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1+ 5
2
= 1.6180339887 . . . .
A001622
is to as is to
Line segments in the golden ratio
1 Calculation
Two quantities a and b are said to be in the golden ratio
if
a+b
a
= = .
a
b
A golden rectangle (in pink) with longer side a and shorter side
b, when placed adjacent to a square with sides of length a, will
produce a similar golden rectangle with longer side a + b and
shorter side a. This illustrates the relationship a+b
= ab .
a
b
1
a+b
=1+ =1+ .
a
a
Therefore,
a def
a+b
= = ,
a
b
1+
1
= .
+ 1 = 2
which can be rearranged to
2 1 = 0.
Using the quadratic formula, two solutions are obtained:
1+ 5
= 1.61803 39887 . . .
=
2
and
1 5
=
= 0.6180 339887 . . .
2
HISTORY
1+ 5
2
= 1.61803 39887 . . . .
2 History
Because is the ratio between positive quantities is Further information: Mathematics and art
necessarily positive:
The golden ratio has been claimed to have held a spe
1+ 5
=
= 1.61803 39887 . . .
2
This derivation can also be found with a compass-and-
straightedge construction:
The initial situation is the dividing a line segment by exterior division with the additions
a = 1 and therefore a + b = .
First, the segment AB is about doubled and
then the semicircle with the radius AS around
the point S is drawn, thus the intersection point
D is obtained.
Now the semicircle is drawn with the radius
AB around the point B. The arising intersection point E corresponds 2.
2.1
Timeline
3
pler.[16]
Since the 20th century, the golden ratio has been represented by the Greek letter (phi, after Phidias, a sculptor who is said to have employed it) or less commonly by
(tau, the rst letter of the ancient Greek root
meaning cut).[1][17]
2.1 Timeline
Timeline according to Priya Hemenway:[18]
Phidias (490430 BC) made the Parthenon statues
that seem to embody the golden ratio.
Plato (427347 BC), in his Timaeus, describes ve
possible regular solids (the Platonic solids: the
tetrahedron, cube, octahedron, dodecahedron, and
icosahedron), some of which are related to the
golden ratio.[19]
Euclid (c. 325c. 265 BC), in his Elements, gave the
rst recorded denition of the golden ratio, which
he called, as translated into English, extreme and
mean ratio (Greek: ).[4]
Fibonacci (11701250) mentioned the numerical
series now named after him in his Liber Abaci; the
ratio of sequential elements of the Fibonacci sequence approaches the golden ratio asymptotically.
Michael Maestlin, rst to publish a decimal approximation of the
golden ratio, in 1597
Golden Ratio has inspired thinkers of all disciplines like no other number in the history of
mathematics.[12]
Ancient Greek mathematicians rst studied what we now
call the golden ratio because of its frequent appearance in
geometry. The division of a line into extreme and mean
ratio (the golden section) is important in the geometry
of regular pentagrams and pentagons. Euclid's Elements
(Greek: ) provides the rst known written denition of what is now called the golden ratio: A straight
line is said to have been cut in extreme and mean ratio
when, as the whole line is to the greater segment, so is
the greater to the lesser.[13] Euclid explains a construction for cutting (sectioning) a line in extreme and mean
ratio, i.e., the golden ratio.[14] Throughout the Elements,
several propositions (theorems in modern terminology)
and their proofs employ the golden ratio.[15]
The golden ratio is explored in Luca Pacioli's book De
divina proportione of 1509.
The rst known approximation of the (inverse) golden ratio by a decimal fraction, stated as about 0.6180340,
was written in 1597 by Michael Maestlin of the University
of Tbingen in a letter to his former student Johannes Ke-
Mark Barr (20th century) suggests the Greek letter were studied. In the Elements (308 BC) the Greek mathphi (), the initial letter of Greek sculptor Phidiass ematician merely regarded that number as an interestname, as a symbol for the golden ratio.[22]
ing irrational number, in connection with the middle and
extreme ratios. Its occurrence in regular pentagons and
Roger Penrose (b. 1931) discovered in 1974 the decagons was duly observed, as well as in the dodecahePenrose tiling, a pattern that is related to the golden dron (a regular polyhedron whose twelve faces are regratio both in the ratio of areas of its two rhom- ular pentagons). It is indeed exemplary that the great
bic tiles and in their relative frequency within the Euclid, contrary to generations of mystics who followed,
pattern.[23] This in turn led to new discoveries about would soberly treat that number for what it is, without
quasicrystals.[24]
attaching to it other than its factual properties.[26] And
Keith Devlin says, Certainly, the oft repeated assertion
that the Parthenon in Athens is based on the golden ratio is not supported by actual measurements. In fact, the
3 Applications and observations
entire story about the Greeks and golden ratio seems to
be without foundation. The one thing we know for sure
3.1 Aesthetics
is that Euclid, in his famous textbook Elements, written
around 300 BC, showed how to calculate its value.[27]
See also: History of aesthetics (pre-20th-century) and Later sources like Vitruvius exclusively discuss proporMathematics and art
tions that can be expressed in whole numbers, i.e. commensurate as opposed to irrational proportions.
