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AMIT BANERJEE
(M4MEC12-11)
UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF
CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL *
Committee
_______
_______
ii
Countersigned
----------------------------------------Thesis Advisor
iii
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
In this respect, I would also like to grab this opportunity to express my heart-felt
gratitude to my mother her constant cooperation, suggestions and helping attitudes let me
complete the thesis on time.
Date:
(AMIT BANERJEE)
iv
CONTENTS
Page No.
CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL
ii
CERTIFICATE OF SUPERVISOR
iii
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
iv
CONTENTS
v-vii
LIST OF FIGURES
viii-xii
LIST OF TABLES
xiii-xiv
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1-8
1.2 Objective
CHAPTER 2: METHODOLOGY
9-33
14
14
16
17
19
20
22
2.2.7 Backpropagation
23
[Type text]
2.2.8 Training
24
2.2.9 Simulation
25
25
26
27
27
31
32
33
34-86
34
40
42
45
48
52
vi
57
[Type text]
61
66
66
66
75
3.4 Comparison with artificial neural network analysis and wavelet transform
analysis
85
87-88
4.1 Conclusion
87
87
88
REFERENCE
89-91
vii
List of Figures
Page No
Fig. 2.1
Fig. 2.2
11
Fig.2.3(a)
12
12
13
13
from fixed end and depth 10 mm) under 294 KN force at free end.
Fig.2.5
15
Fig.2.6
18
Fig.2.7
18
Fig.2.8
19
vector.
Fig.2.9
22
Fig.2.10
24
Fig.2.11
27
Fig.2.12
Haar wavelet
27
Fig.2.13
Morlet wavelet
28
Fig.2.14
Maxican wavelet
28
Fig.2.15
Mayer wavelet
28
Fig.2.16
Daubechies wavelet
29
Fig.2.17
Bioorthogonal Wavelet
30
Fig.2.18
Symlets Wavelet
30
Fig 3.1
39
viii
Fig 3.2
Relative Natural Frequencies vs. Location from fixed end for first
39
frequency
Fig.3.3
Relative Natural Frequencies vs. Location from fixed end for second
39
frequency
Fig.3.4
Relative Natural Frequencies vs. Location from fixed end for third
39
frequencies
Fig.3.5
40
Fig.3.6
Average Mode Shape Deviation vs. Crack Location form fixed end for
40
Average Mode Shape Deviation vs. Crack Location from fixed end for
40
Average Mode Shape Deviation vs. Crack Location from fixed end for
40
43
Fig.3.10
43
Fig.3.11
46
network
Fig.3.12
47
Fig.3.13
49
50
54
network
Fig.3.16
54
Fig.3.17
58
Fig.3.18
58
Fig.3.19
63
63
ix
67
Fig.3.22
68
Fig.3.23(a)
68
68
mm from fixed end with 3 mm crack depth. (a) 2D plot (b) 3D plot
Fig.3.24
69
69
70
Relative Static Deflection vs. Node for cracked beam with 3 mm crack
70
DWT plot of relative static deflection cracked beam and crack free
71
71
72
DWT plot of relative static deflection cracked beam and crack free
72
beam (crack location 250 mm from fixed end with 3 mm crack depth)
Fig.3.28(b)
72
free beam (crack location 250 mm from fixed end with 3 mm crack
depth)
Fig.3.28(c)
73
free beam (crack location 250 mm from fixed end with 3 mm crack
depth).
Fig.3.29(a)
DWT plot of relative static deflection cracked beam and crack free
beam (crack location 450 mm from fixed end with 3 mm crack depth)
73
Fig.3.29(b)
74
free beam (crack location 450 mm from fixed end with 3 mm crack
depth)
Fig.3.29(c)
74
free beam (crack location 450 mm from fixed end with 3 mm crack
depth).
Fig.3.30
75
fixed end
Fig.3.31
76
76
77
77
77
78
DWT plot of mode shape difference of Crack free and Cracked Beam
78
79
79
DWT plot of mode shape difference of Crack free and Cracked Beam
79
80
xi
80
Fig.3.37(a)
DWT plot of mode shape difference of Crack free and Cracked Beam
80
81
Fig.3.37(c)
81
DWT plot of mode shape difference of Crack free and Cracked Beam
82
82
Beam with 3 mm crack depth at crack location 150 mm from fixed end.
Fig.3.38(c)
82
Beam with 3 mm crack depth at crack location 150 mm from fixed end.
Fig.3.39(a)
DWT plot of mode shape difference of Crack free and Cracked Beam
83
83
Beam with 3 mm crack depth at crack location 250 mm from fixed end.
Fig.3.39(c)
83
Beam with 3 mm crack depth at crack location 250 mm from fixed end.
Fig.3.40
xii
85
List of Table
Page No
Table 2.1
Beam Characteristics
10
Table 2.2
20
Table 2.3
26
Table 3.1
35
36
37
38
41
Table 3.6
42
44
45
46
47
48
xiii
49
Table 3.13
51
52
53
55
56
57
59
60
62
64
65
75
xiv
84
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
It is required that structures must safely work during its service life. However, presence of
damages may lead to breakdown of damages. Crack is one of the most common faults that if
develops, may cause catastrophic damages in structures. Therefore, it must be detected in the early
stage when it is small. Crack-like defects in mechanical and civil engineering structures are a
problem that received considerable attention by researchers. Since beam type structures are very
common used in steel construction and machinery industries, for the last few decades engineers and
scientists are working on various techniques for detection of crack in the beamlike structure.
Cracks are present in structure due to various reasons. The presences of crack could not only cause
a local variation in the stiffness but it could affect the mechanical behavior of the entire structure to a
considerable extent. Cracks may be caused by fatigue under service condition as a result of the
limited fatigue strength. Generally they are small in sizes. Such small cracks are known to propagate
due to the fluctuating stress conditions. If these propagating cracks remain undetected and reach their
critical size, then a sudden structural failure occurs.
Due to its practical importance, the crack identification problem in structures has been extensively
investigated and many methods are proposed. In practice, it is difficult to recognize most cracks by
using visual inspection techniques. Nowadays, the procedures that are often used for crack detection
are those which are called direct procedures, such as ultrasonic, X-rays, acoustic emission, wave
propagation, radiography etc. Such diagnostics can be effectively applied to damage detection in a
few known locations of the structure. However they are impractical in search of potential damage
through all engineering object and also may require minutely detailed periodic inspections, which is
very costly. In order to avoid these costs, during the last decades, people have been in the lookout of
a more efficient procedure in crack detection through vibration analysis.
A crack or local defect affects the dynamic response of structural member. It results in changes of
natural frequencies and mode shapes. A crack in a structure introduces a local flexibility that can
change the dynamics behavior of the structure and this property used to detect existence of a crack
together with its location and depth in the structural member. Most of the approaches use the modal
data of a structure before damage occurs as baseline data and all subsequent tests are compared to it.
Any deviation in the modal properties from the baseline data is used to estimate the crack size and
location.
Chapter 1
A neural network is a powerful data modeling tool that is able to capture and represent complex
input/output relationships. Recently, neural networks are expected to be a necessity for intensive
computation. Neural networks are expected to be a potential approach to detect the damage of the
structure. In this study feed-forward back-propagation networks are used to learn the input (the
frequency and depth) and output (the location and depth of a crack) relation of the structural system.
Wavelet analysis is also capable to detect the crack in structure. Wavelet transform is applied
on the static and dynamics response of a beam, The result obtained by the wavelet analysis may be
useful to detect the location of crack and its depth quite efficiently.
Introduction
Chinchalkar [4] have described a numerical method for determining the location of a crack in a
beam of varying depth when the lowest three natural frequencies of the cracked beam are known.
The crack is modeled as a rotational spring and graphs of spring stiffness versus crack location are
plotted for each natural frequency. The point of intersection of the three curves gives the location of
the crack.
Jinhee Lee [5] has presented a simple method of identifying multiple cracks in a beam using the
changes of the forced vibration amplitudes. The Newton-Raphson method and singular value
decomposition method are used for the estimation of the crack parameters.
Nandwana and Maiti [6] have used a method based measurement of natural frequencies is
presented for detection of the location and size of a crack in a stepped cantilever beam. The crack is
represented as a rotational spring, and the method involves obtaining plots of its stiffness with crack
location for any three natural modes through the characteristic equation. The point of intersection of
the three curves gives the crack location. Nandwana et al. [7] have modelling of transverse vibration
of a slender beam in the presence of an inclined edge or internal normal crack using a rotational
spring has been done to enable a possible detection of location of the crack based on the
measurement of natural frequencies. The characteristic equation obtained from the vibration analysis
of the beam is manipulated to give a relationship between the stiffness of the spring and location of
the crack.
Choubey et al. [8] have studied to analysis the effect of cracks on natural frequencies in two vessel
structure. Finite element analysis has been used to obtain the dynamic characteristics of intact and
damaged vessels for the eight modes of these structures.
Chan and Lai [9] have solved to determine the dynamics response during start-up of a turbogenerator. Investigations are performed using the advanced continuous simulation package ACSL via
a Runge Kutta numerical algorithm. Results of the simulation reveal that ultra harmonic resonances
of the system occur at one-half and one-third subcritical speeds, which can be used as a criterion for
crack growth detection.
Kim et al. [10] applied a methodology to nondestructively locate and estimate the size of damage
in structures for which a few natural frequencies or a few mode shapes are available. First, a
frequency-based damaged detection (FBDD) method is outlined. A damage-localization algorithm to
locate damage from the change of natural frequencies and a damage sizing algorithm to estimate
Chapter 1
crack-size from the natural frequency perturbation are formulated. Next, a mode-shape-based damage
detection (MBDD) method is outlined.
Peng, Lang and Chu [11] have used nonlinear output frequency response functions (NOFRFs) to
analyze a typical representation for cracked structures, a single degree of freedom system (SDOF)
bilinear model, to explain the occurrence of the nonlinear phenomena when a cracked structure is
subjected to sinusoidal excitations, including the generation of super-harmonic component and sub
resonances.
