Structural Violence at the World Level: Diachronic Findings

Author(s): Norman Alcock and Gernot Khler

Source: Journal of Peace Research, Vol. 16, No. 3 (1979), pp. 255-262
Published by: Sage Publications, Ltd.
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ofPeaceResearch,
ISSN 0022-3433
Journal
No. 3,Vol.XVI,1979

Violenceat theWorldLevel:DiachronicFindings
Structural
NORMAN ALCOCK
Canadian Peace ResearchInstitute
Oakville,Ontario

GERNOT KOHLER
Canadian Peace ResearchInstitute
Oakville,Ontario
PrincetonUniversity,
Princeton,New Jersey

Previouscross-national
studieshave shownthat life expectancy
is linkedto GNP per
of thispaperpostulated
an economiclaw of
capita.Indeed,an earlierpaperby theauthors
of GNP percapitaof 7.7% in thepoornationsof theworldthereis
life:foreveryincrease
ontheaverage.
ofoneyearinlifeexpectancy,
an increase
time
per capitadata for 26 poor nationsfortwo different
Usingenergyconsumption
confirm
thatthis'law oflife'appliesovertimeas wellas acrossnations:
theauthors
periods,
foreveryincreaseof energyconsumption
per capitaof 7.2% thereis an increaseof one
ontheaverage.
yearinlifeexpectancy,
For richnationsthereis a discrepancy
betweenthesynchronic
and diachronic
analyses.
Acrossnations,
wealthis notsignificantly
associated
withlifeexpectancy,
whileacrosstime,
wealthis significantly
associatedwithlifeexpectancy,
an 18.1% increasein wealthproinlifeexpectancy.
a oneyearincrease
ducing
1. Introduction
general ignorance about over-time ('diathatmany chronic','longitudinal')variationin levels of
The global systemis so structured
of its memberssuffersystematicallymore structural
violence.
The present contributionis devoted to
deaththanothersdue to an unequaldistribution of resources and opportunities- in that particulartask. Its objectiveis to proother words, the currentglobal systemex- duce some diachronicevidencewhichshould
hibitsa greatmeasureof structuralviolence. eventuallybe helpfulin attemptsat building
Previous researchhas elaborated the con- an empirical-causal theory of structural
and testing
cept of structuralviolence at the conceptual violence. Instead of formulating
level (Galtung, 1969), has proposed opera- certainhypothesesderived froman overall
tionalizationsof the concept (Galtung & theoryof structuralviolence, we built on
Hoivik, 1971), and has shown the empirical previous empiricalfindingswhich are of a
validity and measured the magnitude of cross-nationalsynchronickind: i. e. we prostructuralviolenceboth at the nationallevel ceed hereinductively.
(Hoivik, 1971) and at the global level
(Kdhler&Alcock, 1976; Hoivik, 1977; Rus- 2. Previousfindings
sett, 1977). These previous contributions In previous cross-nationaland synchronic
left two major tasks virtuallyunexplored: researchwe foundtwo effectswhichwe will
(a) diachronic empirical analysis of struc- now test for theirdiachronicvalidity.We
turalviolence,and (b) the developmentof a found:
(1) a verystrongreiationshipbetweenthe
general empirically validated theory of
structuralviolence. Eventually,we should structuralviolence sufferedby a country
be able to formulatea comprehensive,em- (dependentvariable, Y) and that country's
piricallyvalidated theoryof structuralvi- wealth,measuredin termsofGNP per capita
olence which would explain variationsand (independentvariable,X1). This relationship
changes in the magnitudes of structural we called the 'economic law of life' because
violence. Such a theoryis a long way off, of its strikingcharacter(K6hler & Alcock,
however. As a step in that direction,we 1976); it was observablein thepoorcountries
should'first
filla bitmorethefirstof thetwo (Alcock, 1976).
in
our
gaps
knowledge - namely, our
(2) a weaker, but still significantrela-