De Divina Proportione, a three-volume work by Luca
Pacioli, was published in 1509. Pacioli, a Franciscan
friar, was known mostly as a mathematician, but he was
also trained and keenly interested in art. De Divina Proportione explored the mathematics of the golden ratio.
Though it is often said that Pacioli advocated the golden
ratios application to yield pleasing, harmonious proportions, Livio points out that the interpretation has been
traced to an error in 1799, and that Pacioli actually advocated the Vitruvian system of rational proportions.[1] Pacioli also saw Catholic religious signicance in the ratio,
which led to his works title. De Divina Proportione contains illustrations of regular solids by Leonardo da Vinci,
Paciolis longtime friend and collaborator.
3.2
Architecture
3.4
Book design
in Garches exemplied the Modulor systems application. to one another, is suspended above and behind Jesus and
The villas rectangular ground plan, elevation, and inner dominates the composition.[1][38]
structure closely approximate golden rectangles.[30]
Mondrian has been said to have used the golden section
Another Swiss architect, Mario Botta, bases many of his extensively in his geometrical paintings,[39] though other
designs on geometric gures. Several private houses he experts (including critic Yve-Alain Bois) have disputed
designed in Switzerland are composed of squares and this claim.[1]
circles, cubes and cylinders. In a house he designed in
A statistical study on 565 works of art of dierent great
Origlio, the golden ratio is the proportion between the painters, performed in 1999, found that these artists had
central section and the side sections of the house.[31]
not used the golden ratio in the size of their canvases. The
In a recent book, author Jason Elliot speculated that the study concluded that the average ratio of the two sides of
golden ratio was used by the designers of the Naqsh-e Ja- the paintings studied is 1.34, with averages for individual artists ranging from 1.04 (Goya) to 1.46 (Bellini).[40]
han Square and the adjacent Lotfollah mosque.[32]
On the other hand, Pablo Tosto listed over 350 works by
well-known artists, including more than 100 which have
canvasses with golden rectangle and root-5 proportions,
3.3 Painting
and others with proportions like root-2, 3, 4, and 6.[41]
The drawing of a mans body in a pentagram suggests relationships to the golden ratio.[2]
Depiction of the proportions in a medieval manuscript. According to Jan Tschichold: Page proportion 2:3. Margin proportions
1:1:2:3. Text area proportioned in the Golden Section.[42]
3.6
4 MATHEMATICS
Music
3.7
Nature
DNA.[59][60][61]
However, some have argued that many apparent manifestations of the golden ratio in nature, especially in regard
to animal dimensions, are ctitious.[62]
3.8 Optimization
The golden ratio is key to the golden section search.
4 Mathematics
Irrationality
Since 1991, several researchers have proposed con- The golden ratio is an irrational number. Below are two
nections between the golden ratio and human genome short proofs of irrationality:
4.2
Minimal polynomial
4.1.1
nm
x2 x 1
Having degree 2, this polynomial actually has two roots,
the other being the golden ratio conjugate.
n
If were rational, then it would be the ratio of sides of a rectangle with integer sides (the rectangle comprising the entire diagram). But it would also be a ratio of integer sides of the
smaller rectangle (the rightmost portion of the diagram) obtained
by deleting a square. The sequence of decreasing integer side
lengths formed by deleting squares cannot be continued indenitely because the integers have a lower bound, so cannot be
rational.
Recall that:
1 5
1
=1=
= 0.61803 39887 . . . .
