra mt tm tt tuyt vi v cc l do nghi ng bc th ny, v c bit cc on
312d-313c v c l xung n 314c; v 314c, mt l do thm, c l, l ngi gi mo
c th c m ch n, hoc cho mt din gii v, mt nhn xt tng t Seventh
Letter, 341b/c, c trch dn ct. 32 ch. 8). Song nu tm thi ta gi s cng vi
Burnet (Greek Philosophy, I, 212) rng on ny l tht, th nhn xt tr nn tr trung
v p trai chc chn gy vn , c bit v n khng th c hiu theo ngha en v
Socrates c trnh by tt c cc i thoi Platonic nh gi v xu x (ngoi l duy
nht l Parmenides, ni ng kh c th p trai, tuy vn tr). Nu l tht, th nhn xt
gy bi ri c ngha l Plato rt ch cho mt tng thut l tng ho ch khng lch
s v Socrates; v n s khp kh tt vi din gii ca chng ta thy l Plato qu
314
CHNG /CH THCH -
thc c ti-din gii Socrates nh mt nh qu tc tr v p trai, ngi, tt nhin, l

bn thn Plato. (So c ct. 11 (2) ch. 4, ct. 20 (1) ch. 6, v ct. 50 (3) ch. 8).
58
Ti trch t on vn u ca dn nhp ca Davies v Vaughan cho bn dch
Republic ca h. So Crossman, Plato To-Day, 96.
59
(1) S phn chia hay s chia tch trong tm hn Plato l mt trong cc n tng
ni bt nht ca cng trnh ca ng, v c bit ca Republic. Ch mt ngi phi vt
ln kh khn gi s t kim ch hay s iu khin ca l tr ca mnh trn cc bn
nng th vt ca mnh mi c th nhn mnh im ny nhiu nh Plato nhn mnh;
so cc on c ni ti ct. 34 ch. 5, c bit chuyn v th vt trong con ngi
(Rep., 588c), m c l c ngun gc Orphic, v cc ct. 15 (1)-(4), 17, v 19 ch. 3,
khng ch cho thy mt s ging nhau n kinh ngc vi cc hc thuyt phn tm hc,
song cng c th c cho l phn nh cc triu chng mnh v c ch. (Xem c u
ca Book IX, 571d v 575a, nghe nh mt s trnh by ca thuyt v Phc cm
Oedipus. V thi ca Plato vi m ng, Republic, 548e-549d, c th ri nh sng no
, c bit cn c vo s thc rng 548e em trai ng Glaucon c ng nht vi
con trai c ni n). * Mt pht biu tuyt vi v cc mu thun trong Plato, v mt
n lc phn tm hc v ch ca ng n quyn lc, c H. Kelsen a ra trong The
American Imagio, vol. 3, 1942, pp. 1-110, v Werner Fite, The Platonic Legend, 1939.*
Cc Platonist nhng ngi khng sn sng tha nhn l t nim kht khao v la ht
cho s thng nht v hi ho v s ho hp ca Plato, ta c th kt lun rng bn thn
ng b chia r v khng hi ho, c th nn nh rng cch lp lun ny do chnh Plato
pht minh ra. (So Symposium, 200a, f., ni Socrates l l rng l mt tt yu v khng
phi l suy lun kh d rng ngi thch hay mong mi l ngi khng c ci anh ta
thch hay mong mi).
Ci ti gi l l thuyt chnh tr ca Plato v tm hn (xem c vn bn cho ct. 32 ch.
5), tc l s phn chia linh hn theo x hi c chia lm giai cp, t lu vn l c s
ca hu ht tm l hc. N l c s cho c phn tm hc na. Theo thuyt Freud, ci
Plato gi l phn cai tr ca tm hn c duy tr s bo ngc ca n bng mt s kim
duyt, cn cc bn nng th tnh v sn ni lon, tng ng vi y x hi, thc s thi
hnh mt s c ti c che y; v chng xc nh chnh sch ca mt nh cai tr hin
nhin. - T dng chy v chin tranh ca Heraclitus, lnh vc kinh nghim x hi
nh hng mnh cc l thuyt, cc n d, v cc biu tng theo chng ta din gii
th gii vt l quanh ta (v chng ta) i vi chng ta. Ti ch nhc ti s chp nhn l
thuyt v cnh tranh x hi ca Darwin di nh hng ca Malthus.
(2) C th a thm mt nhn xt v ch ngha thn b, trong quan h ca n vi x
hi ng v m, v vi cng thng x hi.
Nh McTaggart cho thy, trong nghin cu xut sc Mysticism ca ng (xem
Philosophical Studies ed. by S. V. Keeling, 1934, c bit pp. 47 ff.), cc tng c
bn ca ch ngha thn b l: (a) thuyt v s hp nht thn b, tc l khng nh rng
c mt s thng nht ln hn trong th gii thc t so vi s thng nht m chng ta
nhn ra trong th gii kinh nghim bnh thng, v (b) thuyt v trc gic thn b, tc
l khng nh rng c mt cch bit ci a ci bit vo mi quan h mt thit hn
v trc tip hn vi ci c bit hn l quan h gia vic bit ch v i tng
c bit trong kinh nghim bnh thng. McTaggart khng nh ng (p. 48) l trong
hai c trng ny s thng nht thn b l c bn hn, v trc gic thn b l mt th d
ca s thng nht thn b. Ta c th a thm mt c trng th ba, cn t c bn hn,
l (c) tnh yu thn b, l mt th d ca s thng nht thn b v trc gic thn b.
CHNG /CH THCH -
315
M l th (v iu ny McTaggart khng thy) l trong lch s ca Trit hc Hy Lp,

thuyt v s thng nht thn b c khng nh r rng bi Parmenides trong thuyt
chnh th ca ng v ci mt (so ct. 41 ch. ny); tip n bi Plato, ngi a thm v
tho lun k thuyt v trc gic thn b v ho ng vi thnh thn (so ch. 8), m v
thuyt mi ch rt s khai Parmenides; tip theo bi Aristotle, th d De Anima,
425b30 f.: vic nghe thc s v m thanh thc s ho vo lm mt; so Rep., 507c, ff.,
430a20, v 431a1: Kin thc thc s l ng nht vi i tng ca n (xem c De
Anima, 404b16, v Metaphysics, 1072b20 v 1075a2, v so Timaeus ca Plato, 45b-c,
47a-d; Meno, 81a, ff.; Phaedo, 79d); v tip theo bi cc tn-Platonist, nhng ngi trau
chut thuyt v tnh yu thn b, m ch phn u ca n l c th thy Plato (th d,
thuyt ca ng, Rep., 475 ff., rng cc trit gia yu chn l, ci gn mt thit vi cc
thuyt ca chnh th lun v s ho ng ca trit gia vi chn l thn thnh).
Cn c vo cc s thc ny v phn tch lch s ca chng ta, dn chng ta n din
gii ch ngha thn b nh mt trong cc phn ng in hnh i vi s v ca x hi
ng; mt phn ng c th c m t nh mt s chy trn vo c m v thin
ng trong s thng nht b lc t bc l nh thc ti khng thay i.
S din gii ny mu thun trc tip vi din gii ca Bergson trong Two Source of
Morality and Religion ca ng; v Bergson khng nh rng chnh ch ngha thn b l
ci to ra bc nhy t x hi ng sang x hi m.
* Song tt nhin phi th nhn (nh Jacob Viner rt n cn ch ra cho ti trong mt
bc th) rng ch ngha thn b l a nng hot ng trong bt c chiu hng
chnh tr no; v ngay c gia cc tng ca x hi m, nhng ngi thn b v ch
ngha thn b c cc i din ca h. Chnh kht vng thn b v mt th gii tt hn, t
chia r hn l ci r rng gy cm hng cho khng ch Plato, m c Socrates na.*
C th nhn xt l th k th mi chn, c bit Hegel v Bergson, chng ta thy
mt ch ngha thn b tin ho, bng ca tng s thay i, dng nh i u trc tip
vi s cm ght thay i ca Parmenides v Plato. Th m, kinh nghim c bn ca hai
dng ny ca ch ngha thn b c v nh nhau, nh c chng t bi s thc, rng
mt s qu nhn mnh n s thay i l chung cho c hai. C hai l cc phn ng i
vi kinh nghim gy hong s v s thay i x hi: mt kt hp vi hi vng rng s
thay i c th c ngng li; ci khc vi mt s chp nhn hi cung lon (v r
rng nc i) s thay i l thc t, bn cht v ng hoan nghnh. So c cc ct. 3233 ch. 11, 36 ch. 12, v 4, 6, 29, 32 v 58 ch. 24.
60
Euthyphro, mt i thoi ban u, thng c din gii nh n lc khng thnh
cng ca Socrates nh r lng m o. Bn thn Euthyphro l mt bim ho ca
mt k m o ni ting ngi bit chnh xc thn thnh mun g. Cho cu hi ca
Socrates M o l g v nghch o l g? ng c khin tr li: M o l hnh
ng nh ta lm! Tc l, truy t bt c ai phm ti git ngi, phm thng, hay bt c
ti tng t no, bt lun l cha hay m ngi ..; cn khng truy t h l nghch o
(5, d/e). Euthyphro c gii thiu nh truy t cha ng v git mt nng n. (Theo
bng chng c Grote trch dn, Plato, I, ct. cho p. 312, mi cng dn b rng buc bi
lut Attic truy t trong cc trng hp nh vy).
61
Menexenus, 235b. So ct. 35 ch. ny, v cui ct. 19 ch. 6.
62
i hi rng nu anh mun an ton anh phi t b t do tr thnh tr ct chnh
ca s ni lon chng li t do. Song chng g t ng hn. Tt nhin, khng c an ton
tuyt i trong cuc sng. Song s an ton th no c th t c ph thuc vo tnh
cnh gic ca ring chng ta, c cc nh ch thc thi gip chng ta theo di - tc l
316
CHNG /CH THCH -
bng cc nh ch dn ch c ngh ra (dng ngn ng Platonic) cho php by n

theo di, nh gi, cc watch-dog [con ch gi nh] ca h.
63
Vi nhng bin dng v nhng s khng u, so Republic, 547a, c trch
vn bn cho cc ct. 39 v 40 ch. 5. Ni m nh ca Plato vi cc vn v nhn ging
v kim sot sinh c l c th c gii thch mt phn bi s thc rng ng hiu cc
h lu ca tng dn s. Qu thc (so vn bn cho ct. 7 ch. ny) s Suy sp, mt thin
ng b lc, l do li t nhin hay li gc ca con ngi gy ra, c th ni nh vy:
bi s hiu chnh sai t l phi ging t nhin. So c cc ct. 39 (3) ch. 5, v 34 ch. 4.
Vi trch dn tip di na on vn ny, so Republic, 566e, v vn bn cho ct. 20
ch. 4. Crossman, ngi nghin cu giai on chuyn ch trong lch s Hy Lp rt xut
sc (so Plato To-Day, 27-30), vit: Nh th chnh cc bo cha l nhng ngi thc
s to ra Nh nc Hy Lp. H ph v t chc b lc c xa ca ch qu tc
nguyn thu .. (op. cit., 29). iu ny gii thch v sao Plato cm ght ch chuyn
ch, c l cn hn t do; so Republic, 577c. (Xem, tuy vy, ct. 69 ch. ny). Cc
on ca ng v ch chuyn ch, c bit 565-568, l mt phn tch x hi hc xut
sc v chnh tr hc quyn lc nht qun. Ti phi gi n l n lc u tin ti mt logic
quyn lc. (Ti chn t ny ging nh F. A. von Hayek dng t logic la chn cho mt
l thuyt thun tu kinh t). Logic quyn lc l kh n gin, v thng c p dng
mt cch ti gii. Loi chnh tr hc i lp l kh hn nhiu; mt phn v logic v
chnh tr hc phn-quyn lc, tc l logic t do, vn hu nh cha c hiu.
64
Mi ngi u bit rng hu ht cc kin ngh chnh tr ca Plato, bao gm c ch
ngha cng sn ca nhng ngi ph n v tr con c kin ngh, l trong khng
kh thi Periclean. So tng kt xut sc ln xut bn Republic ca Adam, vol. I, pp.
354 f., * v A. D. Winspear, The Genesis of Platos Thought, 1940. *
65
So V. Pareto, Treatise on General Sociology, 1843 (Bn dch ting Anh: The Mind
and Society, 1935, vol. III, p. 1281); so ct. 1 ch. 13, ni on c trch y hn.
66
So hiu qu m s trnh by ca Glaucon v l thuyt ca Lycophron c ln
Carneades (so ct. 54 ch. 6), v mun hn, ln Hobbes. Tnh phi o c c t cho
l ca nhiu n vy cc nh Marxist cng l mt trng hp nh th. Cc nh cnh t
thng xuyn tin vo s tri lun l ca ring h. (iu ny, tuy khng my ng vo
vn , i khi l khim tn hn v d chu hn s t cho mnh l ng mt cch gio
iu ca nhiu nh o c hc phn ng).
67
Tin l mt trong cc biu tng cng nh mt trong cc kh khn ca x hi m.
Khng nghi ng g l chng ta vn cha lm ch c s kim sot duy l ca vic s
dng n; s lm dng ln nht l n c th mua quyn lc chnh tr. (Dng trc tip
nht ca s lm dng ny l nh ch v th trng-n l; nhng chnh nh ch ny
c bo v Republic, 563b; so ct. 17 ch. 4; v Laws, Plato khng phn i nh
hng chnh tr ca s giu c; so ct. 20 (1) ch. 6). T quan im ca mt x hi c
nhn ch ngha, tin l kh quan trng. N l mt phn ca nh ch th trng t do
(mt phn), ci cho ngi tiu dng mt mc kim sot no ln sn xut. Khng
c nh ch no nh vy, nh sn xut c th kim sot th trng n mc n ngng
sn xut v mc ch tiu dng, trong khi ngi tiu dng ch yu tiu th v mc ch
sn xut. S lm dng hin nhin i khi lm cho chng ta kh nhy cm, v s i lp
ca Plato gia tin v tnh bn ch l mt n lc u tin trong nhiu n lc ch hay
v s dng cc tnh cm ny cho mc ch tuyn truyn chnh tr.
68
Tinh thn nhm ca ch ngha b lc, tt nhin, khng mt hon ton. N th hin,
th d, trong cc kinh nghim gi tr nht v tnh bn v tnh ng ch; c cc phong
CHNG /CH THCH -
317
tro b lc thanh nin nh hng o sinh (hay Phong tro Thanh nin c), v cc
cu lc b v hi ngi ln no , nh c, th d, Sinclair Lewis, m t trong
Babbitt. Khng c nh gi thp tm quan trng ca iu c l ph qut nht ny ca
cc kinh nghim hon ton xc cm v thm m. Hu ht cc phong tro x hi, ton tr
cng nh nhn o ch ngha, b n nh hng. N ng mt vai tr quan trng trong
chin tranh, v l mt trong cc v kh hng mnh nht ca ni lon chng t do; phi
th nhn l c trong ho bnh v ni lon chng chuyn ch, song trong cc trng hp
ny ch ngha nhn o ca n thng b cc xu hng lng mn ch ngha ca n gy
nguy him. Mt n lc ch v khng phi khng thnh cng phc hi n cho mc
ch lm ngng x hi v duy tr mi mi s thng tr giai cp c v l H thng Trng
Cng ca Anh. (Khng ai c th ln ln thnh ngi tt tr phi cc nm sm nht ca
anh ta c trao cho cc tr chi cao thng l t ca n ly t Republic, 558b).
Mt sn phm v triu chng ca mt tinh thn nhm b lc, tt nhin, l nhn mnh
ca Plato ln s tng t gia chnh tr hc v y hc (so ch. 8, c bit ct. 4), mt nhn
mnh biu l cm gic rng thn th x hi b bnh, tc l cm nhn cng thng v tri
dt. K t thi Plato tr i, u c cc trit gia chnh tr c v tr li s so snh ny
gia chnh tr hc v y hc, G. E. G. Catlin ni (A Study of the Principles of Politics,
1930, ct. cho 458, ni Thomas Aquinas, G. Santayana, v Dean Inge c trch dn
ng h tuyn b ny; so c cc trch dn op. cit., ct. cho 37, t Logic ca Mill). Catlin
cng ni mt cch c trng nht (op. cit., 459) v s hi ho v v mong mun c
bo v, bt lun c m bo bi m hay x hi. (So c ct. 18 ch. 5).
69
So ch. 7 (ct. 24 v vn bn; xem Athen., XI, 508) v tn ca chn mn nh vy
ca Plato (bao gm Dionysius tr v Dio). Ti cho rng s nhn i nhn li ca Plato v
vic s dng, khng ch v lc, m thuyt phc v v lc (so Laws, 722b, v cc ct. 5,
10, v 18 ch. 8), c ngha l mt ph phn chin thut ca Ba mi bo cha, m
tuyn truyn ca h qu thc l th s. Song iu ny ng rng Plato bit k cng thc
ca Pareto v dng tnh cm thay cho chin u vi chng. Rng bn Plato, Dio (so ct.
25 ch. 7) cai tr Syracuse nh mt bo cha c th nhn thm ch bi Meyer khi
ng bo v Dio v ng gii thch s phn ca Dio, bt chp s ngng m ca ng vi
Plato nh mt chnh tr gia, bng cch ch ra vc thm gia l thuyt (Platonic) v
thc tin (op. cit., V, 999). Meyer ni v Dio (loc. cit.), Nh vua l tng n, nhn
b ngoi, khng th phn bit c vi bo cha ti tin. Song ng tin rng, bn trong
c th ni vy, Dio vn l mt ngi l tng ch ngha, v ng rt au kh khi tt yu
chnh tr p buc vic git ngi (c bit git Heraclides ng minh ca ng) v cc
bin php tng t ln ng. Tuy vy, ti ngh l Dio hnh ng theo l thuyt ca
Plato; mt l thuyt m, theo logic quyn lc, dn Plato Laws n tha nhn thm ch
tnh tt ca s chuyn ch (709e, ff.; cng ch, cng c th c gi l s tht bi ca
Ba mi bo cha l do s h qu ng: ring mt mnh Cristias c th l ).
70
Thin ng b lc, tt nhin, l mt huyn thoi (du cho mt s dn tc nguyn
thu, trc ht l nhng ngi Eskimo, c v kh hnh phc). C th khng c cm
gic tri dt no trong x hi ng, song c y bng chng v cc dng khc ca s s
hi - s cc th lc ma qu ng sau t nhin. N lc phc hi ni s ny, v dng n
chng li nhng ngi tr thc, cc nh khoa hc, v.v. c trng cho nhiu biu l mun
ca s ni lon chng t do. Chnh nh cng trng ca Plato, hc tr ca Socrates, m
iu khng bao gi xy ra vi ng trnh by cc k th ca ng nh con ca cc
ma qu en ti c c. im ny, ng vn l ngi c khai sng. ng t c thin
hng l tng ho ci xu, ci i vi ng n gin l mt phm cch, hay thoi ho,
318
CHNG /CH THCH -
hay ci tt b cn kit. (Ch mt on trong Laws, 896e v 898c, c ci c th l mt

gi v mt s l tng ho tru tng ca ci xu).
71
C th a thm mt ch thch cui cng y lin quan n nhn xt ca ti v
quay v thnh th vt. T khi ch ngha Darwin xm nhp vo lnh vc cc vn con
ngi ( khng nn ti cho Darwin v s xm nhp ny) c nhiu nh ng vt
hc x hi nhng ngi chng minh rng loi ngi nht nh thoi ho v mt thn
th, v khng cnh tranh v thn th, v kh nng bo v thn th bng cc n lc tr
c, ngn cn chn lc t nhin hot ng trn c th chng ta. Ngi u tin trnh by
tng ny (khng ni ng l ngi u tin tin vo n) l Samuel Butler, ng vit:
Mt mi nguy him tht s m tc gi ny (mt tc gi Erewhonian) thy r l my
mc (v, chng ta c th ni thm, nn vn minh ni chung) s .. lm gim tnh khc
nghit ca cnh tranh n mc, nhiu ngi c th lc km s thot c s pht hin
v truyn s thp km ca h cho con chu h. (Erewhon, 1872; so Everymans
edition, p. 161). Ngi u tin, chng mc m ti bit, vit mt cun dy v ch
ny l W. Schallmayer (so ct. 65 ch. 12), mt trong cc nh sng lp ra ch ngha
chng tc hin i. Thc ra, l thuyt ca Butler lin tc c ti pht minh (c bit
bi cc nh t nhin ch ngha sinh hc theo ngha ca ch. 5, trn). Theo mt vi tc
gi hin i (xem, th d, G. H. Estabrooks, Man: The Mechanical Misfit, 1941), con
ngi phm sai lm quyt nh khi n c khai ho, v c bit khi n bt u gip
k yu; trc , n l mt con vt-ngi hu nh hon ho; song nn vn minh, cc
phng php nhn to ca n v gip k yu, dn n thoi ho, v v th cui cng
phi ph hu bn thn n. Tr li cc l l nh vy, ti ngh, u tin chng ta phi tha
nhn rng mt ngy no con ngi chc s bin mt khi th gii ny; song ta phi
ni thm rng iu ny cng ng vi ngay c cc th vt hon ho nht, ch chng ni
g n cc con ch hu nh hon ho. L thuyt cho rng loi ngi c th sng lu
hn mt cht gi nh nu n khng phm sai lm tai ho v gip k yu l hon ton
ng nghi ng; song cho d l iu c ng - liu ch c di ca s sng st ca
loi ngi l tt c ci chng ta mun? Hay th vt-ngi hu nh hon ho l c gi tr
ni bt n mc chng ta phi thch ko di s tn ti ca n (du sao chng na, n
tn ti kh lu ri) hn th nghim gip k yu ca chng ta?
Loi ngi, ti tin, chng lm ti n vy. Bt chp s phn bi ca mt vi lnh
t tr tu ca n, bt chp cc tc ng lm u m ca cc phng php Platonic trong
gio dc v cc kt qu tn ph ca tuyn truyn, c mt s thnh cng ng ngc
nhin. Nhiu k yu c gip , v gn mt trm nm nay ch n l trn thc
tin b bi b. C ngi ni n s quay li ngay. Ti cm thy lc quan hn; v, xt
cho cng, n ph thuc vo chng ta. Nhng cho d tt c iu ny s li mt i mt ln
na, v cho d chng ta phi quay li thnh th vt-ngi hu nh hon ho, iu ny
s khng lm thay i s thc rng c mt thi (cho d thi c ngn), ch n
l bin mt khi b mt tri t. Thnh qu ny v k c ca n, ti tin, n b cho
mt s trong chng ta v tt c s khng xng, v mt c hc hay mt khc, ca chng
ta; v n thm ch n b cho mt s chng ta v sai lm tai ho do t tin chng ta
phm phi khi h b l c hi vng lm ngng mi thay i - quay v ci
chung ca x hi ng v vnh vin thit lp mt vn th hon ho cho cc ch kh
hu nh hon ho.
PH LC
I
PLATO V HNH HC (1957)
Trong ln xut bn th hai ca cun sch ny, ti a thm mt
phn di vo ch thch 9 chng 6 (pp. 248-254). Gi thuyt lch s
c xut ch thch ny sau c m rng trong bi bo The
Nature of Philosophical Problems and Their Roots in Science (British
Journal for the Philosophy of Science, 3, 1952, pp. 124 ff.; nay c
Conjectures and Refutations ca ti). N c th c pht biu li nh
sau: (1) s khm ph ra tnh v t ca cn bc hai ca 2 l ci dn n s
v ca chng trnh Pythagorean v quy gin hnh hc v v tr hc
(v c l mi tri thc) v s hc, to ra mt khng hong trong ton
hc Hy Lp; (2) Elements [Cc Yu t] ca Euclid khng phi l mt
sch gio khoa v hnh hc, m ng hn l n lc cui cng ca Trng
phi Platonic gii quyt cuc khng hong ny bng ti cu trc ton
b ton hc v v tr hc trn mt c s hnh hc, nhm gii quyt vn
v t mt cch c h thng hn l mt cch ad hoc [c bit], nh th
o ngc chng trnh s hc ho Pythagorean; (3) Plato l ngi u
tin ngh ra chng trnh c Euclid thc hin mun hn: Plato l ngi
u tin nhn ra nhu cu ti cu trc; ng chn hnh hc nh c s mi,
v phng php t l hnh hc nh phng php mi; ng tho ra chng
trnh hnh hc ho ton hc, bao gm s hc, thin vn hc, v v tr
hc; v ng tr thnh ngi sng lp bc tranh hnh hc v th gii, v v
th l ngi sng lp ra khoa hc hin i, khoa hc ca Copernicus,
Galileo, Kepler, v Newton.
Ti gi l cu ghi ni ting trn tng Vin Hn Lm ca Plato (p.
249, (2), trn) m ch n chng trnh ny v hnh hc ho. (Rng n
c tuyn b mt s o ngc chng trnh Pythagorean c v chc l
cn c vo Archytas, on A, Diels-Kranz).
gia ca on cui p. 249 ti gi Plato l mt ngi u tin
pht trin mt phng php hnh hc c bit nhm cu ci cn c th
cu .. s v ca ch ngha Pythagoras; v ti m t gi ny nh
nh mt gi thuyt lch s rt bp bnh. Ti khng cn ngh l gi
thuyt l rt bp bnh na. Ngc li, by gi ti cm thy vic c li
320
PH LC
Plato, Aristotle, Euclid, v Proclus, di nh sng ca gi thuyt ny, c