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256

Alcock/Kihler

violencesuf- The exact measurement

of structural
viobetweenthestructural
tionship
and thetypeof political lence requiressome further
feredby a country
elaborationof
&
regimeofthatcountry
(forourapproachsee Ktihler
(anotherindependentthisfunction
was observ- Alcock,1976). However,once one knows
variable,X2). Thatrelationship
thecausationof themagnitudes
of lifeexablein therichcountries
(Alcock,1976).
to
werebasedon pectancy,
thestepfrom'lifeexpectancy'
The findings
justmentioned
of the 'structural
mostcountries
violence'is, underthisapproach,
a data set including
in
world in the mid-1960s.The conceptof relatively
easyto take.Henceit suffices,
to
violencehad beenoperationalizedthe contextof thepresentinvestigation,
structural
and
in termsproposedby Galtungand Hoivik studyand explainglobaldistributions
in orderto learn
(1971) - namely,withtheuse of lifeex- changesin lifeexpectancy
of
strucmeasurement
more
about
the
of
data.
Our
dynamics globalstructural
pectancy
turalviolencewas thusbasedon thenotion violence.
witha highaveragelifeexThe mostimportant
of ourpreviouscrossthata country
less
strucis
law
suffered
national
that
ofthe'economic
findings
pectancy(e. g. Sweden)
turalviolencethanone witha low average of life' (see Fig.1). Fig.1 showshow a
lifeexpectancy
lifeexpectancy
is, to a veryhigh
(e. g. Mali). In otherwords, country's
ofitswealth(measured
in
violence(V) was operationalizeddegree,a function
structural
of the reciprocalof life ex- termsof GNP per capita).The function
is
as a function
notsimplylinear.Instead,it is exponential
(L), or:
pectancy
forthepoorcountries
up to a certainthres1
hold. Since exponentialfunctionsappear
V=f( -)
L
linearon semi-logpaper,thispoor country
-i

Years
80--

70

.r

*
?

v0

50"-:

-~

3
--!

IP

50

t
err

Scale?

6
Loaihi

500

Fig. 1. EconomicLaw of Life

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5000

Structural
violence:
diachronic

257

we triedto achievea
solution,
relationship
appearslinearin Fig.1. The a second-best
the
reasonable
over-time
the
function
of
(for poor
spread by requiring
part
exponential
shouldbe
countries)is suchthatforeveryincrement(a) thatt, and t2foreachcountry
of 7.7 % in GNP per capita a country'slife about ten or moreyearsapartfromeach
on the average,tendsto in- other,and (b) thattI shouldbe around1955
expectancy,
creasebyone year.Our secondfinding
per- andthatt,shouldbe around1965.
tainedto theupperpartof thecurveshown
in Fig. 1 - namely,variationsin life ex- 4. Data and measurement
arepresented
pectanciesof richcountriescannotbe ex- Ourdata forN = 52 countries
in
plainedby wealthbut can in partbe ex- in Table I, whichshows:lifeexpectancies
plainedbytypeofpoliticalregime(usingthe years; energyconsumptionper capita in kg
Conser- of coal-equivalent
regimetypesFascist,Communist,
percapita;date,theyear
were
of
the
which
data
and
Social-Democratic,
vative,
points.The following
explanameasured
areimportant.
withtheuseof severalindicators). tionsandreferences
(a) Life expectancy-

here definedas the

averageofmaleand femalelifeexpectancies
3. Diachronichypotheses
is at birth(age 0). Our sourcesfor life exThe objectiveof thepresentinvestigation
to findout whetherthe above synchronicpectancydata were the following:UN,
We Demographic Yearbook 1973, pp. 94-100,
findingsare also valid diachronically.
Table 3 as the majorsource,withthefolthat:
therefore
hypothesize
sources:UN, Demolowingsupplementary
Hypothesis1: In diachronicanalysisof the graphic Yearbooks 1959
(pp. 638-645,
poor subgroup,each incrementof 1.0 Table
1955 (pp. 740-748,Table 32),
32),
on the

is,
average, 1951
yearslifeexpectancy
526-538,Table 29), and Russett
associatedwitha 7.7 % increasein et (pp.
al., World Handbook of Political and
wealth.
Social Indicators
Table

Hypothesis2: In diachronicanalysisof the

57.