1
= 1 = 0.61803 39887 . . . .
or, algebraically
n
m
=
.
m
nm
1
= 1,
()
or its inverse:
4 MATHEMATICS
4.5 Geometry
1/
-1
1
1
1+
The number turns up frequently in geometry, particularly in gures with pentagonal symmetry. The length of
a regular pentagon's diagonal is times its side. The vertices of a regular icosahedron are those of three mutually
orthogonal golden rectangles.
1 = [0; 1, 1, 1, . . . ] = 0 +
1/ 2
1/3
..
C
D
3.
Also:
= 1 + 2 sin(/10) = 1 + 2 sin 18
1
1
csc(/10) = csc 18
2
2
= 2 cos(/5) = 2 cos 36
=
1.
2.
= 2 sin(3/10) = 2 sin 54 .
These correspond to the fact that the length of the diagonal of a regular pentagon is times the length of its side,
and similar relations in a pentagram.
4.5
Geometry
2 =1+
C
1.
2.
C
Golden triangle
3.
3. The circular arc around M with the radius MC divides the extension AS in point B. Point S divides
the constructed segment AB into line segments AS
Odoms construction George Odom has given a reand SB with lengths in the golden ratio.
markably simple construction for involving an equiApplication examples you can see in the articles Pentagon lateral triangle: if an equilateral triangle is inscribed in
with a given side length, Decagon with given circumcircle a circle and the line segment joining the midpoints of
two sides is produced to intersect the circle in either of
and Decagon with a given side length.
two points, then these three points are in golden proporThe both above displayed dierent algorithms produce tion. This result is a straightforward consequence of the
geometric constructions that divides a line segment into intersecting chords theorem and can be used to construct
two line segments where the ratio of the longer to the a regular pentagon, a construction that attracted the atshorter line segment is the golden ratio.
tention of the noted Canadian geometer H. S. M. Coxeter who published it in Odoms name as a diagram in
the American Mathematical Monthly accompanied by the
4.5.3 Golden triangle, pentagon and pentagram
single word Behold!" [67]
Golden triangle The golden triangle can be characterized as an isosceles triangle ABC with the property that Pentagram The golden ratio plays an important role in
bisecting the angle C produces a new triangle CXB which the geometry of pentagrams. Each intersection of edges
is a similar triangle to the original.
sections other edges in the golden ratio. Also, the ratio of
If angle BCX = , then XCA = because of the bisection, the length of the shorter segment to the segment bounded
and CAB = because of the similar triangles; ABC = 2 by the two intersecting edges (a side of the pentagon in
from the original isosceles symmetry, and BXC = 2 by the pentagrams center) is , as the four-color illustration
10
4 MATHEMATICS
a
a
b
b
D
Let A and B be midpoints of the sides EF and ED of an
equilateral triangle DEF. Extend AB to meet the circumcircle of
DEF at C.
|AB|
|BC|
|AC|
|AB|
b
1+ 5
=
.
a
2
shows.
If the side lengths of a triangle form a geometric progression and are in the ratio 1 : r : r2 , where r is the common
ratio, then r must lie in the range 1 < r < , which
is a consequence of the triangle inequality (the sum of
any two sides of a triangle must be strictly bigger than the
length of the third side). If r = then the shorter two
sides are 1 and but their sum is 2 , thus r < . A similar calculation shows that r > 1. A triangle whose sides
Ptolemys theorem The golden ratio properties of a are in the ratio 1 : : is a right triangle (because 1 +
regular pentagon can be conrmed by applying Ptolemys = 2 ) known as a Kepler triangle.[69]
The pentagram includes ten isosceles triangles: ve acute
and ve obtuse isosceles triangles. In all of them, the ratio
of the longer side to the shorter side is . The acute triangles are golden triangles. The obtuse isosceles triangles
are golden gnomons.
4.6
11
The closed-form expression for the Fibonacci sequence
involves the golden ratio:
F (n) =
n (1 )n
n ()n
=
.
5
5
lim
4.5.6
F (n + 1)
= .
F (n)
Therefore, if a Fibonacci number is divided by its immediate predecessor in the sequence, the quotient approximates ; e.g., 987/610 1.6180327868852. These approximations are alternately lower and higher than , and
converge on as the Fibonacci numbers increase, and:
|F (n) F (n + 1)| = .
n=1
4.6
12
4 MATHEMATICS
33 52 + 4 = 3(2 + ) 52 + 4
= 3[( + 1) + ] 5( + 1) + 4
= + 2 3.618.