Nahvi and Jabbari [12] have presented an analytical, as well as experimental approach to the
crack detection in cantilever beams by vibration analysis. An experimental set up is designed in
which a cracked cantilever beam is excited by a hammer and response is obtained using an
accelerometer attached to the beam.
Kisa and Gurel [13] have presented a novel numerical technique applicable to analysis of uniform
and stepped cracked beams with circular cross section. In this approach the finite element and
component mode synthesis methods are used together, the beam being detached into parts from the
crack section.
Zheng et al. [14] have studied the natural frequencies and mode shapes of a cracked beam using
the finite element method. An overall additional flexibility matrix is added to the local flexibility
matrix of the corresponding intact beam element to obtain the total flexibility matrix and therefore
the stiffness matrix.
Saavedra et al. [15] have presented a theoretical and experimental dynamics behavior of different
multi-beams systems containing a transverse crack. The additional flexibility that the crack generates
in its vicinity is evaluated using the strain energy density function given by the linear fracture
mechanics theory.
Introduction
verified by Monte Carlo simulation, the statistics of the stiffness parameters are estimated. The
probability of damage existence (PDE) is then calculated based on the probability density function of
the existence of undamaged and damaged states. The developed approach is applied to detect
simulated damage in a numerical steel portal frame model and also in a laboratory tested concrete
slab.
Liu et al. [18] have studied both direct problem and inverse problem. In the direct problem, the
frequency responses of a cracked medium subjected to an impact loading are calculated by the
computational mechanics combining the finite element method with the boundary integral equation.
In the inverse problem, the back-propagation neural networks are trained by the characteristic
parameters extracted from the various surfaces responses obtained from the direct problem.
Parhi and Dash [19] have studied the dynamic behaviour of a beam structure containing multiple
transverse cracks using neural network controller. The first three natural frequencies and mode
shapes have been calculated using theoretical, finite-element, and experimental analysis for the
cracked and un-cracked beam. Comparisons of the results among theoretical, finite-element and
experimental analysis have also been presented.
Das and Parhi [20] have presented neural network technique for fault diagnosis of a cracked
cantilever beam. In the neural network system there are six input parameters and two output
parameters. The input parameters to the neural network are relative deviation of first three natural
frequencies and first three modes shapes. The output parameters of the neural network system are
relative crack depth and relative crack location. To calculate the effect of crack depths and crack
locations on natural frequencies and mode shapes, theoretical expressions have been developed.
Saeed, Galybin and Popov [21] have presented different artificial intelligence techniques for crack
identification in curvilinear beams based on changes in vibration characteristics. Vibration analysis
has been performed by applying the finite element method to compute natural frequencies and
frequency response functions for intact and damaged beams.
Mahmoud and Kiefa [22] have presented general regression neural networks (GRNN) to solve the
inverse vibration problem of cracked structures. The case study used in the investigation was a steel
cantilever beam with a single edge crack. The first six natural frequencies were used as network
inputs, and crack size and crack location were the output.
z and zkaya [23] have studied the transverse vibration of a Euler-Bernoulli type axially moving
beam. The beam is simply supported at both ends. Axial velocity is assumed as a harmonic function
5
Chapter 1
about a constant mean value. The frequency value and stability borders obtained in a previous study
are trained using ANN. For new value of flexural stiffness and mean velocities, frequencies and
stability borders are determined using ANN.
Nazari and Baghalian [24] have presented a new method for crack detection in symmetric beams.
In this research it is assumed that the structure is a rectangular beam which is fixed at both ends.
Finite Element Method was used to obtain natural frequencies of beam in different condition of
cracks. Based on data were obtained from FEM, two distinct Artificial Neural Networks were trained
for crack location and depth detection in some different conditions and then were tested. Finally
using an algorithm based on first vibration mode shape of structure, locations and depths of cracks
have been identified with good approximations.
Introduction
Ovanesova et al. [30] have presented the applications of the wavelet transform to detect cracks in
frame structures, such as beam and plane frames and also detected the localization of the crack by
using a response signal from static or dynamic loads.
Lonkar and Srivastava [31] applied wavelet transform to detect localized damage based on
simulated dynamic response data from finite element analysis of cantilever beam.
Douka, Loutridis and Trochidis [32] have presented a simple method for crack identification in
beam structures based on wavelet analysis. The fundamental vibration mode of a cracked cantilever
beam is analyzed using continuous wavelet transform and both the location and size of the crack are
estimated. Douka et al [33] have also presented crack identification in double cracked beams based
on wavelet analysis.
Wang and Wu [34] have an experimental studied for the location detection of a delamination in a
beam structure under a static displacement with a spatial wavelet transform. An invisible perturbation
in the deflection profile of the delaminated beam at the two delamination edges owing to the
curvature discontinuity is discerned or amplified through a wavelet transform.
Andrzej Katunin [35] has presented the construction of general order two-dimensional B-spline
wavelets and has applied for damage identification in polymeric composite plates.
Kim and Melhem [36] have provided the review of the research that has been conducted on damage
detection by wavelet analysis. First, the theory of wavelet analysis is presented including continuous
and discrete wavelet transform followed by its application to SHM. Then more specific application
namely crack detection of a beam and mechanical gear and roller damage are presented.
Jiang et al. [37] stated a new method for crack detection in beams by using the slop of the mode
shape to detect cracks and introduced the angle coefficients of complex continuous wavelet
transform.
Srinivasa Rao, Mallikarjuna Rao, G.V.Raju [38] have presented in their paper a method for crack
identification in beam structure by analyzing the fundamental mode of cracked cantilever beam
using continuous wavelet transform.
Okafor and Dutta [39] have used a laser-based optical system and wavelet transforms for detection
of changes in the properties of cantilevered aluminum beams as a result of damage. The beams were
modeled using the ANSYS 5.3 finite-element method and the first six mode shapes for the damaged
and the undamaged cases obtained.
7
Chapter 1
Zhong and Oyadiji [40, 41] have proposed a new approach for damage detection in beam-like
structures with small cracks, whose crack ratio [r =
parameters. The approach is based on the difference of the continuous wavelet transforms and
stationary wavelet transforms of two sets of mode shape data which correspond to the left half and
the right half of the modal data of a cracked simply-supported beam.
1.2 Objective
From the literature review, it has been observed that various techniques have been already
employed for identification of crack, its location and size in case of beam like structure.
In the present study, the problem of fault recognition of a cracked cantilever beam is carried out in
two different methods using vibration signature obtained from finite element analysis of the beam
under static and dynamic loads.
In the first case, Artificial Neural Network is applied to identify crack size and its location from the
response data obtained from the numerical experiment conducted by finite element modelling of the
crack beam and subsequent analysis using ANSYS.
In the second method, wavelet transform is applied to detect the crack in the cantilever beam.
Results obtained from both the techniques are compared.
Chapter 4
METHODOLOGY
In the present work, vibration analysis is carried out on a cantilever beam with a single open
transverse cracks. The study is aimed at detecting the size and location of crack in cantilever beam.
Free vibration finite element analysis of crack free beam and a series of cracked beams are
performed. Suitable boundary conditions are used to find out natural frequencies and mode shapes.
The simulations have done with the help of ANSYS 13 software. Comparison studies are
performed on natural frequencies and mode shapes of cracked and cracked free beam. Identification
of crack depth and its location is determined by two different methods, namely, ANN analysis and
wavelet analysis.
Six distinct Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) are trained for detection of different crack
location and depth. The inputs are six variables, first three natural frequencies and first three natural
mode shapes and output are depth and location. The MATLAB 7.8 Neural Network Toolbox is used
for this purpose. In section 4.2, a brief introduction to Artificial Neural Network system as applied to
the present study is outlined. Once the training is complete simulation is performed to predict
probable location of crack and its depth.
Wavelet transform is applied to detect the crack of cantilever beam. Relative mode shape
deviations of crack and crack free beam are used as input signals of wavelet analysis. Both discrete
and continuous analyses are performed. The wavelet analysis is performed using MATLAB 7.8
Wavelet toolbox. Both discrete and continuous wavelet transform of localized crack in a cantilever
under static and dynamic conditions are analyzed to detect crack is presented. Application of wavelet
analysis is described in section 2.3.
Chapter 4
Finite element model of a cantilevers beam with single open transverse crack is developed in
ANSYS environment. The dimensions of the beam are shown in Fig 2.1. Material properties of the
beam are shown in Table 2.1. In order to perform numerical experiment, modal and structural analysis
of the beam is performed following the steps outlines below.
Define Materials
Generate Mesh
Obtain Solution
Solve.
Table 2.1 Beam Characteristics
Density Poisson Ratio
(Kg/ )
7860
0.3
Elasticity
Modulus
(GPa)
206
Length
(mm)
600
Thickness
(mm)
20
Depth
(mm)
30
Throughout transverse cracks is modeled with 1 mm width for every cracked beam.
Finite element software, ANSYS version 13 is used for free vibration analysis of the crack free and
cracked beams. Beam length, thickness and depth are along X axis, Y axis and Z axis respectively in
ANSYS coordinate system. A 20-node three dimension structural solid element under SOLID 186
was selected to model the beam because it is suitable for all structural analysis and it is mid node
element which gives the more accurate result. Fig 2.2 shows finite element model of a cracked beam.
The modal analysis of cracked and crack free beams are performed. The Block Lanczons mode
extraction method is used to calculate the natural frequencies of the beam. First five modes have been
selected as for both crack and crack free beam as first, third and fifth natural frequencies correspond
10
Methodology
to first three natural frequencies in the transverse direction (Y direction) of vibration. The
corresponding mode shapes for both cracked and cracked free beam are also captured. In order to
determine the mode shape and modal displacement, node points at the bottom surface of the beam are
considered. Distance of each sample point along the lengths is assumed to be 10 mm. First point is
taken at fixed end. Since length of the beam is 600 mm, the total number of sample data point is 61.