th to ra nhiu bng chng cng c nh ta c th mong i. Thm vo
cc chng c c nhc n trong on c trch dn, nay ti mun
ni thm rng ngay Gorgias (451a/b; c; 453e) tin hnh tho lun v
l v chn nh c trng ca s hc, v th nhn bit r rng s hc
vi l thuyt s Pythagorean, trong khi m t c trng nh hnh hc nh
ngi chp nhn phng php t l (465b/c). Hn na, trong on t
Gorgias (508a) Plato khng ch ni v bnh ng hnh hc (so ct. 48
chng 8) m ng cng gin tip pht biu nguyn l c ng pht trin
y Timaeus: rng trt t v tr l trt t hnh hc. Tnh c, Gorgias
cng chng minh rng t alogos khng lin kt vi cc s v t trong
u c Plato, v 465a ni rng ngay c k thut hay ngh thut, phi
khng l alogos; ci c th a fortiori [hn l] ng cho mt khoa hc
nh hnh hc. Ti ngh chng ta c th n gin dch alogos l khng
logic. (So c Gorgias 496a/b; v 522e). im ny l quan trng cho din
gii tiu ca cun sch b mt ca Democritus, c ni n trc y
p. 249.
Bi bo The Nature of Philosophical Problems ca ti (xem trn)
cha vi gi thm lin quan n hnh hc ho s hc v v tr hc ni
chung ca Plato (s o ngc chng trnh Pythagorean ca ng), v l
thuyt ca ng v cc hnh thc.
Thm vo nm 1961
T khi ph lc ny c xut bn ln u tin nm 1957, trong ln xut
bn th ba ca cun sch ny, hu nh ngu nhin, ti tm thy s cng
c l th no v gi thuyt lch s c trnh by trn, on vn
u tin di (2). l mt on trong cc bnh lun ca Proclus v
Quyn Mt ca Elements ca Euclid (ed. Friedlein, 1873, Prologus ii, p.
71, 2-5) t tr nn r rng l c mt truyn thng theo cc yu
t ca Euclid l mt v tr hc Platonic, mt s gii quyt cc vn ca
Timaeus.
III: TR LI MT NH PH BNH
321
II
NIN HIU CA THEAETETUS (1961)
C mt m ch ct. 50, (6), ch. 8, p. 281, rng Theaetetus c l (tri
vi gi thit thng thng) l sm hn Republic. C Dr. Robert Eisler
gi iu ny cho ti trong mt cuc ni chuyn khng lu trc ci
cht ca ng nm 1949. Song v ng khng ni cho ti v phng on
ca ng nhiu hn l n da mt phn vo Theaetetus 174e, f. - on ct
yu m cch tnh nin hiu hu-Republic ca n c v khng khp vi l
thuyt ca ti ti cm thy cha c bng chng cho n, v qu ad
hoc bin minh cho ti dn trch nhim v n ln Eisler.
Tuy nhin, t ti tm thy mt lot cc l l c lp ng h cho
vic tnh nin i sm hn ca Theaetetus, v v th nay ti mun cm t
gi ban u ca Eisler.
T khi Eva Sachs (so Socrates, 5, 1917, 531 f.) xc lp rng li ni u
ca Theaetetus, nh ta bit, c vit sau nm 369, phng on v mt
li Socratic v mt s nh nin hiu sm hn dnh dng n mt li ni
u khc -ca mt ln xut bn sm hn mt, c Plato duyt li sau
ci cht ca Theaetetus. Phng on sau c cc hc gi khc nhau kin
ngh mt cch c lp, ngay c trc khi khm ph ra mt sch giy ci
(ed. by Diels, Berlin, Klassikerhefte, 2, 1905) cha mt phn ca mt
Commentary to the [Bnh lun cho] Theaetetus v dn chiu n hai ln
xut bn tch bit. Cc l l sau dng nh ng h c hai phng on.
(1) Cc on nht nh Aristotle c v m ch n Theaetetus: chng
khp hon ho vi vn bn ca Theaetetus, v ng thi chng cho rng
cc tng c trnh by l ca Socrates hn l ca Plato. Cc
on m ti ngh n l s gn cho Socrates s pht minh ra quy np
(Metaphysics 1078b17-33; so 987b1 v 1086b3) m, ti ngh, l mt m
ch n maieutic ca Socrates (c trnh by chi tit Theaetetus),
phng php ca ng v gip hc tr lnh hi bn cht tht ca mt s
vt thng qua thanh lc u c khi cc nh kin sai; v gn thm na
cho Socrates thi c by t i by t li rt mnh Theaetetus:
Socrates thng hi cc cu hi v khng tr li chng; v ng thng
th nhn rng ng khng bit (Soph. El. 183b7). (Cc on ny c
tho lun, ng cnh khc, trong bi ging On the Sources of Knowledge
and of Ignorance, Proceedings of the British Academy, 46, 1960 (xem
c bit p. 50) cng c Oxford University Press xut bn tch ring v
nay bao gm trong Conjectures and Refutations ca ti).
322
PH LC
(2) Theaetetus c mt kt thc b lng ng ngc nhin, cho d ho ra

l n c d kin nh vy v c chun b hu nh ngay t u. (Thc
ra, nh mt n lc gii quyt vn v tri thc m n c v c lm,
i thoi hay ny l mt tht bi hon ton). Song cc kt thc c tnh b
lng tng t c bit l c trng ca mt s i thoi ban u.
(3) Bit mnh c din gii, nh Apology, nh Bit mnh bit t ra
sao. bi ni cui cng ca mnh Socrates ni Sau y, Theaetetus
mi s bt cc cn hn v ho nh hn vi cc bn ng nghip ca mi, v
mi s c s sng sut khng ngh rng mi bit ci mi khng bit. Ngh
thut [v maieutic] ca ta c th t chng y; ta cng khng bit bt c
th g c nhng ngi khc bit
(4) Rng c v chc l bn ca chng ta l bn ca ln xut bn th hai,
do Plato duyt, c bit cn c vo s thc rng Dn Nhp cho i thoi
(142a n cui 143c) ci rt c th c a vo nh mt tng nh
n mt ngi v i, thc s tri vi mt on c th vt qua khi
s xt li bn in trc ca i thoi ny; ti mun ni mc ch chnh
ca n m, ging mt s i thoi ban u khc, m ch n vic xt x
Socrates nh sp xy ra n ni. S mu thun ct s thc rng Euclid,
ngi c v nh mt nhn vt trong Dn Nhp v l ngi k li i
thoi c vit ra sao, ni vi chng ta (142c/d, 143) rng ng i
n Athens (c l t Megara) lp i lp li nhiu ln, s dng mi c hi
kim tra cc ghi ch ca ng vi Socrates, v sa cha ch ny ch
n. iu ny c k theo cch m n lm kh r l bn thn i thoi
phi xy ra t nht vi thng trc phin x Socrates v ci cht ca ng;
song iu ny mu thun vi kt thc ca i thoi. (Ti khng thy
bt c dn chiu no n im ny, song ti khng th tng tng rng
n li khng c nh Platonist no tho lun). Thm ch c th l
dn chiu n sa cha, 143a, v c m t c tho lun nhiu v
phong cch mi 143b-c (xem th d Plato ca C. Ritter, vol. I, 1910,
pp. 220f.) c a vo nhm gii thch mt s lch lc ca bn sa li
vi bn gc. (iu ny c th lm cho c th t bn c sa thm
ch sau c Sophist).
III
TR LI MT NH PH BNH (1961)
Ti c yu cu ni g tr li cc nh ph bnh cun sch ny.
Nhng trc khi lm vy, ti mun cm n nhng ngi m ph phn
ca h gip ti ci thin cun sch theo nhng cch khc nhau.
V nhng ngi khc m ti tnh c gp ti cm thy min cng
ni nhiu. Trong cng kch Plato ti , nh by gi ti nhn ra, xc
phm v lm tn thng nhiu nh Platonist, v ti ly lm tic v vic
ny. Mc d vy, s d di ca mt s phn ng lm ti ngc nhin.
Ti ngh hu ht nhng ngi bo v Plato ph nhn cc s thc
m, c v i vi ti, l tht s khng th ph nhn c. iu ny ng
ngay c vi ngi gii nht trong s h: Gio s Ronald B. Levinston
cun sch s (645 trang in st) In Defense of Plato ca ng.
th tr li Gio s Levinston ti c hai nhim v trc mt c tm
quan trng rt khng cn xng. Nhim v t quan trng hn - bin h cho
bn thn ti chng li mt s li buc ti - s c bn trc ( mc A),
sao cho nhim v quan trng hn - tr li cho s bo v Plato ca
Gio s Levinston ( mc B) - s khng b s bin h c nhn ca ti
lm m h i qu nhiu.
A
Chn dung bn thn ti do Gio s Levinston v lm cho ti nghi ng
tnh tht ca chn dung m ti v v Plato; v nu c th dn ra t cun
sch ca mt tc gi ang cn sng mt hnh nh mo m n vy v cc
hc thuyt v nh ca ng, th c hi vng g to ra bt c th g nh
chn dung tht ca mt tc gi sinh gn hai mi bn th k trc?
Tuy th lm sao ti c th bo v mnh chng b ng nht vi bn gc
c cho l ca chn dung do Gio s Levinston v? Tt c ci ti c th
lm l ch ra rng ch t mt s s dch sai, din gii sai, v s xuyn tc
Plato m Gio s Levinston buc ti cho ti thc ra l khng tn ti. V
ngay c vic ny ch c th c lm bng phn tch hai hay ba mu i
din, ly ngu nhin t hng trm: c v c nhiu li buc ti trong cun
sch hn s trang. Nh th tt c ci ti c th lm l chng minh rng
ch t mt s trong cc li t co d di nht nhm chng ti l khng c
c s.
324
PH LC
Ti mun lm iu ny m khng a ra bt c phn-t co v trch

dn lm, v.v.; song v iu ny ho ra l khng th, ti mun lm kh r
l by gi ti thy rng Gio s Levinston, ging nh cc Platonist khc,
hn thy cun sch ca ti khng ch gy bc tc, m hu nh phm
thng. V v ti l ngi gy ra xc phm, ti phi khng ku ca nu ti
b t gic gay gt.
Nh th hy kho st vi on lin quan.
Gio s Levinston vit (p. 273, ct. 72) v ti: Nh vi nhng ngi
khc m ng ch, y cng th vi Cristias, Popper bi en thm
tnh cch ca ng bng cng iu. V cc cu th c trch dn trnh
by tn gio, mc d l mt iu ba t, nh nhm ti ci tt chung ca
x hi, khng phi ti li ch ch k ca bn thn ngi ba t lu c.
M nu iu ny c bt c ngha g, n phi c ngha l ti khng
nh, hay ch t m ch, cc on do Gio s Levinston trch dn (tc l,
pp. 179 v 140 ca A, tng ng vi pp. 183-184, v pp. 142-143 ca E1
[v V]) rng cc cu th ca Cristias, m ti trch, trnh by tn gio
khng ch nh mt s ba t, m nh mt s ba t nhm .. ti li ch
ch k ca bn thn ngi ba t lu c.
Ti ph nhn l ti hoc khng nh, hoc thm ch m ch n,
bt c th g thuc loi ny. Ngc li, mi quan tm ca ti l ch ra
rng ci tt chung ca x hi l mt trong cc mi bn tm ni bt ca
Plato, v rng thi ca ng kha cnh ny hu nh l ng nht vi
thi ca Cristias. C s ca ph phn ca ti c tuyn b r
rng u chng 8 (on vn th hai) ni ti vit: V li ch ca
thnh ph, Plato ni. Li ln na ta thy s cu khn n nguyn l v
thuyt v li tp th l cn nhc o c cui cng.
Ci ti khng nh l, nguyn l o c ny, nguyn l n nh ci tt
chung ca x hi nh mt mc tiu o c, l khng tt nh mt c
s ca o c hc; th d, n dn ti ni di v ci tt chung ca x
hi hay v li ch ca thnh ph. Ni cch khc, ti th chng t rng
ch ngha tp th o c l c hi v n i bi. Song khng u ti
din gii cc cu th c trch dn ca Cristias theo ngha m Gio s
Levinston vin vo. Ti phi thin v hi Ai bi en tnh cch ca ai
bng cng iu?, nu khng v s thc l ti nhn ra rng tnh khc lit
A trong Ph Lc ny c ngha l cc ln xut bn M (American) nm 1950 v 1956; E l

ln xut bn ny v cc ln xut bn Anh (English) t 1952 tr i. (Ch thm ca ND: V l
bn ting Vit ny).
325
ca tn cng ca ti l mt s khiu khch, l ci c bo cha cho cc

li buc ti ca Gio s Levinston. Song n khng lm cho chng ng.
Mt th d th hai l th ny. Gio s Levinston vit (pp. 354 f.): Mt
trong cc khng nh ngng cung nht ca Popper l, Plato coi s
hin din Athens ca qun i Sparta, c mi n gip Ba mi
[bo cha] nhm duy tr bn thn h v ch ti li ca h, nh mt
hon cnh thun li v khng cm thy cm ngh khc no hn s chp
thun khi ngh n Athens di ch ca Sparta; ng c th sn sng,
chng ta c dn dt gi s, mi h ln na, nu s hin din ca h
c th gip ng hon thnh cch mng tn-u s ca mnh. Khng c
vn bn no Popper c th trch tr cho mt kt ti nh vy; n ch
ny sinh t bc tranh ca ng v Plato nh ci u th ba trn con qui
vt hai u m ng to ra, c gi l u s C v Cristias; n l
ti li bi lin tng, l th d tt cng v k thut truy qut ph thu.
Cu tr li ca ti l: nu y l mt trong cc khng nh ngng
cung nht ca ti, th ti khng th a ra bt c khng nh ngng
cung no. V s khng nh ny chng bao gi c ti a ra; n cng
khng khp vi bc tranh m ti c v Plato, v l ci ti th truyn
t - c v, khng hon ton thnh cng.
Ti tin rng s khng tin ca ng vo ngi thng, v ch ngha tp
th o c ca ng dn Plato n chp nhn v lc; song ti n gin
chng bao gi a ra bt c khng nh no v Plato thm ch c hi cht
ging ci m Gio s Levinston khng nh y, mt cch hi ngng
cung, rng ti a ra. V vy khng c vn bn no Gio s
Levinston c th trch tr cho mt kt ti ca ng rng ti a
ra khng nh ny: n ch ny sinh t bc tranh ca ng v Popper nh
ci u th ba trn con qui vt hai u ca Otto Neurath v J. A.
Lauwerys m Gio s Levinston to ra; v nh ti li bi lin tng,
ti ch c th dn chiu n p. 441 ca Gio s Levinston. ng
c gip nhm tr li cu hi ny cu hi v nguyn nhn dn
Popper mt cch kinh nin theo ui cc tng tng c c ny bng kt giao ti vi mt ng bo c ca Popper, Otto Neurath, c trit
gia v nh x hi hc uyn bc ngi o. (Thc ra c Neurath ln ti
chng ai c cm tnh g v trit hc ca nhau, nh qu r t cc tc phm
ring ca Neurath v ca ti; Neurath, th d, bo v Hegel, v cng kch
c ch ngha Kant v s ca ngi Kant ca ti. V tn cng ca Neurath
ln Plato ti nghe ln u tin khi ti c v n trong sch ca Gio s
Levinston; v ti vn cha c cc bi bo lin quan ca Neurath).
326
PH LC
Nhng quay li vi khng nh ngng cung c cho l ca ti:

ci ti thc s ni (p. 195E,V =190A) v cc cm xc ca Plato k thc
ngc vi ci Gio s Levinston (p. 354) thut li. Ti khng h gi
rng Plato coi s hin din ca qun i Sparta l hon cnh thun li,
hay rng ng khng cm thy cm ngh khc no hn s chp thun khi
ngh n Athens di ch ca Sparta. Ci ti c truyn t, v ci ti
ni, l Ba mi bo cha tht bi bt chp hon cnh thun li di
hnh thc ca s ng h mnh m t Sparta chin thng; v ti gi
rng Plato thy nguyn nhn ca s tht bi ca h -ht nh ti thy s tht bi o c ca Ba mi [bo cha]. Ti vit: Plato cm thy
cn n mt s ti xy dng li hon ton ca chng trnh. Ba mi
[bo cha] b nh trong lnh vc chnh tr v lc ch yu bi v h
xc phm n thc v cng l ca cng dn. S tht bi ch yu l
mt tht bi o c.
y l tt c ci ti ni y v cc cm ngh ca Plato. (Ti ni hai
ln Plato cm thy). Ti gi rng s tht bi ca Ba mi [bo cha]
gy ra mt s chuyn bin o c Plato tuy khng phi mt s
chuyn i su rng. Khng c gi no y v cc cm ngh m
Gio s Levinston khin ti gn cho Plato; v ti chng bao gi c th
m l bt c ai c th thm tht iu ny vo vn bn ca ti.
Ti chc chn c quy cho Plato mt mc cm tnh vi Ba mi [bo
cha] v c bit vi cc mc tiu ng h Sparta ca h. Nhng y tt
nhin l ci g hon ton khc vi cc khng nh ngng cung m
Gio s Levinston gn cho ti. Ti ch c th ni l ti gi rng ng
ngng m cu ng, Cristias, lnh t ca Ba mi. Ti c gi l ng
c cm tnh vi mt s mc tiu v quan im ca Cristias. Song ti cng
ni rng ng coi ch u s ca Ba mi l mt tht bi o c, v
iu ny dn ng n xy dng li o c tp th ch ngha ca ng.
S thy rng tr li ca ti cho hai buc ti ca Gio s Levinston
chon nhiu ch gn nh bn thn cc li buc ti. iu ny l khng th
trnh khi; v v th ti phi gii hn mnh ch hai th d thm na (t
hng trm), c hai lin quan n s dch sai c cho l ca ti v vn
bn ca Plato.
Th nht l co buc ca Gio s Levinston rng ti lm cho xu hn,
hay cng iu vn bn ca Plato. Popper, tuy vy, nh trc y, dng
t khng c thin ch trc xut - deport trong bn dch ca ng, thay
cho gi i - send out, Gio s Levinston vit p. 349, ch thch 244.
Nhng y n gin l mt sai lm sai lm ca Gio s Levinston. Nu
ng ng li on y, ng s thy l ti dng t trc xut ni cch dch
327
ca ng hay ng hn ca Fowler l y i banish. (Phn ca on

trong cch dch ca Fowler dng gi i n gin khng xut hin
trong trch dn ca ti m c thay bng cc du chm).
Nh mt h qu ca sai lm ny, ho ra, trong ng cnh ny, nhn xt
nh trc y ca Gio s Levinston l rt thch hp. V trc on
va c bn ng vit v ti (p. 348, ch thch 243): Popper tng cng
din gii ca ng [p. 166E,V = p. 162A] v on Platonic [Rep.
540e/541a] bi nhng sai st nh v cch dch, nhm ti to n tng v
s khinh b hay bo lc ln hn trong thi ca Plato. Nh th ng dch
gi i send away (apopemp) l ui v trc xut ... M trc
tin, y c mt li lm khc ca Gio s Levinston (hai li hai ch
thch k tip nhau); v Plato khng dng t apopemp, m dng t
ekpemp. iu ny chc chn khng to ra my khc bit; song t
ekpemp d sao i na, c tip u ng ex ca expel- ui; v mt
trong cc ngha t in ca n l ui i- to drive away v ngha khc
l ui i, gi i trong s nhc nh to send away in disgrace (hay
ui i, gi i vi thm v nhc nh to send away with the collateral
notion of disgrace nh n bn ca Liddel v Scott ca ti). T l mt
dng hi mnh hn ca t pemp gi, ui, tng i to send off,
gi, phi i- to dispatch- m, nu dng trong quan h vi Hades (to
send to Hades) thng c ngha l a mt ngi cn sng n Hades,
tc l git anh ta i. (Ti trch Linddell v Scott. Ngy nay mt s
ngi thm ch c th thng ni phi anh ta i. Quan h mt thit l
ngha nh dng khi Phaedrus ni vi chng ta Symposium ca Plato
179e- mt on c Gio s Levinston nhc ti p. 348 - rng cc
thn, n b v ban vinh d cho Achilles v s dng cm ca ng v tnh
yu ca ng vi Patroclus, gi ng n cc Hn o Thing lingtrong khi Homer gi ng i Hades). C v hin nhin l c cch dch
expel: ui i ln deport: trc xut u khng ng cho ph phn
y trn c s hc thut. Th m Gio s Levinston ng cho ph phn
khi ng trch ti nh vit expel and deport - ui i v trc xut v ti
khng dng cc t theo cch ny. (ng c th ch t ng v mt k
thut gi nh ng trch ti must be expelled and deported - phi b
ui v b trc xut: ba du chm to ra s khc bit no y, v
vit expel and deport c th l mt c gng cng iu, bng cch
tng cng mt s din t vi din t khc. Nh th sai st nh ny
c thin hng tng cng hnh ng xu c cho l ca ti - s tng
cng c cho l ca ti v din gii ca ti v on Platonic ny bng
cc sai st nh trong cch dch ca ti).
328
PH LC
Nhng du sao i na, trng hp ny rt cuc chng l g c. V hy

ly on trong cch dch ca Shorey. (Shorey, c Gio s Levinston
chp nhn, mt cch ng, nh mt chuyn gia c thm quyn). Tt c
dn c trn mi tui, Shorey dch, h [cc trit gia nhng ngi
tr thnh cc ng ch ca nh nc] s to ra ng rung v h s tip
qun l tr, loi b chng khi cc cch c x v thi quen ca cha m
chng, v dy d chng theo cc tp qun v lut ring ca h nh chng
ta m t. M iu ny chng phi ni chnh xc ci ti ni (tuy c
l khng kh r nh ti ni p. 166E,V= 162A)? V ai c th tin rng
vic gi tt c dn c trn mi tui i c th l bt c th g ngoi
vic ui v trc xut d di? Liu h ch ngoan ngon i, con h li,
khi b gi i, nu h khng b e do, v b thc p, bi cc trit gia
nhng ngi tr thnh cc ng ch ca nh nc? (Gi ca Gio
s Levinston, p. 349, rng h c gi v thn qu ca h, ngoi
thnh ph thc s c ng ng h, l ma mai, vi mt dn chiu
n Symposium 179e v cc Hn o Thing ling, ch m Achilles b
cc thn- hay chnh xc hn b mi tn ca Appollo hay Paris a i.
Gorgias, 526c, c th l mt dn chiu ph hp hn).
Trong tt c vic ny, dnh n mt nguyn l. Ti c ni v nguyn l
rng khng tn ti ci gi l dch theo ngha en; rng mi vic dch u
l din gii; v rng chng ta lun phi tnh n bi cnh, v thm ch
n cc on song song.
Rng cc on m ( p. 166E,V = p. 162A) ti lin kt vi on va
c trch qu thc c th lin kt nh vy c cc ch thch ring ca
Shorey xc nhn: ng dn chiu, c bit, n on m ti gi l on
lm sch bc vi v, v n on git-v-trc xut t Statesman,
293c-e. D h tnh c cai tr theo lut hay khng c lut, cc thn dn
vui lng hay khng vui lng; v d h c thanh lc nh nc cho iu
tt ca n, bng cch git hay lu y [hay, nh Gio s Levinston dch
vi Fowler, bng git hay trc xut; xem trn] mt s cng dn
hnh thc ny ca chnh quyn phi c tuyn b l dng duy nht
ng. (Xem vn bn ca ti, p. 166E,V = p. 162A).
Gio s Levinston (p. 349) trch dn phn ca on ny y hn ti.
Th nhng ng b khng trch phn m ti trch nh khi u ca n,
D h tnh c cai tr theo lut hay khng c lut, cc thn dn vui lng
hay khng vui lng. im ny l l th, bi v n khp vi n lc ca
Gio s Levinston lm cho on git-v-trc xut hin ra di mt nh
sng hu nh v ti. Ngay sau vic trch on, Gio s Levinston vit:
S din gii cng bng ca nguyn l c tuyn b ny [ti khng thy
329
nguyn l no c tuyn b y c, tr phi l mi th c cho

php nu n c tin hnh v li ch ca nh nc] cn ch t mt trnh
by ngn v hnh mu chung ca i thoi. Trong qu trnh trnh by
ngn ny v cc mc tiu v xu hng ca Plato, chng ta nghe m
khng c trch dn trc tip t Plato- rng Cc tiu chun truyn thng
v hin ti khc c chp nhn, nh liu s cai tr c thc hin
trn cc thn dn vui lng hay khng vui lng, hay theo hay khng theo
lut, b loi b v khng thch ng hay khng thit yu. Cc t t on
ca Gio s Levinston m ti in nghing y s thy l gn vi trch
dn ca khi u (khng c Gio s Levinston trch) ca trch dn ca
ring ti t on git-v-trc xut ca Plato. Th nhng khi u ny
xut hin y di nh sng rt v hi: cc nh cai tr khng cn c
bo git hay trc xut c hay khng c lut, nh ti trnh by; v
cc bn c ca Gio s Levinston c n tng rng vn ny ch c
nu qua loa y nh vn ph - nh khng lin quan n vn
ang c bn.
Song cc bn c ca Plato, v ngay c nhng ngi tham gia vo i
thoi ca ng, c mt n tng khc. Ngay c Socrates Tr, ngi xen
vo ngay trc (sau khi u ca on nh c ti trch) vi mt li
ku Tuyt vi!, b sc bi tnh trng v lut php ca vic git c
kin ngh; v ngay sau pht biu ca nguyn l git-v-trc xut (xt cho
cng, c l n thc s l mt nguyn l) ng ni, theo cch dch ca
Fowler (nhn mnh tt nhin l ca ti): Mi th khc m anh ni c v
l c l; nhng chnh th [v c cc bin php h khc m n bao hm
na] phi c tin hnh m khng c lut l mt li ni khc nghit.
Ti ngh l nhn xt ny chng minh rng khi u trch dn ca ti
theo lut hay khng c lut- c Plato thc s d nh lm mt phn
ca nguyn l git-v-trc xut ca ng; rng ti ng trong khi u
li trch nh ti lm; v Gio s Levinston n gin b lm khi ng
gi l c hay khng c lut y ch c ni rng y l mt vn
b b qua v khng lin quan n bn cht ca vn ang bn y.
Trong din gii on git-v-trc xut, Gio s Levinston r rng b
bi ri su sc; th m cui n lc cng phu ca ng bo v Plato
bng cch so snh cc thi quen ca ng vi ca ring chng ta ng i
n cch nhn sau v on : Nhn vo bi cnh ny, chnh khch ca
Plato, vi s sn sng b ngoi ca ng ta git, trc xut, v bt lm
n l, ni chng ta phi quy nh hoc, mt bn, tri ci to, hay tri
tm thn, bn kia, mt i nhiu mu sc m mu ca ng ta.
330
PH LC
M ti khng nghi ng g rng Gio s Levinston l mt nh nhn o

ch ngha chnh cng - mt nh dn ch v t do. Nhng n khng lm
ri ti nhn ra rng mt nh nhn o ch ngha tht, trong s hm h
bo v Plato ca ng, li c th i n so snh theo cch ny cc tp qun
hnh pht phi tha nhn rt thiu st ca chng ta v cc dch v x hi
khng km sai st ca chng ta vi s chm git v trc xut (hay bt
lm n l) cc cng dn mt cch v php lut c cng khai th nhn
bi chnh khch tht s - mt ngi tt v sng sut v li ch ca
thnh ph? y chng phi l mt th d khng khip v ba m m
Plato ri xung nhiu c gi ca ng, v v mi nguy him ca ch
ngha Plato?
C qu nhiu iu th ny i vi ti gii quyt - tt c u trn ln
vi cc li buc ti chng mt Popper phn nhiu l tng tng. Nhng
ti mun ni rng ti coi cun sch ca Gio s Levinston khng ch nh
mt n lc rt chn thnh bo v Plato, m cng nh mt n lc
hiu r Plato di nh sng mi. V tuy ti ch tm thy mt on v l
on hon ton khng quan trng - dn ti n ngh rng, ch ny, ti
din gii vn bn ca Plato (mc d khng phi ca Plato) hi t do
qu, ti khng mun to ra n tng rng cun sch ca Gio s
Levinston khng phi l mt cun sch rt hay v l th c bit nu
chng ta qun rt nhiu ch ni Popper c trch dn, hay (nh ti
chng t) b trch dn sai, v rt thng xuyn b hiu lm hon ton.
Nhng quan trng hn cc vn c nhn ny l vn : s bo v
Plato ca Gio s Levinston thnh cng n u?
B
Ti hc c rng khi i mt vi mt cng kch mi ca mt ngi
bo v Plato ln cun sch ca ti tt nht l b qua cc im nh hn v
tm cc cu tr li cho nm im ct yu sau y.
(1) Khng nh ca ti p ng ra sao vic Republic v Laws ln n
Socrates ca Apology (nh c ch ra chng 10, on vn th hai
ca mc vi)? Nh c gii thch mt ch thch (ch thch 55
chng 10) khng nh thc ra c Grote a ra, v c Taylor ng
h. Nu n l cng bng- v ti ngh n l th n cng ng h khng
nh ca ti c nhc ti im (2) tip theo.
(2) Khng nh ca ti p ng ra sao rng thi phn-t do v phnnhn o ca Plato c l khng th c gii thch bng s thc c
331
vin dn ra l ng khng bit cc tng tt hn, hoc, trong nhng