The reduction to a linear expression can be accomplished
in one step by using the relationship
2 = + 1 = 2.618 . . .
1
= 1 = 0.618 . . . .
n = n1 + n2 = Fn + Fn1 .
x2 = ax + b
for given coecients a, b such that x satises the equation. Even more generally, any rational function (with
rational coecients) of the root of an irreducible nthdegree polynomial over the rationals can be reduced to
a polynomial of degree n 1. Phrased in terms of eld
theory, if is a root of an irreducible nth-degree polynomial, then Q() has degree n over Q , with basis
{1, , . . . , n1 } .
equation. Further, they are interchanged by the three ber.[72] In the eld Q( 5) we have n = Ln +Fn 5 ,
2
maps 1/x, 1 x, x/(x 1) they are reciprocals, sym- where Ln is the n -th Lucas number.
metric about 1/2 , and (projectively) symmetric about 2.
The golden ratio also appears in hyperbolic geometry, as
More deeply, these maps form a subgroup of the modular the maximum distance from a point on one side of an
group PSL(2, Z) isomorphic to the symmetric group on ideal triangle to the closer of the other two sides: this
3 letters, S3 , corresponding to the stabilizer of the set distance, the side length of the equilateral triangle formed
{0, 1, } of 3 standard points on the projective line, and by the points of tangency of a circle inscribed within the
the symmetries correspond to the quotient map S3 S2 ideal triangle, is 4 log() .[73]
the subgroup C3 < S3 consisting of the 3-cycles and
the identity ()(01)(01) xes the two numbers, while
4.9 Decimal expansion
the 2-cycles interchange these, thus realizing the map.
4.7
Symmetries
4.8
Other properties
5.1
13
xn+1 =
(xn + 5/xn )
2
a h
b
xn+1 =
x2n + 1
,
2xn 1
xn+1 =
.
The height of this pyramid is times the semi-base
2
xn + 1
numbers and divide them. The ratio of Fibonacci num- with tangent corresponds to the angle that the side of
bers F 25001 and F 25000 , each over 5000 digits, yields the pyramid makes with respect to the ground, 51.827...
over 10,000 signicant digits of the golden ratio.
degrees (51 49' 38).[76]
A nearly similar pyramid shape, but with rational proThe decimal expansion of the golden ratio (
A001622) has been calculated to an accuracy of two tril- portions, is described in the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus (the source of a large part of modern knowledge
lion (21012 = 2,000,000,000,000) digits.[74]
of ancient Egyptian mathematics), based on the 3:4:5
triangle;[77] the face slope corresponding to the angle
with tangent 4/3 is 53.13 degrees (53 degrees and 8
5 Pyramids
minutes).[78] The slant height or apothem is 5/3 or 1.666...
times the semi-base. The Rhind papyrus has another
Further information: mathematics and art
pyramid problem as well, again with rational slope (exBoth Egyptian pyramids and the regular square pyramids pressed as run over rise). Egyptian mathematics did not
that resemble them can be analyzed with respect to the include the notion of irrational numbers,[79] and the ragolden ratio and other ratios.
tional inverse slope (run/rise, multiplied by a factor of 7
to convert to their conventional units of palms per cubit)
was used in the building of pyramids.[77]
5.1
14
7 SEE ALSO
has a face angle of 51.854 (5151'), very close to the curate than the data variability.
51.827 of the Kepler triangle. This pyramid relationship
6 Disputed observations
Examples of disputed observations of the golden ratio include the following:
5.2
Egyptian pyramids
7 See also
Golden angle
Section d'Or
List of works designed with the golden ratio
Plastic number
Sacred geometry
Silver ratio
15
[1] Livio, Mario (2002). The Golden Ratio: The Story of Phi,
The Worlds Most Astonishing Number. New York: Broadway Books. ISBN 0-7679-0815-5.
[2] Piotr Sadowski (1996). The knight on his quest: symbolic patterns of transition in Sir Gawain and the Green
Knight. University of Delaware Press. p. 124. ISBN
978-0-87413-580-0.
[3] Richard A Dunlap, The Golden Ratio and Fibonacci Numbers, World Scientic Publishing, 1997
[4] Euclid, Elements, Book 6, Denition 3.