The mode shape of the beam is obtained by plotting transverse displacement (Y direction) of the
beam at each sample data point against its position along X direction. The displacement values are
used as a numerical data of ANN and mode shape is used as an input signal of wavelet analysis for
subsequent identification of crack length and location of the beam. For example, Figure 4.3 exhibits
first three mode shape of cracked beam with natural frequency and nodal displacements of the sample
point.
A number of simulations have been performed for various crack depth at different location. The
output values of these simulations are used as training data for the ANN analysis and wavelet
transform analysis.
Chapter 4
Fig.2.3 (a) First mode shape of cracked cantilever beam (crack location at 50 mm from fixed end and
depth 10 mm).
Fig.2.3 (b) Second mode shape of cracked cantilever beam (crack location at 50 mm from fixed end
and depth 10 mm).
12
Methodology
Fig.2.3 (c) Third mode shape of cracked cantilever beam (crack location at 50 mm from fixed
end and depth 10 mm).
Fig 2.4 Static deflection of cracked cantilever beam (crack location at 50 mm from fixed end and
depth 10 mm) under 294 KN force at free end.
13
Chapter2
2.2 Artificial Neural Network
Studies on neural networks have been motivated to imitate the way that the brain operates .A
network is described in terms of the individual neurons, the network connectivity, the weights
associated with various interconnections between neurons, and the activation functions for each
neuron. The network maps an input vector from one space to another. The mapping is not specified,
but is learned. The network is presented with a given set of inputs and their associated outputs. The
learning process is used to determine proper interconnection weights and the network is trained to
make proper associations between the inputs and their corresponding outputs. Once trained, the
network provides rapid mapping of a given input into the desired output quantities. This, in turn, can
be used to enhance the efficiency of the design process.
The simplest definition of a neural network, more properly referred to as an artificial neural
network (ANN), is provided by the inventor of one of the first neurocomputers, Dr. Robert HechtNielsen. He defines a neural network as computing system made up of a number of simple, highly
interconnected processing elements, which process information by their dynamic state response to
external inputs. ANNs are processing devices (algorithms or actual hardware) that are loosely
modeled after the neural structure of the mammalian cerebral cortex but on much smaller scales. A
large ANN might have hundreds or thousands of processor units, whereas a mammalian brain has
billion of neurons with a corresponding increase in magnitude of their overall interaction and
emergent behavior.
14
Methodology
The error information is fed back to the system which makes all adjustments to their parameters
in a systematic fashion (commonly known as the learning rule). This process is repeated until the
desired output is acceptable. It is important to notice that the performance hinges heavily on the data.
Hence, this is why this data should pre-process with third party algorithms such as DSP algorithms.
In neural network design, the engineer or designer chooses the network topology, the trigger
function or performance function, learning rule and the criteria for stopping the training phase. So, it
is pretty difficult determining the size and parameters of the network as there is no rule or formula to
do it. The best we can do for having success with our design is playing with it. The problem with this
method is when the system does not work properly it is hard to refine the solution. Despite this issue,
neural networks based solution is very efficient in terms of development, time and resources. By
15
Chapter2
experience, I can tell that artificial neural networks provide real solutions that are difficult to match
with other technologies.
Depending on the nature of the application and the strength of the internal data patterns it can
generally expect a network to train quite well. This applies to problems where the relationships may
be quite dynamics or non linear. ANNs provide an analytical alternative to conventional techniques
which are often limited by strict assumption of normality, linearity, variable independence etc.
Because an ANN can capture many kinds of relationships it allows the user to quickly and relatively
easily model phenomena which otherwise may have been very difficult or impossible to explain
otherwise. Some of characteristics of ANN are given below.
When an element of the neural network fails, it can continue without any problem by
their parallel nature.
Another aspect of the artificial neural networks is that there are different architectures, which
consequently requires different types of algorithms, but despite to be an apparently complex system,
a neural network is relatively simple.
Methodology
ANNs have been applied successfully in a various fields of mathematics, engineering, medicine,
economics, meteorology, psychology, neurology and many others. Some of the most important ones
are:
Facial Animation
Nowadays, neural network technologies are emerging as the technology choice for many
applications, such as patter recognition, prediction, system identification and control.
17
Chapter2
,...
, ...
the summing junction. Their sum is simply Wp, the dot product of the (single row) matrix W and the
vector p.
18
Methodology
Fig 2.8 Neuron with Vector Input where R = number of elements in input vector.
The neuron has a bias b, which is summed with the weighted inputs to form the net input n. This
sum, n, is the argument of the transfer function f.
n=
+ ... +
+b
However, you will seldom be writing code at this level, for such code is already built into
functions to define and simulate entire networks.
19
Chapter2
function when the network inputs are zero. This may not be desirable and can be avoided by the use
of a bias.
Name
Mathematical Representation
f(x) = kx
Linear
Step
f (x) ={
Sigmoid
f(x) =
Hyperbolic Tangent
f(x) =
, >0
>0
Gaussian
f(x)=
in the allowed class of functions that matches the examples. In other words,
we wish to infer the mapping implied by the data; the cost function is related to the mismatch
between our mapping and the data and it implicitly contains prior knowledge about the problem
domain. A commonly used cost is the mean squared error, which tries to minimize the average
squared error between the network's output, f(x), and the target value y over all the example pairs.
When one tries to minimize this cost using gradient descent for the class of neural networks called
multilayer perceptions, one obtains the common and well-known back propagation algorithm for
training neural networks.
20
Methodology
Tasks that fall within the paradigm of supervised learning are pattern recognition (also known as
classification) and regression (also known as function approximation). The supervised learning
paradigm is also applicable to sequential data (e.g., for speech and gesture recognition). This can be
thought of as learning with a "teacher," in the form of a function that provides continuous feedback
on the quality of solutions obtained thus far.
In unsupervised learning, some data x is given and the cost function to be minimized, that can be
any function of the data x and the network output, f
The cost function is dependent on the task (what we are trying to model) and our a priori
assumptions (the implicit properties of our model, its parameters and the observed variables)
As a trivial example, consider the model f(x) = a where a is a constant and the cost
[{ ( )} ] minimizing this cost will give us a value of a that is equal to the mean of the data.
The cost function can be much more complicated. Its form depends on the application: for example,
in compression it could be related to the mutual information between x and f(x) whereas in statistical
modeling, it could be related to the posterior probability of the model given the data. (Note that in
both of those examples those quantities would be maximized rather than minimized).
Tasks that fall within the paradigm of unsupervised learning are in general estimation problems;
the applications include clustering, the estimation of statistical distributions, compression and
filtering.
In reinforcement learning, data x are usually not given, but generated by an agent's interactions
with the environment. At each point in time t the agent performs an action
generates an observation
dynamics. The aim is to discover a policy for selecting actions that minimizes some measure of a
long-term cost; i.e., the expected cumulative cost. The environment's dynamics and the long-term
cost for each policy are usually unknown, but can be estimated.
Tasks that fall within the paradigm of reinforcement learning are control problems, games and
other sequential decision making tasks.
21
Chapter2
2.2.6 Feed-forward Networks
A feedforward neural network is a biologically inspired classification algorithm. It consists of a
(possibly large) number of simple neuron-like processing units, organized in layers. Every unit in a
layer is connected with all the units in the previous layer. These connections are not all equal; each
connection may have a different strength or weight. The weights on these connections encode the
knowledge of a network. Often the units in a neural network are also called nodes.
Data enters at the inputs and passes through the network, layer by layer, until it arrives
at the outputs. During normal operation, that is when it acts as a classifier, there is no
feedback between layers. This is why they are called feedforward neural networks.
Feed-forward networks have the following characteristics:
Perceptrons are arranged in layers, with the first layer taking in inputs and the last
layer producing outputs. The middle layers have no connection with the external
world, and hence are called hidden layers.
Each perceptron in one layer is connected to every perceptron on the next layer. Hence
information is constantly "fed forward" from one layer to the next and this explains why
these networks are called feed-forward networks.
22
Methodology
2.2.7 Backpropagation
Input vectors and the corresponding target vectors are used to train a network until it can
approximate a function, associate input vectors with specific output vectors, or classify input vectors
in an appropriate way as defined by you. Networks with biases, a sigmoid layer, and a linear output
layer are capable of approximating any function with a finite number of discontinuities.
Standard backpropagation is a gradient descent algorithm in which the network weights are
moved along the negative of the gradient of the performance function. The term backpropagation
refers to the manner in which the gradient is computed for nonlinear multilayer networks. There are a
number of variations on the basic algorithm that is based on other standard optimization techniques,
such as conjugate gradient and Newton methods. Neural Network Toolbox implements a number of
these variations. This chapter explains how to use each of these routines and discusses the advantages
and disadvantages of each.
Properly trained backpropagation networks tend to give reasonable answers when presented with
inputs that they have never seen. Typically, a new input leads to an output similar to the correct
output for input vectors used in training that are similar to the new input being presented. This
generalization property makes it possible to train a network on a representative set of input/target
pairs and get good results without training the network on all possible input/output pairs. There are
two features of Neural Network Toolbox that are designed to improve network generalization:
regularization and early stopping.
The primary objective is to explain how to use the backpropagation training functions in the
toolbox to train feedforward neural networks to solve specific problems. There are generally four
steps in the training process:
1. Assemble the training data
2. Create the network object
3. Train the network
4. Simulate the network response to new inputs
Backpropagation Algorithm
The network that is most commonly used with the backpropagation algorithm is the multilayer
feed-forward network. An elementary neuron with R inputs is shown below. Each input is weighted
23
Chapter2
with an appropriate w. The sum of the weighted inputs and the bias forms the input to the transfer
function f. Neurons can use any differentiable transfer function f to generate their output.
2.2.8 Training
The first step in training a feedforward network is to create the network object. The function
newff create a feedforward network.