ngy , ng l tng i t do v nhn o?
(3) Khng nh ca ti p ng ra sao rng Plato (th d trong on lm
sch bc vi v ca Republic v on git-v-trc xut ca Statesman)
ng vin cc nh cai tr ca ng dng bo lc tn nhn v li ch ca
nh nc?
(4) Khng nh ca ti p ng ra sao rng Plato xc lp cho cc vua
trit gia ca ng ngha v v c quyn dng ni di v la gt v li ch
ca thnh ph, c bit trong quan h vi gy ging chng tc, v rng
ng l mt trong cc nh sng lp ra ch ngha chng tc?
(5) Ni c g tr li cho trch dn ca ti v on t Laws c
dng nh t cho Ba M ca Plato p. 7 (v, nh c cng b u
ca Ch thch [cho Chng 1] p. 203, c tho lun kh chi tit cc
ch thch 33 v 34 ca chng 6)?
Ti thng ni vi cc sinh vin ca ti rng ci ti ni v Plato -nht
thit - ch l mt din gii, v ti khng c ngc nhin nu gi nh
Plato ni cho ti, v cng c cho s tho mn ca ti, rng l mt din
gii sai; nhng ti thng ni thm rng ng c th s c nhim v kha
kh thanh minh mt lot th m ng ni.
Gio s Levinston thnh cng nhn danh Plato trong nhim v ny,
lin quan n bt c im no trong nm im c ni ti trn?
Ti thc s khng ngh l ng thnh cng.
(1) V im u tin, ti yu cu bt c ai nghi ng hy c k lng
vn bn ca bi ni cui cng ca Ngi L Athenian quyn X ca
Laws (907d xung, th d, n 909d). Php lut c bn lin quan
vi loi ti phm m Socrates b kt ti. Lun im ca ti l, trong khi
Socrates c mt ng ra (hu ht cc nh ph bnh ngh, cn c vo
bng chng ca Apology, rng ng c l c th thot cht gi nh ng
vui lng chp nhn i y), Laws ca Plato khng cho bt c iu khon
no nh vy. Ti s trch mt on t bn dch ca Bury (c v c th
chp nhn c vi Levinston) v bi ni chuyn rt di ny. Sau khi
phn loi cc ti c ca ng (tc l, cc ti v bt knh hay cn bnh
ca thuyt v thn: bn dch ca Bury; so 908c), Ngi L Athenian u
tin tho lun nhng ngi, mc d h hon ton khng tin vo s tn
ti ca cc thn, do bn cht c mt c tnh ng .. v .. khng c kh
nng b khin phm cc hnh ng bt cng. (908b-c; y hu nh l
mt chn dung - tt nhin mt chn dung khng c thc- v Socrates,
ngoi s thc quan trng l ng c v khng l mt ngi v thn, mc
332
PH LC
d b kt ti bt knh v khng chnh thng). V nhng vic ny Plato

ni:
cc ti c khng c nh v c tnh xu, s c thm
phn nh gi theo lut trong tri ci to cho mt thi k khng t hn 5
nm, trong thi gian khng cng dn no khc giao thip vi h ch
tr nhng ngi tham gia vo hi ng ban m, v h s cng i vi h
[ti th dch l h s chm lo cho h] chm sc cho s cu ri linh
hn h bng s ph hu Nh th ngi tt gia nhng ngi bt
knh nhn t nht 5 nm giam mt mnh, ch c lm nh bt bi s
chm lo n tm hn yu ui ca h t cc thnh vin ca Hi ng
Ban m. v khi thi k t giam ca h ht hn, nu bt c ai trong s
h c v c ci to, anh ta s vi nhng ngi c ci to,
nhng nu khng, hay nu anh ta li b kt n v mt li buc ti nh th,
anh ta s b trng pht bng ci cht.
Ti chng c g ni thm vo iu ny.
(2) im th hai c l l quan trng nht t quan im ca Gio s
Levinston: n l mt trong cc i hi chnh ca ng rng ti sai trong
khng nh ca mnh rng c nhng ngi nhn o nhng ngi
tt hn Plato - gia nhng ngi ti gi l Th h V i.
ng khng nh, c bit, rng bc tranh ca ti v Socrates nh mt
ngi rt khc Plato kha cnh ny l hon ton h cu.
M ti dnh mt ch thch rt di (ch thch 56 chng 10), thc
ra ng l mt tiu lun, cho vn ny Vn Socratic; ti khng
thy bt c l do no thay i cch nhn ca ti v n. Song ti mun
ni y l ti nhn c s ng h trong phng on lch s ny ca
mnh v Vn Socratic, t mt hc gi Platonic xut sc, Richard
Robinson; s ng h cng quan trng hn v Robinson khin trch ti
mt cch nghim khc (v c l ng) v ging iu ca tn cng ca ti
ln Plato. Khng ai, ngi c bi ph bnh ca ng v cun sch ca ti
(Philosophical Review, 60, 1951), c th buc ti ng v s thin v
khng xng ng i vi ti; v Gio s Levinston trch dn ng mt
cch ng tnh (p. 20) v ni v cn thnh n li cho Plato ca
ti. Nhng mc d Gio s Levinston ( ch thch p. 20) c nhc ti
Richard Robinson nh trn ln ca ngi v khin trch trong bi ph bnh
bao qut i vi X hi M, v mc d ( mt ch thch khc, p. 61)
ng nhc ng n ti Robinson nh mt chuyn gia c thm quyn v
s pht trin logic ca Plato t khi u Socratic ca n qua giai on
gia ca n, Gio s Levinston chng bao gi ni cho bn c ca ng
rng Robinson ng khng ch vi cc buc ti ch yu ca ti chng
333
Plato, m ng , c bit hn, c vi li gii phng on ca ti cho

Vn Socratic. (Tnh c, Robinson cng ng rng trch dn ca ti
c ni n im (5) y l ng; xem di y).
K t Robinson, nh chng ta ta nghe, trn ln ca ngi v khin
trch, vi bn c ca ng (khao kht tm s xc thc cho cn thnh n
ca h li cho ti) c th b qua li ca ngi cha cu cui
ng ngc nhin ca on y sc thuyt phc sau y t bi ph bnh
ca ng (p. 494):
Dr. Popper cho rng Plato xuyn tc gio hun ca Socrates i
vi ng Plato l mt lc rt tai hi trong chnh tr hc nhng Socrates l
mt lc rt c ch. Socrates cht v quyn c ni chuyn t do vi
thanh nin; nhng Republic Plato khin ng ly mt thi h c v
khng tin cy i vi h. Socrates cht v cng l v t do ngn lun;
nhng Republic Socrates ch trng ni di. Socrates l ngi
khim tn v tr tu; nhng Republic ng l mt ngi gio iu.
Socrates l mt ngi c nhn ch ngha; nhng Republic ng l mt
nh tp th ch ngha cp tin. V vn vn.
Bng chng ca Dr. Popper l g cho cc quan im v Socrates tht
s? N c rt ra ch ring t bn thn Plato, t cc i thoi ban u,
v ch yu t Apology. Nh th thin thn nh sng m ng tng phn
vi ma qu Plato c bit vi chng ta ch t tng thut ring ca ma
qu! y l iu v l?
Khng v l m, theo ti, l hon ton ng.
on ny chng t rng ch t c mt hc gi, c Gio s Levinston
tha nhn l chuyn gia c thm quyn v Plato, thy rng cch nhn
ca ti v Vn Socratic l khng phi l.
Nhng cho d li gii phng on ca ti cho Vn Socratic c sai
lm, vn cn y ry chng c v s tn ti ca cc xu hng nhn o
ch ngha giai on ny.
V bi ni ca Hippias, tm thy Protagoras ca Plato, 337e (xem p.
70 trn; Gio s Levinston dng nh mt ln khng phn i cch
dch ca ti; xem p. 144 ca ng), Gio s Levinston vit (p. 147):
Chng ta phi bt u bng gi s rng y Plato phn nh trung thnh
tnh cm c bit r ca Hippias. Cho n y Gio s Levinston v
ti ng . Song chng ti hon ton khng ng v s thch ng ca
bi ni ca Hippias. V vic ny by gi ti c quan im thm ch mnh
hn so vi quan im c trnh by trong vn bn ca cun sch ny.
(Tnh c, ti khng ngh ti tng khng nh l c bng chng rng
Hippias l mt ngi phn i cnh n l; ci ti ni v ng l tinh thn
334
PH LC
ny gn b vi phong tro Athenian chng n l; nh th l l chi tit

ca Gio s Levinston rng ti khng c bin minh trong tnh n c
ng [Hippias] gia nhng ngi phn i tnh trng n l l v ngha).
By gi ti nhn ra bi ni ca Hippias nh mt tuyn ngn c l l
ci u tin - v nim tin nhn o ch ngha gy cm hng cho cc t
tng Khai sng v Cch mng Php: tt c mi ngi u l anh em, v
quy c, nhn to, lut v tp qun l ci chia r h v l ngun ca
nhiu iu bt hnh c th trnh c; cho nn khng phi l bt kh i
vi con ngi lm cho tnh hnh tt hn bng thay i lut - bng ci
cch php l. Cc t tng ny cng gy cm hng cho Kant. V Schiller
ni v lut quy c nh thi trang ci chia r nhn loi mt cch
nghim ngt (streng) Beethoven ni l mt cch lo xc (frech).
V s n l, lun im ca ti l, Republic cha bng chng v s tn
ti ca cc xu hng Athens m c th c m t nh chng tnh
trng n l. Nh th Socrates ca Republic (563b) ni bi chm bim
nn dn ch Athenian (ti trch ch. 4, ii, p. 43E,V = p. 44A; song y
ti dng bn dch ca Shorey): V nh cao ca quyn t do ca nhn
dn t c mt thnh ph nh vy khi mua cc n l, n ng v
n b, l khng km t do nh nhng ngi ch b tin ra mua h.
Shorey c mt s dn chiu cho n on ny (xem ch thch di
y); nhng on ny ni r cho chnh n. Levinson ni v on ny
ch khc (p. 176): Hy chng ta ng gp on va trch gip lm
y bng k khim tn v cc ti li x hi ca Plato, v trang tip ng
nhc ti n khi ng ni v th d khc v thi ngo mn Platonic.
Song y khng phi l cu tr li cho lun im ca ti, tnh cng vi
mt on th hai t Republic c trch vn bn ca ti (p. 43E,V = p.
44A), rng on th nht ny cung cp chng c v mt phong tro
chng tnh trng n l. on th hai (tip tc Plato ngay sau trnh by
ca on th nht, c trch dn y cui on vn trc) theo bn
dch ca Shorey (Republic 563d; on trc l Republic 563b): V anh
bit tng ton b ca cc khon ny l chng lm cho tm hn ca cc
cng dn nhy cm n mc h pht cu vi gi nh nht v tnh trng
n l [servitude, ti dch l slavery] v s khng chu c n?
Gio s Levinston gii quyt bng chng ny th no? Th nht, bng
tch hai on ra: on u ng khng bn ti cho n p. 176, rt lu sau
khi ng p v ra tng mnh ( p. 153) chng c c cho l ca ti
v phong tro chng s n l. on hai ng nu qua loa p. 153 nh mt
s dch sai l bch ca ti; v ng vit : Th m tt c l sai lm;
335
mc d Plato dng t douleia (slavery hay servitude), n ch mang mt

m ch bng gi [ti nhn mnh] n tnh trng n l theo ngha thng.
iu ny nghe c v c l khi on c tch khi on ngay trc ca
n (ch c Gio s Levinston nhc n hn hai mi trang mun hn,
ni ng gii thch n bng thi ngo mn ca Plato); song trong ng
cnh ca n trong mi quan h vi s phn nn ca Plato v ng x
ba bi ca cc n l (v thm ch cc th vt) khng c bt c nghi
ng g l, bn cnh ngha m Gio s Levinston gn mt cch ng cho
on y, on cng mang mt ngha th hai hiu douleia ng theo
ngha en; v n ni, v n c ni, rng cc cng dn t do dn ch
khng th chu ng tnh trng n l di bt c hnh thc no khng
ch h khng chu quy phc bt c gi no v tnh trng n l (khng
chu ngay c lut, nh Plato tip tc ni), m h tr nn nhy cm n
mc khng th chu thm ch s gi nh nht v tnh trng n l- nh
tnh trng n l ca cc n l c mua, n ng hay n b.
Gio s Levinston hi (p. 153, sau khi tho lun on hai ca Plato):
di nh sng ca chng c th, ta c th ni g mt cch cng bng
vn ng trong trng hp ca Popper ? Cu tr li n gin nht
l Khng g c, nu cc t c hiu theo ngha en ca chng. Th
m trng hp ring ca ng da vo hiu douleia, trong mt ng cnh
r rng dn chiu n s n l, khng theo ngha en ca n m ch nh
mt m ch bng gi, nh ng trnh by vi dng trc.2
Vit thm nm 1965. Rng t douleia on c ni n (Republic 563d) mang ngha en

ny (bn cnh ngha bng m Gio s Levinston gn cho n mt cch ng n) c xc
nhn bi Shorey, nh Platonist ln v k th cng khai ca nn dn ch, ngi c Gio s
Levinston coi nh mt chuyn gia c thm quyn v vn bn ca Plato. (Ti thng c th ng
vi din gii ca Shorey v Plato bi v ng him khi c nhn o ho hay t do ho vn bn ca
Plato). V trong mt ch thch m Shorey gn cho t tnh trng n l- servidude (douleia) trong
bn dch Republic 563d ca ng, ng nhc n hai on song song: Gorgias 491e, v Laws 890a.
on u ca hai on ny theo bn dch ca W. R. M. Lamb (Loeb Edition) l: V lm sao mt
ngi c th hnh phc nu anh ta l mt n l ca bt c ai? y cm t l mt n l, ging
nh cm t Republic, khng ch c ngha bng chu qui phc m cng c ngha en; tht vy,
ton b vn l s kt hp ca hai ngha. on t Laws 890a (mt cng kch t m ln cc
Sophist no ca Th h V i) theo bn dch ca Bury (Loeb Edition) l nh sau: cc nh
gio ny [nhng ngi lm sa o thanh nin] li cun h n vi cuc sng theo t nhin
ct tr thnh ch nhn trn nhng ngi cn li, trong thc t [altheia], thay cho l mt n l
i vi nhng ngi khc, theo quy c php l. R rng y Plato m ch gia nhng th khc
n cc Sophist (p. 70E,V = p. 70A v ct. 13 ch. 5) nhng ngi dy rng con ngi khng th
l n l bi t nhin hay thc s, m ch bi quy c php l (bi h cu php l). Nh th
Shorey chp ni on ct yu ca Republic bng s dn chiu ny t nht mt cch gin tip n
s tho lun c in tuyt hay v l thuyt v tnh trng n l (n l theo ngha en).
2
336
PH LC
V tuy th, ng ni v sai lm l bch ti vp phi khi dch douleia

theo ngha en: S hiu sai ny ra qu li ni u cho v kch
Barefoot in Athens [Chn trn Athens] ca Sherwood Anderson ni
nh son kch khng ng vc, i theo Popper, (Gio s Levinston khng
nh p. 24 rng phin bn Andersonian v Plato t ra r rng l vic
c k v d bo v Popper, song ng khng a ra bng chng no cho
li buc ti k l ny) chuyn cho cc bn c ca ng ln lt s m
ch, v tuyn b thng thng nh da vo thm quyn ring ca Plato,
rng nhng ngi Athenian [] ng h s gii phng mi n l
M nhn xt ny ca Maxell (khng phi Sherwood) Anderson rt c
th l mt s cng iu. Nhng ti ni u bt c th g ging th
ny? V mt v liu c ng g nu, bo v n, ngi bin h
cng iu cc quan im ca i th, hay bi en chng bng cch lin
tng chng vi ti li (c cho l) ca bn c d bo no ? (Xem
c Ch mc ca cun sch ny, di mc Tnh trng n l).
(3) Lun im ca ti rng Plato khuyn khch cc nh cai tr ca mnh
s dng v lc tn nhn v v lut php, th nhng c Gio s
Levinston chin u, khng u ng thc s ph nh, nh s thy t
tho lun ca ng v on git-v-trc xut ca Statesman c nhc
ti Ph lc ny gn cui mc A. Tt c ci ng ph nh l mt s
on khc Republic- cc on lm sch bc vi v - l tng t, nh c
Shorey v ti ngh. Ngoi vic ny ra, ng c tm thy s an i v s ng
h o c t cc tp qun hung bo hin i no ca chng ta - mt
s an i, ti s, s tan bin mt nu ng c li on ca Statesman cng
vi khi u ca n, do ti trch dn, nhng u tin b Gio s
Levinston b qua, v mun hn b gt b v khng lin quan.
(4) V ch ngha chng tc ca Plato, v lnh hun th ca ng i vi
cc nh cai tr i dng vic ni di v la gt v li ch ca nh nc, ti
mun nhc nh cc bn c ca ti, trc khi bc vo bt c tho lun
no vi Gio s Levinston, v chm ngn ca Kant (xem p. 139E,V = p.
137A) rng mc d tnh chn tht l chnh sch hay nht c th l ng
ng, tnh chn tht l tt hn chnh sch l khng cn tranh ci.
Gio s Levinston vit (p. 434, nhc n pp. 138 ff. E,V = pp. 136 ff.
A, v c bit n pp. 150 E,V = 148A) rt thng thn: Trc ht, phi
thng nht rng vic s dng ni di trong cc hon cnh nht nh c
ch trng [ti nhn mnh] Republic l v mc ch ca chnh ph
y, rt cuc, l im ch yu ca ti. Khng n lc no h thp hay
gt b tm quan trng ca n v khng phn cng no ln cc cng
iu c cho l ca ti - c cho php lm lu m s th nhn ny.
337
Gio s Levinston cng th nhn, cng ch, rng khng c nghi ng

g rng s dng mt t ngh thut thuyt phc ca li ni l cn thit
lm cho cc ph t li cho may ri ch khng cho cc nh cai tr khi
h c bo [xem p. 150E,V = p.148A] rng s phn quyt nh s
kt hn ca h, trong khi nhng vic ny c cc nh cai tr sp t v
cc l do u sinh.
y l im ch yu th hai ca ti.
Gio s Levinston tip tc (pp. 434 f.; ti nhn mnh): Trong th d
ny chng ta ch c s ph chun duy nht ca Plato v mt s ni di
hon ton thit thc,3 c bo, tht ra, l v cc l do nhn t (v ch v
cc mc ch nh vy Plato ng ni [di]), nhng l mt s ni di v
chng g hn. Chng ta, ging nh Popper, thy chnh sch ny ng gh
tm. S ni di ny, khi , v bt c nhng ci khc ging nh n m
s cho php kh chung ca Plato c th bin minh, to ra c s nh th
nh c thy ng h li buc ti ca Popper rng Plato kin ngh
dng tuyn truyn ni di trong thnh ph ca ng.
iu ny khng sao? Hy gi s l ti sai cc im khc (tt
nhin, ti ph nhn), chng phi tt c iu ny ch t bo cha cho s
nghi ng ca ti rng Plato c th khng ngn ngi s dng thm na
s cho php kh chung ca ng v vic dng ni di c bit cn c
vo s thc l ng tht s ch trng vic dng ni di nh Gio s
Levinston trnh by?
Hn na, s ni di y c dng trong quan h vi u sinh hc,
hay chnh xc hn, vi gy ging chng tc ch nhn - chng tc nhng
ngi bo v.
bo v Plato chng li buc ti ca ti rng ng l mt ngi theo
ch ngha chng tc Gio s Levinston th so snh ng mt cch thun
li vi mt s nh chng tc ch ngha ton tr hin i kht ting m
tn ca h ti c khng cho vo sch ca ti. (V ti s tip tc lm vy).
ng ni (p. 541; ti nhn mnh) rng s gy ging ca h ch
yu nhm bo tn s thun khit ca dng ging ch nhn, mt mc ch
m chng ta kh nhc mt cht chng t Plato khng chia s.
ng khng chia s? Trch dn ca ti t mt trong cc tho lun u
sinh chnh ca Republic (460c) c l l mt cch dch sai? Ti vit (p.
3
N chng h l trng hp duy nht, nh c th thy t chng 8 ca ti. on c trch vn

bn cho ch thch 2, th d (Rep., 389b), l mt trng hp khc vi on (Rep., 460a) m Gio
s Levinston ngh n. Cn c vi on khc na. Xem Rep., 415d v c bit Tim., 18e, chng
chng minh rng Plato thy ch n ca ng ni di c tm quan trng c tnh n
trong tm tt rt ngn gn ca Republic. (Xem c Laws, 663d xung n 664b).
338
PH LC
51E,V = p. 52A; y ti a ra nhn mnh mi): Plato ni Dng

ging ca nhng ngi bo v phi c gi thun khit ( bo v tc
git tr s sinh) khi pht trin l l phn bit chng tc rng chng ta phi
ging ng vt ht sc cn thn trong khi li sao lng dng ging ring
ca mnh, mt l l c lp li sut t .
Cch dch ca ti l sai? Hay khng nh ca ti rng, sut t thi
Plato, y l l l chnh ca cc nh phn bit chng tc v cc nh
gy ging ch nhn? Hay nhng ngi bo v khng phi l cc ch
nhn ca thnh ph tt nht ca Plato?
V cch dch ca ti, Shorey trnh by n khc i mt cht; ti s trch
cng cu trc (nhc ti tc git tr s sinh) t bn dch ca ng (ti
nhn mnh): con ca ngi thp km, v bt c [con] ca nhng
ngi thuc loi khc c sinh ra c khuyt tt, h [cc nh cai tr] s b
mt vt b mt cch ng n, sao cho khng ai s bit chng s tr
thnh ci g. l iu kin, ng ni, bo tn s thun khit ca
dng di nhng ngi bo v.
C th thy cu cui ca Shorey l mm hn ca ti mt cht. Song s
khc bit l khng quan trng, v khng nh hng n lun ca ti.
D sao i na, ti gi bn dch ca mnh. Trong bt c trng hp no
dng di ca nhng ngi bo v phi c bo ton thun khit hay
Nu trong mi trng hp [nh chng ta ng ] tnh thun khit ca
dng di ca nhng ngi bo v phi c bo ton c th l mt cch
dch, dng mt s t ca Shorey, mang li cng ngha nh cch dch
ca ti trong cun sch (p. 51E,V = p. 52A) v lp li y.
V th ti khng th thy s khc bit g gia cch trnh by ca Gio
s Levinston v s phi ging kht ting ca nhng k ton tr v
cch trnh by ca Plato v cc mc ch phi ging ring ca ng. Du
c th c khc bit nh, n khng quan trng vi vn trung tm.
V vn liu Plato c cho php - rt c bit - mt s trn ln cc
chng tc ca ng (c th l h qu ca vic thng cp mt thnh vin
thuc chng tc thp hn) hay khng, cc kin c th khc nhau. Ti
vn tin ci ti ni l ng. Song ti khng th thy l n c th to ra bt
c khc bit no nu cho php cc ngoi l. (Ngay c nhng k ton tr
hin i m Gio s Levinston m ch n cng cho php cc ngoi l).
(5) Ti b tn cng i tn cng li mt cch gay gt v vic trch dn
hay ng hn v trch dn sai - mt on t Laws m ti dng nh mt
trong hai t [motto] cho Ba m ca Plato ( t khc v on tng
phn l t iu vn ca Pericles). Cc t ny c cc Nh xut bn
M ca ti in ln ba bc sch ca ln xut bn M; cc sch in Anh
339
khng c qung co nh vy. Nh thng vi cc ba bc, ti khng

c cc nh xut bn hi kin. (Song chc chn ti khng c phn i
no vi s la chn ca cc nh xut bn M: v sao h li khng in cc
t ca ti - hoc bt c th g khc ti vit trong sch- ln ba bc?).
Cch dch v din gii ca ti v on ny c Richard Robinson
tuyn b l ng, nh c ni ti trn; nhng nhng ngi khc i
xa n mc hi liu ti c c che du nt nhn dng ca n hay khng,
nhm lm cho cc c gi ca ti khng th kim tra vn bn! V vic
ny tuy ti chu kh, ti ngh, hn hu ht cc tc gi lm cho cc
bn c ca ti c th kim tra bt c on c trch hay dn chiu no.
Nh th ti c mt dn chiu n cc t ca ti u cc ch thch
tuy vic dn chiu n cc t l hi khng bnh thng.
S buc ti ch yu chng li ti v dng on ny, ti khng ni, hay
khng nhn mnh , l n ni ti cc vn qun s. Nhng y ti
c mt bng chng ng h ti t bn thn Gio s Levinston, ng vit (p.
531, ch thch; ti nhn mnh):
Popper, trong trch dn on ny vn bn ca ng, p. 102 [= p.
103E,V] nhn mnh s dn chiu ca n n cc vn qun s.
Nh th li buc ti ny c tr li. Tuy vy, Gio s Levinston
tip tc: nhng [Popper] ng thi qu quyt rng Plato c ni
cng cc nguyn l qun s ny phi c tn trng trong ho bnh
cng nh trong chin tranh, v rng chng phi c p dng cho mi
lnh vc ca s tn ti ho hnh hn l ch n gin cho chng trnh
hun luyn qun s. Sau ng trch dn on ny vi cch dch sai qu
qut nhm lm lu m s dn chiu qun s ca n v v.v.
M li buc ti u tin y l ti ng thi qu quyt l Plato c
ni cc nguyn l qun s ny phi c tn trng trong ho bnh cng
nh trong chin tranh. Qu vy ti ni th - trch dn Plato: chnh
Plato l ngi ni vy. Ti phi b n i? Plato ni, bn dch ca Bury
m Gio s Levinston chp thun (tuy ti thch bn dch ca mnh: ti
hi cc bn c ca ti liu c bt c s khc nhau no v ngha gia
chng, ngoi s khc nhau v s sng sa; xem p. 103E,V = p. 102A):
cng chng mt ai, d lm vic hay vui a, dn tr nn quen trong
tm tr hnh ng mt mnh v da trn sng kin ring, m phi lun
sng c trong chin tranh v ho bnh, vi mt hng lin tc ln v ch
huy ca mnh (Laws, Loed Library, vol. ii, p. 477; ti nhn mnh).
V mun hn (p. 479):
Nhim v - cai tr ngi khc , v b ngi khc cai tr ny phi
c tp luyn trong ho bnh k t tui th u sm nht
340
PH LC
V s dch sai, ti ch c th ni rng trn thc t khng c s khc bit

gia cch dch ca ti v ca Bury -tr vic ti ch nh hai cu rt di
ca Plato m, khi ng nguyn, l khng tht d hiu. Gio s Levinston
ni (p. 531) rng ti li dng nhiu v khng chnh ng on ny;
v ng tip tc: mo dng sai tri theo kiu bo ch ca ng v mt on
chn t n trn ba bi [qung co ca nh xut bn, xem trn] v trn
trang ba ph ca Phn I ca cun sch ca ng s c m x trong ch
gii ca chng ta, ni chng ta cng in y on y.
S m x mo dng sai kiu bo ch ca ti ch gii ny, ngoi vi
sa li c cho l ca bn dch ca ti m ti khng chp nhn, ch
yu bao gm cng li buc ti - ti in on y ln ba bc v cc
ch quan trng khc. V Gio s Levinston vit (p. 532; ti nhn mnh):
S bt cng nh ny hon ton b che khut, tuy vy, bi ci Popper
lm vi on ny ni khc. Trn trang ba ph ca Phn I ca cun
sch ca ng, v c ba bi [ai bt cng vi ai?] ng in mt chn lc
cn thn t n, v in bn cnh n, nh phn ca chnh n, mt cu ly
t iu vn ca Pericles y l in song song mt l tng chnh tr v
mt quy nh qun s c xut; th nhng Popper khng ch
khng bo cho bn c ca on c chn y bit v quan h qun s
ca n, m cn dng cng cch dch sai, xo i hon ton cc phn
ca on cc phn c th tit l s thc.
Cu tr li cho iu ny ca ti l rt n gin. (a) Nhng s dch sai l
khng tn ti. (b) Ti c gng chng t y chi tit rng on y,
bt chp s lin quan ca n n qun s, ging nh on ca Pericles
(ngu nhin cng c vi lin quan, tuy t hn, n qun s), trnh by mt
l tng chnh tr - tc l l tng chnh tr ca Plato.
Ti khng thy l do hp l no thay i nim tin ca mnh rng ti
ng khi cho rng on ny - ging nhiu on tng t khc Lawstrnh by l tng chnh tr ca Plato. Nhng d nim tin ny ca ti c
ng hay khng, chc chn ti a ra cc l do mnh m cho n (cc l
do m Gio s Levinston khng hu hoi ni). V v ti lm nh th,
v v Gio s Levinston khng h t thnh vn s thc l ti lm
nh th, n chng to thnh mt s bt cng nh cng khng thnh mt
s bt cng ln nu ti th trnh by on y nh ci ti tin n l: s m
t ring ca Plato v l tng chnh tr ca ng- v nh nc l tng ton
tr v qun s ca ng.
V s dch sai ca ti, ti s gii hn mnh mt ch m Gio s
Levinston thy quan trng tho lun trong vn bn ca ng (tch
ring khi ch thch ca ng). ng vit, p. 533:
341
Mt phn i na lin quan n vic dng t lnh t-leader ca