(1964), pp. 197-198,

richsubgroup,
increasein wealthis, on
Wealth In our previous research
theaverage,associatedwithno increase (b) &
(K*hler Alcock, 1976), we had operainlifeexpectancy.
tionalizeda country'swealthin termsof
We shouldliketo havetestedin addition GNP per capita. Despite a numberof
a thirdhypothesis,
withthatindicator,
itwas usefulin
namely:in diachronic problems
is independent
of synchronic
for
the
When
mid-1960s.
analysis,life expectancy
analysis
thetypeofpoliticalregimein thepoorsub- one takesthestepfromsynchronic
analysis
group,but is associatedwitha changeof to diachronicanalysis,however,the probpoliticalregimein the richsubgroup.Un- lemsof theindicator'GNP per capita' are
annual changes in types of compounded
becauseof theincompleteness
fortunately,
difpoliticalregimearoundthe worldwereso of GNP data and becauseof increasing
as to makean empirical
testdif- ficultiesstemming
fromchangingcurrency
infrequent
ficultif not impossible.For hypotheses
1 exchangeratesand inflation.
In diachronic
arecountries. researchfor extendedperiodsof time,an
and2, theunitsofobservation
An effortwas made to includeas many alternative
indicatorof wealthhas become
countriesas the available data permitted.moreand moreacceptedin thequantitative
For each country,
twopointsin timewere literature- namely, energy consumption
selected(t, and t2). Sincethedata situation per capita.For thoseunaccustomed
to this,
is far from
,erfect,we could not obtain all
the requireddata forall countriesforexactly
the same two years (e. g., t1 = 1945, t2 =
1975), whichwould have been desirable.As

the use of 'energyconsumptionper capita'

as a measure of a country's wealth (or
poverty)may seem a bit strange.However,

in variousstatistical
it has been established

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258

Alcock/K
ihler

Table I. Life expectancy(in years) and energyconsumption/capita

(in kg. of coal equivalent)
for26 poor and 26 richnationsin twotimeperiods

Poor

Rich

Nation

Date

Egypt
Ghana
IvoryC.
Mali
Senegal
Costa R.
Cuba
El Sal.
Guatem.
Haiti
Honduras
Mexico
Brazil
Chile
Colombia
Ecuador
Paraguay
Peru
Uruguay
India
Pakistan
SriLanka
Thailand
Portugal
Spain
Yugosl.
Canada
USA
Argentina
Venezuela
Israel
Japan
Austria
Belgium
Czechosl.
Denmark
Finland
France
E. Germ.
W. Germ.
Hungary
Iceland
Ireland
Italy
Nether.
Norway
Poland
Sweden
Switzer.
UK
Austral.
USSR

1937
1957
1960
1960
1960
1949
1955
1949
1949
1950
1955
1955
1946
1952
1950
1955
1955
1955
1955
1947
1950
1952
1947
1949
1950
1952

Life
expect.
38.6
38.0
35.0
26.0
37.0
55.9
59.0
51.2
43.7
32.6
47.5
53.5
42.4
51.9
45.1
45.5
54.0
51.5
66.5
32.1
35.0
56.6
50.3
58.0
61.1
58.1

1950
1952
1947
1955
1954
1949
1949
1946
1956
1951
1951
1950
1956
1949
1955
1946
1950
1954
1950
1951
1948
1951
1948
1948
1953
1955

68.6
68.6
59.2
55.0
69.0
57.9
64.4
64.7
69.1
71.2
66.6
66.5
68.2
66.5
66.9
68.3
65.8
67.9
71.8
72.9
59.1
72.0
68.6
68.8
70.0
66.0

Energy
consump./
cap.
124.3
101.3
78.1
15.1
105.5
288.3
682.8
75.8
198.2
26.7
153.0
825.2
145.2
780.9
215.8
217.8
57.5
461.2
837.1
108.3
36.7
105.5
13.0
259.7
655.2
497.9
7051.3
8266.6
730.6
1944.8
1029.6
713.0
1539.2
3197.7
4046.1
2258.1
1330.7
2103.6
4305.7
2661.6
1987.8
2083.3
1616.4
924.0
2020.3
4433.9
1878.3
3486.1
2411.6
4403.1
3144.6
2261.4

