CommonDiseasesinHumans

WhatisHealth?

Healthisthestateofcompletephysical,mental,andsocialwellbeing.

Healthincreasesproductivityandensureslongevity.

WaystoEnsureGoodHealth

Balanceddiet

Personalhygiene

Exercise

Awarenessaboutpreventionandcontrolofdiseases

Properwastedisposalandcontrolofvectors

Vaccination

WhydoDiseasesOccur?

GeneticreasonsInnatedeficienciesandinheritabledefects

Infections

SedentarylifestyleJunkfood,consumptionofalcohols/drugs,lack
ofexercise

PathogenicDiseases

Pathogensaretheparasitesthatenterthehumanbodythrough
variousmeans,thenmultiply,andinterferewithnormalvitalactivities.

BacterialDiseases

Typhoid

PathogenSalmonellatyphi

SpreadsthroughContaminatedfoodandwater

SiteofinfectionSmallintestine

SymptomsHighfever,stomachpain,headache,lossof
appetite,constipation,andintestinalperforationsinseverecases

ConfirmatorytestWidaltest

Pneumonia

Pathogens
StreptococcuspneumoniaeandHaemophilus
influenzae

SpreadsthroughDroplets/aerosolsreleasedfrominfected
person,sharingofglassesorutensils

SiteofinfectionAlveoli(getsfilledwithfluid,difficultyin
breathing)

SymptomsFever,chills,cough,headache,lipsandnails
becomegreyinseverecases

ViralDiseases

Commoncold

PathogenRhinoviruses

SiteofinfectionNoseandrespiratorypassage

SpreadsthroughDropletsreleasedfromcoughingorsneezing,
orcontaminatedobjects

SymptomsNasalcongestionanddischarge,sorethroat,
cough,headache,tiredness

ProtozoanDiseases

Malaria

PathogenPlasmodiumsps.(

P.vivax,P.falciparum,P.malaria)

VectorFemaleAnophelesmosquito

SymptomsHighgradefever,chills

Amoebiasis

PathogenEntamoebahistolytica

VectorHousefly

SiteofinfectionLargeintestine

SymptomsConstipation,abdominalpain,cramps,stoolswith
mucous,andbloodclots

FungalDiseases

Ringworms

PathogensGeneraMicrosporum,Trichophyton,and
Epidermophyton

SpreadsthroughTowels,clothes,comb(Fungusisacquired
fromsoil)

SymptomsAppearanceofdry,scalylesionsonvariousbody
partswithintenseitching

DiseasesCausedbyWorms

Ascariasis

PathogenRoundworm,Ascaris

SpreadsthroughWater,vegetables,fruitscontaminatedby
faecesofinfectedperson

SymptomsInternalbleeding,muscularpain,fever,anaemia,
blockageofintestinalpassage

Elephantiasis(filariasis)

PathogenWuchereria(W.malayiandW.bancrofti)

SpreadsthroughBiteoffemalemosquitovector

SymptomChronicinflammationoftheorgans,usuallythe
lymphaticvesselsoflowerlimb

LifeCycleofPlasmodium

Plasmodiumrequirestwohoststocompleteitslifecycle.

WhenfemaleAnophelesmosquitobitesahealthyhumanbeing,it
releasesPlasmodium,whichlivesinitsbodyassporozoite(infectious
form).

Theparasitesmultiply(asexualreproduction)inthelivercellsand
finallyburstthelivercells.Sporozoitesarereleasedinblood.

ParasitesenterRBCsandfurthermultiply(asexualreproduction)here
andfinallyburstRBCsalso.

BurstingofRBCsisaccompaniedbyreleaseofatoxicsubstancecalled
haemozoin(associatedwithfeverandchills).

IntheRBCs,onlysporozoiteschangeintogametocytes(sexualstage).
Gametocytesmultiply.

WhenthediseasedpersonisbittenbyafemaleAnophelesmosquito,
gametocytesareintroducedintothemosquito.

Gametocytesfertiliseanddevelopinsidetheintestineofmosquitoto

formsporozoites.

Sporozoitesarestoredinthesalivaryglandsofmosquitoandare
releasedintothehealthypersonwhoisbittenbythismosquito.

Immunity
Whatisimmunity?

Theabilityofbodytofightthediseasecausingorganismsiscalled
immunity.

Typesofimmunity

Immunityisoftwotypesinnateimmunityandacquiredimmunity.

InnateimmunityItispresentfromthetimeofbirth.Itis
nonspecific.Itconsistsof4kindsofbarriers.

PhysicalbarriersSkinandmucuscoatingofrespiratory,
gastrointestinal,andurogenitaltractprevententryofmicrobes
intobody.