Popper. Plato dng archn, cng t m ng dng cho cc vin chc
nh nc v ch huy qun s; r rng l cc ngi sau, hay vin ch huy
[director] ca cc cuc u in kinh, l ngi m ng ngh n y.
R rng, ch c g ti tr li. (C l ti phi dch l vin ch huy
director?) Bt c ai tra cu mt t in Hy Lp c th bit chc rng
archn, trong ngha c bn nht ca n, c din t ng n v
chnh xc bng t leader [lnh t, ngi lnh o] trong ting Anh (hay
t Latin dux hay t Italia il duce). T c Liddell v Scott m t nh
ng tnh t ca ng t arch m ngha c bn ca n, theo cc
chuyn gia c thm quyn ny, l l ngi u tin- to be first, hoc v
Thi gian - in point of Time, hoc v a im hay a v - in point of
Place or Station. Theo ngha th hai ny th cc ngha u tin l: to
lead, rule, govern, command, be leader or commander lnh o, cai
tr, cai qun, ch huy, l nh lnh o hay ngi ch huy. Do chng
ta thy, di mc archn, l a ruler, commander, captain - mt nh
cai tr, ch huy, th lnh; l c, lin quan n Athens, chief magistrates of
Athens cc quan ng u Athens, c chn v. Th phi l chng
t rng leader -lnh t, th lnh, nh lnh o khng phi l cch dch
sai, min l n hp vi vn bn. Rng n hp c th thy t phin bn
ring ca Bury, trong , hy nh li, on c din t nh sau: m
[anh ta] phi lun sng c trong chin tranh v ho bnh, vi mt hng
lin tc ln v ch huy ca mnh v theo s lnh o ca ng ta. Thc ra,
leader -th lnh khp qu tt vi vn bn: chnh s ph hp kinh khng
ca t l ci gy ra s phn i ca Gio s Levinston. V ng khng c
kh nng nhn ra Plato nh mt ngi ch trng s lnh o ton tr,
ng cm thy rng s dch sai tai c ca ti (p. 531) phi l ci cn
li cho v nhng lin tng kinh hong m on ny gi ln.
Nhng ti khng nh rng chnh vn bn ca Plato, t tng ca Plato,
l ci gy kinh hi. Ti, cng nh gio s Levinston, b sc v t lnh
t, v tt c mi ngha m t ny bao hm. Th nhng khng c h
thp tm quan trng ca cc ngha ny nu chng ta mun hiu cc h
lu kinh khng ca nh nc l tng ca Plato. y l nhng ci ti
quyt tm bt tay lm cho c hiu r, mc ti c th.
Hon ton ng l trong cc bnh ch ca mnh ti nhn mnh s
thc rng, tuy on dn chiu n cc cuc vin chinh qun s, Plato
khng li nghi ng no rng cc nguyn l ca n c p dng cho
ton b i sng ca cc cng dn-lnh ca ng. Khng phi l cu tr li
i ni rng mt cng dn Hy Lp l, v phi l, mt ngi lnh; v
342
PH LC
iu ny ng vi Pericles v thi ca iu vn ca ng (cho cc binh

lnh cht trn) ch t cng nhiu nh vi Plato v thi ca Laws ca ng.
y l im m cc t ca ti c nh lm cng r cng tt. iu
ny lm cho cn phi ct mt mnh khi on cng knh ny, v th
b qua (nh cc du chm c chn vo biu th) cc dn chiu no
n cc vn qun s nhng ci c th lm lu m im chnh ca ti:
ti mun ni s thc rng on y c ng dng chung, cho chin tranh
v cho ho bnh, v rng nhiu nh Platonist hiu sai n, v khng
nm c im chnh ca n, v di v s trnh by kh hiu ca n,
v bi v s khao kht l tng ho Plato ca h. Tnh hnh v vic l nh
th. Th nhng ti b Gio s Levinston (p. 532) buc ti trong ng cnh
ny v s dng cc chin thut nhng ci lm cho cn phi kim tra
tng trch dn ca Popper t vn bn Platonic mt cch chi tit n nhn
tm, nhm khm ph ra Poppert b cun xa n nhng no khi
con ng ca tnh khch quan v cng bng.
i mt vi cc buc ti v lun iu ny, v vi nhng nghi ng nm
ln ti, ti ch c th c bo v mnh. Nhng ti thc c v nguyn l
rng khng ai nn l thm phn trong v kin ring ca mnh. Chnh v l
do ny m y ti mun trch ci Richard Robinson ni v on
Platonic ny, v v cch dch n ca ti ( The Phiosophical Review, 60,
p. 491). Phi nh l Robinson trn ln li khen vi li khin trch bi
ph bnh ca ng v cun sch ca ti, v phn khin trch ct khng
nh rng cch dch Plato ca ti l c thnh kin. Th m ng vit:
Tuy chng c thnh kin, chc chn khng nn xem nh chng. Chng
lu n cc c tnh thc v quan trng ca t tng Plato thng
khng c ch n. c bit, on kinh khng t Laws 942 v ng
bao gi hnh ng t mnh, mu c Dr. Popper trng ra, c dch
ng. (C th vin chng rng Plato c nh p dng iu ny ch cho
i sng qun s ca cc cng dn ca ng, v ng l on y bt u
nh mt quy nh cho k lut qun s; nhng n cui Plato r rng
mun m rng n ra cho ton b i sng; so phi loi b tnh trng hn
lon khi i sng ca mi ngi [Laws, 942d 1]).
Ti cm thy khng cn thm bt c g vo tuyn b ca Robinson.
Tm li. C l ti khng th th tr li ngay c mt phn nh cc co
buc m Gio s Levinston a ra chng li ti. Ti th tr li ch
vi trong s co buc , mc ti c th, nh rng quan trng hn vn
ai bt cng vi ai l cu hi liu cc khng nh ca ti v Plato c b
bc hay khng. Ti c a ra cc l do cho nim tin ca ti rng chng
343
khng b bc. Nhng ti nhc li khng ai nn l thm phn trong v

kin ca ring mnh: ti phi n cho cc bn c ca ti quyt nh.
Th nhng ti khng mun kt thc tho lun di ny m khng ti xc
nhn lng tin chc chn ca ti v thnh tu tr tu p o ca Plato.
kin ca ti rng ng l trit gia v i nht gia tt c cc trit gia vn
khng thay i. Ngay c trit hc o c v chnh tr ca ng, nh mt
thnh tu tr tu, l v song, mc d ti thy n kinh tm v mt o c,
v qu thc kinh khng. V v tr hc vt l ca ng, ti thay i
kin gia ln xut bn u tin v ln th hai (chnh xc hn, gia ln
xut bn u tin Anh v ln xut bn u tin M) ca cun sch
ny; v ti th a ra cc l do v sao by gi ti ngh rng ng l
ngi sng lp ca l thuyt hnh hc v th gii; mt l thuyt m tm
quan trng ca n lin tc tng ln t lu lm ri. Nng lc vn chng
ca ng ti phi ngh qu kiu ngo ca ngi. Ci m ph phn ca ti
chng t, ti tin, l s v i ca Plato l ci lm cho cng quan trng hn
u tranh vi trit l o c v chnh tr ca ng, v cnh bo
nhng ngi c th ri vo ba m thn diu ca ng.
IV (1965)
Trong ch thch 31 Chng 3 ti nhc n mt s cng trnh i
vi ti c v thy trc cc quan im ca ti v chnh tr hc Plato. T
khi vit ch gii ny ti c s tn cng ln ca Diana Spearman,
1939, ln nhng ngi tho hip v nguyn tc v nhng k c ti,
Modern Dictatorship. Chng The Theory of Autocracy L thuyt v
Ch chuyn quyn ca b, cha mt trong nhng phn tch su sc
nht v sc so nht, v ng thi c ng nht v l thuyt chnh tr ca
Plato m ti thy.
Cc Ch mc v Ni dung v v Tc gi c th thy cui mi tp.
Ch mc ny c bin son da trn gi ca ng Richard Robinson, a ra The
Philosophical Review, 60, 1951, p. 503. Cc s trong ngoc ch dn n cc on
Platonic. Cc s ngoi du ngoc ch dn n cc trang ca tp I ca cun sch ny; cc
s tip sau cc du ngoc ch dn n cc trang ni on trong ngoc c trch dn hay
tho lun.
Menexenus, 197, 299; (235b) 197,
(236a) 296, (238c-239a) 96, 255-6,
(245c-d) 226, 278.
Meno, 129, 267, 309; (91a) 314,
(86d/e) 216.
Parmenides, 213; (135c-d) 134, 268.
Phaedo, 222, 266-7, 308, 309, 312;
(65a-66a) 214, (70e/71a, 72a/b) 209,
(73a) 312, (74a) 214, (79d) 314,
(89c-d) 283, 299, (100d) 211.
Philebus, (16c) 219, (48c/d) 269, (50ac) 215.
Protagoras, 235, 241; (322a) 66,
(337a) 256, (337e) 333.
Republic, 93, 195, 197, 209, 219, 220,
228, 301, 305, 306, 308, 309, 320,
330-7; (344a) 105, (358c) 117, 261,
262, (359) 118, 254, 262, (362) 262,
(369b-c) 77, 219, 226, 240, 241, 247,
(378c) 229, 240, (380d) 212, 219,
(380e-381c) 217, (387d/e) 259,
(389b-d) 138-9, (390e) 271, (397e)
247, (398e) 229-30, (406c, 407e),
138-9, (414b-d) 140-1, 209, 270,
272, 273, (415a-c) 140-1, 225, 240,
(425b-427a/b) 224, (430d) 98, 257-8,
(432b) 99, 258, (433) 90, 96-7, 257,
(434a-c) 49, 106-7, 255, (440c-d) 51,
92, 254, (459b) 51, 150, 276, (460ab) 150, (460c) 51, 82, 228, (466b/c)
108, 269, (468c) 150-1, 276, (469b471c) 152, 224, 278-80, (473c-e)
132, 152-2, 276-7, 279-81, (474c502d) 145-6, (475) 138, 145, 314,
(476b) 145, (484c) 149, (485) 146,
214, 217, 240, 275, (489b/c) 154,
Alcibiades I, 303
Apology, 269, 304-5, 306, 308, 309,
310; (18b-c) 307; (18d-e) 308, (19c)
190, 301, 307, 308, (20e/21a) 310,
(23d) 307, (30e/31a) 194, (32b-d)
128, 266, 305, 310, (40 ff.) 308, 322,
330f., 333.
Charmides, (157c, 162d) 273, 311.
Crito, 304-5, 306 (45e) 304, (47e/48a)
302, (51-54) 194, 304, 305.
Euthyphro, 197, 315.
Gorgias, 309-10; (451a/b), c, 453e,
465a, b/c) 320, (483b) 117, 262,
(488e-489b), 92-93, 117, 254-5, 262,
(508a) 256, 262, 320, (521d) 130,
(522e) 320, (525e) 269, (527b) 262.
Hippias (Greater), (303b/c) 249.
Laws, 219, 229, 306, 309, 331, 338f.;
(634d/e) 267, (636b) 295, (649d/e)
269, (676a) 38, (575b/c) 44, 210,
217, 223, (681b) 226, (682e-683c/d)
226, 227, (683e) 45, (689c-d) 275,
(690b/c) 77, (704d) 283, (709e-714a)
44, 222, 245, (718c-722b) 139, 213,
270, 271, 316, (739c) 102, 219, 258,
(740d-741a) 295, (742a-c) 184, 298,
(744b) 256, (757a) 96, 256, (757b-d)
248, 270, (797d) 217, 218, 224,
(836b/c) 295, (838e) 295, (895b)
217, 219, (895d-e) 216, 249, (896e,
898c) 317, (903c) 80-1, 100, 219,
242, 258, (904-909) 36-7, 142, 21718, 273, (907d-909d) 331, (942a)
103, 219, 259, (942c) 103, 132, 259,
(942) 342, 298, (966e) 217, 219.
345
346
283, (494b) 154, 282-3, (494c/d)

278, 281, 282, (495d/e) 277, (496cd) 154, 185, 282-3, 299, (497d) 133,
(498b/c) 133, 267, (498d/e) 155,
283-4, (499b-c) 282-3, (499c/d) 280,
(500c-501e) 146, 149, 150, 165, 166,
224, 276, (506) 146, 274-5, (508b/c)
215, 274, (508d-e) 217, (509b) 247,
(509c-511e) 214, 271-272, (519e)
80, 102, 140, 169, 242, 271, (520c)
165, (520d) 155, (525e) 248,
(527a/b) 214, 217, (528b-d) 249-50,
(534d) 249, (535a/b) 149, 275,
(536a/b) 281, (537c-e) 137, 268,
(539d) 134, (537-540) 134, 262,
(540c) 132, 138, (540e/541d) 165,
166, 292, 327, (544c) 40, 227,
(545d) 45, 219, (546a) 81, 141, 217,
272, 281, 282, (546b) 82-3, 242-6,
(546c) 249, (546d/e) 153, 281-2,
(546e/547a) 209, 219, (547a) 141,
198, 315, (548e-549d) 41, 224, 228,
313, (554c, f.) 42, 221, (558b) 221,
316, (558c) 96, 254, (592b) 280,
(560b) 42, (561e) 254, (562b- 565e)
43, 123, 221, 265, 278, (563b-d) 254,
255, 316, 334, (566e) 43, 170, 198,
315, (571b, 575a) 313, (577a, f.) 43,
222, (577c) 315, (580b) 221, (588c)
197, 313, (592b) 280, (595b) 229,
240, (608e) 35, (615d) 269.
Second Letter, (314c) 313.

Seventh Letter, 208, 309; (314b/c) 275,
(325) 19, 282, 311, (326a) 309, 311,
(342a) 309.
Sophist, 322; (223c) 219, (242e) 208,
(248e-249c) 220, (252e, ff.) 219.
Statesman, 19 f., 208, 211, 219, 220,
283, 309, 331, 336; (258b) 283,
(268c-274e) 19-20, 36, 50, 209, 270,
(271a, f.) 226, 270, 273, (274d) 280,
(289b-e) 225, (292c) 283, (293c-e)
166, 209, 292, 328, (296b, ff.) 271,
(296d) 36, (297c) 209, 222, (300e, f.)
222, (301c/d) 43 f., 209, 222, (302b,
ff.) 209, (303b) 209, (304c/d) 271,
(309a) 225.
Symposium, (178e), 295, (179e), 325,
(191b) 209, (193d) 169, 218-19,
(199c/d) 216, (200a) 313, (208d)
(174e/f) 320, 153, 208, 282.
Theaetetus, 321; (142a-143c) 321-2,
(174) 215, (174e, f) 281, 321, (179e)
312.
Timaeus, 215, 230, 320; (18c/d) 48,
225, (20a) 311, (24a-b) 224, 275,
(45b-c, 47a-d) 314, (48) 30, 215,
(50) 27, 211, (53c-62c) 249-53,
(91b-92b/c) 37. Cng c mt tho
lun v 42a, f., 90e, v 91d, f., tp
hai ca cun sch ny (ch thch 11
chng 11, pp. 284 f.).
CH MC V TN
Achilles, 327 f.
Acton, Lord, 137.
Adam, J., 42, 83, 97, 141, 149, 206,
209, 212-14, 220 f., 223-5, 228 f.,
236, 240, 242-6, 254, 257, 262 f.,
273, 275 f., 282 f., 299, 301, 315.
Adeimantus, 258, 262 f.
Aeschines, 304.
Agassi, J., x.
Agrippa Menenius, 294.
Alcibiades, 154, 191-3, 281 f., 296,
303.
Alcidamas, 70, 95, 114, 152, 185, 236,
261, 278, 294.
Alcmaeon, 79, 173, 242, 254, 294.
Alexander i , 236, 278 f.
Anaximander, 189, 204-6, 211, 300 f.
Anderson, Maxwell, 336.
Antiphon Nh hng bin Rhamnus,
256, 296
Anthiphon Nh Sophist Athens, 69,
74, 95, 233, 236, 240, 256, 278, 294,
299.
Antistenes, 95, 129, 152-4, 185, 194,
237, 241, 276-9, 282, 298, 311.
Anytus, 192-4, 268.
Apollo, 328.
Aquinas, xem Thomas
Archelaus, 233.
Archimedes, 167.
Archytas, 196, 319.
Aristophanes, 182, 185, 218, 256, 307
f., 310.
Aristotle, 10, 12, 16, 26, 28-31, 33, 38,
43, 70, 91 f., 96, 102, 112, 114, 180,
205, 207-9, 211-19, 222, 228 f., 231,
235-7, 240 f., 248 f., 253, 255 f.,
258, 260 f., 268, 273 f., 277 f., 280,
283, 294-6, 299 f., 308, 311, 314,
320 f.
Aristoxenus, 300.
Aspasia, 255.
Athenian, Ngi L, 331.
Augustine, Saint [Thnh], 221.
Augustus, Hong , 298.
Badian, E., 237, 279.

Barker, Sir Ernest, 104, 114 f., 236,
240, 246 f., 259, 261-3, 273, 282.
Barth, K., 235.
Bartley, W. W., x.
Beethoven, L. van, 334.
Bergson, H., 202, 294, 314.
Bias, 13.
Blanc, L., 241.
Bodin, Jean, 121.
Borel, E., 252.
Bowra, Sir C. M., 216.
Bradford, Gim mc x, 203, 292.
Bradley, F. H., 232.
Broadhead, H. D., 279.
Bryson, 252.
Burke, E., Motto, 112, 260.
Burnet, J., 66, 190, 240-7, 210, 214216, 233, 235, 240, 267, 273, 294,
300 f., 304-9, 311-13.
Burns, E., 220, 241.
Bury, R. G., 218, 331, 339, 341.
Bywater, Ingram, 206, 301.
Callicles, 116-18, 184, 262, 303.
Callippus, 136, 268.
Campbell-Smith, M., Xem Smith.
Carnap, R., 216, 234, 274.
Carneades, 118, 263, 315.
Carruthers, J., 291.
Cassirer, E., 270, 276.
Catlin, G. E. G., 30, 238 f., 256 f., 292,
316.
Chaerephon, 193, 304, 310.
Chairon, 268.
Charicles, 268.
Charmides, 19, 191-3, 303, 310.
Cherniss, H., 222, 268.
Chiapelli, A., 321
Chion, 136
Christ Jesus, 88, 104, 117.
Cicero, 263, 278 f., 300.
Clearchus, 136.
Clenias, 224.
Codrus, 19, 153, 208, 282.
348
CH MC V TN
Comte, A., 35, 40, 207 f., 220 f.

Cope, G., 203, 292.
Corpernicus, 319.
Corscus, 268.
Cornford, F. M., 210, 212 f., 215, 223
f., 240 f., 250 f., 253, 270 f., 279.
Crantor, 224.
Cristias, 19, 142, 184, 187, 191-3, 208,
259, 268, 272 f., 294, 299 f., 303 f.,
310 f., 317, 324-6.
Crossman, R. H. S., 87, 130f., 133,
139, 169, 216, 246 f., 267, 270, 304,
313, 315.
Cyrus, Tr, 226, 305.
Dalziel, Margaret, x.
Damon, 229 f.
Daniel (Nh Tin tri), 272.
Darwin, Charles, 314, 317.
Davies, J. L., 247, 258, 271, 313.
Democritus, 12, 185 f., 206, 233, 276,
278 f., 294, 299, 320.
Demos, 311.
Dickens, C., 100 f., 258, 271, 313.
Diels, H., 204, 206 f., 213, 230, 233,
235, 254, 259, 273, 279, 294, 299301, 303, 319, 321.
Dio, 136, 154, 200, 282, 316 f.
Diogenes, Ngi theo phi Cynic, 241,
278 f., 282.
Diogenes Laertius, 241, 279.
Dionysius (Gi), 18, 43, 283, 297, 304,
311.
Dionysius (Tr), 44, 136, 283, 303,
316.
Dropides, 208, 282.
Dudley, D. R., 277.
Duemmler, F., 277.
Durkheim, E., 175.
Eastman, M., 210, 284.
Eddington, A. S., 237.
Eisler, R., 204, 211, 227, 233, 242,
254, 256, 272, 282, 321.
Empedocles, 208 f., 214, 217 f.
Engels, F., 220.
England, E. B., 104, 216, 222 f., 259.

Epictetus, 279.
Estabrooks, G. H., 317.
Euclid, 249, 251, 267, 319 f., 322.
Euphacus, 268.
Eupirides, 70, 95, 185, 236, 259, 278 f.,
299.
Euthyphro, 197, 315.
Ewer, T. K., x.
Ewing, A. C., 246.
Farrington, B., 217.
Fichte, J. G., 247, 280.
Field, G. C., 88, 208, 210, 214 f., 236,
247, 260, 273, 277, 281, 307, 311,
313.
Fite, W., 217, 313.
Fowler, H., 326, 328.
Frederick II ca x Ph, 276, 304.
Freud, S., 295, 313.
Friedlein, G., 320.
Fritz, Kurt von, 277.
Galileo, G., 319.
Gard, Roger Martin du, 157, 164, 284.
Glaucon, 97-9, 116-18, 150 f., 166,
228, 241, 254, 258, 262 f., 272, 312,
315.
Gobineau, Count J. A., 9, 203.
Gombrich, E. H., x, 253.
Gomperz, T., 88, 187, 214, 224, 228,
236, 246, 257, 259, 276, 299, 301 f.,
304 f.
Gorgias, 70, 114, 152, 185, 261, 276,
278.
Green, T. H., 260.
Grenfell, B. P., and Hunt, A. S., 229.
Grote, G., 80, 88, 204, 208, 211, 216,
226, 242, 246 f., 255, 268, 273, 275,
297, 303, 305, 315, 330.
Hastie, W., 247.
Hayek, F. A. von, x, 207 f., 285 f., 315.
Heath, T., 249, 251 f.
CH MC V TN
349
Hegel, F., 10, 17, 40, 107, 121, 144,

161, 203, 207, 221, 232, 238 f., 246
f., 297, 314, 325.
Hegemann, W., 298, 304.
Heraclides, 136, 316.
Heraclitus, 10-21, 24, 28, 38 f., 42, 55
f., 60, 73, 80, 83, 124, 148, 172 f.,
189, 203-9, 214, 216, 232 f., 294 f.,
301, 312 f.
Herder, J. G., 232, 247, 293.
Hermias, 268.
Hermocrates, 311.
Hermodorus, 13.
Herodotus, 95, 173, 185, 222, 233, 255,
294, 299.
Hesiod, 11 f., 15, 37 f., 55, 153, 188,
204, 209, 211, 218 f., 228, 235, 254,
271, 295.
Hippias, 70, 95, 233, 236, 278, 294,
333.
Hippodamus, 173, 211, 294 f.
Hobbes, T., 118, 142, 315.
Homer, 11, 204, 226, 228 f., 280, 295,
312, 327.
Hume, D., 230, 261.
Hunt, A. S., xem Grenfell, B. P.
Husserl, E., 216.
Huxley, A. 121.
Kraft, J., 269.

Krohn, A., 257.
Kuratowski, K., 232.
Inge, W. R., 316.

Isocrates, 136, 153 f., 224.
Mabbott, J. D., x, 211.

Macaulay, T. B. (Lord), 264.
Machiavelli, N., 221, 230.
MacIver, R. M., 216.
Macleod, W. C., 230.
MacTaggart, John MacT. E., 314.
Magee, B., x, 210, 286.
Malthus, T. R., 314.
Mannheim, H., 288.
Martin du Gard, R., xem Gard.
Marx, K., viii, ix, 9, 10, 38, 40, 164,
203, 216, 220 f., 241.
Meletus, 234.
Menger, K., 234.
Meyer, E., 180 f., 207 f., 214, 255, 265,
268, 283, 295-301, 303 f., 316.
Milford, P., 298.
Jesus, xem Christ.

Joad, C. E. M., 87, 246.
Jowett, B., 261, 295.
Kant, I., 1, 73, 102, 139, 152, 202, 232,
237, 246 f., 256 f., 270, 276, 284,
325, 334, 336.
Kautsky, K., 230.
Keeling, S. V., 314.
Kelsen, H., 217, 284, 313.
Kepler, J., 319.
Kirchoff, 299.
Kirk, G. S., 312.
Kolnai, A., 230.
Lamb, W. R. M., 335.