[5] Summerson John, Heavenly Mansions: And Other Essays
on Architecture (New York: W.W. Norton, 1963) p. 37.
And the same applies in architecture, to the rectangles
representing these and other ratios (e.g. the 'golden cut').
The sole value of these ratios is that they are intellectually
fruitful and suggest the rhythms of modular design.
[6] Jay Hambidge, Dynamic Symmetry: The Greek Vase, New
Haven CT: Yale University Press, 1920
[7] William Lidwell, Kritina Holden, Jill Butler, Universal Principles of Design: A Cross-Disciplinary Reference,
Gloucester MA: Rockport Publishers, 2003
[8] Pacioli, Luca. De divina proportione, Luca Paganinem de
Paganinus de Brescia (Antonio Capella) 1509, Venice.
[9] Strogatz, Steven (September 24, 2012). Me, Myself, and
Math: Proportion Control. New York Times.
[10] Weisstein, Eric
MathWorld.
W.
Golden
Ratio
[20] James Joseph Tattersall (2005). Elementary number theory in nine chapters (2nd ed.). Cambridge University
Press. p. 28. ISBN 978-0-521-85014-8.
[21] Underwood Dudley (1999). Die Macht der Zahl: Was
die Numerologie uns weismachen will. Springer. p. 245.
ISBN 3-7643-5978-1.
[22] Cook, Theodore Andrea (1979) [1914]. The Curves of
Life. New York: Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-23701X.
[23] Gardner, Martin (2001), The Colossal Book of Mathematics: Classic Puzzles, Paradoxes, and Problems : Number Theory, Algebra, Geometry, Probability, Topology,
Game Theory, Innity, and Other Topics of Recreational
Mathematics, W. W. Norton & Company, p. 88, ISBN
9780393020236.
[24] Jaric, Marko V. (2012), Introduction to the Mathematics
of Quasicrystals, Elsevier, p. x, ISBN 9780323159470,
Although at the time of the discovery of quasicrystals
the theory of quasiperiodic functions had been known for
nearly sixty years, it was the mathematics of aperiodic
Penrose tilings, mostly developed by Nicolaas de Bruijn,
that provided the major inuence on the new eld.
[25] Van Mersbergen, Audrey M., Rhetorical Prototypes in
Architecture: Measuring the Acropolis with a Philosophical Polemic, Communication Quarterly, Vol. 46 No. 2,
1998, pp 194-213.
[26] Midhat J. Gazal , Gnomon, Princeton University Press,
1999. ISBN 0-691-00514-1
Conjugate.
[27] Keith J. Devlin The Math Instinct: Why You're A Mathematical Genius (Along With Lobsters, Birds, Cats, And
Dogs), p. 108. New York: Thunders Mouth Press, 2005,
ISBN 1-56025-672-9
[28] Boussora, Kenza and Mazouz, Said, The Use of the Golden
Section in the Great Mosque of Kairouan, Nexus Network
Journal, vol. 6 no. 1 (Spring 2004),
[13] " ,
,
" as translated in Richard Fitzpatrick
(translator) (2007). Euclids Elements of Geometry. ISBN
978-0615179841., p. 156
[14] Euclid,
[http:/.aleph0.clarku.edu/~{}djoyce/java/
elements/toc.html Elements], Book 6, Proposition 30.
[15] Euclid, Elements, Book 2, Proposition 11; Book 4, Propositions 1011; Book 13, Propositions 16, 811, 1618.
[16] The Golden Ratio. The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive. Retrieved 2007-09-18.
[17] Weisstein, Eric W. Golden Ratio. MathWorld.
[18] Hemenway, Priya (2005). Divine Proportion: Phi In Art,
Nature, and Science. New York: Sterling. pp. 2021.
ISBN 1-4027-3522-7.
[19] Plato. Timaeus. Translated by Benjamin Jowett. The
Internet Classics Archive. Retrieved 30 May 2006.
16
novel. Barnes & Noble Books. ISBN 978-0-7607-59318. The Golden Ratio also crops up in some very unlikely
places: widescreen televisions, postcards, credit cards and
photographs all commonly conform to its proportions.
[48] THE NEW RAPIDE S : Design. The Golden Ratio sits
at the heart of every Aston Martin.
[49] Lendvai, Ern (1971). Bla Bartk: An Analysis of His
Music. London: Kahn and Averill.