PhysiologicalbarriersAcidinstomach,salivainmouth,tears
fromeyes

CellularbarriersBloodhasleukocytessuchaspolymorpho
nuclearleukocytes,monocytes,etc.andtissuehasmacrophages
whichphagocytosethemicrobes.

CytokinebarriersSpecialproteinscalledinterferonsare
secretedbyvirusinfectedcellsthatpreventthefurtherspread
ofviralinfection.

AcquiredimmunityItisacquired,whichmeansthatitisproduced
inresponsetoanencounterwithapathogenbasedonmemory.Itis
pathogenspecific.

Whenapathogenforthefirsttimeinfectsaperson,lowintensity
immuneresponseisgenerated(primaryresponse).

Whenthesamepathogenattacksagain,intensifiedimmune
responseingenerated,therebypreventingtheoccurrenceof
disease(secondaryresponse).

AcquiredimmunityinvolvestwotypesofcellsBlymphocytes
andTlymphocytes.

BlymphocytesSecreteproteinscalledantibodiesinresponse
topathogensAntibodiesarespecializedproteinswith4peptide
chains(2lightand2heavy),hencedenotedasH2L2.IgAIgM,
IgE,etc.areexamplesofsomeoftheantibodies.Theygenerate
humoralimmuneresponse(foundinblood).

TlymphocytesTheyhelpBcellstoproduceantibodies.They
generatecellmediatedimmuneresponse.Thisresponse
helpsthebodytodifferentiatebetweenselfandnonselfas
occursincaseofgraftrejection.

Differencebetweenactiveimmunityandpassiveimmunity

ActiveImmunity

Thisisthenaturallyacquiredimmunityproducedinthehost
bodyinresponsetoanantigen.

Immunizationandbodynaturallygettingimmunetoamicrobe
thathadcausedinfectionpreviouslyareexamplesofactive
immunity.

Passiveimmunity

Whenreadymadeantibodiesareprovidedtoanindividualto
protectagainstforeignagents

ColostrumspresentinmothersmilkcontainIgA.Also,thefoetus
getsantibodiesfrommotherthroughplacenta.

Howdoesvaccinationhelp?

Vaccinesarenothingbutinactivatedpathogens.

Theseinactivatedpathogenswhenintroducedinthebodyproducea
primaryimmuneresponseandantibodiesareproducedagainstthe
pathogen.

MemoryBandTcellsareproduced.

Nowwhenthepathogenagainattackstheperson,memoryBand
Tcellsgenerateamassiveimmuneresponseandthepathogenis
killed.

Problemsofimmunesystem

Allergies

Exaggeratedimmuneresponsetocertainantigenspresentin
environment

AllergensSubstancesinresponsetowhichallergyisproduced
E.g.,dust,pollen,etc.

AntibodiesinvolvedIgEtype

Duringallergicreactions,chemicalssuchashistaminesand
serotoninsarereleased.

SymptomsSneezing,wateryeyes,difficultyinbreathing,etc.

AllergytestPatientisinjectedwithsmalldosesofallergensto
monitorhisresponse.

Antihistamines,adrenalins,andsteroidsmaybegivensothat

thesymptomsofallergysubside.

Autoimmunity

Inautoimmunity,bodygeneratesimmuneresponseagainstits
owncells.

ReasonsGeneticandotherunknownreasons

ExampleRheumatoidarthritisisanautoimmunedisease.

Humanimmunesystem

Lymphoidorgansareoftwotypesprimarylymphoidorgansand
secondarylymphoidorgans.

Primarylymphoidorgansconsistofbonemarrowandthymus.Here,
immaturelymphocytesaredifferentiatedtoformantigensensitive
lymphocytes.

BonemarrowHere,allbloodcellsincludinglymphocytesare
produced.

ThymusItisresponsibleformaturationofTlymphocytes.This
lobedorganissituatedneartheheartandkeepsonreducingin
sizeastheageincreases.

SecondarylymphoidorgansLymphocytesmigratehereafter
attainingmaturity.Itincludesspleen,lymphnodestonsils,Peyers
patches,andappendix.

SpleenLargebeanshapedorgancontaininglymphocytesand
phagocytes,whichactsasafilterforblood

LymphnodesLocatedatdifferentpointsthroughoutthe
immunesystem,theytraptheantigenspresentinlymphor
tissuefluid,andtheseantigenscauseactivationoflymphocytes
andgenerationofimmuneresponse.