Larsen, H., x.
Lassalle, F. von, 203, 208.
Lauwerys, J. A., 325.
Lenin, V. I., 160, 167.
Leptines, 136.
Leucippus, 206.
Levinson, R. B., 323-42.
Lewis, Sinclair, 316.
Linddell, H. G., and Dcott, R., 327,
341.
Lindsay, A. D. (Lord), 221, 271, 275-7,
288.
Lippmann, W., 203.
Livy, 294.
Lucian, 205.
Lutoslawski, W., 312.
Lybyer, A. H., 227.
Lycophron, 70, 76, 95, 114-17, 152,
185, 236, 241, 261 f., 273, 278, 294,
315.
Lycurgus, 256.
Lysander, 184, 304.
Lysias, 296.
350
CH MC V TN
Mill, James, 264.

Mill, J. S., 29, 35, 40, 216, 221, 246,
263 f., 316.
Miller, D. W., x.
Morgenthau, H. J., 260 f.
Morrow, G. R., 225, 247.
Napoleon, I., 63 f.
Nelson, Leonard, 232, 265, 269.
Nestle, W., 205.
Neurath, O., 325.
Newton, I., 319.
Nietzsche, F. von, 230, 284.
Oedipus, 22.
Old Oligarch [u s C], 187, 195,
198, 222, 278, 294, 299, 304, 325.
Oppenheimer, F., 230.
Paine, Thomas, 73.
Pareto, V., 38, 199, 223, 315 f.
Paris, 326.
Parmenides, 12, 14, 21, 28 f., 211 f.,
214, 236, 275 f., 301, 312, 314.
Patroclus, 327.
Pericles, 7, 42, 95 f., 102, 105, 181,
185-7, 189, 197, 199, 203, 221, 228,
230, 255, 258, 299, 339-41.
Phaedrus, 327.
Phaleas x Chalcedon, 173, 294.
Philo Judaeus, 205.
Philodemus, 278.
Pindar, 69, 77, 233, 236, 241, 262.
Plato, viii, ix, x, 7, 10-12, 1416-22, 2457, 59, 67-70, 72-84, 86-109, 11521, 123, 125-8, 130-57, 161, 164-7,
169-71, 180, 184,186 f., 191 f., 194200, 202-31, 233, 235 f., 240-59,
261-3, 265-84, 292 f., 295 f., 298317, 319-43.
Plutarch, 243, 248, 250, 254, 296.
Plutarch-Gi, xem Pseudo-Plutarch.
Poincar, H., 237.
Polanyi, K., 216.
Popper, K. R., 3, 203, 210 f., 216, 227,

232, 234, 237, 264, 266, 274, 285 f.,
291, 293, 300, 319-21, 323-43.
Popper-Lynkeus, J., 294.
Pound, Roscoe, 210, 284, 286.
Proclus, 249, 320.
Prodicus, 228.
Protagoras, 57, 61, 65-7, 76 f., 142,
185, 189 f., 228, 233, 235, 241, 255,
262, 294.
Pseudo[Gi]-Plutarch, 236
Pseudo[Gi]-Xenophon, xem Old
Oligarch
Pyrilampes, 311.
Pythagoras, 15, 129, 188, 248 f., 301.
Quine, W. van O., 232.
Rader, M. M., 300.
Raven, J. E., 312.
Renan, E., 230.
Ritter, C., 322.
Robinson, R., x, 332, 339, 342, 345.
Rogers, A. K., 210, 307.
Rousseau J. J., 40, 121, 211, 223, 246,
257, 293.
Russell, B. (Lord), 131, 233, 274.
Russell, L. J., 234 f.
Rstow, A., 204.
Sachs, E., 321.
Sanazzaro, Jacob, 221, 246.
Sandys, J. E., 300.
Santayana, G., 316.
Schallmeyer, W., 317.
Schiller, F. C. S., 334.
Scott, R., xem Linddell, H. G.
Shakespeare, 246, 294.
Shaw, G. B., 246, 294.
Shelley, P. B., 153.
Sherrington, C., 233, 258 f.
Shorey, P., 327, 334-6, 338.
Simkhovitch, V. G., 298.
Simkin, C. G. F., x, 211, 285.
Simmel, G., 216.
Simplicius, 214, 247, 312.
CH MC V TN
Smith, M. Campbell, 270, 2276.
Socrates, 18, 29 f., 34, 42, 52, 61, 66 f.,
69, 72, 76, 95, 97-9, 104-6, 109, 116
f., 128-34, 137-9, 143 f., 150-2, 1546, 166, 185, 188-97, 199 f., 210, 214
f., 221 f., 229, 262 f., 266-8, 272 f.,
277-9, 282 f., 296, 299-314, 317, 321
f., 330-2.
Socrates Tr, 329.
Solon, 19, 60, 208.
Sophocles, 185, 299.
Spearman, D., 343.
Spencer, H., 35.
Spengler, O., 55, 231 f., 280.
Speusippus, 217, 235.
Spinoza, B. de, 260.
Stern, G. B., 284.
Stevenson, C. L., 247.
Stewart, J. A., 292.
Strabo, 268.
Tarn, W. W., 224, 236, 278 f., 281,
299.
Tarski, A., 216, 234, 273 f.
Taylor, A. E., 153, 204, 210, 215, 224
f., 244 f., 262, 282, 284, 303-8, 311
f., 330.
Teutames, 13.
Thales, 204.
Theaetetus, 321 f.
Theages, 154.
Themistocles, 178.
Theophrastus, 212, 214, 312.
Theramenes, 303.
Thomas Aquinas, 237, 316.
Thrasybulus, 192.
Thrasymachus, 69, 105 f., 116-18, 184,
262 f., 303.
351
Thucydides, 95, 178-81, 183-5, 187,

192, 221, 228, 255 f., 283, 295 f.,
299 f.
Timochares, 254.
Tocqueville, A. de, 159, 286.
Toynbee, A. J., 221, 226 f., 230-232,
268, 294 f., 298.
Twain, M., 270
Ueberweg, F., 205, 321.
Vaugham, C. E., 247, 258, 271, 313.
Veblen, T., 231.
Vico, G., 221.
Vicrkandt, A., 216.
Viner, J., x, 314.
Voltaire, 293, 304.
Wagner, Richard, 230.
Wallas, G., 203.
Weber, Max, 216.
Webb, Sidney and Beatrice, 210.
Wells, H. G., 258.
Wiener, N., 232.
Winspear, A. D., 217, 267, 315.
Wittgenstein, L., 205, 234.
Xenocrates, 268.
Xenophanes, 15, 189, 214, 235, 295,
312.
Xenophon (v Xenophon-Gi, xem Old
Oligarch), 241, 273, 277, 283, 303,
305-7, 311.
Zeller, E., 204 f., 217.
Zeno, 276.
Zinsser, H., 298.
CH MC V NI DUNG
S trang in nghing biu th l dn chiu c tm quan trng c bit. Ch t, c ngha
l thut ng, c t sau mt s trang, biu th l ngha ca thut ng c tho
lun. Ch n c ngha l ch thch. (Ch in nghing l t ting Anh tng ng, ND.)
A
Ai Cp; Egypt, 224, 231, 275.
alogos, 320.
an ninh; security, 111, 198, 201, 315.
nh hng ng phng, nhng;
oriental influences, 11, 204, 231,
233, 242, 272, 300.
Aristotle: tnh tr tro ca, cynicism of,
273, 296; nh hng ca, influcence
of, 236; nh hng ca Plato ln,
Platos influence on, 217.
Athens, 46, 177-83, ch. 10 (II), 228,
256, 325 f., 334; thnh kin chng,
bias against, 228, 296-7, ch. 10, n.
15; Trng hc ca Hy Lp, School
of Hellas, 181, 187; phong tro
Athenian chng s n l, xem n l;
Hi Bn hu ca Laconia, Society of
Friends of Laconia, 179, 180, 183,
187.
n chung, cc ba; common meals, 48,
259.
B
Ba mi Bo cha; the Thirty Tyrants,
18, 128, 142, 192, 193, 195, 200,
266, 299, 300-4, 326, ch. 10, n. 48.
Babbitt (S. Lewis), 316.
Bi n, ch ngha, xem ch ngha bi
n.
bn cht lun phng php;
methodological essentialism, 31-2t;
thuyt duy danh, nominalism, 32t,
109, 216.
bn cht; essence, 29, 31 (xem c nh
ngha, bn cht lun phng php
lun); Plato, 28-30, 74, 75, 200;
Socrates, 29-30.
bn a, autochthonous, xem huyn
thoi v ngi sinh ra t t.
bo lc; violence, 331, 336.
bin chng, php, ca Plato; dialectics

of Plato, 133, 274-5.
bit mnh; know thyself: hc thuyt ca
Socrates, Socrates doctrine, ch. 7, n.
26; 228-30, 266, 269 (so 129, 146,
287); s xuyn tc ca Plato, Platos
peversion, 132, 137; xem c
sophocracy, trit tr.
bnh ng; equality: s hc v hnh
hc, arithmetical and geometrical,
248, 250, 262; trc lut, before the
law, 89, 96, 254, 255.
Brave New World (A. Huxley), 121.
C
c nhn, cc, v x hi; individuals and
society, 30; Plato ni v, 76, 78-9,
102, 107-8, 139, 228, 279-80 (so
239).
Cch mng Cng nghip; Industrial
Revolution, 17.
Cch mng Php; the French
Revolution, 17, 203, 208, 294, 334.
cai tr, cc nh; rulers, 122, 333-4.
cai tr, s; ruling, 120-1 (xem c vua
trit gia; kim sot dn ch; nghch l
v quyn ti cao).
cm gic tri dt; sense of drift, xem
cng thng ca nn vn minh.
Carthage, 297-8.
cng thng ca nn vn minh; strain of
civilization, 5, 171, 176t, 188-9, 195,
199, 295t, ch. 10(VII), 301, 316,
317.
cm k, tc cm k; taboo, tabooism,
15, 60, 65, 148, 172, 173, 300 (xem
c ch ngha b lc).
cn bng x hi; social equilibrium,
46-9, ch. 4(III), 52.
chn l; truth, 273-4, 221, 261 (xem c
ng ngha hc); l thuyt ca Hegel
354
CH MC NI DUNG
v, 144, 274; l thuyt ca Plato v,

143-4; thc dng, pragmatic, 274.
ch chuyn ch; tyranny, 124-5,
151-2, 159, 235, 315; Plato chng
li, 40-4, 123, 170, 198, 200, 315
(xem tuy vy 317); Plato ni v s
khng th trnh khi ca chin tranh
di ~; 43, 198; Plato ni v ch
chuyn ch v k thut Khng tng,
44, 222.
ch c ti, xem ch chuyn ch.
ch qun ch; monarchy, Plato ni
v, 222, 283.
ch qu tc, xem qu tc
ch ti phit, Plato ni v,
plutocracy, Plato on, 256, 267, 316.
chim tinh, thut; astrology, 210, 244.
Chin tranh; War, xem quan h quc
t; Heraclitus ni v, 16 (xem c
danh ting v nh mnh); Plato ni
v, 43, 198, 259.
Ch d Glauconic; the Glauconic
edict, 150t, 151.
chnh th lun; holism, 80t, 100 (xem
c cc c nhn v x hi; ch ngha
thn b; thuyt trc gic); Heraclitus,
16, Parmenides, 301, 314; Plato, 48,
80-1, 100, 242t, 274-5, 279, 314.
chnh khch; statesmen, xem nh cai
tr.
chnh th u s, Hy Lp; oligarchy,
Greek, 177-8, 187; Plato ni v, 40t,
41, 222 (xem c 302-3; ch qu
tc; ch ti phit); Aristotle ni
v, 296.
chnh th ho hip; timocracy, 40t-41,
47.
chnh th, chnh ph; government, 124
(xem c nh nc); Plato ni v,
222, 261.
chnh tr hc; politics, 111, 113, 135,
189 (xem c cc th ch chnh tr;
o c hc, v chnh tr hc); Kant
ni v, 139; u s C ni v, 1878; Pericles ni v, 186; Plato ni v,
138-9; Socrates ni v, 130.
ch-ngi gi nh, human watchdog,

46, 51, 52, 149, 226, 227t, 241, 254.
Christians in the Class Struggle,
Nhng ngi c c trong u tranh
giai cp (G. Cope), 203, 292, ch. 9,
n. 12 (xem c thanh ton).
Ch ngha bi n, bng chng v s
tn ti ca n thi Plato;
Abolitionism, evidence for its
existence in Platos time, xem n l.
ch ngha bo h chnh tr;
protectionism, political, 111t, ch.
6(VI), 115, 261; Aristotle v Burke
chng li, 112, 261; Lycophron ng
h, 114-15, ch. 6(VII), 117, 261;
trnh by ca Plato v, 69, 117-18,
262-3, ch. 6, n. 52.
ch ngha bi quan, ca Hesiod;
pessimism of Hesiod, 37-8, 188, 235.
ch ngha bnh ng; equalitarianism,
69, 70, 95, ch. 6 (IV), 235, ch.5, n.6,
284, ch.9 n.2; Hy Lp, in Greece,
46, 69, 70, 95, 186, 236, 261, 278,
299 (xem c n l, phong tro
Athenian bi n); phn i chun
ca Plato v tr li ca Rousseau,
Platos standard objection to and
Rouseaus reply, 256-7; ch. 6, n.20;
ca Kant, 256.
ch ngha b lc; tribalism, 9t, 172,
174 (xem c ch ngha tp th); s
v ca, 176-7, 294; Hy Lp, 1767; (xem c Sparta); Do Thi, 17, 203,
279; hin i, 316; Aristotle, 261;
Plato, 80, 199.
ch ngha c nhn; individualism, 1002, ch. 6(V), 190, 268, ch. 7, n. 23
(xem c ch ngha v tha).
ch ngha chng tc; racialism, 9, 49,
231, 288. 317 (xem c gy ging);
ca Plato, 49, 51, 75, 82-3, 141, 14952, 240, 242, 279, ch. 8, n. 50, 331,
336-8 (xem c 27; huyn thoi v
kim loi trong con ngi).
ch ngha cng sn; communism,
Athenian 315; C c ban u, early
Christian, 241; Marx, 241; Plato, 48,
CH MC NI DUNG
102, 104, 221, 256, 315 (xem tuy

vy ch ti phit); chm ngn,
maxim, Pythagorean, 104, 241, 259.
ch ngha dn tc, nationalism, 288-9.
ch ngha quc; imperialism, 181,
182; Athenian, 176-83, 278; Roman,
181-2, 297; Alexander, 236, 278;
Plato chng, against, 283, 302-3.
ch ngha c on, xem c on.
ch ngha ng vt hc, xem thuyt
ng vt hc.
ch ngha duy l ph phn; critical
rationalism, 32, 230-2, 233, 237,
238, 253; v x hi m, 173, 202; v
o c hc, 287, 232, 238-40.
ch ngha duy vt lch s, historical
materialism, 38.
ch ngha duy vt; materialism, ca
Antiphon, 240.
ch ngha hoi nghi; scepticism, 267,
287.
ch ngha khoa hc; scientism, 286t.
ch ngha khoi lc, hedonism xem
thuyt v li.
ch ngha Khng tng; Utopianism,
157t, 164 (xem c tnh thm m; lm
sch bc vi v; ch ngha lng
mn; k thut x hi Khng tng).
ch ngha lng mn; romanticism, 168t,
218, 288, 292; ca Heraclitus, 17;
trung c, 16, 25; ca Plato, 84, 218;
~ thn d v ng qu ca Rousseau,
246, 293.
ch ngha lch s; historicism, 2, 3t-8,
21, 114-15, 260; thi ca tc gi
i vi, 34; v thay i, 14, 21 (so
314); v bn cht lun, 28, 216; nh
mt kt qu ca p bc, 1, 17, 203,
207, 300; v ho bnh, 260, 290-1; v
tn gio, 300; v chim tinh hc,
210, 244; v ch ngha khoa hc,
286; Heraclitus, 14-16; Hesiod, 11;
Marx, 164; Morgenthau, 260; Plato,
19, 21, 24-5, 55, 75, 78, 84; Do thi,
17, 203, 207, 300 (xem c Dn tc
c Chn); Theistic, 8; cc dng
hin i khc, 221.
355
ch ngha nhn o; humanitarianism,

263, 329 f., 332 f.
ch ngha nh nguyn trong trit hc
ca Plato; dualism in Platos
philosophy, ch. 5 (IX), 84-5, 103-4,
279.
ch ngha nh nguyn v cc s thc v
quyt nh hay ch ngha nh nguyn
ph phn; dualism of facts and
decisions or critical dualism, 60t-61,
73, 211, 234-5, ch. 5(III), n.3, 239,
334.
ch ngha Plato mi; neo-Platonism,
210, 314 (xem ch ngha Plato).
ch ngha Plato, Platonism , cc
Platonist, 112, 221, 236, 284, 342
(xem c ch ngha Plato mi).
ch ngha qun l; managerialism, 4.
ch ngha quy np; inductivism: Mill,
264, ch. 7, n. 2; Aristotle, 321.
ch ngha stoic; stoicism (chp nhn
nghch cnh), 277, 298.
ch ngha tm l; psychologism, 84t,
234, 290.
ch ngha tp th; collectivism, 9t, 1001, 203, 258t, (xem c ch ngha v k;
chnh th lun; thuyt v li, tp th
ch ngha); Plato, 80, 102-3, 106,
108, 324 f.
Ch ngha Thm m, xem Thm m.
ch ngha thn b; mysticism, 84, 202,
314-15, ch. 10, n. 59; Hy Lp, 31415 (xem phi Pythagorean; cc phi
Orphic); Aristotle, 314; Bergson,
202, 315; Heraclitus, 15, 205;
Parmenides, 301, 314; Plato, 56, 84,
314-15.
ch ngha th gii Hy Lp;
cosmopolitanism in Greece, 185,
236, 276, 278, 279, 281, 299 (xem c
s thng nht ca nhn loi).
ch ngha thc chng logic, logical
positivism; l thuyt thc chng v
ngha, 234.
ch ngha thc chng, o c hay
php l; positivism, ethical or
356
CH MC NI DUNG
juridicial, 68t, 71-2, 73; Catlin, 2389, 257; Heraclitus, 16, 207.
ch ngha ton tr; totalitarianism, 1, 2,
4, 5, 107-8, 113, 119, 170, 182, 189;
ca Plato, 86, 87, 138-9, 338, 341.
ch ngha t bn; capitalism, 287
ch ngha t do; liberalism, 111; ca
Kant, 102.
ch ngha t nhin; naturalism, 68t, ch.
5(V), 69-73, 95, 237-8, 299, 317; s
cn ci ca, 70, 78-9, 241, 262;
ngy th, 6ot; Kant, 73, 237; Marx,
241; Plato, 70, ch. 5(VI), 73, 74-8,
96; Socrates ni v, 117, 262.
ch ngha tng i o c ca
Heraclitus; ethical relativism of
Heraclitus, 16, 17.
ch ngha tng i trit hc,
philosophical relativism, xem nghch
l, chn l.
ch ngha v k; egoism, 100, 101, 104
(xem c ch ngha tp th; thuyt v
li, tp th ch ngha).
ch ngha v tha, xem v tha, ch ngha
ch ngha yu nc, xem nh nc gia
trng.
ch ngha, thuyt h v; nihilism, 72t,
184 (xem c ch ngha thc chng);
ca Cristias, 142, 299, 304; Hy
Lp, 184; Plato ni v, 116, 118,
262, 263.
chun mc, cc, lut chun tc; norms,
normative laws, xem lut; logic ca
cc chun mc.
Constitution of Athens; Hin php ca
Athens (tc gi u s C Old
Oligarch), 187, 324.
cng bng, xem cng l.
cng l; justice, 89, ch. 6(I), 113, 247,
256, 326; Anaximander ni v, 301;
Aristotle ni v, 256; quan im Hy
Lp, 91-8, ch. 6(II), 254; nhn o
ch ngha, 89, 91, 94 (xem c o
c hc; bnh ng); Kant ni v,
247, ch. 6, n. 4; Plato ni v, 89, 90,
94, 96, 97, 106, 107, 119, 221, 235,
248, 256, 263; Plato ni v sc mnh
ca nim tin vo, 92-3; Socrates ni

v, 105, 117; hai loi, 91-2 (xem c
o c hc); ton tr, 90, 94, 107-8,
119.
cng lun; public opinion, Heraclitus
ni v, 13.
cng ngh x hi; social techology,
211, 285.
cng ngh; techology, 163; xem c
cng ngh x hi.
cng nhn, giai cp lao ng; workers,
working class, Aristotle ni v, 261;
Plato ni v, 47, 76, 98, 225, 258,
259 (xem c gia sc ngi).
Credo (K. Barth), 236.
Crete, 228.
cynic, 277, 279, 282.
D
danh ting v nh mnh, trit l
Heraclitean v Hegelian v; fame
and fate, Heraclitean and Hegelian
philosophy of, 17t.
Darwin, ch ngha; Darwinism, 317.
dn ch, nn; democracy, 4, 124-5t,
127, 189; Athenian, 178-83; u s
C ni v, 187-8; Pericles ni v,
40-3, 123, 221, 254-6, ch. 6, n. 14;
Socrates ni v, 305; v ch ngha
duy l ph phn, 130.
dn du c, ngi chn cu trn i (v
Plato ni v xm chim Dorian);
nomads, hill shepherds (and Plato on
Dorian conquest), 50, 220, 225-7,
ch. 4, n. 32, 230-1, 246, 293.
dn s, tng, xem tng dn s.
Decline of the West, s suy tn ca
Phng Ty (O. Spengler), 55, 2312, ch. 4, n. 45.
Dn tc c Chn, hc thuyt v;
doctrine of the Chosen People, 8-9,
203, 300 (xem c ch ngha b lc,
Do thi; ch ngha lch s, Do thi).
di truyn; heredity, l thuyt ca Plato
v, xem gy ging.
dch theo ngha en; literal
translations, 328.
CH MC NI DUNG
din gii; interpretations: lch s, 171,

gio hun ca Heraclitus, 204; gio
hun ca Parmenides, 214; gio hun
ca Plato, 54, 170-1, 246, 308, 331.
Dik, 254.
Do thi, nhng ngi; Jews, ch ngha
lch s ca, xem ch ngha lch s,
Do Thi; ch ngha b lc ca, 17,
203, 279 (xem c Dn tc c
Chn).
dng chy [s thay i lin tc]; flux, l
thuyt ca Heraclitus v, 12, 189,
204-7, ch. 2, n. 2, 208, 211, 214,
217, 300, 301, 314.
o C c; Cristianity, 65, 102, 104,

117, 235; nhn o ch ngha, xem
o c C c; vs. s n l v ti
sn t, 241.
o c gi, tnh; pharisaism, 49t, 237.
o c hc, o c, bnh ng ch
ngha, nhn o ch ngha v C
c; ethics, morals, morality,
equalitarian, humanitarian and
Christian, 65, 66, 73, 235, ch. 5, n.6,
257, 263; ton tr tp th ch ngha
v b lc, 1001-3, 107-8, 112-13,
139, 256, 258, 325, 311, 339 f.; v
thm m hc, 65, 165, 292; v chnh
tr hc, 113, 139, 260; v tn gio,
xem tn gio; khoa hc, 237, ch. 5,
n. 18; xem c ch ngha nh nguyn
v cc s thc v quyt nh; ch
ngha t nhin; ch ngha thc
chng; ch ngha tng i; thuyt
v li; mc ch v phng tin; au
v vui thch.
o c tp th ch ngha, collectivist
morality, 107-8 (xem c o c
hc, ton tr).
au v vui thch, s bt i xng v;
asymmetry of pain and pleasure,
158, 235, 284-5, ch. 9, n. 2.
xut; proposals, 63t, 234, 334 (xem
c ngn ng ca cc yu sch v
xut).
357
iu vn ca Pericles; funeral oration

of Pericles, 186, 255, ch. 6, n. 16.
nh ch, xem th ch.
nh kin, xem thnh kin.
nh ngha, definition, 31-4, ch. 3(VI).
v, s, ca cc x hi; breakdown of
societies, xem x hi ng.
c on, ch ngha; authoritarianism,
66, 71, 72, 129, 159; ca Plato, 134,
136; Socrates ni v, 129-30.
c ti, ch , xem ch chuyn
ch.
c ti, nh, l thuyt v ~ nhn t;
dictator, theory of benevolent, 15960, 264, 316, ch. 10 n. 69 (so 123).
ng hc x hi; social dynamics, 16,
39, 83 (xem c cn bng x hi).
ng nht, s, ca cc i lp; identity
of opposites, xem s thng nht ca
cc i lp.
ng vt hc x hi; social zoology,
317, ch. 10, n. 71.
E
Eros, 211, 218.
G
gy ging, phi ging, l thuyt ca
Plato v; Platos theory of breeding,
51-3, 82-83, 228, 245, 276, 281, 283,
331, 336-8 (xem c pha trn giai cp;
ch ngha chng tc).
ght l l duy l, tnh; misology, xem
ght ngi.
ght ngi, tnh; misantropy; tnh ght
l l duy l; misology, 283, 299, 300.
gia sc ngi; human cattle, 46, 47, 48,
50, 51, 53, 154, 226, 227t, 228.
gi thuyt; hypothesis, 58, 239.
gia trng, nh nc, xem nh nc
gia trng.
giai cp, l thuyt lch s ch ngha v
x hi; class, historicist theory of
society, 38-41; Marx ni v, 40; l
thuyt ca Plato v, 46-7, 87, 106,
258; phn bit giai cp, 46, 49, 90,
148, 225; trn ln cc giai cp, 49,
82, 141, 225, 272 (xem c gy
ging); c quyn giai cp, 51, 86,
358
CH MC NI DUNG
90, 119, 227, 259, 267 (xem c

Sparta); giai cp thng tr, 49, 54, ch.
4(IV); chin tranh giai cp, 38 (xem
c th vt-ngi; ch canh-ngi;
giai cp lao ng; n l).
gii thch nhn qu, xem gii thch.
gii thch; explanation: nhn qu, 211t.
gio dc; education, 135; Anh, 316; Hy
Lp, 53, 130-1; nh hng ca Plato
ln, 54, 148 (so 227); Plato ni v,
47, 49, 51-2, 133-4, ch. 7(V), 142,
147, 221, 227, 228, 258, 267-9, 328
f.; Socrates ni v, 129-30, 133;
kim sot nh nc v, 103, 111,
130-1; ton tr, 54, 103.
git tr s sinh, tc; infanticide, s bo
v ~ ca Plato, 51, 228, 245, 295,
315, 338.
git v trc xut; kill and banish
(Plato), 116, 326-31, 336.
ging nhau; resemblance, 27, n. 19 n
n. 20 ch. 3.
Gorgias, 116.
H
hi ho; harmony, 108, 197, 313.
hnh phc; happiness: Plato ni v, 74,
169, 240.
h thng mt tri; solar system, 260,
286.
h thng x hi; the social system, 167.
Hegel, nh hng ca Heraclitus ln;
Hegel, influenced by Heraclitus, 17,
203.
Hegel, nh hng ca; Hegels
influence, 238, 297.
Heraclitus, 12, 189; v tr hc, 12-13,
204-5; nh hng, 12, 203 (xem c
Hegel); trit hc t nhin, 14, 60,
206, ch. 2, n. 7.
hin tng hc; phenomenology, 216,
16, 292.
hnh hc, l thuyt, xem l thuyt hnh
hc.
hnh hc; geometry, ca Plato, 248-53,
ch. 6, n. 9, 267, 319-20; vs. s hc,
248.
hnh thc, cc; forms, xem nim.