1961
1965
1965
1965
1965
1962
1965
1960
1963
1965
1965
1965
1965
1960
1955
1961
1965
1960
1963
1957
1962
1965
1960
1959
1960
1961

Life
expect.
52.7
46.0
41.0
37.2
41.0
63.4
66.8
58.5
49.0
44.5
49.0
62.4
60.7
57.2
50.5
52.4
59.4
54.0
68.5
41.2
51.3
65.9
56.2
63.5
69.6
64.0

1965
1964
1965
1961
1964
1964
1959
1959
1963
1962
1965
1964
1965
1963
1965
1965
1965
1964
1956
1965
1965
1962
1965
1961
1960
1962

72.0
70.3
67.1
66.4
71.6
70.3
68.8
70.6
70.5
72.4
69.7
71.6
71.8
70.2
69.3
73.5
70.7
70.6
73.1
74.0
69.8
73.4
72.1
70.9
71.1
68.0

Date

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Energy
consump./
cap.
362.4
124.4
178.4
21.4
149.3
336.4
961.7
159.2
186.3
34.5
170.4
1130.8
464.1
985.8
453.1
262.0
128.0
530.4
928.7
114.3
80.8
123.4
68.2
457.3
981.2
1012.4
9568.4
9639.3
1484.9
3188.8
1645.4
1979.3
2372.1
4042.0
5824.8
3461.0
3383.2
3388.7
5530.0
4303.8
3226.9
4859.4
2433.7
2022.8
2637.5
6853.1
3555.1
5265.4
3683.1
4912.9
3975.7
3300.0

Structural
violence:
diachronic

259

researchthat,forperiodswherebothindicaE, = energyconsumptionper capita at

tors are available (GNP per capita and
timet2 fora country
energy consumptionper capita), the two
El = energyconsumptionper capita at
indicators correlate highly (see, e. g.,
timetI fora country
Meadows et al., 1972, p. 70). Since energy
L, = life expectancy at time t2 for a
country
consumptionper capita is measuredin nonmonetaryunits( tons or kilogramsof coalLx = life expectancy at time tj for a
country
equivalent)and available formost countries
forconsiderablelengthsof time,thisindicator is very usefulfor longitudinalanalysis. 5.1. Example of calculation.Let us consider
It circumventsthe problems of inflation, Honduras as an example. Our data include
currency exchange rates, and different two timepointsforHonduras (see Table I)
national accounting systems (Capitalist - namely, = 1955 and t2 = 1965. For
tversus Socialist-centrally
planned). 'Wealth' the two timepoints,the same Table shows
is here operationalizedas 'energyconsump- thefollowingdata:
tionper capita', therefore.
Our source was a
data compilation by J. C. Thompson (to Honduras
appear in The Strengthof Nations,by J.D.
ti unit of
t2
Singeret al.). This source lists 'energycon1955 1965 measurement
sumption'of nations. We convertedthose
figuresintoper capita figureswiththeuse of lifeexpectancy(L) 47.5 49.0 years
population data reported by A. Banks, wealth,in termsof
kilogramof
Cross-PolityTime-SeriesData (Cambridge: energyconsump- 153.0 170.4 coal-equivalent
tionpercapita(E)
MIT Press,1971).
percapita
In otherwords,duringone decade Honduras
5. Procedure
To calculate the incrementin wealth asso- gained:
ciated with each incrementin life expectL2 - L1 = 49.0 - 47.5 = 1.5 years in
ancy,we used thefollowingformulae:
lifeexpectancyand improvedits wealthby a
ratioof:
E2 - 170.4 = 1.114
153.0
E1
Formula1.
Both figuresare componentsof Formula
For each country,
P is definedas the percentincrease in (2). Formula(2), applied to Honduras,reads
wealth for one additional year in life as follows:
expectancy
log (En)
Then: P = 100 (K-1)
log (170.4/153.0) log (1.114)
E1
Where:
log K
Formula2.
1.5
49.0-47.5
L,-L,
(E2)
= .03125 and K = 1.074
log
-

log K =

(El)
L, --Lm
withthefollowingmeanings:

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260

Alcock/Kihler

Once we have K forHonduras(fromFormula2), we can easilyread offthewealth

increment
associatedwitheach additional
yearin lifeexpectancy(usingFormula1),
namely:
P