MALT(Mucosalassociatedlymphoidtissue)Linesmajortracts
(respiratory,digestive,urogenital,etc)constitutes50%oflymphoid
tissueinbody

AIDS&Cancer

AIDS(AcquiredImmunoDeficiencySyndrome)

CausedbyHIV(HumanImmunodeficiencyVirus)[HIVisaretrovirus
(RNAvirus)]

TransmissionofHIVoccursthrough:

Sexualcontactwithinfectedperson

Sharinginfectedneedles(asincaseofintravenousdrug
abusers)

Transfusionofcontaminatedblood

Infectedmothertochildthroughplacenta

TimelagbetweeninfectionandappearanceofsymptomsFew
monthstomanyyears(510years)

HowdoesAIDSinfectionspread?

Virusentersthebodyofapersonandentersmacrophages.

Here,virusreplicates(viralRNAreversetranscribestoviralDNA,
whichgetsincorporatedintohostsDNAandsubsequentlynew
viralparticlesareproduced).

MacrophagesbecomeavirtualHIVfactory.

Thereafter,HIVentershelperTlymphocytes,replicates,andproduces
progenies.

Astheprogeniesarereleased,theyattackotherTlymphocytes.

Therefore,Tlymphocytesstartdecreasinginnumberandimmune
responseofthepersonbecomesweak.

Eveninfectionswhichcouldbeovercomeeasilystartaggravating.

DiagnosisofAIDSByELISA(EnzymeLinkedImmunoSorbent
Assay)

TreatmentNopermanentcureantiretroviraltherapiescanprolong
thelifeofpatient

PreventionofAIDS

Ensuringuseofdisposablesyringes

Screeningbloodfrombloodbanks

Advocatingsafesex

NACO(NationalAIDSControlOrganization)andmanyNGOsare
doingalottocreateawarenessamongpeople.

Cancer

Theprocessofdevelopmentofcanceriscalledoncogenic
transformation.

Normalcellshavethepropertyofcontactinhibition(stoppageof
growthoncomingincontactwithothercells),butcancercellslosethis
property.

Asaresult,cancercellsdividecontinuouslytogiverisetomassof
cells(tumours).

Tumoursareof2typesbenignandmalignant.

BenigntumoursRemainconfinedtotheiroriginallocationanddonot
spread

MalignanttumoursTheseexhibitmetastasisi.e.,thecellssloughed
fromsuchtumoursreachdistantsitesandwherevertheyreach,new
tumourisformed.

Malignanttumoursactuallyrepresentcancer.Thecellsactivelydivide,
grow,andstarvethenormalcellsofvitalnutrients.

Causesofcancer

CarcinogensPhysical,chemical,andbiologicalagentsthat
causecancerExampleionizingradiations(Xraysandgamma
rays),nonionizingradiations(UV)

Oncogenic(cancercausing)virusesTheyhaveviral
oncogenes(cancercausinggenes).

Sometimesnormalgenesinourbodycalledprotooncogenesget
convertedintocellularoncogenesthatcausecancer.

Diagnosingcancer

Biopsyandhistopathologicalstudies

BiopsySuspectedtissueiscutintothinsectionsand
examinedmicroscopically

Radiography,CTscan(computedtomography),andMRI
(Magneticresonanceimaging)aretechniquesofdiagnosing
cancers.

CTScan3Dimagingofinternalsofanorganisgeneratedby
Xrays.

MRIScanPathologicalandphysiologicalchangesinaliving

tissuearedetectedbyusingmagneticfieldsandnonionising
radiations.

Immunologicalandmolecularbiologicaldiagnostictechniques
canallbeusedtodetectcancers.

Identifyingcertaingenes,whichmakeanindividualsusceptible
tocancers,canhelptopreventcancers.

Treatmentofcancer

RadiotherapyTumourcellsareirradiatedtodeath.Also,
propercareistakenforprotectingsurroundingnormaltissues.

ChemotherapyDrugsspecificforparticulartumoursareused
tokillcancercells.Theyhavesideeffectssuchashairloss,
anaemia,etc.

ImmunotherapyBiologicalresponsemodifierssuchas
interferonsareused.Theyactivatetheimmunesystemof
patientandhelpsindestroyingthetumour.

CommonlyAbusedDrugs
Opioids(Heroin)

Source:Acetylationofmorphineextractedfromthelatexofpoppy
plants(Papaversomniferum)

Consumedby:Snortingorinjection

Properties:White,bitterandodourless

Modeofaction:BindstoopioidreceptorspresentintheCNSandGI
tract

Effect:Itisadepressantslowsdownbodyfunctions

Cannabinoids

Source:InflorescencesoftheplantCannabissativa

Consumedby:Inhalationororalingestion

Modeofaction:Bindstocannabinoidreceptorspresentinthebrain

Effect:Affectsthecardiovascularsystem

Cocaine

Source:CocaplantErythroxylumcoca,foundinSouthAmerica

Consumedby:Snorting

Modeofaction:Interferencewithtransferofneurotransmitter,
dopamine

Effect:StimulatestheCNS,producingasenseofeuphoriaand
increasedenergyexcessivedosagescausehallucination

DrugsNormallyUsedasMedicines

Drugslikebarbiturates,amphetamines,benzodiazepines,LSD
(Lysergicaciddiethylamides)areusedasmedicinestohelppatients
withmentalillnessandinsomnia.