ho bnh, xem quan h quc t.
Hn o Thing ling, cc; Islands of
the Blessed, 327.
hi tng, anamnesis, 219t.
Hi ng Ban m; Noctural Council,
143, 195, 332.
Hi Quc Lin; League of Nations,
288.
hng bin, thut; rhetorics, 129, 263.
hu c, l thuyt, xem l thuyt hu c.
Huyn thoi; Myth: huyn thoi ca
Empedocles v Nm Ln,
Empedocles myth of the Great Year,
208-9, ch. 3, n.6 (xem c Nm Ln);
Huyn thoi Ln v Sparta, Great
Myth of Sparta, 41t; huyn thoi ca
Hesiod v hn n, Hesiods myth of
chaos, 211; v suy tn, 11, 188; v
kim loi trong ngi, 219; huyn
thoi ca Plato v th vt trong con
ngi, 241, 313; v mu v t, 13941, ch. 8(II); v suy tn v sp ,
55-6, 232-3, ch. 4(V), 244; v ngi
sinh ra t t, 50, 140t, 209, 226,
270, 272; v s suy sp, sp ca
con ngi, 36, 37, 39, 81-3, ch.
5(VIII), 141, 151-3, 198, 209, 219,
281, 315; v kim loi trong con
ngi, 83, 140, 209, 225, 272 (xem
tuy vy 281; c ch ngha chng tc
ca Plato); v cc con s, 82, 141,
148-53, 198, 209, 242-4, ch. 5, n. 39,
272, 281-2; ngun gc cc loi do
thoi ho, 37, 210; thi ca Plato
i vi cc huyn thoi ca ng,
142-3, 272, 273; din gii cc huyn
thoi ca Plato, 54.
Hy Lp c, Hellas, Hellenic, 279, 282,
295, 299.
Hy Lp, nhng ngi; Greeks, 171-2,
294, 341.
I
ch k, tnh, xem ch ngha v k.
K
k hoch ho tp th ch ngha;
collectivist planning, 2, 285.
CH MC NI DUNG
Khai sng, thi; the Enlightenment,

333 f.
kh c x hi, l thuyt v; social
contract, theory of, 115; Cristias,
273; Lycophron, 76-7, 114, 261-2;
Plato, 76-7, 226, 263; Roussaeu,
246; Barker ni v, 114-15, 261;
Hume v Neitzsche ni v, 230.
khoa hc x hi; social science, 2, 5, 9,
21, 216, 221-222, 256 (xem c quy
lut x hi hc); s lc hu ca, 2,
33; nhim v ca, 22.
khoa hc, t nhin v x hi; science,
natural and social, 33, 67, 216, 286;
cch tip cn Socratic n, 28-9,
131, 267 (xem c s trung thc tr
tu).
khoi lc, ch ngha, xem ch ngha
khoi lc.
khoan dung; tolerance, 235, 265, 266.
khng gian nh m ca cc s vt cm
nhn c; space as mother of
sensible things, 211-13, 274 (xem c
cc nim, nh cha ca cc s vt
cm nhn c).
Khng tng, ch ngha, xem ch
ngha khng tng.
khung kh php l; legal framework,
286.
k thut; engineering, 68, 163; x hi,
xem k thut x hi.
k thut x hi; social engineering, 224, ch. 3(IV), 210t; Khng tng,
157t, 159-63, 167, 284, 285, 291
(xem c ch ngha cp tin Khng
tng); Marx chng li, 164; Hayek
ni v, 285.
k thut x hi tng phn; piecemeal
social engineering, 158t, 159, 162,
167, 285, 286t, 291, ch. 9, n. 8 (xem
c cng ngh x hi).
kim ch v cn bng, l thuyt v;
theory of checks and balances, 122t,
263-4 (xem c kim sot dn ch).
kim sot dn ch; democratic control,
123-5, ch. 7(II) , 127 (xem c kim
ch v cn bng).
359
kim sot, xem kim sot dn ch; cc

th ch; kim ch v cn bng.
kim tra, xem kim sot.
kin ngh, xem xut.
kinh t hc; economics, 173 (xem c
tin; phn cng lao ng; ch ngha
t bn; Marx).
L
laissez faire (chnh sch t do,
khng can thip), trong gio dc,
130-1.
lm ngng thay i, xem thay i, l
thuyt ca Plato v lm ngng thay
i.
lm sch bc vi v (Plato); canvascleaning, 166t-167, 200, 292, 328,
336.
lng mn, ch ngha, xem ch ngha
lng mn.
lnh o, s, xem quyn ti cao; nh
c ti; cc nh cai tr; nguyn l ln
nht ca Plato, Platos greatest
principle, 7, 103; l thuyt ca Plato
v, 126-7, 135, 169, 269, 340 f.
lp php, xem lut.
l thuyt hnh hc v th gii,
geometrical theory of the world, 248253, 320, 343.
l thuyt hu c v x hi v nh nc;
organic theory of society and state,
173-4, 294-5, 316; ngun gc ng
phng ca, 242; Plato, 22, 40-1, 56,
77, 79-81, ch. 5(VII), 108, 138-9,
220, 242; tn cng ca PopperLynken ln, 294, ch. 10, n. 7.
l thuyt sinh hc v nh nc,
biological theory of the state, xem
hu c.
linh hn; the soul, 301-2, ch. 10, n. 44;
Freud ni v, 313; Plato ni v, 75,
78, 80, 81, 197, 212, 217, 240, 302,
313; cc phi Pythagorean v Orphic
ni v, 301-2, 285.
logic, 232; ca t do, of freedom, 315t;
ca cc chun mc, of norms, 234t
(xem c ngn ng ca cc yu sch
360
CH MC NI DUNG
chnh tr); ca quyn lc, of power,

1, 137, 315t, 317.
la; fire, l thuyt ca Heraclitus v,
14, 15, 73, 206-7, ch. 2, n. 7, 212.
lut, (quy); laws, 57-9, ch. 5(I); t
nhin, 57-9; chun tc, 57-9, 61, 62,
65, 239; x hi hc, 22, 62, 67, ch.
5(IV), 236.
lut, lp php; law, legislation, 110-11.
M
maieutic, 321, 322.
Maori, nhng ngi, 171.
Marx, viii; ch ngha khng tng,
utopianism, 164; so vi Plato, 38, 40,
78, 168.
mu thun, cc; contradictions, 205
(xem c logic; nghch l).
mnh lnh tuyt i; categorical
imperative (Kant) xem quy tc vng.
mc ch v phng tin; ends and
means, 161, 286-7, ch. 9, n. 6.
N
Nm Ln hay Chu k Ln; Great Year
or Great Cycle, 19, 206t, 207, 20819, ch. 3, n. 6, 219, 220.
nn vn minh, xem vn minh.
ngn sch, lp; budgeting, 285.
ngo mn, thi , Platonic; Platonic
hauteur, 334.
nghch l, cc; paradoxes: v dn ch,
17, 121, 124, 125, 265; v t do,
123t-124, 265-6, ch. 7(I), n. 4, n.6;
Heraclitus ni v, 13; Plato ni v,
265; v quyn ti cao, 123-4, 266,
ch. 7, n. 6; v khoan dung, 265-6.
ngn ng; language, 32, 65; ca cc
yu sch hay xut chnh tr, of
political demands or proposals, 109t,
112, 234-235t.
ng ngha hc (A. Tarski); semantics,
216, 234, 273-274, ch. 8, n. 23.
ngi v i, thin ti; great men,
genius, 17, 231 (so p. vii).
ngun gc ca nh nc; origin of the
state, 115, 230-1.
nguyn t, cc, thuyt, atoms, atomism,
250, 251.
nh cai tr, xem cai tr, cc nh.

nh c ti, xem c ti, nh.
nh nc gia trng, ch ngha yu
nc; paternal state, patriotism,
184t, ch. 10(III), 272, 282, 299.
nh nc quc gia v quyn t quyt
quc gia, cc nguyn l v; national
state and national selfdetermination, principles of, 288-9.
nh nc; state, 288 (xem c ch ngha
bo h); kim duyt, 53, 86, 132,
229, 267, 268, 275; kim sot gio
dc, 103, 111, 130, 131; kim sot
kinh t, 111, 125-30; can thip, 11011; ngun gc ca, 115, 230-1 (xem
c l thuyt hu c v nh nc);
phn loi nh nc ca Aristotle,
222; ca Plato, 40, ch. 4(II), 44, 220,
222 (xem c giai cp); l thuyt ca
Aristotle v, 112; l thuyt ca Plato,
25, 31, 39, 53, 45-9, 50-5, 226.
nhc; music, 230; nh vn Hy Lp n
danh ni v, 229-30; Plato ni v,
52-4, 229.
nhn qu, quan h; causality, 262-3
(xem c gii thch).
nhn s, thuyt trng, xem thuyt trng
nhn s.
nht nguyn lun ngy thi; nave
monism, 59t, 73, 172.
nht nguyn lun; monism, 73t (xem c
nht nguyn lun ngy th); ca
Catlin, 237-9, ch. 5, n. 18.
nhm c th; concrete group, 175 (xem
c x hi tru tng).
nim tin vo l tr; faith in reason, 185.
ni di; lying, 142-3, 183-4, 331, 336 f.
ni di cao thng; noble lie, 270,
xem c ni di vng gi.
ni di vng gi, s; the lordy lie,
138-40, ch. 8(I), 150, 270-2.
n l, s, tnh trng; slavery, 62, 65,
330; cc x hi ng, 295; phong
tro Athenian bi n v bng
chng cho s tn ti ca n trong cc
cng khch ca Plato v Aristotle ln
n, 43, 46, 47, 53, 70, 221, 222, 224-
CH MC NI DUNG
5 (ch. 4, n. 18, n. 29), 236, ch. 8, n.

48, 261, 278, 299, 316, 333-6; thi
ca Socrates i vi, 129.
ni lon chng l tr; revolt against
reason, 317.
ni lon chng t do; revolt against
freedom, 188, 199, 315, 317.
O
Oedipus, phc cm; Oedipus complex,
314; s mnh mt kt qu ca li
tin tri (trong S Khn cng ca Ch
ngha Lch s c gi l hiu ng
Oedipus), 22.
Orphic, cc phi; sects, 188, 300-1,
313.
P
Peloponnesian, chin tranh; war, 17880, 183, 192-93, 296.
phn cng lao ng, division of labour,
173; Plato ni v, 78, 90, 226.
phn tm hc; psychoanalysis, 313.
php tr; rule of law, 166, 326.
ph bnh, s; criticism, 129, 186, 222
(xem c ch ngha duy l); v gio
dc, 130, 135; Plato ni v, 53, 86,
229, 267, 268, 270, 275, 276-7, 298;
Socrates ni v, 129, 130; v chnh
tr hc, xem chnh tr hc; truyn
thng duy l v, 188, 300.
ph phn, xem ph bnh.
phi ging xem gy ging.
Phc hng, thi; the Renaissance, 221,
293.
phng php khoa hc; scientific
method, 3, 163, 285, 307; v o c
hc, 1, 69, 233, 285; v k thut x
hi tng phn, 126, 291.
phng php lun lch s ch ngha;
historicist methodology, 21, 75.
phng ty; the west, nn vn minh
phng ty; western civilization,
102, 171, 175, 232, 267.
Plato, ch ngha, xem ch ngha Plato.
Plato, viii, 34, 155, 198-9; ngun gc
qu tc, 19, 27, 153, 208, 282; thi
tr v nn tng lch s, 18, 19, ch.
3(I), 84, 171 ff.; do Socrates ci bin,
361
109, 191-2, 303; ngi sng lp Vin

hn Lm, 136-55, 300; hot ng
chnh tr, 18, 43-5, 136, 153, 282;
xung t ni b, 109, 196-7, 199,
313, ch. 10(VI), n. 59(1); ch trng
bo lc (lm sch bc vi v), 166,
195, 200, 327, 331 f., 336; bp mo
gio hun ca Socrates, 194-5, 305,
ch. 10, n. 55, n. 56; nh ngh s, 42,
165; nh nh ton hc, 248, 267,
319, 343; nh trit gia, 98, 246, ch.
5, n. 45, 343; nh nh khoa hc x
hi, 35, 38, 54, 56, 70, 84, 101, 171,
198; nh nh gio, 43, 268, 269; ch
ngha c on ca Plato, 103, 134,
136; tnh ngo mn, 330; thuyt trc
gic, 145, 274; thuyt phi l, 84, 141;
tnh ght ngi, 283, 299 (so 51,
139, 228); ch ngha thn b, 314;
ch ngha lng mn, 84, 165, 218;
chn dung t ho, xem vua trit gia;
s l tng ho Plato, 87-8, 104, 141,
152, 223, 229, 244, 247, 271, 275,
276, 299, 323-43; cc hc tr ca
ng tr thnh cc bo cha, 136-7,
268, 316-17; b nh hng bi
Anaximander, 301; bi Herodotus,
222, 255; bi Heraclitus, 11, 16, 205,
208 (xem c dng chy); bi u s
C, 300; bi Parmenides, 21, 28-9,
212, 301; bi phi Pythagorean, 83,
148, 196, 211-12, 246, 301, 319; bi
Socrates, 29, 72, 109, 144, 197, 221,
240, 317; so vi Socrates, 42, 128,
138, 143, 146, 154, 195, 268, 269,
301-2, 305, 313 (xem c t cp t
tc, l thuyt Socratic vs. Platonic v
vn Socratic); v Antisthenes,
276-7, ch. 8, n. 47; v Homer, 228-9,
280; v Socrates, 222, 267, 273, 313;
v Th h V i, 199; nh hng
ca ng, 42, 54, 115, 127, 136, 199,
221, 228, 246, 273, 293, 313-14,
315, 316; ng thi, 236; v Chu
u trung c, 200, 293 (xem c
Marx).
Platonist, xem ch ngha Plato.
362
CH MC NI DUNG
Pythagorean, phi; sect, 148, 188-9,

250, 301; ch ngha cng sn, 104,
241, 259; chng trnh ton hc,
248-9, 267, 319 f.; trit hc t nhin,
308; bng cc i lp, 211, 212; cc
cm k, 148, 300.
Q
quan im v din gii; point of view
and interpreation, 171, 328, 331.
quan h quc t, ti phm quc t v
ho bnh; international relations,
international crime and peace, 107,
113, 161, 260, 288-91, ch. 9, n.7.
qun ch, xem ch qun ch.
quy lut v cch mng ca Plato;
Platos law of revolution. 38t. 44-5,
223.
quy lut x hi; social laws, xem lut.
quy tc vng (ca Kant); Kants
golden rule, 102, 256.
qu tc, ch , Plato ni v;
aristocracy, Plato on, 222, 283.
quyn bnh ng chnh tr; isonomy,
xem bnh ng, trc php lut.
quyn lc, Plato ni v lm dng;
Plato on misuse of power, 260, 269.
quyn ti cao; sovereignty, 121-2 (xem
c nghch l v quyn ti cao);
Rousseau ni v, 125.
quyn t do; freedom: cc hn ch v,
110-11, 247, 131 (xem c nghch l
v quyn t do); v t duy v ngn
lun, Plato chng, 267, 268, 270, 275
(xem c nh nc, kim duyt nh
nc; gio dc).
quyt nh o c; moral decision,
61, 62, 64 (xem c ch ngha nh
nguyn v cc s thc v quyt nh;
trch nhim).
R
Rome, ch ngha quc Roman,
Roman imperialism, 233, 297-8, ch.
10, n. 19.
S
sng sut, s; wisdom, Plato ni v,
128, 144, ch. 8(III), 145, 146, 269,
275; Socrates ni v, 128-9, 308-9.
siu-sinh hc; meta-biology, 84, 246.

s hc, xem s v t; hnh hc, Plato,
nh ton hc.
s v t; irrational numbers, 212, 24853, 319 f.
s, cc; numbers; xem cc s v t;
huyn thoi v cc s; hnh hc vs.
s hc.
Socrates, 189-99, ch. 10(V), 283, 313,
315, 332 f.; xem ch ngha th gii;
ph bnh dn ch, 128, 188, 191,
194, 303; nh ci cch o c, 29,
193; nh c nhn ch ngha, 128,
196, 267, 301, 333; nh gio, 130,
191-2, 222, 303; s trung thc tr
tu, 128, 129, 190, 222; v Ba mi
Bo cha, 128, 193, 266, 303, 310;
x n v s cht v ngha, 193, 194,
268, 304, 305, 310; s bng quang,
th ca ng vi trit hc t nhin,
301, 308; Aristophanes ni v, 308;
Aristotle ni v, 311; Crossman ni
v, 267; v Plato, xem Plato; xem
vn Socratic; gio hun ca ng,
105, 128-32, ch. 7(IV), 185, 189192; thuyt bt kh tri, 128, 267,
308; v dn ch, 305; v s sng
sut, 128-30, 308-9 (xem c linh
hn; t tc t cp; khoa hc).
Sophist, cc nh, 57, 128, 131, 132,
142, 173, 263, 308.
sophocracy; ch trit tr, 144t, 283.
Sparta, 177, 182, 184, 198, 227, 228,
259, 295, 298, 325 f.; huyn thoi
ln v, 41.
status quo, hin trng, 110, 117, 288.
Sumer, 296.
suy tn, l thuyt ca Plato v; Platos
theory of decay, 19, 20, 36, 37, 55,
76, 217 (xem c thay i; thi nt,
mc nt; v tr hc); lm ngng ~,
20-1, ch. 3(II), 37.
T
tm hn, xem linh hn.
tng dn s; population increase, 245,
295.
CH MC NI DUNG
tp th, ch ngha, xem ch ngha tp

th.
thanh ton, thanh trng;
liquidation, Plato ni v, 166;
ngha hin i ca, 292.
thnh kin; prejudice, 129, 267.
thay i lin tc, xem dng chy.
thay i; change, 314; l thuyt ca
Heraclitus v, 12, 14, 204, 205 (xem
c dng chy); l thuyt ca Plato v
lm ngng ~, 21, ch. 3 (III), 37, 38,
86, 146, 218, ch. 4, n.3, 268, 318; v
ngng, ngh, Plato ni v, 36, 37, ch.
4(I), 276, 317 (xem c suy tn; dng
chy); vn v khi u ca, 39,
81, 219, 220; Hegel ni v, 314-315
(xem c Hegel).
Thm m hc; aesthetics, 230, 292; v
o c hc, 65, 165, 292.
Thm m, ch ngha, tnh; aestheticism,
165t, 167, 292; ca Plato; 78, 145,
165 (xem c lm sch bc vi v).
thn diu, ma thut; magic, 15, 57, 60,
148, 172, 206 (xem c cc cm k).
Thn thoi, Myth, xem Huyn thoi.
Thn; God (xem thuyt mt thn);
Antisthenes ni v, 276, 278; Plato
ni v, 213, 276; ch ca, v ch
ngha lch s, 8, 24.
th (nh) ch, cc; institutions: quc
t, 288-9; chnh tr, 109, 121, 123,
125; x hi, 23, 67, 125, ch. 7(III),
159, 172, 173, 294; ci thin v lp
k hoch ca ~ x hi, 127, 163.
th ch, thuyt trng, xem thuyt trng
th ch.
Th h Ln, xem Th h V i.
Th h V i; the Great Generation,
70, 185t-189, 194, 196, 199, 278,
299, 332.
Theaetetus, tnh nin i ca; dating of,
321.
Themis, 253.
th nghim x hi; social experiment,
xem th nghim.
363
th nghim; experiment: x hi, 162,

163, 167 (xem c k thut x hi;
khoa hc x hi).
Thin ng trn tri t; Heaven on
earth, 165.
thin ti, xem ngi v i.
Thin, xem ci Tt
tho hip, s; compromise, 159.
thot li thc t; escapism, 238, 314.
thi k en ti, cc; dark ages, 200.
Thi k Hong kim; Golden Age, 11,
19, 21, 25, 43, 204, 209, 210, 218.
thi nt, quy lut v tr v; cosmic law
of corruption, 19, 20, 35, 40, 209,
210, 217, 218, 222-3 (xem c suy
tn, mc nt).
Thi Trung c; Middle Ages, 293, 241,
302.
thng nht, s, ca cc i lp; unity of
opposites, 16, 17t, 204-5, 207, 209.
thng nht, s, ca nhn loi; unity of
mankind, 152, 236, 278, 279, 281.
thut chim tinh, xem chim tinh.
thng mi; commerce, 176, 177, 295;
(so 184, 187, 283).
thuyt (ch ngha) cp tin; radiaclism,
164, 167, 291-2, ch. 9, n. 12.
thuyt ng vt hc; zoologism, 317t318.
thuyt duy danh, nominalism, xem bn
cht lun phng php.
thuyt mt thn; monotheism, 276, 278,
279.
thuyt phc v v lc; persuation and
force, i hi ca Plato v li
khuyn ca Pareto, 118, 119, 140,
142, 195, 199, 263, 270-2, ch. 8, n.
10, 273, 316.
thuyt quy c ph phn hay ch ngha
nh nguyn ph phn, xem ch ngha
nh nguyn v cc s thc v quyt
nh.
thuyt quy c; conventionalism, ph
phn hay o c, xem thuyt nh
ngy th, 14-15, 60t; tn gio ca
364
CH MC NI DUNG
Plato, 77-8, 141-2; trong khoa hc,

237t.
thuyt tin b v o c hc;
progressivism and ethics, 234; v
thuyt tin ho, 40.
thuyt tin ho; evolutionism, 40 (so
314; xem c thuyt tin b); ca
Hegel, 314.
thuyt trng nhn s; personalism, 126,
268 (xem c thuyt trng th ch).
thuyt trng th (nh) ch: v ch
ngha c nhn; institutionalism: and
individualism, 268.
thuyt v lai; futurism: thm m, 230.
thuyt v li; utilitarianism, 235, 254,
284-5; ~ tp th ch ngha ca Plato,
107, 108, 138; ca Antiphon, 69.
th v sai; trial and error, 167, 286.
tin b trong ngh thut; progress in
art, 230.
tin on; prediction, 3, 260, 286.
tin; money, 316, ch. 10, n.67.
tn dng, xem tin.
Tnh Thm m, xem Thm m.
tnh trung thc tr tu Socratic;
Socratic intellectual honesty, 129,
190, 222.
To d gio, the Inquisition, 104, 200,
kin ngh ca Plato v, 195.
Tom Sawyer (Mark Twain), 270.
tn gio; religion, 1, 9, 65, 235 (xem
o C c; nin tin vo l tr; siusinh hc); Cristias ni v, 142; Plato
ni v, 141-3, 213, 273; Protagoras
ni v, 235; Hy Lp, 27; lch s ch
ngha, 207, 300; l thuc phin,
273.
tng tuyn c; general elections, 124-5
(xem c nghch l dn ch; nghch l
quyn ti cao).
tt, ci; the good, 237-8; nim ca
Plato v, 145-6, ch. 8(IV), 217, 2745, ch. 8, n. 32.
trch nhim; responsibility, 4, 5, 49,
61, 65, 66, 113, 173, 200-1.
Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus (L.
Wittgenstein), 205, 234.
tri thc; knowledge, xem khoa hc; gi

thuyt; gii thch; v kin, 82, 214,
236.
trit hc v lch s; philosophy of
history, Plato, 84, 209.
trit tr, xem sophocracy.
tr v thnh t vt; return to the beasts,
201, 232, 317-318, ch. 10, n. 71.
trc gic, thuyt trc gic; intuition,
intuitionism:
Aristotle,
314;
Heraclitus, 15; Plato, 145, 274.
trng pht, s; punishment, 261, 28990; Antiphon ni v, 69; Hegel ni
v, 246; Heraclitus ni v, 14, 60;
Plato ni v, 138, 143, 195, 222,
261.
trung thc tr tu, tnh, xem tnh trung
thc tr tu.
trng phi Ionian, the Ionian school,
xem truyn thng, duy l.
truyn thng; tradition, 115, 124, 231,
266, 268; duy l, 188, 204, 300.
t cp t tc; autarky, self-sufficiency,
ca c nhn, l thuyt Socratic vs. l
thuyt Platonic v, 76, 236, 240, 259;
ca nh nc, l thuyt ca Plato v,
76, 87, 182.
t do, xem quyn t do.
tuyn truyn; propaganda, Cristias ni
v, 273; Plato ni v, 184, 298, 336
f. (xem c thuyt phc).
V
vn minh, nn; civilization, 317 (xem
c nn vn minh phng ty).
Vn Socratic; Socratic Problem,
210, 221, 299, 301, 306-13, ch. 10,
n. 56, 332 f.
v tha, ch ngha; altruism, 100-2 (xem
c ch ngha c nhn; ch ngha v
k).
Vin Hn Lm ca Plato, Platos
Academy, 18, 42, 136, 235, 248, 253,
268, 316-17.
Virgo, hnh trng, constellation, 254.
v thn, thuyt, Plato ni v; atheism,
Plato on, 331.
CH MC NI DUNG
v tr hc; cosmology, Ionian, 204;

Heraclitus, 12-13, 204-5; Plato, 1920, 26-8, 211-13 (xem c 248-53, ch.
6, n. 2; cc nim; hnh hc).
vua trit gia; philosopher king, 132,
138-56, ch. 8(V), 328, 331; Kant ni
v, 152; Mill ni v, 263-4; chn
dung t ho ca Plato, 153-6, 282-4,
ch. 8(VIII).
X
x hi b ngng, cc; arrested
societies, 55, 224, 232, 268 (xem c
Sparta).
x hi ng, the closed society, 1, 57t,
108, 173, 190, 195, 200, 202t, 232,
294, 295 (xem c cc x hi b
ngng); v ca, 177, 198, 232,
294t, 295.
x hi hc; sociology, xem khoa hc x
hi.
x hi khng c giai cp; classless
society, 46.
x hi m, the open society, 7, 173t,
174, 183, 189, 191, 197, 201, ch.
10(VIII), 202t, 232, 294t, 303, 3156; s ni ln ca, 174-5, ch. 10 (I).
365
X hi tru tng; Abstract society,