[50] Smith, Peter F. The Dynamics of Delight: Architecture and
Aesthetics (New York: Routledge, 2003) pp 83, ISBN 0415-30010-X
[51] Roy Howat (1983). Debussy in Proportion: A Musical
Analysis. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-52131145-4.
[52] Simon Trezise (1994). Debussy: La Mer. Cambridge
University Press. p. 53. ISBN 0-521-44656-2.
[53] Pearl Masters Premium. Pearl Corporation. Retrieved
December 2, 2007.
[54] "An 833 Cents Scale: An experiment on harmony",
Huygens-Fokker.org. Accessed December 1, 2012.
[55] Richard Padovan (1999). Proportion. Taylor & Francis.
pp. 305306. ISBN 978-0-419-22780-9.
[56] Padovan, Richard (2002). Proportion: Science, Philosophy, Architecture. Nexus Network Journal. 4 (1): 113
122. doi:10.1007/s00004-001-0008-7.
[57] Zeising, Adolf (1854). Neue Lehre van den Proportionen
des meschlischen Krpers. preface.
[58] Golden ratio discovered in a quantum world.
rekalert.org. 2010-01-07. Retrieved 2011-10-31.
Eu-
17
[67] Chris and Penny. Quandaries and Queries. Math Central. Retrieved 23 October 2011.
[85] Taylor, The Great Pyramid: Why Was It Built and Who
Built It?, 1859
[86] Matila Ghyka The Geometry of Art and Life, New York:
Dover, 1977
[87] Man, John, Gutenberg: How One Man Remade the World
with Word (2002) pp. 166167, Wiley, ISBN 0-47121823-5. The half-folio page (30.7 44.5 cm) was made
up of two rectanglesthe whole page and its text area
based on the so called 'golden section', which species a
crucial relationship between short and long sides, and produces an irrational number, as pi is, but is a ratio of about
5:8.
[88] Pheasant, Stephen (1998). Bodyspace. London: Taylor &
Francis. ISBN 0-7484-0067-2.
[89] van Laack, Walter (2001). A Better History Of Our World:
Volume 1 The Universe. Aachen: van Laach GmbH.
[90] Ivan Moscovich, Ivan Moscovich Mastermind Collection:
The Hinged Square & Other Puzzles, New York: Sterling,
2004
[91] Peterson, Ivars. Sea shell spirals. Science News.
[92] For instance, Osler writes that 38.2 percent and 61.8 percent retracements of recent rises or declines are common,
in Osler, Carol (2000). Support for Resistance: Technical Analysis and Intraday Exchange Rates (PDF). Federal Reserve Bank of New York Economic Policy Review.
6 (2): 5368.
[93] Roy Batchelor and Richard Ramyar, "Magic numbers in
the Dow, 25th International Symposium on Forecasting,
2005, p. 13, 31. "Not since the 'big is beautiful' days
have giants looked better", Tom Stevenson, The Daily
Telegraph, Apr. 10, 2006, and Technical failure, The
Economist, Sep. 23, 2006, are both popular-press accounts of Batchelor and Ramyars research.
9 Further reading
Doczi, Gyrgy (2005) [1981]. The Power of Limits: Proportional Harmonies in Nature, Art, and Architecture. Boston: Shambhala Publications. ISBN
1-59030-259-1.
Huntley, H. E. (1970). The Divine Proportion: A
Study in Mathematical Beauty. New York: Dover
Publications. ISBN 0-486-22254-3.
Joseph, George G. (2000) [1991]. The Crest of the
Peacock: The Non-European Roots of Mathematics (New ed.). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University
Press. ISBN 0-691-00659-8.
18
10
10
External links
EXTERNAL LINKS
19
11
11.1
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20
11
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Jamesx12345, NealCruco, Limit-theorem, Moony22, RPFigueiredo, D. Philip Cook, Ultimatesecret12, Mre env, Melonkelon, Tentinator, Bzavitz, Goss is super, Ugog Nizdast, Mynameisrichard, Evensteven, MrBearHugger, Dvorak182, Jianhui67, Paul2520, Fortok1,
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, KasparBot, Martin Peter Clarke, BU Rob13, Lemondoge, Skyllfully, Sgr ganesh, GreenC bot, Earl of Arundel
and Anonymous: 1633
11.2
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11.3
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11.3
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