Before training a feedforward network, the weights and biases must be initialized. The newff
command will automatically initialize the weights but it may want to reinitialize them. This can be
done with the command init. This function takes a network object as input and returns a network
object with all weights and biases initialized. i.e. net=init (net).
After initialized, the network is ready for training. The training process requires a set of
examples of proper network behavior- network inputs and target outputs. Various training functions
can be used to train the network to reach from a particular input to a specific target output. As each
input is applied to the network the network the network output is compared with the actual target
value and the error is calculated. The goal is to minimize the average of sum of these errors which is
called as Mean Square Error (MSE) of the output.
Mean Squared Error (MSE) =
( )
( )
where t(k) is the actual value, a(k) is the network value and Q is the number of epochs.
When the MSE falls below a predetermined value or the maximum number of epochs have been
reached the training process stops.
24
Methodology
2.2.9 Simulation
The trained network can be used for simulating the system. The sim function simulates a network.
It takes the network input, and the network object and returns the network outputs. The trained
networks are supplied with new inputs and the predicted outputs of the networks can be obtained.
Method used for improving the generalization performance is called early stopping. This
technique is automatically provided for all of the supervised network creation functions, including
the backpropagation network creation functions. In this technique the available data is divided into
three subsets. The first subset is the training set, which is used for computing the gradient and
updating the network weights and biases. The second subset is the validation set. The error or the
validation set is monitored during the training process. The validation error normally decreases
during the training process. However, when the network begins to over fit the data, the error of
validation set typically begin to rise. When the validation error increase for a specified number of
iterations, the training is stopped and the weight and biases at the minimum of the validation error are
returned. The third subset is test set which is used to compare different models. The error in the test
set reaches a minimum at a significantly different iteration number than the validation set error, this
might indicate a poor division of data set.
25
Chapter2
Altogether six deferent networks are used in this study to determine two output parameter as
shown in table below.
Table 2.3 Parameters for neural network
Input parameters
First three relative natural frequencies in
particular location with different depth
First three mode shapes deviation in particular
location with different depth
First three relative natural frequencies in
particular depth with different location
First three mode shapes deviation in particular
depth with different location
First three relative natural frequencies and mode
shapes deviation in particular location with
different depth
First three relative natural frequencies and mode
shapes deviation in particular depth with
different location
Output parameter
Depth
Depth
Location
Location
Depth
Location
26
Methodology
2.3.1 Introduction to wavelet
Wavelet transform is a tool that cuts up data, functions or operators into different frequency
components and then studies each component with a resolution matched to its scale. A wavelet is a
small wave which has its energy concentrated in time. It has an oscillating wavelike characteristic but
also has the ability to allow simultaneous time and frequency analysis and it is suitable tool for
transient, non-stationary or time-varying phenomena. Just as the Fourier transform decomposes a
signal into a family of complex sinusoidal, the wavelet transform decomposes a signal into a family
of wavelets. Unlike sinusoids, which are symmetric smooth and regular, wavelets can be symmetric
or asymmetric, sharp or smooth, regular or irregular.
Chapter 2
Mexican Hat: Mexican hat wavelet is the negative normalized second derivative of a Gaussian
function, i.e., up to scale and normalization. This wavelet has no scaling function and is derived
from a function that is proportional to the second derivative function of the Gaussian probability
density function.
Methodology
Daubechies
db1
db2
db5
db3
db6
db8
db4
db7
db9
db10
29
Chapter 2
Bioorthogonal: A biorthogonal wavelet is a wavelet where the associated wavelet transform is
invertible but not necessarily orthogonal. Designing biorthogonal wavelets allows more degrees of
freedom than orthogonal wavelets. One additional degree of freedom is the possibility to construct
symmetric wavelet functions. This family of wavelets exhibits the property of linear phase, which is
needed for signal and image reconstruction. By using two wavelets, one for decomposition and the
other for reconstruction instead of the same single one, interesting properties are derived.
Decomposition
Reconstruction
bior 1.3
Decomposition
Reconstruction
bior 6.8
sym2
sym8
Fig.2.18 Symlets Wavelet
30
Methodology
function.
exponentials
In
the
Fourier
transform,
the
analyzing
functions
are
complex
a single variable, . In the short-time Fourier transform, the analyzing functions are windowed
complex exponentials, ( )
coefficients, F(,) represent the match between the signal and a sinusoid with angular frequency
in an interval of a specified length centered at .
In the CWT, the analyzing function is a wavelet, . The CWT compares the signal to shifted and
compressed or stretched versions of a wavelet. Stretching or compressing a function is collectively
referred to as dilation or scaling and corresponds to the physical notion of scale. By comparing the
signal to the wavelet at various scales and positions, you obtain a function of two variables. The twodimensional representation of a one-dimensional signal is redundant. If the wavelet is complexvalued, the CWT is a complex-valued function of scale and position. If the signal is real-valued, the
CWT is a real-valued function of scale and position. For a scale parameter, a>0, and position, b, the
CWT is
( , )=
( )
By continuously varying the values of the scale parameter, a, and the position parameter, b, obtain
( )=2
The results of the transform are wavelet coefficient that show how well a wavelet function
correlates with the signal analyzed. Hence, sharp transitions in f(x) create wavelet coefficient with
large amplitude and this precisely is the basis of the proposed identification method.
The inverse CWT permit to recover the signal from its coefficients C(a,b) and its defined as
f(x) =
( , )
( )
31
Chapter 2
CWT is highly redundant, not necessary to use the full domain of C(a,b) to reconstruct f(x).
C(a,b) can also be represented as
( , ) = ( ),
( )
Therefore, CWT is a collection of inner products of a signal f(x) and the translated and dilated
wavelets , ( ).
The Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT), which is based on sub-band coding, is found to yield a
fast computation of Wavelet Transform. It is easy to implement and reduces the computation time
and resources required.
In CWT, the signals are analyzed using a set of basic functions which relate to each other by
simple scaling and translation. In the case of DWT, a time-scale representation of the digital signal is
obtained using digital filtering techniques. The signal to be analyzed is passed through filters with
different cutoff frequencies at different scales.
DWT adopts dyadic scales and translations in order to reduce the amount of computation, which
results in better efficiency of calculation. Filters of different cutoff frequencies are used for the
analysis of the signal at different scales. The signal is passed through a series of high-pass filters to
analyze the high frequencies and trough a series of low-pass filters to analyze the low frequencies.
DWT signal can be represent as
( )=
The coefficient
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
The original function can be expressed as the sun of its approximation at level J plus all its detail
up to the same level. Finally the signal f(x) is defined as
32
Methodology
( )=
( )+
( )
33
Chapter 3
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
This section is divided in three parts. In the first part, the results of the numerical experiment are
presented. In the second and third part, identification of crack depth and crack location is described
using Neural Network and Wavelet analysis respectively.
( 1)
(2)
Table 3.1 represents the values of first three relative natural frequencies of the cantilever beam
having various depths at crack location 50 mm from fixed end as obtained from the numerical
experiment. The graphical representation of the same result is also shown in Figure 3.1. Similarly,
Table 3.2 represents the results obtained from the ANSYS analysis with fixed crack depth (3 mm) but
various crack locations, corresponding graphical representations are shown in Figure 3.2 to 3.4. Table
3.3 exhibits average relative mode shape deviation at different depth, crack location being fixed at 50
mm from fixed end. Figure 3.5 represents the values of the same table in graphical from. The values
34
Table 3.1 Different natural frequencies with relative natural frequencies at different depth with
crack location 50 mm from fixed end.
Dept
h
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
5.5
6
6.5
7
7.5
8
8.5
9
9.5
10
First
Natural
Frequencie
s
45.947
45.873
45.772
45.645
45.497
45.321
45.123
44.89
44.608
44.324
44.002
43.621
43.231
42.717
42.225
41.696
41.066
40.402
39.668
First
Relative
Natural
Frequencies
0.998565623
0.996957381
.994762349
0.99200226
0.988785778
0.984960772
0.98065764
0.975593854
0.969465151
0.963292982
0.95629496
0.948014692
0.939538826
0.92836807
0.91767544
0.906178689
0.892486906
0.878056202
0.862104188
Second
Natural
Frequencie
s
286.69
286.47
286.18
285.82
285.41
284.91
284.37
283.73
282.96
282.2
281.36
280.37
279.39
278.11
276.92
275.68
274.24
272.77
271.18
35
Second
Third
Relative
Natural
Natural
Frequencie
Frequencies s
0.999337702
796.62
0.998570831
796.42
0.997559955
796.14
0.996305075
795.81
0.994875906
795.42
0.993133017
794.96
0.991250697
794.45
0.989019799
793.85
0.98633575
793.13
0.983686559
792.43
0.980758505
791.65
0.977307585
790.73
0.973891523
789.83
0.969429727
788.65
0.965281651
787.58
0.960959286
786.46
0.955939766
785.15
0.950815672
783.83
0.945273285
782.4
Third
Relative
Natural
Frequencies
0.999786644
0.999535637
0.999184227
0.998770065
0.998280601
0.997703284
0.997063216
0.996310195
0.995406569
0.994528044
0.993549116
0.992394483
0.991264951
0.989784008
0.98844112
0.98703548
0.985391383
0.983734736
0.981940034
Chapter 3
Table 3.2 Different natural frequencies with relative natural frequencies at different location
from fixed end with fixed crack depth 3mm.