174t, 175, 176 (xem c nhm c th)
Xm chim Dorian, cuc, xem dn du
c.
Y
y hc; medicine: Plato ni v, 138-39,
270, 316.
ngha, l thuyt v, theory of
meaning, xem ch ngha thc chng.
nim, cc; ideas, ca Plato nh cha
ca cc s vt cm nhn c, 21115, ch. 3, n. 15, 219-220, 274 (xem
c khng gian, nh m ca cc s vt
c th cm nhn c); Platonic,
khng phi Socratic, ngun gc ca
l thuyt ca Plato v, 210, 215 (xem
c Bng Pythagorean v cc i lp;
Vn Socratic); vn ca ngi
th ba, 220; cc giai on pht trin
ca, 214-15, ch. 3, n. 26, 219-20;
nh cc tam gic, 253, 319 f. (xem
c thm m hc).
yu sch, chnh tr, xem ngn ng ca
cc yu sch v xut chnh tr.
Z
Zeus, 15, 16, 43, 66.
CH MC V NI DUNG
S trang in nghing biu th l dn chiu c tm quan trng c bit. Ch t, c ngha
l thut ng, c t sau mt s trang, biu th l ngha ca thut ng c tho
lun. Ch n c ngha l ch thch. (Ch in nghing l t ting Anh tng ng, ND.)
A
Ai Cp; Egypt, 224, 231, 275.
alogos, 320.
an ninh; security, 111, 198, 201, 315.
nh hng ng phng, nhng;
oriental influences, 11, 204, 231,
233, 242, 272, 300.
Aristotle: tnh tr tro ca, cynicism of,
273, 296; nh hng ca, influcence
of, 236; nh hng ca Plato ln,
Platos influence on, 217.
Athens, 46, 177-83, ch. 10 (II), 228,
256, 325 f., 334; thnh kin chng,
bias against, 228, 296-7, ch. 10, n.
15; Trng hc ca Hy Lp, School
of Hellas, 181, 187; phong tro
Athenian chng s n l, xem n l;
Hi Bn hu ca Laconia, Society of
Friends of Laconia, 179, 180, 183,
187.
n chung, cc ba; common meals, 48,
259.
B
Ba mi Bo cha; the Thirty Tyrants,
18, 128, 142, 192, 193, 195, 200,
266, 299, 300-4, 326, ch. 10, n. 48.
Babbitt (S. Lewis), 316.
Bi n, ch ngha, xem ch ngha bi
n.
bn cht lun phng php;
methodological essentialism, 31-2t;
thuyt duy danh, nominalism, 32t,
109, 216.
bn cht; essence, 29, 31 (xem c nh
ngha, bn cht lun phng php
lun); Plato, 28-30, 74, 75, 200;
Socrates, 29-30.
bn a, autochthonous, xem huyn
thoi v ngi sinh ra t t.
bo lc; violence, 331, 336.
bin chng, php, ca Plato; dialectics

of Plato, 133, 274-5.
bit mnh; know thyself: hc thuyt ca
Socrates, Socrates doctrine, ch. 7, n.
26; 228-30, 266, 269 (so 129, 146,
287); s xuyn tc ca Plato, Platos
peversion, 132, 137; xem c
sophocracy, trit tr.
bnh ng; equality: s hc v hnh
hc, arithmetical and geometrical,
248, 250, 262; trc lut, before the
law, 89, 96, 254, 255.
Brave New World (A. Huxley), 121.
C
c nhn, cc, v x hi; individuals and
society, 30; Plato ni v, 76, 78-9,
102, 107-8, 139, 228, 279-80 (so
239).
Cch mng Cng nghip; Industrial
Revolution, 17.
Cch mng Php; the French
Revolution, 17, 203, 208, 294, 334.
cai tr, cc nh; rulers, 122, 333-4.
cai tr, s; ruling, 120-1 (xem c vua
trit gia; kim sot dn ch; nghch l
v quyn ti cao).
cm gic tri dt; sense of drift, xem
cng thng ca nn vn minh.
Carthage, 297-8.
cng thng ca nn vn minh; strain of
civilization, 5, 171, 176t, 188-9, 195,
199, 295t, ch. 10(VII), 301, 316,
317.
cm k, tc cm k; taboo, tabooism,
15, 60, 65, 148, 172, 173, 300 (xem
c ch ngha b lc).
cn bng x hi; social equilibrium,
46-9, ch. 4(III), 52.
chn l; truth, 273-4, 221, 261 (xem c
ng ngha hc); l thuyt ca Hegel
354
CH MC NI DUNG
v, 144, 274; l thuyt ca Plato v,

143-4; thc dng, pragmatic, 274.
ch chuyn ch; tyranny, 124-5,
151-2, 159, 235, 315; Plato chng
li, 40-4, 123, 170, 198, 200, 315
(xem tuy vy 317); Plato ni v s
khng th trnh khi ca chin tranh
di ~; 43, 198; Plato ni v ch
chuyn ch v k thut Khng tng,
44, 222.
ch c ti, xem ch chuyn ch.
ch qun ch; monarchy, Plato ni
v, 222, 283.
ch qu tc, xem qu tc
ch ti phit, Plato ni v,
plutocracy, Plato on, 256, 267, 316.
chim tinh, thut; astrology, 210, 244.
Chin tranh; War, xem quan h quc
t; Heraclitus ni v, 16 (xem c
danh ting v nh mnh); Plato ni
v, 43, 198, 259.
Ch d Glauconic; the Glauconic
edict, 150t, 151.
chnh th lun; holism, 80t, 100 (xem
c cc c nhn v x hi; ch ngha
thn b; thuyt trc gic); Heraclitus,
16, Parmenides, 301, 314; Plato, 48,
80-1, 100, 242t, 274-5, 279, 314.
chnh khch; statesmen, xem nh cai
tr.
chnh th u s, Hy Lp; oligarchy,
Greek, 177-8, 187; Plato ni v, 40t,
41, 222 (xem c 302-3; ch qu
tc; ch ti phit); Aristotle ni
v, 296.
chnh th ho hip; timocracy, 40t-41,
47.
chnh th, chnh ph; government, 124
(xem c nh nc); Plato ni v,
222, 261.
chnh tr hc; politics, 111, 113, 135,
189 (xem c cc th ch chnh tr;
o c hc, v chnh tr hc); Kant
ni v, 139; u s C ni v, 1878; Pericles ni v, 186; Plato ni v,
138-9; Socrates ni v, 130.
ch-ngi gi nh, human watchdog,

46, 51, 52, 149, 226, 227t, 241, 254.
Christians in the Class Struggle,
Nhng ngi c c trong u tranh
giai cp (G. Cope), 203, 292, ch. 9,
n. 12 (xem c thanh ton).
Ch ngha bi n, bng chng v s
tn ti ca n thi Plato;
Abolitionism, evidence for its
existence in Platos time, xem n l.
ch ngha bo h chnh tr;
protectionism, political, 111t, ch.
6(VI), 115, 261; Aristotle v Burke
chng li, 112, 261; Lycophron ng
h, 114-15, ch. 6(VII), 117, 261;
trnh by ca Plato v, 69, 117-18,
262-3, ch. 6, n. 52.
ch ngha bi quan, ca Hesiod;
pessimism of Hesiod, 37-8, 188, 235.
ch ngha bnh ng; equalitarianism,
69, 70, 95, ch. 6 (IV), 235, ch.5, n.6,
284, ch.9 n.2; Hy Lp, in Greece,
46, 69, 70, 95, 186, 236, 261, 278,
299 (xem c n l, phong tro
Athenian bi n); phn i chun
ca Plato v tr li ca Rousseau,
Platos standard objection to and
Rouseaus reply, 256-7; ch. 6, n.20;
ca Kant, 256.
ch ngha b lc; tribalism, 9t, 172,
174 (xem c ch ngha tp th); s
v ca, 176-7, 294; Hy Lp, 1767; (xem c Sparta); Do Thi, 17, 203,
279; hin i, 316; Aristotle, 261;
Plato, 80, 199.
ch ngha c nhn; individualism, 1002, ch. 6(V), 190, 268, ch. 7, n. 23
(xem c ch ngha v tha).
ch ngha chng tc; racialism, 9, 49,
231, 288. 317 (xem c gy ging);
ca Plato, 49, 51, 75, 82-3, 141, 14952, 240, 242, 279, ch. 8, n. 50, 331,
336-8 (xem c 27; huyn thoi v
kim loi trong con ngi).
ch ngha cng sn; communism,
Athenian 315; C c ban u, early
Christian, 241; Marx, 241; Plato, 48,
CH MC NI DUNG
102, 104, 221, 256, 315 (xem tuy

vy ch ti phit); chm ngn,
maxim, Pythagorean, 104, 241, 259.
ch ngha dn tc, nationalism, 288-9.
ch ngha quc; imperialism, 181,
182; Athenian, 176-83, 278; Roman,
181-2, 297; Alexander, 236, 278;
Plato chng, against, 283, 302-3.
ch ngha c on, xem c on.
ch ngha ng vt hc, xem thuyt
ng vt hc.
ch ngha duy l ph phn; critical
rationalism, 32, 230-2, 233, 237,
238, 253; v x hi m, 173, 202; v
o c hc, 287, 232, 238-40.
ch ngha duy vt lch s, historical
materialism, 38.
ch ngha duy vt; materialism, ca
Antiphon, 240.
ch ngha hoi nghi; scepticism, 267,
287.
ch ngha khoa hc; scientism, 286t.
ch ngha khoi lc, hedonism xem
thuyt v li.
ch ngha Khng tng; Utopianism,
157t, 164 (xem c tnh thm m; lm
sch bc vi v; ch ngha lng
mn; k thut x hi Khng tng).
ch ngha lng mn; romanticism, 168t,
218, 288, 292; ca Heraclitus, 17;
trung c, 16, 25; ca Plato, 84, 218;
~ thn d v ng qu ca Rousseau,
246, 293.
ch ngha lch s; historicism, 2, 3t-8,
21, 114-15, 260; thi ca tc gi
i vi, 34; v thay i, 14, 21 (so
314); v bn cht lun, 28, 216; nh
mt kt qu ca p bc, 1, 17, 203,
207, 300; v ho bnh, 260, 290-1; v
tn gio, 300; v chim tinh hc,
210, 244; v ch ngha khoa hc,
286; Heraclitus, 14-16; Hesiod, 11;
Marx, 164; Morgenthau, 260; Plato,
19, 21, 24-5, 55, 75, 78, 84; Do thi,
17, 203, 207, 300 (xem c Dn tc
c Chn); Theistic, 8; cc dng
hin i khc, 221.
355
ch ngha nhn o; humanitarianism,

263, 329 f., 332 f.
ch ngha nh nguyn trong trit hc
ca Plato; dualism in Platos
philosophy, ch. 5 (IX), 84-5, 103-4,
279.
ch ngha nh nguyn v cc s thc v
quyt nh hay ch ngha nh nguyn
ph phn; dualism of facts and
decisions or critical dualism, 60t-61,
73, 211, 234-5, ch. 5(III), n.3, 239,
334.
ch ngha Plato mi; neo-Platonism,
210, 314 (xem ch ngha Plato).
ch ngha Plato, Platonism , cc
Platonist, 112, 221, 236, 284, 342
(xem c ch ngha Plato mi).
ch ngha qun l; managerialism, 4.
ch ngha quy np; inductivism: Mill,
264, ch. 7, n. 2; Aristotle, 321.
ch ngha stoic; stoicism (chp nhn
nghch cnh), 277, 298.
ch ngha tm l; psychologism, 84t,
234, 290.
ch ngha tp th; collectivism, 9t, 1001, 203, 258t, (xem c ch ngha v k;
chnh th lun; thuyt v li, tp th
ch ngha); Plato, 80, 102-3, 106,
108, 324 f.
Ch ngha Thm m, xem Thm m.
ch ngha thn b; mysticism, 84, 202,
314-15, ch. 10, n. 59; Hy Lp, 31415 (xem phi Pythagorean; cc phi
Orphic); Aristotle, 314; Bergson,
202, 315; Heraclitus, 15, 205;
Parmenides, 301, 314; Plato, 56, 84,
314-15.
ch ngha th gii Hy Lp;
cosmopolitanism in Greece, 185,
236, 276, 278, 279, 281, 299 (xem c
s thng nht ca nhn loi).
ch ngha thc chng logic, logical
positivism; l thuyt thc chng v
ngha, 234.
ch ngha thc chng, o c hay
php l; positivism, ethical or
356
CH MC NI DUNG
juridicial, 68t, 71-2, 73; Catlin, 2389, 257; Heraclitus, 16, 207.
ch ngha ton tr; totalitarianism, 1, 2,
4, 5, 107-8, 113, 119, 170, 182, 189;
ca Plato, 86, 87, 138-9, 338, 341.
ch ngha t bn; capitalism, 287
ch ngha t do; liberalism, 111; ca
Kant, 102.
ch ngha t nhin; naturalism, 68t, ch.
5(V), 69-73, 95, 237-8, 299, 317; s
cn ci ca, 70, 78-9, 241, 262;
ngy th, 6ot; Kant, 73, 237; Marx,
241; Plato, 70, ch. 5(VI), 73, 74-8,
96; Socrates ni v, 117, 262.
ch ngha tng i o c ca
Heraclitus; ethical relativism of
Heraclitus, 16, 17.
ch ngha tng i trit hc,
philosophical relativism, xem nghch
l, chn l.
ch ngha v k; egoism, 100, 101, 104
(xem c ch ngha tp th; thuyt v
li, tp th ch ngha).
ch ngha v tha, xem v tha, ch ngha
ch ngha yu nc, xem nh nc gia
trng.
ch ngha, thuyt h v; nihilism, 72t,
184 (xem c ch ngha thc chng);
ca Cristias, 142, 299, 304; Hy
Lp, 184; Plato ni v, 116, 118,
262, 263.
chun mc, cc, lut chun tc; norms,
normative laws, xem lut; logic ca
cc chun mc.
Constitution of Athens; Hin php ca
Athens (tc gi u s C Old
Oligarch), 187, 324.
cng bng, xem cng l.
cng l; justice, 89, ch. 6(I), 113, 247,
256, 326; Anaximander ni v, 301;
Aristotle ni v, 256; quan im Hy
Lp, 91-8, ch. 6(II), 254; nhn o
ch ngha, 89, 91, 94 (xem c o
c hc; bnh ng); Kant ni v,
247, ch. 6, n. 4; Plato ni v, 89, 90,
94, 96, 97, 106, 107, 119, 221, 235,
248, 256, 263; Plato ni v sc mnh
ca nim tin vo, 92-3; Socrates ni

v, 105, 117; hai loi, 91-2 (xem c
o c hc); ton tr, 90, 94, 107-8,
119.
cng lun; public opinion, Heraclitus
ni v, 13.
cng ngh x hi; social techology,
211, 285.
cng ngh; techology, 163; xem c
cng ngh x hi.
cng nhn, giai cp lao ng; workers,
working class, Aristotle ni v, 261;
Plato ni v, 47, 76, 98, 225, 258,
259 (xem c gia sc ngi).
Credo (K. Barth), 236.
Crete, 228.
cynic, 277, 279, 282.
D
danh ting v nh mnh, trit l
Heraclitean v Hegelian v; fame
and fate, Heraclitean and Hegelian
philosophy of, 17t.
Darwin, ch ngha; Darwinism, 317.
dn ch, nn; democracy, 4, 124-5t,
127, 189; Athenian, 178-83; u s
C ni v, 187-8; Pericles ni v,
40-3, 123, 221, 254-6, ch. 6, n. 14;
Socrates ni v, 305; v ch ngha
duy l ph phn, 130.
dn du c, ngi chn cu trn i (v
Plato ni v xm chim Dorian);
nomads, hill shepherds (and Plato on
Dorian conquest), 50, 220, 225-7,
ch. 4, n. 32, 230-1, 246, 293.
dn s, tng, xem tng dn s.
Decline of the West, s suy tn ca
Phng Ty (O. Spengler), 55, 2312, ch. 4, n. 45.
Dn tc c Chn, hc thuyt v;
doctrine of the Chosen People, 8-9,
203, 300 (xem c ch ngha b lc,
Do thi; ch ngha lch s, Do thi).
di truyn; heredity, l thuyt ca Plato
v, xem gy ging.
dch theo ngha en; literal
translations, 328.
CH MC NI DUNG
din gii; interpretations: lch s, 171,

gio hun ca Heraclitus, 204; gio
hun ca Parmenides, 214; gio hun
ca Plato, 54, 170-1, 246, 308, 331.
Dik, 254.
Do thi, nhng ngi; Jews, ch ngha
lch s ca, xem ch ngha lch s,
Do Thi; ch ngha b lc ca, 17,
203, 279 (xem c Dn tc c
Chn).
dng chy [s thay i lin tc]; flux, l
thuyt ca Heraclitus v, 12, 189,
204-7, ch. 2, n. 2, 208, 211, 214,
217, 300, 301, 314.
o C c; Cristianity, 65, 102, 104,

117, 235; nhn o ch ngha, xem
o c C c; vs. s n l v ti
sn t, 241.
o c gi, tnh; pharisaism, 49t, 237.
o c hc, o c, bnh ng ch
ngha, nhn o ch ngha v C
c; ethics, morals, morality,
equalitarian, humanitarian and
Christian, 65, 66, 73, 235, ch. 5, n.6,
257, 263; ton tr tp th ch ngha
v b lc, 1001-3, 107-8, 112-13,
139, 256, 258, 325, 311, 339 f.; v
thm m hc, 65, 165, 292; v chnh
tr hc, 113, 139, 260; v tn gio,
xem tn gio; khoa hc, 237, ch. 5,
n. 18; xem c ch ngha nh nguyn
v cc s thc v quyt nh; ch
ngha t nhin; ch ngha thc
chng; ch ngha tng i; thuyt
v li; mc ch v phng tin; au
v vui thch.
o c tp th ch ngha, collectivist
morality, 107-8 (xem c o c
hc, ton tr).
au v vui thch, s bt i xng v;
asymmetry of pain and pleasure,
158, 235, 284-5, ch. 9, n. 2.
xut; proposals, 63t, 234, 334 (xem
c ngn ng ca cc yu sch v
xut).
357
iu vn ca Pericles; funeral oration

of Pericles, 186, 255, ch. 6, n. 16.
nh ch, xem th ch.
nh kin, xem thnh kin.
nh ngha, definition, 31-4, ch. 3(VI).
v, s, ca cc x hi; breakdown of
societies, xem x hi ng.
c on, ch ngha; authoritarianism,
66, 71, 72, 129, 159; ca Plato, 134,
136; Socrates ni v, 129-30.
c ti, ch , xem ch chuyn
ch.
c ti, nh, l thuyt v ~ nhn t;
dictator, theory of benevolent, 15960, 264, 316, ch. 10 n. 69 (so 123).
ng hc x hi; social dynamics, 16,
39, 83 (xem c cn bng x hi).
ng nht, s, ca cc i lp; identity
of opposites, xem s thng nht ca
cc i lp.
ng vt hc x hi; social zoology,
317, ch. 10, n. 71.
E
Eros, 211, 218.
G
gy ging, phi ging, l thuyt ca
Plato v; Platos theory of breeding,
51-3, 82-83, 228, 245, 276, 281, 283,
331, 336-8 (xem c pha trn giai cp;
ch ngha chng tc).
ght l l duy l, tnh; misology, xem
ght ngi.
ght ngi, tnh; misantropy; tnh ght
l l duy l; misology, 283, 299, 300.
gia sc ngi; human cattle, 46, 47, 48,
50, 51, 53, 154, 226, 227t, 228.
gi thuyt; hypothesis, 58, 239.
gia trng, nh nc, xem nh nc
gia trng.
giai cp, l thuyt lch s ch ngha v
x hi; class, historicist theory of
society, 38-41; Marx ni v, 40; l
thuyt ca Plato v, 46-7, 87, 106,
258; phn bit giai cp, 46, 49, 90,
148, 225; trn ln cc giai cp, 49,
82, 141, 225, 272 (xem c gy
ging); c quyn giai cp, 51, 86,
358
CH MC NI DUNG
90, 119, 227, 259, 267 (xem c

Sparta); giai cp thng tr, 49, 54, ch.
4(IV); chin tranh giai cp, 38 (xem
c th vt-ngi; ch canh-ngi;
giai cp lao ng; n l).
gii thch nhn qu, xem gii thch.
gii thch; explanation: nhn qu, 211t.
gio dc; education, 135; Anh, 316; Hy
Lp, 53, 130-1; nh hng ca Plato
ln, 54, 148 (so 227); Plato ni v,
47, 49, 51-2, 133-4, ch. 7(V), 142,
147, 221, 227, 228, 258, 267-9, 328
f.; Socrates ni v, 129-30, 133;
kim sot nh nc v, 103, 111,
130-1; ton tr, 54, 103.
git tr s sinh, tc; infanticide, s bo
v ~ ca Plato, 51, 228, 245, 295,
315, 338.
git v trc xut; kill and banish
(Plato), 116, 326-31, 336.
ging nhau; resemblance, 27, n. 19 n
n. 20 ch. 3.
Gorgias, 116.
H
hi ho; harmony, 108, 197, 313.
hnh phc; happiness: Plato ni v, 74,
169, 240.
h thng mt tri; solar system, 260,
286.
h thng x hi; the social system, 167.
Hegel, nh hng ca Heraclitus ln;
Hegel, influenced by Heraclitus, 17,
203.
Hegel, nh hng ca; Hegels
influence, 238, 297.
Heraclitus, 12, 189; v tr hc, 12-13,
204-5; nh hng, 12, 203 (xem c
Hegel); trit hc t nhin, 14, 60,
206, ch. 2, n. 7.
hin tng hc; phenomenology, 216,
16, 292.
hnh hc, l thuyt, xem l thuyt hnh
hc.
hnh hc; geometry, ca Plato, 248-53,
ch. 6, n. 9, 267, 319-20; vs. s hc,
248.
hnh thc, cc; forms, xem nim.

ho bnh, xem quan h quc t.
Hn o Thing ling, cc; Islands of
the Blessed, 327.
hi tng, anamnesis, 219t.
Hi ng Ban m; Noctural Council,
143, 195, 332.
Hi Quc Lin; League of Nations,
288.
hng bin, thut; rhetorics, 129, 263.
hu c, l thuyt, xem l thuyt hu c.
Huyn thoi; Myth: huyn thoi ca
Empedocles v Nm Ln,
Empedocles myth of the Great Year,
208-9, ch. 3, n.6 (xem c Nm Ln);
Huyn thoi Ln v Sparta, Great
Myth of Sparta, 41t; huyn thoi ca
Hesiod v hn n, Hesiods myth of
chaos, 211; v suy tn, 11, 188; v
kim loi trong ngi, 219; huyn
thoi ca Plato v th vt trong con
ngi, 241, 313; v mu v t, 13941, ch. 8(II); v suy tn v sp ,
55-6, 232-3, ch. 4(V), 244; v ngi
sinh ra t t, 50, 140t, 209, 226,
270, 272; v s suy sp, sp ca
con ngi, 36, 37, 39, 81-3, ch.
5(VIII), 141, 151-3, 198, 209, 219,
281, 315; v kim loi trong con
ngi, 83, 140, 209, 225, 272 (xem
tuy vy 281; c ch ngha chng tc
ca Plato); v cc con s, 82, 141,
148-53, 198, 209, 242-4, ch. 5, n. 39,
272, 281-2; ngun gc cc loi do
thoi ho, 37, 210; thi ca Plato
i vi cc huyn thoi ca ng,
142-3, 272, 273; din gii cc huyn
thoi ca Plato, 54.
Hy Lp c, Hellas, Hellenic, 279, 282,
295, 299.
Hy Lp, nhng ngi; Greeks, 171-2,
294, 341.
I
ch k, tnh, xem ch ngha v k.
K
k hoch ho tp th ch ngha;
collectivist planning, 2, 285.
CH MC NI DUNG
Khai sng, thi; the Enlightenment,

333 f.
kh c x hi, l thuyt v; social
contract, theory of, 115; Cristias,
273; Lycophron, 76-7, 114, 261-2;
Plato, 76-7, 226, 263; Roussaeu,
246; Barker ni v, 114-15, 261;
Hume v Neitzsche ni v, 230.
khoa hc x hi; social science, 2, 5, 9,
21, 216, 221-222, 256 (xem c quy
lut x hi hc); s lc hu ca, 2,
33; nhim v ca, 22.
khoa hc, t nhin v x hi; science,
natural and social, 33, 67, 216, 286;
cch tip cn Socratic n, 28-9,
131, 267 (xem c s trung thc tr
tu).
khoi lc, ch ngha, xem ch ngha
khoi lc.
khoan dung; tolerance, 235, 265, 266.
khng gian nh m ca cc s vt cm
nhn c; space as mother of
sensible things, 211-13, 274 (xem c
cc nim, nh cha ca cc s vt
cm nhn c).
Khng tng, ch ngha, xem ch
ngha khng tng.
khung kh php l; legal framework,
286.
k thut; engineering, 68, 163; x hi,
xem k thut x hi.
k thut x hi; social engineering, 224, ch. 3(IV), 210t; Khng tng,
157t, 159-63, 167, 284, 285, 291
(xem c ch ngha cp tin Khng
tng); Marx chng li, 164; Hayek
ni v, 285.
k thut x hi tng phn; piecemeal
social engineering, 158t, 159, 162,
167, 285, 286t, 291, ch. 9, n. 8 (xem
c cng ngh x hi).
kim ch v cn bng, l thuyt v;
theory of checks and balances, 122t,
263-4 (xem c kim sot dn ch).
kim sot dn ch; democratic control,
123-5, ch. 7(II) , 127 (xem c kim
ch v cn bng).
359
kim sot, xem kim sot dn ch; cc

th ch; kim ch v cn bng.
kim tra, xem kim sot.
kin ngh, xem xut.
kinh t hc; economics, 173 (xem c
tin; phn cng lao ng; ch ngha
t bn; Marx).
L
laissez faire (chnh sch t do,
khng can thip), trong gio dc,
130-1.
lm ngng thay i, xem thay i, l
thuyt ca Plato v lm ngng thay
i.
lm sch bc vi v (Plato); canvascleaning, 166t-167, 200, 292, 328,
336.
lng mn, ch ngha, xem ch ngha
lng mn.
lnh o, s, xem quyn ti cao; nh
c ti; cc nh cai tr; nguyn l ln
nht ca Plato, Platos greatest
principle, 7, 103; l thuyt ca Plato
v, 126-7, 135, 169, 269, 340 f.
lp php, xem lut.
l thuyt hnh hc v th gii,
geometrical theory of the world, 248253, 320, 343.
l thuyt hu c v x hi v nh nc;
organic theory of society and state,
173-4, 294-5, 316; ngun gc ng
phng ca, 242; Plato, 22, 40-1, 56,
77, 79-81, ch. 5(VII), 108, 138-9,
220, 242; tn cng ca PopperLynken ln, 294, ch. 10, n. 7.
l thuyt sinh hc v nh nc,
biological theory of the state, xem
hu c.
linh hn; the soul, 301-2, ch. 10, n. 44;
Freud ni v, 313; Plato ni v, 75,
78, 80, 81, 197, 212, 217, 240, 302,
313; cc phi Pythagorean v Orphic
ni v, 301-2, 285.
logic, 232; ca t do, of freedom, 315t;
ca cc chun mc, of norms, 234t
(xem c ngn ng ca cc yu sch
360
CH MC NI DUNG
chnh tr); ca quyn lc, of power,

1, 137, 315t, 317.
la; fire, l thuyt ca Heraclitus v,
14, 15, 73, 206-7, ch. 2, n. 7, 212.
lut, (quy); laws, 57-9, ch. 5(I); t
nhin, 57-9; chun tc, 57-9, 61, 62,
65, 239; x hi hc, 22, 62, 67, ch.
5(IV), 236.
lut, lp php; law, legislation, 110-11.
M
maieutic, 321, 322.
Maori, nhng ngi, 171.
Marx, viii; ch ngha khng tng,
utopianism, 164; so vi Plato, 38, 40,
78, 168.
mu thun, cc; contradictions, 205
(xem c logic; nghch l).
mnh lnh tuyt i; categorical
imperative (Kant) xem quy tc vng.
mc ch v phng tin; ends and
means, 161, 286-7, ch. 9, n. 6.
N
Nm Ln hay Chu k Ln; Great Year
or Great Cycle, 19, 206t, 207, 20819, ch. 3, n. 6, 219, 220.
nn vn minh, xem vn minh.
ngn sch, lp; budgeting, 285.
ngo mn, thi , Platonic; Platonic
hauteur, 334.
nghch l, cc; paradoxes: v dn ch,
17, 121, 124, 125, 265; v t do,
123t-124, 265-6, ch. 7(I), n. 4, n.6;
Heraclitus ni v, 13; Plato ni v,
265; v quyn ti cao, 123-4, 266,
ch. 7, n. 6; v khoan dung, 265-6.
ngn ng; language, 32, 65; ca cc
yu sch hay xut chnh tr, of
political demands or proposals, 109t,
112, 234-235t.
ng ngha hc (A. Tarski); semantics,
216, 234, 273-274, ch. 8, n. 23.
ngi v i, thin ti; great men,
genius, 17, 231 (so p. vii).
ngun gc ca nh nc; origin of the
state, 115, 230-1.
nguyn t, cc, thuyt, atoms, atomism,
250, 251.
nh cai tr, xem cai tr, cc nh.

nh c ti, xem c ti, nh.
nh nc gia trng, ch ngha yu
nc; paternal state, patriotism,
184t, ch. 10(III), 272, 282, 299.
nh nc quc gia v quyn t quyt
quc gia, cc nguyn l v; national
state and national selfdetermination, principles of, 288-9.
nh nc; state, 288 (xem c ch ngha
bo h); kim duyt, 53, 86, 132,
229, 267, 268, 275; kim sot gio
dc, 103, 111, 130, 131; kim sot
kinh t, 111, 125-30; can thip, 11011; ngun gc ca, 115, 230-1 (xem
c l thuyt hu c v nh nc);
phn loi nh nc ca Aristotle,
222; ca Plato, 40, ch. 4(II), 44, 220,
222 (xem c giai cp); l thuyt ca
Aristotle v, 112; l thuyt ca Plato,
25, 31, 39, 53, 45-9, 50-5, 226.
nhc; music, 230; nh vn Hy Lp n
danh ni v, 229-30; Plato ni v,
52-4, 229.
nhn qu, quan h; causality, 262-3
(xem c gii thch).
nhn s, thuyt trng, xem thuyt trng
nhn s.
nht nguyn lun ngy thi; nave
monism, 59t, 73, 172.
nht nguyn lun; monism, 73t (xem c
nht nguyn lun ngy th); ca
Catlin, 237-9, ch. 5, n. 18.
nhm c th; concrete group, 175 (xem
c x hi tru tng).
nim tin vo l tr; faith in reason, 185.
ni di; lying, 142-3, 183-4, 331, 336 f.
ni di cao thng; noble lie, 270,
xem c ni di vng gi.
ni di vng gi, s; the lordy lie,
138-40, ch. 8(I), 150, 270-2.
n l, s, tnh trng; slavery, 62, 65,
330; cc x hi ng, 295; phong
tro Athenian bi n v bng
chng cho s tn ti ca n trong cc
cng khch ca Plato v Aristotle ln
n, 43, 46, 47, 53, 70, 221, 222, 224-
CH MC NI DUNG
5 (ch. 4, n. 18, n. 29), 236, ch. 8, n.