100 (K-1)

= 100 (1.074-1)
= 7.4 %

Thus,in thecase of Honduras,an increase

of 7.4 % in wealthis associatedwithan increment
ofoneyearinlifeexpectancy.
5.2. Testinghypotheses1 and 2

We appliedtheoperational
stepsjustillustratedtoourdataset(see TableI). Thedata
werebrokendown intoa poor and a rich
each containing
26 countries.
The
subgroup,
resultsof thosecalculationsare shownin
TableII.
Table II. TestingHypotheses1 and 2
Nation
Egypt
Ghana
IvoryCoast
Mali
Senegal
Costa Rica
Cuba
El Salvador
Guatemala
Haiti
Honduras
Poor Mexico
Brazil
Chile
Colombia
Ecuador
Paraguay
Peru
Uruguay
India
Pakistan
SriLanka
Thailand
Portugal
Spain
Yugoslavia

L2-L1
14.1
8.0
6.0
11.2
4.0
7.5
7.8
7.3
5.3
11.9
1.5
8.9
18.3
5.3
5.4
6.9
5.4
2.5
2.0
9.1
16.3
9.3
5.9
5.5
8.5
5.9

E2/E1
2.915
1.228
2.284
1.417
1.415
1.166
1.408
2.100
0.940
1.292
1.114
1.370
3.196
1.262
2.100
1.203
2.226
1.150
1.109
1.055
2.202
1.170
5.246
1.761
1.497
2.033

K
1.079
1.026
1.147
1.032
1.091
1.021
1.045
1.107
0.988
1.021
1.074
1.036
1.066
1.045
1.147
1.027
1.159
1.057
1.053
1.006
1.050
1.017
1.324
1.108
1.049
1.128

Nation
L2-L1
Canada
3.4
USA
1.7
7.9
Argentina
Venezuela
11.4
Israel
2.6
12.4
Japan
Austria
4.4
5.9
Belgium
Czechoslovakia 1.4
Denmark
1.2
Finland
3.1
France
5.1
Rich E. Germany
3.6
W. Germany
3.7
2.4
Hungary
Iceland
5.3
Ireland
4.9
2.7
Italy
Netherlands
1.3
1.1
Norway
Poland
10.7
Sweden
1.4
Switzerland
3.5
UK
2.1
Australia
1.1
USSR
2.0
Averages:
(a) Poor group
(b) Richgroup

E2/E1
1.357
1.166
2.032
1.640
1.598
2.776
1.541
1.264
1.440
1.533
2.542
1.611
1.284
1.617
1.623
2.332
1.506
2.189
1.305
1.546
1.893
1.510
1.527
1.116
1.264
1.450

K
1.094
1.094
1.094
1.044
1.198
1.086
1.103
1.040
1.297
1.427
1.351
1.098
1.072
1.139
1.223
1.173
1.087
1.337
1.227
1.486
1.061
1.342
1.129
1.053
1.237
1.208

K = 1.073or P = 7.3 %
K = 1.181or P = 18.1 %

Averageresultsfor the two subgroupsof

TableII werethefollowing:
(a) poor subgroup: averageP = 7.3 %
(b) richsubgroup: averageP = 18.1 %

In otherwords,thisanalysisshowsthat,over
time(diachronically):

(a) thepoorcountries
gain,on theaverage,
1.0 year of life expectancy
for every
7.3 % increaseinwealth
(b) therichcountries
gain,on theaverage,
1.0 year in life expectancy
for every
18.1 % increaseinwealth.
A t-testshowedthesetwovaluesto be sigdifferent
at the .01 level of connificantly
fidence.
6. Discussionand conclusion

The testresults
thatour
justreported
signify
in diaHypothesis1 has been confirmed
chronicanalysiswithastonishing
precision,
whereasourHypothesis
2 has beenfalsified

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Structural
violence:
diachronic