Location
from
fixed end
First
Natural
Frequencies
First Relative
Natural
Frequencies
Second
Natural
Frequencies
25
40
50
75
80
100
120
125
150
160
175
200
225
240
250
275
280
300
320
325
350
360
375
400
425
440
450
475
480
500
520
525
550
560
575
45.44
45.469
45.497
45.56
45.569
45.621
45.666
45.672
45.725
45.747
45.771
45.814
45.85
45.875
45.887
45.913
45.92
45.938
45.955
45.96
45.976
45.982
45.991
46.002
46.01
46.014
46.016
46.021
46.022
46.025
46.027
46.028
46.031
46.032
46.033
0.987546998
0.988177254
0.988785778
0.990154956
0.990350553
0.991480669
0.992458653
0.992589051
0.993740899
0.994219025
0.994740617
0.995675135
0.996457523
0.997000848
0.997261643
0.997826701
0.997978832
0.998370026
0.998739487
0.998848152
0.999195879
0.999326277
0.999521874
0.999760937
0.999934801
1.000021733
1.000065199
1.000173864
1.000195597
1.000260796
1.000304262
1.000325995
1.000391194
1.000412927
1.00043466
284.35
285
285.41
286.2
286.32
286.69
286.87
286.88
286.83
286.75
286.58
286.2
285.76
285.55
285.4
285.06
285.02
284.86
284.82
284.85
284.93
285.02
285.18
285.5
285.82
286.03
286.16
286.45
286.5
286.67
286.8
286.82
286.91
286.93
286.97
36
Second
Relative
Natural
Frequencies
0.991180982
0.993446737
0.994875906
0.997629671
0.998047964
0.999337702
0.999965142
1
0.999825711
0.999546849
0.998954267
0.997629671
0.996095929
0.995363915
0.994841049
0.993655884
0.993516453
0.992958728
0.992819297
0.992923871
0.993202733
0.993516453
0.994074177
0.995189626
0.996305075
0.997037089
0.99749024
0.998501115
0.998675404
0.999267987
0.999721138
0.999790853
1.000104573
1.000174289
1.00031372
Third
Natural
Frequencies
791.93
794.25
795.42
796.8
796.84
796.36
795.21
794.84
793.22
792.78
792.27
792.41
793.47
794.46
795.07
796.34
796.52
796.79
796.33
796.11
794.53
793.79
792.69
791.24
790.53
790.76
791.07
792.38
792.872
794.07
795.32
795.58
796.52
796.73
796.95
Third
Relative
Natural
Frequencies
0.993900526
0.996812209
0.998280601
1.00001255
1.000062752
0.999460335
0.998017043
0.99755268
0.995519522
0.994967306
0.994327238
0.994502943
0.995833281
0.997075767
0.997841338
0.999435234
0.99966114
1
0.999422684
0.999146576
0.997163619
0.996234893
0.994854353
0.993034551
0.992143476
0.992432134
0.992821195
0.994465292
0.99508277
0.996586303
0.998155097
0.998481407
0.99966114
0.999924698
1.000200806
Table 3.3 Average relative mode shape deviation at different depth with crack location 50 mm
Depth
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
5.5
6
6.5
7
7.5
8
8.5
9
9.5
10
Second Average
First Average Relative
Relative Mode Shape
Third Average Relative
Mode Shape Deviation
Deviation
Mode Shape Deviation
0.00156
0.002198
0.001747
0.005358
0.007738
0.006018
0.011498
0.016552
0.01262
0.019617
0.028391
0.021645
0.029898
0.04329
0.033008
0.041879
0.060564
0.046026
0.056007
0.080872
0.061405
0.071769
0.103513
0.078484
0.090282
0.129908
0.098344
0.112653
0.161687
0.122306
0.135015
0.192954
0.145216
0.16003
0.228719
0.172146
0.189606
0.269637
0.20214
0.219432
0.310989
0.232523
0.258379
0.36471
0.271678
0.295064
0.41444
0.307388
0.333857
0.467682
0.346535
0.380022
0.528162
0.388475
0.427147
0.591732
0.434575
0.478778
0.659398
0.482486
37
Chapter 3
Table 3.4 Different average mode shape deviation at different location from fixed end with
fixed crack depth 3mm.
Location
From Fixed
End
25
40
50
75
80
100
120
125
150
160
175
200
225
240
250
275
280
300
320
325
350
360
375
400
425
440
450
475
480
500
520
525
550
560
575
Figure 3.1 shows that with increase of crack depth relative natural frequencies decrease whereas
Figure 3.5 exhibits that with increase of crack depth average mode shape deviations increases. First
relative natural frequency is monotonously increased as the crack location moves from the fixed end
to the free end when the crack depth is kept constant (Figure 3.2). On the other hand, the second and
third relative frequencies oscillate under the same situation (Figure 3.3 and 3.4). Remarkable changes
are observed in average mode deviations at different location as observed from Figure 3.6 to 3.8.
39
Chapter 3
frequencies
frequencies
40
Chapter 3
of input values keeping other target value unchanged. For each case of target, the network is trained
using three sets of input values, e.g. first three relative natural frequencies, first three average mode
shape deviation and both first three relative natural frequencies along with first three average mode
shape deviation. Accuracy of training is measured from the value of Mean Square Error (MSE) and
Regression coefficient (R) obtained from performance curve and regression plot produced after
training operation. Once the training is complete, output depth are obtained by simulation data of
relative natural frequency. Lastly output depth of the ANN results is compared with FE model depth
to estimate error in the ANN process. The objective of the present study is to keep the error minimum
by proper choice of layer and neuron number while ANN network is designed.
In the following sections, six different neural networks are performed for identifying crack depths
and their locations. Modal analysis using FEM are conducted to generate training data. For training
ten damage cases are used to determine depth and twenty three damage cases are used to determine
crack location.
There are two types of output target data; locations and depths are used in present
study. For location output data 23 patterns are used for training and 35 patterns are simulated. For
depth output data 10 patterns are used for training and 19 patterns are simulated.
42
Third
0.999786644
0.999184227
0.998280601
0.997063216
0.995406569
0.993549116
0.991264951
0.98844112
0.985391383
0.981940034
Target
Depth
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Fig 3.9 Performance curve for Relative natural frequencies and Depth network
Fig 3.10 Regression plot for Relative natural frequencies and Depth network
43
Chapter 3
It has been observed that best MSE value of validation performance is.00041412 at 20 epochs and R
value is .99996. Neural network model for this analysis is (3-1-3-1). i.e. 3 input, 1 output, 2 hidden
layers in which first layer having one neuron and second layer having three neurons. After the
network is trained, we can simulate it with all combination of input values. The simulated data is
shown in Table 3.7. Table 3.8 shows the value of depth obtained by ANN analysis and their deviation
from the assumed FE model depth values.
Table 3.7 Simulation data of Natural frequencies and depth at location 50 mm from fixed end.
Input
Normalized
Relative First
Natural
Frequencies
1
0.988211968
0.972126671
0.951900604
0.928330069
0.900300244
0.868766691
0.831659025
0.786747601
0.741517656
0.690235817
0.629557617
0.567446073
0.485586243
0.407230141
0.322981406
0.222647373
0.116898488
0
Normalized Relative
Second Natural
Frequencies
1
0.985810247
0.967112834
0.943902253
0.917467979
0.885231061
0.850415188
0.809151932
0.759507077
0.710506961
0.656348937
0.592519838
0.529335477
0.446808965
0.370085099
0.29013754
0.197295214
0.102518673
0
44
Output
Normalized Relative
Third
Natural
Frequencies
1
0.985915658
0.966225512
0.943019269
0.915593708
0.883245612
0.847381417
0.805188248
0.754556444
0.705331079
0.650479959
0.585783765
0.522494011
0.439514111
0.364269625
0.285509041
0.193387288
0.100562314
0
Depth
0.126870949
0.141410936
0.171269008
0.217542097
0.282055378
0.353808288
0.415362901
0.464963033
0.507015506
0.544012192
0.590052763
0.649720757
0.702194244
0.756723979
0.798333287
0.84459635
0.901793715
0.947403026
0.975609502
45
Chapter 3
Table 3.9 Average Mode Shape Deviation with cracked depth at location 50 mm from fixed end
for training.
The performance curve and regression plot for average mode shape deviation and depth network are
shown in Figure 3.11 and 3.12 respectively
Fig 3.11 Performance curve for Average Mode Shape Deviation and Depth network
46
Fig 3.12 Regression for Average Mode Shape Deviation and Depth network
Table 3.10 Simulation data of Mode Shape Deviation and Depth at Crack location 50 mm from fixed
end.
Normalized Average
First Mode Shape
Deviation
0
0.012969456
0.030119133
0.051835579
0.077142917
0.106985341
0.140279245
0.179384056
0.22663808
0.273873094
0.32671201
0.389185079
0.452186219
0.534453551
0.611942884
0.693884922
0.791398758
0.890940391
1
Input
Normalized Average
Second Mode Shape
Deviation
0
0.013525458
0.031692907
0.054556057
0.081063745
0.112227235
0.146970813
0.187475064
0.236241291
0.284221833
0.339104748
0.40189516
0.465351564
0.547788724
0.624101525
0.70580364
0.798612774
0.896163644
1
47
Output
Normalized Average
Third Mode Shape
Deviation
0
0.013856125
0.032797586
0.056645987
0.083967864
0.116244952
0.152089962
0.19377167
0.24406256
0.292145538
0.348665598
0.41161631
0.475383447
0.557561053
0.632508374
0.714669191
0.802691891
0.899445503
1
Depth
0.131103118
0.14841815
0.175580644
0.21508305
0.275025008
0.33905225
0.406008699
0.466190873
0.516321736
0.562642068
0.596402523
0.633277096
0.671062663
0.731754985
0.800693041
0.863347343
0.945569702
0.980956187
0.995953402
Chapter 3
Table 3.11 Comparing target result of depth with ANN result for mode shape deviation depth network
Target (mm)
ANN (mm)
Error (mm)
1
1.311031
-0.31103
1.5
1.484182
0.015818
2
1.755806
0.244194
2.5
2.150831
0.349169
3
2.75025
0.24975
3.5
3.390523
0.109477
4
4.060087
-0.06009
4.5
4.661909
-0.16191
5
5.163217
-0.16322
5.5
5.626421
-0.12642
6
5.964025
0.035975
6.5
6.332771
0.167229
7
6.710627
0.289373
7.5
7.31755
0.18245
8
8.00693
-0.00693
8.5
8.633473
-0.13347
9
9.455697
-0.4557
9.5
9.809562
-0.30956
10
9.959534
0.040466
Maximum Error 0.4557 mm Average Error 0.2796 mm
48
Target
Second
0.999338
0.99756
0.994876
0.991251
0.986336
0.980759
0.973892
0.965282
0.95594
0.945273
Third
0.999787
0.999184
0.998281
0.997063
0.995407
0.993549
0.991265
0.988441
0.985391
0.98194
Second
0.007738
0.028391
0.060564
0.103513
0.161687
0.228719
0.310989
0.41444
0.528162
0.659398
Third
0.006018
0.021645
0.046026
0.078484
0.122306
0.172146
0.232523
0.307388
0.388475
0.482486
Depth
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
The performance curve and regression plot for relative natural frequency with average mode shape
deviation and depth network are shown in Figure 3.13 and 3.14 respectively
Fig 3.13 Performance curve for Relative Natural Frequencies and Average Mode Shape Deviation
with Depth network
49
Chapter 3
Fig 3.14 Regression for Relative Natural Frequencies and Average Mode Shape Deviation with
Depth network
It has been observed that best MSE value of validation performance is. .000019627 at 31 epochs
and R value is .99913. Neural network model for this analysis is (6-3-1). i.e. 6 input, 1 output, 1
hidden having three neurons. After the network is trained, we can simulate it with all combination of
input values. The simulated data is shown in Table 3.10. Table 3.11 shows the value of depth
obtained by ANN analysis and their deviation from the assumed FE model depth values.