Morphine:Itisapainkillerwhichisusedforpatientswhohave
undergonesurgery,butitisalsoabused.

Nicotine

Presentintobacco,whichissmoked,chewedorsnuffed

Modeofaction:Stimulatestheadrenalglandtoreleaseadrenalineand
noradrenaline

Effect:Increasesbloodpressureandheartrate

IllEffectsofSmoking

Increasedriskofdiseaseslikebronchitis,emphysema,coronaryheart
disease,gastriculcerandcancer(throat,lungandurinarybladder)

Increasedcarbonmonoxidelevelsinblood,leadingtooxygen
deficiency

Alcohol/DrugAbuse
Causesofalcohol/DrugAbuse

Alcohol/drugabusenormallystartsinadolescence(periodbetween
1218yrstransitionphasebetweenchildhoodandadulthood).

Manyadolescentsaremotivatedtowardsdrugs/alcoholdueto
curiosityandexperimentation.

Peerpressure,academicstress,unstablefamilystructurefurther
inclineyouthtowardsalcohol/drugabuse.

Perceptionofconsumingalcohol/drugbeingcoolandprogressiveand
useofalcohol/drugintelevision,movies,etc.furtherpromotethis
habit.

Alcohol/DrugAddiction

Whenapersonusesalcohol/drugrepeatedly,hebecomesaddicted.

Addictionreferstopsychologicalattachmenttocertaineffectssuchas
euphoriaandtemporaryfeelingofwellbeingassociatedwithuseof
alcoholordrugs.

Inaddiction,tolerancelevelofreceptorspresentinourbodyincreases
towardsthedrug.

Thisdrivesthepersontousethemevenwhentheyarenotrequiredor
whentheytendtoharmhishealth/familylife.

Subsequently,theuserrunsintoaviciouscircleofaddictionand
subsequentdependence.

Dependenceleadstomanifestationofwithdrawalsyndromeon
discontinuationofuse.

WithdrawalsyndromeAnxiety,nausea,sweating,shakiness,and
sometimesmaybelethal

EffectsofAlcohol/DrugAbuse

ImmediateeffectVandalism,violence,andrecklessbehaviour

Dropinacademicperformance,lackofinterestinpersonalhygiene,
rebelliousbehaviour,andchangeineatingandsleepingpatterns,
weightandappetitefluctuations

Mental,psychological,andfinanciallossnotonlytotheuser,butalso
tohisfamily

Thosewhotakedrugsintravenouslyhaveahighriskofacquiring
deadlydiseasessuchasAIDSandhepatitisB.

Damagetonervoussystemandliver(cirrhosis)

Useofanabolicsteroidsbysportspersonhaveadverseeffects:

InfemalesIncreaseofmasculinity,aggressiveness,
depression,abnormalmenstrualcycle,facialhairgrowth,
enlargementofclitoris,anddeepeningofvoice

InmalesAcne,aggressiveness,depression,reductioninsize
oftesticles,decreasedspermproduction,enlargementof
prostategland,breastenlargement,prematurebaldness

Ultimately,prolongeduseofalcohol/drugsleadstocomaanddeath.

PreventingAlcohol/DrugAbuse

Itisbettertopreventtheinclinationofanindividualtowardsalcohol/
drugsrightfromadolescence.Someofthewaysofpreventionare:

AvoidpeerpressureUnderstandtheuniquepersonalityand
capabilitiesofachild

EducationandcounsellingAchildmustbetaughttoaccept
successandfailureequally.Especiallyduringadolescence,he
mustbeinclinedtowardsconstructiveactivitiessuchasmusic,
yoga,sports,readingbasedonhisinterest.

HelpfromparentsandpeersThisincludesproperguidance,
advice,andtrusttoovercomeproblemssuchasstressandguilt.

IdentifyingdangersignalsIfanysignofsymptomofalcohol/
drugabuseisseenintheadolescentbyfamilyorfriends,thenit
shouldnotbeignoredbecausepreventionisbetterthancure.

SeekingmedicalhelpPsychologistsandrehabilitationprograms
surelyhelpanaddict.Medicalhelpshouldbesoughttopreventfurther
damage.