261

in an interesting
way.' The purposeof the showsthatthe richcountries
also improve
two hypotheses
was to transposethe 'eco- their life expectancieswith increasing
nomiclaw of life'fromthe cross-national,wealth,although
at a muchslowerpace than
dimension
to theover-time,
synchronic
dia- the poor countries.Thus, for the rich,it
chronicdimension
and to testthevalidity
of takes,on theaverage,an 18.1 % increasein
thattransposition.
The testresultsareshown wealthtoproduceone additional
yearoflife
in Fig.2. Fig.2 is simplyFig.1 (solidline) expectancy.2
The objectiveof thisinvestigation
was to
results testwhether
diachronic
or
not
the
economic
law
oflife
lifeexpectancy
which
had
been
found
in
cross-national,
results
synchronic
synchronicanalyses,was also valid in
diachronic
The testshowedthatthe
analysis.
economiclaw oflifewasvaliddiachronically.
Furtherresearchwillhave to clarifya diswealth
between
anddiachronic
crepancy
synchronic
rich
poor
resultsfoundfor the upper (rich nation)
group
group
partofthelaw-of-life
curve.
and
Fig. 2. Economiclaw of life,synchronic
diachronicfindings

withthe additionof the new diachronic NOTES

results(dottedline)whereenergy
consump- 1. Since the synchronicanalysiswas a Chi-square
tion per capita for the poor group of analysisof only14 richnationsit was intrinsically
nationsincreasesby 7.3 % whenlife ex- less sensitivethan the diachronicanalysisof this
paperof 26 richnations.
pectancyincreasesby one year,and energy 2. A testwas made to see whetherthedifference
consumption
percapitafortherichgroupof betweenrich and poor nationsin the diachronic
nationsincreasesby 18.1 % whenlifeex- analysiswas a fairlysharpdiscontinuity
(as shown
pectancyincreasesby one year.As Fig. 2 in Fig. 2) or merelya gradual change in slope.
correlationwas found between energyconand diachronic
find- No
shows,thesynchronic
sumptionper capita forthepoor countriesand the
the variousP values forthe poor countries,suggesting
ings for the poor groupare virtually
indica- that P was not systematically
same, even thoughwe used different
changingover the
torsof wealthin bothanalyses- namely,in entirerangeof poor countries(throughthe aver-

each
synchronic
analysisforpoorcountries,
additional7.7 % in GNP per capita correspondsto 1.0 yearadditionallifeexpectancy; and in diachronicanalysisfor poor
each additional7.3 % in energy
countries,
consumptionper capita correspondsto 1.0

age value was 7.3 %). Similarly,no correlation

was foundbetweenenergyconsumption
per capita
forthe righcountriesand the variousP values for
the rich countries,suggestingthat P was not
systematically
changingover the entirerange of
rich countries(throughthe average value was
18.1%).

lifeexpectancy.
Insum,then,
yearadditional
countries
on
the
poor
gain,
average,1.0
forevery7.5 ? 0.2 %
yearlifeexpectancy
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Utafiti
JOURNAL OF THE FACULTY OF ARTS AND SOCIAL SCIENCE
UNIVERSITY OF DAR ES SALAAM
ChiefEditor:Prof.Y. Tandon P. O. BOX 35051
DAR ES SALAAM
AssociateEditors:G. Mmari
G. Kamenju
Some of thecontentsof Vol II (1977) and Vol III (1978)

TheChanging
A. J.Temu,
ImageoftheUSA inAfrica
in
and Balanceof Industrial
Production
C. E. Barkeret.al., The Structure
Tanzania
in Tanzania.
D. W. Nabudere, ReviewArticleon I. Shivji,ClassStruggles
ReviewArticleon W. Rodney,How EuropeUnderdeveloped
A. Mishambi,
N. S. N. Dawood,
J.M. Gibbs,
KenyaStudents,
J.Depelchin,
O. Agyeman,
D. W. Nabudere,

Africa.

The Militarisation
oftheIndianOcean.
DramaofEssence.
WoleSoyinka's
mustservemajority
of Kenyans.
Educationand University
ofa Materialist
TowardtheProduction
Epistemology.
andPan-Africanism.
TheSuperMarxists
theNationalQuestionand thePoliticsof 'Class
Imperialism,
formation'
in Uganda (A criticalReviewof M. Mamdani's

Politicsand Class Formationin Uganda.)

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