50
Normalized
Relative
Second
Natural
Frequencies
1
0.985810247
0.967112834
0.943902253
0.917467979
0.885231061
0.850415188
0.809151932
0.759507077
0.710506961
0.656348937
0.592519838
0.529335477
0.446808965
0.370085099
0.29013754
0.197295214
0.102518673
0
Normalized
Relative
Third
Natural
Frequencies
1
0.985915658
0.966225512
0.943019269
0.915593708
0.883245612
0.847381417
0.805188248
0.754556444
0.705331079
0.650479959
0.585783765
0.522494011
0.439514111
0.364269625
0.285509041
0.193387288
0.100562314
0
Output
Normalized
Average
First Mode
Shape
Deviation
0
0.012969456
0.030119133
0.051835579
0.077142917
0.106985341
0.140279245
0.179384056
0.22663808
0.273873094
0.32671201
0.389185079
0.452186219
0.534453551
0.611942884
0.693884922
0.791398758
0.890940391
1
51
Normalized
Average
Second
Mode
Shape
Deviation
0
0.013525458
0.031692907
0.054556057
0.081063745
0.112227235
0.146970813
0.187475064
0.236241291
0.284221833
0.339104748
0.40189516
0.465351564
0.547788724
0.624101525
0.70580364
0.798612774
0.896163644
1
Normalized
Average
Third Mode
Shape
Normalized
Deviation
Depth
0
0.114143
0.013856125
0.13962
0.032797586
0.192303
0.056645987
0.254352
0.083967864
0.304858
0.116244952
0.348735
0.152089962
0.388134
0.19377167
0.435485
0.24406256
0.496043
0.292145538
0.54674
0.348665598
0.607344
0.41161631
0.668895
0.475383447
0.716369
0.557561053
0.771355
0.632508374
0.803911
0.714669191
0.846957
0.802691891
0.901003
0.899445503
0.961898
1
0.982508
Chapter 3
Table 3.14 Comparing target result of depth with ANN result for relative natural frequency with
average mode shape deviation depth network
Target
(mm)
ANN(mm)
Error (mm)
1
1.141426
-0.14143
1.5
1.396201
0.103799
2
1.92303
0.07697
2.5
2.543521
-0.04352
3
3.048577
-0.04858
3.5
3.487354
0.012646
4
3.881336
0.118664
4.5
4.354852
0.145148
5
4.960431
0.039569
5.5
5.467401
0.032599
6
6.073442
-0.07344
6.5
6.688948
-0.18895
7
7.163691
-0.16369
7.5
7.713551
-0.21355
8
8.039112
-0.03911
8.5
8.469566
0.030434
9
9.010026
-0.01003
9.5
9.618975
-0.11898
10
9.825078
0.174922
Maximum Error 0.2136 mm Average Error 0.0935 mm
3.2.4 Prediction of Location of crack for particular depth using First Three
Relative Natural Frequencies as input.
Input sample data for training are presented in Table 3.15 where target is the location of the crack
having fixed 3 mm depth.
52
Natural Frequencies with cracked location from fixed end with fixed 3 mm depth for
training.
Input ( Relative Natural Frequencies)
Target
First
Second
Third
Depth
0.987546998
0.991180982
0.993900526
0.988785778
0.994875906
0.998280601
0.990154956
0.997629671
1.00001255
0.991480669
0.999337702
0.999460335
0.992589051
1
0.99755268
0.993740899
0.999825711
0.995519522
0.994740617
0.998954267
0.994327238
0.995675135
0.997629671
0.994502943
0.996457523
0.996095929
0.995833281
0.997261643
0.994841049
0.997841338
0.997826701
0.993655884
0.999435234
0.998370026
0.992958728
1
0.998848152
0.992923871
0.999146576
0.999195879
0.993202733
0.997163619
0.999521874
0.994074177
0.994854353
0.999760937
0.995189626
0.993034551
0.999934801
0.996305075
0.992143476
1.000065199
0.99749024
0.992821195
1.000173864
0.998501115
0.994465292
1.000260796
0.999267987
0.996586303
1.000325995
0.999790853
0.998481407
1.000391194
1.000104573
0.99966114
1.00043466
1.00031372
1.000200806
25
50
75
100
125
150
175
200
225
250
275
300
325
350
375
400
425
450
475
500
525
550
575
The performance curve and regression plot for relative natural frequency and location network are
shown in Figure 3.15 and 3.16 respectively
53
Chapter 3
Fig.3.15 Performance curve for Relative Natural Frequencies and Location network
Fig 3.16 Regression for Relative Natural Frequencies and Location network
54
Normalized Relative
Second Natural
Frequencies
0
0.248082482
0.40456655
0.706084632
0.751884847
0.893102176
0.961802499
0.965619183
0.94653576
0.916002284
0.851118646
0.706084632
0.53815051
0.458000134
0.400749866
0.27098259
0.255715852
0.194648898
0.17938216
0.190832214
0.22136569
0.255715852
0.316782805
0.438916711
0.561050618
0.641200994
0.690817894
0.801501746
0.820585169
0.885468807
0.942719076
0.935085707
0.977069237
0.984702606
1
55
Output
Normalized Relative
Third
Natural
Frequencies
0.218109439
0.57945011
0.761677949
0.976613348
0.98284336
0.908083221
0.728970388
0.671342781
0.419027312
0.350497185
0.271064537
0.292869578
0.457964885
0.612157671
0.707165348
0.904968215
0.933003267
0.975055845
0.903410712
0.869145648
0.623060191
0.507804977
0.336479659
0.110641739
0
0.035881601
0.08416419
0.288197069
0.364826212
0.551415058
0.786597995
0.74610292
0.933003267
0.965710828
1
Depth
0.047884999
0.065393002
0.082807912
0.122880704
0.128988608
0.168170735
0.204544428
0.208468874
0.252215691
0.271422729
0.291446647
0.332527071
0.370688518
0.402131883
0.418447744
0.457466909
0.470106134
0.5016026
0.534053729
0.54605147
0.574788236
0.588556147
0.612157563
0.651126134
0.693796524
0.729213856
0.751790022
0.809212187
0.821986114
0.854408953
0.88268662
0.877678727
0.898489669
0.902062475
0.90621364
Chapter 3
Table 3.17 Comparing target result of location from fixed end with ANN result for relative natural
frequency location network
Target (mm)
Ann (mm)
25
40
50
75
80
100
120
125
150
160
175
200
225
240
250
275
280
300
320
325
350
360
375
400
425
440
450
475
480
500
520
525
550
560
575
Error(mm)
28.731
-3.731
39.2358
0.764199
49.68475
0.315253
73.72842
1.271577
77.39316
2.606835
100.9024
-0.90244
122.7267
-2.72666
125.0813
-0.08132
151.3294
-1.32941
162.8536
-2.85364
174.868
0.132012
199.5162
0.483757
222.4131
2.586889
241.2791
-1.27913
251.0686
-1.06865
274.4801
0.519855
282.0637
-2.06368
300.9616
-0.96156
320.4322
-0.43224
327.6309
-2.63088
344.8729
5.127058
353.1337
6.866312
367.2945
7.705462
390.6757
9.32432
416.2779
8.722086
437.5283
2.471686
451.074
-1.07401
485.5273
-10.5273
493.1917
-13.1917
512.6454
-12.6454
529.612
-9.61197
526.6072
-1.60724
539.0938
10.9062
541.2375
18.76252
543.7282
31.27182
Average Error 5.1 mm
56
3.2.5 Prediction of Location of crack for particular depth using First Three
Average Mode Shape Deviations as input.
Input sample data for training are presented in Table 3.18 where target is the location of the crack
having fixed 3 mm depth.