48, 261, 278, 299, 316, 333-6; thi
ca Socrates i vi, 129.
ni lon chng l tr; revolt against
reason, 317.
ni lon chng t do; revolt against
freedom, 188, 199, 315, 317.
O
Oedipus, phc cm; Oedipus complex,
314; s mnh mt kt qu ca li
tin tri (trong S Khn cng ca Ch
ngha Lch s c gi l hiu ng
Oedipus), 22.
Orphic, cc phi; sects, 188, 300-1,
313.
P
Peloponnesian, chin tranh; war, 17880, 183, 192-93, 296.
phn cng lao ng, division of labour,
173; Plato ni v, 78, 90, 226.
phn tm hc; psychoanalysis, 313.
php tr; rule of law, 166, 326.
ph bnh, s; criticism, 129, 186, 222
(xem c ch ngha duy l); v gio
dc, 130, 135; Plato ni v, 53, 86,
229, 267, 268, 270, 275, 276-7, 298;
Socrates ni v, 129, 130; v chnh
tr hc, xem chnh tr hc; truyn
thng duy l v, 188, 300.
ph phn, xem ph bnh.
phi ging xem gy ging.
Phc hng, thi; the Renaissance, 221,
293.
phng php khoa hc; scientific
method, 3, 163, 285, 307; v o c
hc, 1, 69, 233, 285; v k thut x
hi tng phn, 126, 291.
phng php lun lch s ch ngha;
historicist methodology, 21, 75.
phng ty; the west, nn vn minh
phng ty; western civilization,
102, 171, 175, 232, 267.
Plato, ch ngha, xem ch ngha Plato.
Plato, viii, 34, 155, 198-9; ngun gc
qu tc, 19, 27, 153, 208, 282; thi
tr v nn tng lch s, 18, 19, ch.
3(I), 84, 171 ff.; do Socrates ci bin,
361
109, 191-2, 303; ngi sng lp Vin

hn Lm, 136-55, 300; hot ng
chnh tr, 18, 43-5, 136, 153, 282;
xung t ni b, 109, 196-7, 199,
313, ch. 10(VI), n. 59(1); ch trng
bo lc (lm sch bc vi v), 166,
195, 200, 327, 331 f., 336; bp mo
gio hun ca Socrates, 194-5, 305,
ch. 10, n. 55, n. 56; nh ngh s, 42,
165; nh nh ton hc, 248, 267,
319, 343; nh trit gia, 98, 246, ch.
5, n. 45, 343; nh nh khoa hc x
hi, 35, 38, 54, 56, 70, 84, 101, 171,
198; nh nh gio, 43, 268, 269; ch
ngha c on ca Plato, 103, 134,
136; tnh ngo mn, 330; thuyt trc
gic, 145, 274; thuyt phi l, 84, 141;
tnh ght ngi, 283, 299 (so 51,
139, 228); ch ngha thn b, 314;
ch ngha lng mn, 84, 165, 218;
chn dung t ho, xem vua trit gia;
s l tng ho Plato, 87-8, 104, 141,
152, 223, 229, 244, 247, 271, 275,
276, 299, 323-43; cc hc tr ca
ng tr thnh cc bo cha, 136-7,
268, 316-17; b nh hng bi
Anaximander, 301; bi Herodotus,
222, 255; bi Heraclitus, 11, 16, 205,
208 (xem c dng chy); bi u s
C, 300; bi Parmenides, 21, 28-9,
212, 301; bi phi Pythagorean, 83,
148, 196, 211-12, 246, 301, 319; bi
Socrates, 29, 72, 109, 144, 197, 221,
240, 317; so vi Socrates, 42, 128,
138, 143, 146, 154, 195, 268, 269,
301-2, 305, 313 (xem c t cp t
tc, l thuyt Socratic vs. Platonic v
vn Socratic); v Antisthenes,
276-7, ch. 8, n. 47; v Homer, 228-9,
280; v Socrates, 222, 267, 273, 313;
v Th h V i, 199; nh hng
ca ng, 42, 54, 115, 127, 136, 199,
221, 228, 246, 273, 293, 313-14,
315, 316; ng thi, 236; v Chu
u trung c, 200, 293 (xem c
Marx).
Platonist, xem ch ngha Plato.
362
CH MC NI DUNG
Pythagorean, phi; sect, 148, 188-9,

250, 301; ch ngha cng sn, 104,
241, 259; chng trnh ton hc,
248-9, 267, 319 f.; trit hc t nhin,
308; bng cc i lp, 211, 212; cc
cm k, 148, 300.
Q
quan im v din gii; point of view
and interpreation, 171, 328, 331.
quan h quc t, ti phm quc t v
ho bnh; international relations,
international crime and peace, 107,
113, 161, 260, 288-91, ch. 9, n.7.
qun ch, xem ch qun ch.
quy lut v cch mng ca Plato;
Platos law of revolution. 38t. 44-5,
223.
quy lut x hi; social laws, xem lut.
quy tc vng (ca Kant); Kants
golden rule, 102, 256.
qu tc, ch , Plato ni v;
aristocracy, Plato on, 222, 283.
quyn bnh ng chnh tr; isonomy,
xem bnh ng, trc php lut.
quyn lc, Plato ni v lm dng;
Plato on misuse of power, 260, 269.
quyn ti cao; sovereignty, 121-2 (xem
c nghch l v quyn ti cao);
Rousseau ni v, 125.
quyn t do; freedom: cc hn ch v,
110-11, 247, 131 (xem c nghch l
v quyn t do); v t duy v ngn
lun, Plato chng, 267, 268, 270, 275
(xem c nh nc, kim duyt nh
nc; gio dc).
quyt nh o c; moral decision,
61, 62, 64 (xem c ch ngha nh
trch nhim).
R
Rome, ch ngha quc Roman,
Roman imperialism, 233, 297-8, ch.
10, n. 19.
S
sng sut, s; wisdom, Plato ni v,
128, 144, ch. 8(III), 145, 146, 269,
275; Socrates ni v, 128-9, 308-9.
siu-sinh hc; meta-biology, 84, 246.

s hc, xem s v t; hnh hc, Plato,
nh ton hc.
s v t; irrational numbers, 212, 24853, 319 f.
s, cc; numbers; xem cc s v t;
huyn thoi v cc s; hnh hc vs.
s hc.
Socrates, 189-99, ch. 10(V), 283, 313,
315, 332 f.; xem ch ngha th gii;
ph bnh dn ch, 128, 188, 191,
194, 303; nh ci cch o c, 29,
193; nh c nhn ch ngha, 128,
196, 267, 301, 333; nh gio, 130,
191-2, 222, 303; s trung thc tr
tu, 128, 129, 190, 222; v Ba mi
Bo cha, 128, 193, 266, 303, 310;
x n v s cht v ngha, 193, 194,
268, 304, 305, 310; s bng quang,
th ca ng vi trit hc t nhin,
301, 308; Aristophanes ni v, 308;
Aristotle ni v, 311; Crossman ni
v, 267; v Plato, xem Plato; xem
vn Socratic; gio hun ca ng,
105, 128-32, ch. 7(IV), 185, 189192; thuyt bt kh tri, 128, 267,
308; v dn ch, 305; v s sng
sut, 128-30, 308-9 (xem c linh
hn; t tc t cp; khoa hc).
Sophist, cc nh, 57, 128, 131, 132,
142, 173, 263, 308.
sophocracy; ch trit tr, 144t, 283.
Sparta, 177, 182, 184, 198, 227, 228,
259, 295, 298, 325 f.; huyn thoi
ln v, 41.
status quo, hin trng, 110, 117, 288.
Sumer, 296.
suy tn, l thuyt ca Plato v; Platos
theory of decay, 19, 20, 36, 37, 55,
76, 217 (xem c thay i; thi nt,
mc nt; v tr hc); lm ngng ~,
20-1, ch. 3(II), 37.
T
tm hn, xem linh hn.
tng dn s; population increase, 245,
295.
CH MC NI DUNG
tp th, ch ngha, xem ch ngha tp

th.
thanh ton, thanh trng;
liquidation, Plato ni v, 166;
ngha hin i ca, 292.
thnh kin; prejudice, 129, 267.
thay i lin tc, xem dng chy.
thay i; change, 314; l thuyt ca
Heraclitus v, 12, 14, 204, 205 (xem
c dng chy); l thuyt ca Plato v
lm ngng ~, 21, ch. 3 (III), 37, 38,
86, 146, 218, ch. 4, n.3, 268, 318; v
ngng, ngh, Plato ni v, 36, 37, ch.
4(I), 276, 317 (xem c suy tn; dng
chy); vn v khi u ca, 39,
81, 219, 220; Hegel ni v, 314-315
(xem c Hegel).
Thm m hc; aesthetics, 230, 292; v
o c hc, 65, 165, 292.
Thm m, ch ngha, tnh; aestheticism,
165t, 167, 292; ca Plato; 78, 145,
165 (xem c lm sch bc vi v).
thn diu, ma thut; magic, 15, 57, 60,
148, 172, 206 (xem c cc cm k).
Thn thoi, Myth, xem Huyn thoi.
Thn; God (xem thuyt mt thn);
Antisthenes ni v, 276, 278; Plato
ni v, 213, 276; ch ca, v ch
ngha lch s, 8, 24.
th (nh) ch, cc; institutions: quc
t, 288-9; chnh tr, 109, 121, 123,
125; x hi, 23, 67, 125, ch. 7(III),
159, 172, 173, 294; ci thin v lp
k hoch ca ~ x hi, 127, 163.
th ch, thuyt trng, xem thuyt trng
th ch.
Th h Ln, xem Th h V i.
Th h V i; the Great Generation,
70, 185t-189, 194, 196, 199, 278,
299, 332.
Theaetetus, tnh nin i ca; dating of,
321.
Themis, 253.
th nghim x hi; social experiment,
xem th nghim.
363
th nghim; experiment: x hi, 162,

163, 167 (xem c k thut x hi;
khoa hc x hi).
Thin ng trn tri t; Heaven on
earth, 165.
thin ti, xem ngi v i.
Thin, xem ci Tt
tho hip, s; compromise, 159.
thot li thc t; escapism, 238, 314.
thi k en ti, cc; dark ages, 200.
Thi k Hong kim; Golden Age, 11,
19, 21, 25, 43, 204, 209, 210, 218.
thi nt, quy lut v tr v; cosmic law
of corruption, 19, 20, 35, 40, 209,
210, 217, 218, 222-3 (xem c suy
tn, mc nt).
Thi Trung c; Middle Ages, 293, 241,
302.
thng nht, s, ca cc i lp; unity of
opposites, 16, 17t, 204-5, 207, 209.
thng nht, s, ca nhn loi; unity of
mankind, 152, 236, 278, 279, 281.
thut chim tinh, xem chim tinh.
thng mi; commerce, 176, 177, 295;
(so 184, 187, 283).
thuyt (ch ngha) cp tin; radiaclism,
164, 167, 291-2, ch. 9, n. 12.
thuyt ng vt hc; zoologism, 317t318.
thuyt duy danh, nominalism, xem bn
cht lun phng php.
thuyt mt thn; monotheism, 276, 278,
279.
thuyt phc v v lc; persuation and
force, i hi ca Plato v li
khuyn ca Pareto, 118, 119, 140,
142, 195, 199, 263, 270-2, ch. 8, n.
10, 273, 316.
thuyt quy c ph phn hay ch ngha
nh nguyn ph phn, xem ch ngha
nh nguyn v cc s thc v quyt
nh.
thuyt quy c; conventionalism, ph
phn hay o c, xem thuyt nh
ngy th, 14-15, 60t; tn gio ca
364
CH MC NI DUNG
Plato, 77-8, 141-2; trong khoa hc,

237t.
thuyt tin b v o c hc;
progressivism and ethics, 234; v
thuyt tin ho, 40.
thuyt tin ho; evolutionism, 40 (so
314; xem c thuyt tin b); ca
Hegel, 314.
thuyt trng nhn s; personalism, 126,
268 (xem c thuyt trng th ch).
thuyt trng th (nh) ch: v ch
ngha c nhn; institutionalism: and
individualism, 268.
thuyt v lai; futurism: thm m, 230.
thuyt v li; utilitarianism, 235, 254,
284-5; ~ tp th ch ngha ca Plato,
107, 108, 138; ca Antiphon, 69.
th v sai; trial and error, 167, 286.
tin b trong ngh thut; progress in
art, 230.
tin on; prediction, 3, 260, 286.
tin; money, 316, ch. 10, n.67.
tn dng, xem tin.
Tnh Thm m, xem Thm m.
tnh trung thc tr tu Socratic;
Socratic intellectual honesty, 129,
190, 222.
To d gio, the Inquisition, 104, 200,
kin ngh ca Plato v, 195.
Tom Sawyer (Mark Twain), 270.
tn gio; religion, 1, 9, 65, 235 (xem
o C c; nin tin vo l tr; siusinh hc); Cristias ni v, 142; Plato
ni v, 141-3, 213, 273; Protagoras
ni v, 235; Hy Lp, 27; lch s ch
ngha, 207, 300; l thuc phin,
273.
tng tuyn c; general elections, 124-5
(xem c nghch l dn ch; nghch l
quyn ti cao).
tt, ci; the good, 237-8; nim ca
Plato v, 145-6, ch. 8(IV), 217, 2745, ch. 8, n. 32.
trch nhim; responsibility, 4, 5, 49,
61, 65, 66, 113, 173, 200-1.
Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus (L.
Wittgenstein), 205, 234.
tri thc; knowledge, xem khoa hc; gi

thuyt; gii thch; v kin, 82, 214,
236.
trit hc v lch s; philosophy of
history, Plato, 84, 209.
trit tr, xem sophocracy.
tr v thnh t vt; return to the beasts,
201, 232, 317-318, ch. 10, n. 71.
trc gic, thuyt trc gic; intuition,
intuitionism:
Aristotle,
314;
Heraclitus, 15; Plato, 145, 274.
trng pht, s; punishment, 261, 28990; Antiphon ni v, 69; Hegel ni
v, 246; Heraclitus ni v, 14, 60;
Plato ni v, 138, 143, 195, 222,
261.
trung thc tr tu, tnh, xem tnh trung
thc tr tu.
trng phi Ionian, the Ionian school,
xem truyn thng, duy l.
truyn thng; tradition, 115, 124, 231,
266, 268; duy l, 188, 204, 300.
t cp t tc; autarky, self-sufficiency,
ca c nhn, l thuyt Socratic vs. l
thuyt Platonic v, 76, 236, 240, 259;
ca nh nc, l thuyt ca Plato v,
76, 87, 182.
t do, xem quyn t do.
tuyn truyn; propaganda, Cristias ni
v, 273; Plato ni v, 184, 298, 336
f. (xem c thuyt phc).
V
vn minh, nn; civilization, 317 (xem
c nn vn minh phng ty).
Vn Socratic; Socratic Problem,
210, 221, 299, 301, 306-13, ch. 10,
n. 56, 332 f.
v tha, ch ngha; altruism, 100-2 (xem
c ch ngha c nhn; ch ngha v
k).
Vin Hn Lm ca Plato, Platos
Academy, 18, 42, 136, 235, 248, 253,
268, 316-17.
Virgo, hnh trng, constellation, 254.
v thn, thuyt, Plato ni v; atheism,
Plato on, 331.
CH MC NI DUNG
v tr hc; cosmology, Ionian, 204;

Heraclitus, 12-13, 204-5; Plato, 1920, 26-8, 211-13 (xem c 248-53, ch.
6, n. 2; cc nim; hnh hc).
vua trit gia; philosopher king, 132,
138-56, ch. 8(V), 328, 331; Kant ni
v, 152; Mill ni v, 263-4; chn
dung t ho ca Plato, 153-6, 282-4,
ch. 8(VIII).
X
x hi b ngng, cc; arrested
societies, 55, 224, 232, 268 (xem c
Sparta).
x hi ng, the closed society, 1, 57t,
108, 173, 190, 195, 200, 202t, 232,
294, 295 (xem c cc x hi b
ngng); v ca, 177, 198, 232,
294t, 295.
x hi hc; sociology, xem khoa hc x
hi.
x hi khng c giai cp; classless
society, 46.
x hi m, the open society, 7, 173t,
174, 183, 189, 191, 197, 201, ch.
10(VIII), 202t, 232, 294t, 303, 3156; s ni ln ca, 174-5, ch. 10 (I).
365
X hi tru tng; Abstract society,

174t, 175, 176 (xem c nhm c th)
Xm chim Dorian, cuc, xem dn du
c.
Y
y hc; medicine: Plato ni v, 138-39,
270, 316.
ngha, l thuyt v, theory of
meaning, xem ch ngha thc chng.
nim, cc; ideas, ca Plato nh cha
ca cc s vt cm nhn c, 21115, ch. 3, n. 15, 219-220, 274 (xem
c khng gian, nh m ca cc s vt
c th cm nhn c); Platonic,
khng phi Socratic, ngun gc ca
l thuyt ca Plato v, 210, 215 (xem
c Bng Pythagorean v cc i lp;
Vn Socratic); vn ca ngi
th ba, 220; cc giai on pht trin
ca, 214-15, ch. 3, n. 26, 219-20;
nh cc tam gic, 253, 319 f. (xem
c thm m hc).
yu sch, chnh tr, xem ngn ng ca
cc yu sch v xut chnh tr.
Z
Zeus, 15, 16, 43, 66.
Karl R. Popper
X hi M v nhng K th ca n
PLATO
Mt tc phm quan trng loi mt nn c c rng ri v s ph bnh ti gii
ca n i vi cc k th ca dn ch, c xa v hin i.Bertrand Russell
c l l quyn sch th v, c o, v tht s quan trng nht xut hin
trong nhiu nm [N], c ton b hay mt phn, cng l mt tng quan v
trit hc Hy Lp v trit hc hin i k t Kant, mt tiu lun v logic kho
cu, mt chuyn lun v ngh thut cai tr, mt thm vn cc mc tiu ca cc
khoa hc x hi, mt lch s v s ni ln v sp ca Athens, mt ph phn
trit hc hnh thc i vi ch ngha duy tm, mt phn tch thc h ca ch
ngha pht xt v s thnh cng trn khp ca n, mt nghin cu v ngha
ca Marx, mt kho tng quan li lc, v mt s bo v, v trong nhiu phng
din l tm gng, v s sng sa, phng php khoa hc, v th tc dn ch.
Khng ngi bit suy ngh no c th b qua cun sch ca Popper.
Joseph Kraft, The Nation
Thnh tu ca Popper l tuyt diu v kp thi Ti coi cun sch ca ng
nh cng trnh vt tri quan trng nht v x hi hc ng thi.
Hugh Trevor-Roper, Polemic
Mt tc phm ln v trit hc x hi ng thi. Kt hp t duy sng t ca
mt nh khoa hc lnh ngh vi s trnh by d hiu, Popper vit mt cun
sch su sc v khiu khch khc thng. Hans Kohn, Yale Review
uyn bc, lp lun ti tnh v c vit nhit thnh Popper vit mt
cun sch kch thch mt cch khc thng.
Sidney Hook, New York Times
KARL R. POPPER sinh 1902 Vin, nc o, cui cc nm 1930 ng di c
sang New Zeland, sau nh c Anh. Cc tc phm chnh ca ng l The
Logic of Scientific Discovery, S Khn cng ca Ch ngha Lch s, X hi M,
v Conjectures and Refutations. ng c nh gi l trit gia ln nht ca th
k XX.

Xa Hoi Mo Va Nhung Ke Thu Cua No (Tap 1) PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Xa Hoi Mo Va Nhung Ke Thu Cua No (Tap 1) PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

T sch SOS2

Ngi dch: Nguyn Quang A

The Open Society

THE SPELL OF PLATO

PRINCETON UNIVERSITY PRESS

S thy rng nhng ngi Erewhonian

Trong ng i ca mnh ti bit v, theo nh

Cc quyn trc gm:

t bn ting Php) ti quyt nh t mnh dch nt c tp II.

trit l ny l trit l m ti gi l ch ngha lch s. Cu chuyn v s

y l mt cu hi v phng php ca cc khoa hc x hi. N r

cch. V n c hn chng t, chng ta c th l ngi kin to s

ngi khng mun lm nh bt cho con ngi khi cc trch nhim ca

l thuyt v thc tin ca ch ngha ton tr hin i trc khi ta c th

LI NI U CHO LN XUT BN U TIN

LI NI U CHO LN XUT BN TH HAI

ny khng gy bi ri hn thng thng. Nhng hu ht gi tch cc

LI NI U CHO LN XUT BN U TIN

HUYN THOI V NGUN GC V S PHN

CHNG TRNH CHNH TR CA PLATO

HU TRNG CA S TN CNG PLATO

PH LC (1957, 1961, 1965)

HUYN THOI V NGUN GC V VN MNH

CHNG 1: CH NGHA LCH S V HUYN THOI V

HUYN THOI V NGUN GC V VN MNH

trin chung ca loi ngi. V ng ta thy rng cc din vin thc s

CHNG 1: CH NGHA LCH S

HUYN THOI V NGUN GC V VN MNH

lut pht trin ca n. Trong trng hp ch ngha chng tc, iu ny

HUYN THOI V NGUN GC V VN MNH

Chng l cc qu trnh tun hon (tr cc qu trnh gn vi ngun gc

nghim ny trong lnh vc x hi hay chnh tr c phn nh trong

HUYN THOI V NGUN GC V VN MNH

Trong lng tin ny chng ta i mt vi mt thi , mc d thot nhn

HUYN THOI V NGUN GC V VN MNH

h ging ngi ic. Ngn ng p dng cho h: H hin hu th m h

thnh ci kia v ci kia bin thnh ci nyCi vt ln vi chnh mnh

CHNG 3: L THUYT V CC HNH THC

CHNG 3: L THUYT V HNH THC HAY NIM CA PLATO

t ho v gia nh m ng m, nh ng gii thch trong cc i thoi ca

HUYN THOI V NGUN GC V VN MNH

Khng chc chn l Plato tin vo cu chuyn ca Statesman n u.

CHNG 3: L THUYT V HNH THC HAY NIM CA PLATO

rng chng ta c th ngn chn s thi nt thm na trong lnh vc chnh

HUYN THOI V NGUN GC V VN MNH

bin php do cha anh s dng trnh n, ch khng phi bt chp

CHNG 3: L THUYT V HNH THC HAY NIM CA PLATO

s i lp gia ch ngha lch s v k thut [ci bin] x hi. S i lp

HUYN THOI V NGUN GC V VN MNH

tng, anh ta c th i hi rng cc mc ch ny, v cc bin php

CHNG 3: L THUYT V HNH THC HAY NIM CA PLATO

rng iu ny c th c thc hin bng thit lp mt nh nc hon

HUYN THOI V NGUN GC V VN MNH

CHNG 3: L THUYT V HNH THC HAY NIM CA PLATO

cm nhn c i vi gic quan, c to ra, lun bin i, sinh ra

HUYN THOI V NGUN GC V VN MNH

c gi nh Ngi lm ra hai ci, v khng hn, th c th khm ph ra

CHNG 3: L THUYT V HNH THC HAY NIM CA PLATO

ca n. ng hi vng khm ph ra cc phng tin cu ri ca n. ng b

HUYN THOI V NGUN GC V VN MNH

Cc n lc ny ca Socrates tho lun cc khi nim o c nh

CHNG 3: L THUYT V HNH THC HAY NIM CA PLATO

HUYN THOI V NGUN GC V VN MNH