Table 3.18 Mode Shape deviations with cracked location from fixed end with fixed 3 mm depth for
training
Input ( Average Mode Shape Deviation)
Target
First
Second
Third
Depth
0.060627
0.121252
0.148608
25
0.041879
0.060564
0.046026
50
0.026441
0.0314
0.007746
75
0.015975
0.01822
0.038314
100
0.010404
0.004322
0.091617
125
0.010605
0.01529
0.115215
150
0.015377
0.036247
0.102315
175
0.018858
0.0521
0.091285
200
0.020893
0.058953
0.092657
225
0.020703
0.053642
0.083405
250
0.020204
0.04888
0.051732
275
0.018597
0.048239
0.006268
300
0.01586
0.053349
0.06356
325
0.013363
0.065821
0.097464
350
0.010481
0.078754
0.099961
375
0.007723
0.081787
0.106798
400
0.005291
0.076892
0.139548
425
0.003202
0.061869
0.166645
450
0.003263
0.043466
0.165261
475
0.004192
0.025545
0.126191
500
0.005079
0.010671
0.067342
525
0.005921
0.00728
0.020748
550
0.006973
0.01109
0.011036
575
57
Chapter 3
The performance curve and regression plot for average mode shape deviation and location network
are shown in Figure 3.15 and 3.16 respectively
3.17 Performance curve for Mode Shape Deviation and Location network
58
Normalized Average
First Mode Shape
Deviation
1
0.805259034
0.673521985
0.404684371
0.364510231
0.222429256
0.133582934
0.12541576
0.128915977
0.161027427
0.212015673
0.27263387
0.308071397
0.303595995
0.304762734
0.296073139
0.28914236
0.268088811
0.233870266
0.220426643
0.17694384
0.157126687
0.126756639
0.078728777
0.036377884
0.012625163
0
0.001062255
0.005067479
0.017239878
0.032686112
0.030648672
0.047348716
0.05347845
0.065668263
Input
Normalized Second
Average Mode Shape
Deviation
1
0.655845378
0.480988626
0.231574446
0.206491063
0.118857436
0.026665526
0
0.093799709
0.165355341
0.273026597
0.408603438
0.467211152
0.440229197
0.421790815
0.381065595
0.372804242
0.375583683
0.409313264
0.419285042
0.519683
0.579808432
0.636551783
0.662490379
0.620627726
0.54551441
0.492149149
0.334764389
0.300615753
0.181501753
0.054297443
0.07525015
0.025297186
0.036654409
0.057880783
59
Output
Normalized Third
Average Mode Shape
Deviation
Location
0.916315931 0.0518652
0.440776275 0.0579487
0.27668556 0.0726661
0.037997967 0.1568779
0 0.2042596
0.228598864 0.2987911
0.481747711 0.2774727
0.560959489 0.2000622
0.708100289 0.1928135
0.66816774 0.2236895
0.627664815 0.2740666
0.558889367 0.3629567
0.56744421 0.3617726
0.522579746 0.3588123
0.509755139 0.3427681
0.312264227 0.3970693
0.239331366 0.4312363
0.028782182 0.5318792
0.317746814 0.5289886
0.386015451 0.5357272
0.597417335 0.5709642
0.602898305 0.5948169
0.6129869 0.6180335
0.655617701 0.6633266
0.85982404
0.702399
0.927548441 0.7446918
1.028782182 0.7522083
1.020152516 0.7534696
0.95513143 0.7671778
0.77653903 0.7911822
0.409597386 0.8881955
0.468528968 0.8757403
0.119069443
0.926014
0.043923076 0.9296989
0.058512131 0.9200483
Chapter 3
Table 3.20 Comparing target result of location from fixed end with ANN result for average mode
shape deviation location network
Target (mm)
Ann (mm)
Error (mm)
25
31.1191067
-6.1191067
40
34.76919888
5.230801119
50
43.59964193
6.400358068
75
94.12674136
-19.1267414
80
122.5557496
-42.5557496
100
179.2746378
-79.2746378
120
166.4836316
-46.4836316
125
120.0373382
4.962661828
150
115.6881005
34.31189955
160
134.2137235
25.78627651
175
164.4399739
10.56002614
200
217.774015
-17.774015
225
217.0635373
7.936462678
240
215.2873993
24.71260075
250
205.6608424
44.33915764
275
238.2415705
36.75842955
280
258.7417604
21.25823963
300
319.127523
-19.127523
320
317.3931605
2.606839503
325
321.43633
3.563670015
350
342.5785255
7.421474532
360
356.8901116
3.109888395
375
370.8200773
4.179922687
400
397.9959457
2.004054296
425
421.4394211
3.560578894
440
446.815058
-6.81505803
450
451.3249957
-1.32499569
475
452.0817365
22.91826349
480
460.306658
19.69334199
500
474.7093327
25.2906673
520
532.9172817
-12.9172817
525
525.444175
-0.44417498
550
555.6083954
-5.60839538
560
557.8193111
2.180688894
575
552.0289764
22.97102361
Maximum Error 79.27 mm
Average Error 17.13 mm
60
3.2.6 Prediction of Location of crack for particular depth using First Three
Relative Natural Frequencies and First Three Average Mode Shape
Deviations as input.
Input sample data for training are presented in Table 3.21 where target is the location of the crack
having fixed 3 mm depth.
The performance curve and regression plot for relative natural frequency with average mode shape
deviation and location network are shown in Figure 3.15 and 3.16 respectively
It has been observed that best MSE value of validation performance is. .000010764 at 31 epochs and
R value is .99989. Neural network model for this analysis is (6-3-1). i.e. 6 input, 1 output, 1 hidden
having three neurons. After the network is trained, we can simulate it with all combination of input
values. The simulated data is shown in Table 3.19. Table 3.20 shows the value of depth obtained by
ANN analysis and their deviation from the assumed FE model depth values
61
Chapter 3
Table 3.21 Relative Natural Frequencies and Mode Shape Deviation with cracked location from fixed
end of 3 mm crack depth for training.
Input
Average Mode Shape Deviation Relative Natural Frequencies
First
0.987546998
0.988785778
0.990154956
0.991480669
0.992589051
0.993740899
0.994740617
0.995675135
0.996457523
0.997261643
0.997826701
0.998370026
0.998848152
0.999195879
0.999521874
0.999760937
0.999934801
1.000065199
1.000173864
1.000260796
1.000325995
1.000391194
1.00043466
Second
0.991181
0.994876
0.99763
0.999338
1
0.999826
0.998954
0.99763
0.996096
0.994841
0.993656
0.992959
0.992924
0.993203
0.994074
0.99519
0.996305
0.99749
0.998501
0.999268
0.999791
1.000105
1.000314
Third
0.993901
0.998281
1.000013
0.99946
0.997553
0.99552
0.994327
0.994503
0.995833
0.997841
0.999435
1
0.999147
0.997164
0.994854
0.993035
0.992143
0.992821
0.994465
0.996586
0.998481
0.999661
1.000201
First
0.060627
0.041879
0.026441
0.015975
0.010404
0.010605
0.015377
0.018858
0.020893
0.020703
0.020204
0.018597
0.01586
0.013363
0.010481
0.007723
0.005291
0.003202
0.003263
0.004192
0.005079
0.005921
0.006973
Second
0.121252
0.060564
0.0314
0.01822
0.004322
0.01529
0.036247
0.0521
0.058953
0.053642
0.04888
0.048239
0.053349
0.065821
0.078754
0.081787
0.076892
0.061869
0.043466
0.025545
0.010671
0.00728
0.01109
Target
Third
Location
0.148608
25
0.046026
50
0.007746
75
0.038314
100
0.091617
125
0.115215
150
0.102315
175
0.091285
200
0.092657
225
0.083405
250
0.051732
275
0.006268
300
0.06356
325
0.097464
350
0.099961
375
0.106798
400
0.139548
425
0.166645
450
0.165261
475
0.126191
500
0.067342
525
0.020748
550
0.011036
575
The performance curve and regression plot for relative natural frequency with average mode shape
deviation and location network are shown in Figure 3.15 and 3.16 respectively
It has been observed that best MSE value of validation performance is. .000010764 at 31 epochs and
R value is .99989. Neural network model for this analysis is (6-3-1). i.e. 6 input, 1 output, 1 hidden
having three neurons. After the network is trained, we can simulate it with all combination of input
values. The simulated data is shown in Table 3.19. Table 3.20 shows the value of depth obtained by
ANN analysis and their deviation from the assumed FE model depth values
62
Fig 3.19 Performance curve for Relative Natural Frequencies and Average Mode Shape Deviation
with Location network.
Fig 3.20 Regression for Relative Natural Frequencies and Average Mode Shape Deviation with
Location network .
63
Chapter 3
Table 3.22 Simulation data of Relative Natural Frequencies with Average Mode Shape Deviation and
Location of 3 mm Crack Depth.
Output
Input
Normalized
Relative
First
Natural
Frequencies
0.988786
0.990155
0.990351
0.991481
0.992459
0.992589
0.993741
0.994219
0.994741
0.995675
0.996458
0.997001
0.997262
0.997827
0.997979
0.99837
0.998739
0.998848
0.999196
0.999326
0.999522
0.999761
0.999935
1.000022
1.000065
1.000174
1.000196
1.000261
1.000304
1.000326
1.000391
1.000413
1.000435
Normalized
Relative
Second
Natural
Frequencies
Normalized
Relative
Third
Natural
Frequencies
Normalized
Average
First Mode
Shape
Deviation
Normalized
Average
Second Mode
Shape
Deviation
Normalized
Average
Third Mode
Shape
Deviation
0.994876
0.99763
0.998048
0.999338
0.999965
1
0.999826
0.999547
0.998954
0.99763
0.996096
0.995364
0.994841
0.993656
0.993516
0.992959
0.992819
0.992924
0.993203
0.993516
0.994074
0.99519
0.996305
0.997037
0.99749
0.998501
0.998675
0.999268
0.999721
0.999791
1.000105
1.000174
1.000314
0.998281
1.000013
1.000063
0.99946
0.998017
0.997553
0.99552
0.994967
0.994327
0.994503
0.995833
0.997076
0.997841
0.999435
0.999661
1
0.999423
0.999147
0.997164
0.996235
0.994854
0.993035
0.992143
0.992432
0.992821
0.994465
0.995083
0.996586
0.998155
0.998481
0.999661
0.999925
1.000201
0.041879
0.026441
0.024134
0.015975
0.010873
0.010404
0.010605
0.012449
0.015377
0.018858
0.020893
0.020636
0.020703
0.020204
0.019806
0.018597
0.016632
0.01586
0.013363
0.012225
0.010481
0.007723
0.005291
0.003927
0.003202
0.003263
0.003493
0.004192
0.004962
0.005079
0.005921
0.006273
0.006973
0.060564
0.0314
0.028467
0.01822
0.00744
0.004322
0.01529
0.023657
0.036247
0.0521
0.058953
0.055798
0.053642
0.04888
0.047914
0.048239
0.052183
0.053349
0.065821
0.072119
0.078754
0.081787
0.076892
0.068109
0.061869
0.043466
0.039473
0.025545
0.013121
0.010671
0.00728
0.008608
0.01109
0.046026
0.007746
0.001652
0.038314
0.081137
0.091617
0.115215
0.111895
0.102315
0.091285
0.092657
0.087874
0.083405
0.051732
0.04114
0.006268
0.054078
0.06356
0.097464
0.101126
0.099961
0.106798
0.139548
0.154691
0.166645
0.165261
0.159242
0.126191
0.078956
0.067342
0.020748
0.008899
0.011036
64
Normalized
Depth
0.082633
0.123559
0.131832
0.168108
0.197715
0.197066
0.247388
0.269442
0.294208
0.33618
0.370885
0.398858
0.415024
0.457213
0.470662
0.504992
0.538131
0.550809
0.580971
0.611235
0.643514
0.673975
0.69509
0.718823
0.737492
0.792886
0.813402
0.84767
0.882056
0.876178
0.911786
0.920095
0.928805
ANN(mm)
Error (mm)
39.42166
-14.4217
25
40
43.70619
-3.70619
49.57962
0.420384
50
74.13547
0.864535
75
79.09911
0.900891
80
100.8646
-0.86458
100
118.6291
1.370852
120
118.2397
6.760264
125
148.4329
1.567059
150
161.6652
-1.66518
160
176.5251
-1.52506
175
201.7081
-1.70812
200
222.5309
2.469117
225
239.3151
0.684943
240
249.0144
0.985629
250
274.3281
0.671944
275
282.3971
-2.39706
280
302.9953
-2.99527
300
322.8786
-2.87858
320
330.4852
-5.48519
325
348.5825
1.417452
350
366.7411
-6.74112
360
386.1085
-11.1085
375
404.3852
-4.38515
400
417.0543
7.9457
425
431.2939
8.706128
440
442.4951
7.504927
450
475.7313
-0.73133
475
488.0414
-8.04137
480
508.6022
-8.6022
500
529.2333
-9.23331
520
525.7069
-0.70692
525
547.0719
2.928132
550
552.057
7.942951
560
557.283
17.71703
575
Maximum Error 17.71mm
Average Error 4.15 mm
65
Chapter 3
3.2.7 Discussion
For all networks MSE and R value are less than 0.001 and 0.988 respectively. Maximum and
average errors of 19 patterns in relative natural frequency depth network (Table 3.8) are 0.3246 mm
and 0.1141mm respectively. Maximum and average errors in average mod shape deviation - depth
network (Table3.11) are 0.4557 mm and 0.1796 mm respectively. Maximum and average errors in
relative natural frequency and average mode shape deviation depth network (Table3.14) are 0.2136
mm and. 0.0935 respectively. Maximum and average errors of 35 patterns in relative natural
frequency location network (Table 3.17) are 31.27 mm and 5.1 mm respectively. Maximum and
average errors in average mode shape deviation - location network (Table 3.20) are 79.27 mm and
17.13 mm respectively. Maximum and average errors in relative natural frequency and average mode
shape deviation location network (Table 3.23) are 17.71 mm and 4.15 mm. Most of the predicted
results by the developed ANN and their comparison with corresponding finite element results which
show very good agreement. It is observed that neural networks can successfully identify and calculate
the depth and location of different crack cases.
66
Identification of Location
In order to determine the efficacy of the wavelet technique for crack detection, two cracked beams
are considered at the same location, one crack being small (3mm depth) and the other one big (10 mm
depth). .
Fig 3.21 Static deflection of crack free and cracked beam with 3 mm cracked depth at 50 mm
from fixed end
Both DWT bior6.8 wavelet and CWT bior6.8 wavelet is applied to crack beam taking static
deflation as an input signal of wavelet analysis. Figure 3.22 and 3.23 show DWT and CWT responses
of those cracked beam. Those figures show that if the crack is big it can be clearly identified but when
crack is small like 3 mm depth it is difficult to detect.
From Figure 3.22 it has been observed that no disturbance is detected in the response signal except
at 61 node which is nothing but free end of the cantilever beam. Figure 3.23 (a) shows the CWT
response (scale and coefficient) along the length for the same cracked beam. Figure 3.23 (b) exhibits
the same result in a 3D plot. In order to eliminate the end effect, beam length is shown till 50 node.
From this analysis it is not possible to detect any damage that may exist in the beam.
67
Chapter 3
Fig 3.22 DWT plot of static deflection cracked beam with 3 mm crack depth at location 50 mm
from fixed end.
Fig 3.23(a) CWT 2D plot of static deflection of cracked Beam crack location 50 mm from fixed
end with 3 mm crack depth.
Fig. 3.23(b) CWT 3D plot of static deflection of cracked Beam crack location 50 mm from fixed end
with 3 mm crack depth. (a) 2D plot (b) 3D plot
68
A similar analysis is undertaken with a crack depth at 10 mm and the DWT and CWT response are
presented in Figure 3.24 and 3.25 respectively. A careful inspection of the plots reveals that there
could be a crack at node 6 though one may not be very sure about its existence.
Fig 3.24 DWT plot of static deflection cracked beam at location 50 mm from fixed end with 10
mm crack depth
Fig. 3.25 (a) CWT 2D plots of static deflection of cracked beam crack location at 50 mm from fixed
end with 10 mm crack depth.
69
Chapter 3
Fig. 3.25 (b) CWT 3D plots of static deflection of cracked beam crack location at 50 mm from fixed
end with 10 mm crack depth.
Fig. 3.26 Relative Static Deflection vs. Node for cracked beam with 3 mm crack depth at location 50
mm from fixed end
In order to overcome this difficulty an investigation is carried out with relative deflection of
cracked free and cracked beam as an input signal to detect the crack in a beam. Three cracked beams
70
Fig. 3.27 (a) DWT plot of relative static deflection cracked beam and crack free beam (crack location
50 mm from fixed end with 3 mm crack depth)
Fig. 3.27 (b) CWT 2D plot of relative static deflection of cracked beam and crack free beam (crack
location 50 mm from fixed end with 3 mm crack depth)
71
Chapter 3
Fig. 3.27 (c) CWT 3D plot of relative static deflection of cracked beam and crack free beam (crack
location 50 mm from fixed end with 3 mm crack depth)
Fig. 3.28 (a) DWT plot of relative static deflection cracked beam and crack free beam (crack location
250 mm from fixed end with 3 mm crack depth)
Fig. 3.28 (b) CWT 2D plot of relative static deflection of cracked beam and crack free beam (crack
location 250 mm from fixed end with 3 mm crack depth)
72
Fig. 3.28 (c) CWT 3D plot of relative static deflection of cracked beam and crack free beam (crack
location 250 mm from fixed end with 3 mm crack depth).
From Figure 3.27, it is clearly detected that there is a crack at node 6 at a distance of 50 mm from
fixed end Even DWT response shows this which is actually not possible to understand from Fig 5.28.
Similarly, for the other two cases (crack at 250 mm and 450 mm from fixed end), also existence of
crack is also recognized at nodes 26 and 46 from DWT and DWT plots shown in Figure5.28 and 5.29.
Identification of Depth
Similar analysis is performed to estimate of crack depth. If wavelet analysis is performed with
various cracked beam deferent depth at same location, the maximum wavelet coefficient is changed.
Table 3.24 shows maximum coefficients of cracked beam at location 50 mm from fixed end. Figure
5.32 shows graphical representation of Table 3.24. Therefore it is possible to determine the crack
depth of an identical beam by determining maximum wavelet coefficient of the beam (Figure 3.30) if
location of crack is at a distance of 50 mm from fixed end.
Fig. 3.29(a) DWT plot of relative static deflection cracked beam and crack free beam (crack location
450 mm from fixed end with 3 mm crack depth)
73
Chapter 3
Fig. 3.29(b) CWT 2D plot of relative static deflection of cracked beam and crack free beam (crack
location 450 mm from fixed end with 3 mm crack depth)
Fig. 3.29(c) CWT 3D plot of relative static deflection of cracked beam and crack free beam (crack
location 450 mm from fixed end with 3 mm crack depth).
74
. Fig.3.30 Maximum wavelet coefficient versus depth at location 50 mm from fixed end
Chapter 3
Both DWT and CWT wavelet is applied to crack beam taking first mode shape of the cracked beam
as an input signal of wavelet analysis. Figure 3.31 - 3.34 shows DWT and CWT response of those
cracked beam. .
From Figure 3.31 it has been observed that no disturbance is detected in the response signal expect
at 61 node which is nothing but free end of the cantilever beam. Figure 3.32 (a) shows the CWT
response (scale and coefficient) along the length for the same cracked beam. Figure 3.32 (b) exhibits
the same result in a 3D plot. From this analysis it is not possible to detect any damage that may exist
in the beam.
A similar analysis is undertaken with a crack depth of 10 mm and the DWT and CWT response are
presented in Figure 3.33 and 3.34 respectively. Only Figure 3.33 shows little discontinuity of DWT
for crack with 10 mm depth. But CWT (Figure 5.34) plot do not show any evidence of crack.
Fig. 3.31 DWT plot of plot of original mode shape of Cracked Beam with 5 mm crack depth and
location 50 mm from fixed end
Fig. 3.32 (a) CWT plot of original mode shape of Cracked Beam with 5 mm crack depth and location
50 mm from fixed end
76
Fig. 3.32 (b) CWT plot of original mode shape of Cracked Beam with 5 mm crack depth and location
50 mm from fixed end
Fig. 3.33 DWT plot of plot of original mode shape of Cracked Beam with 10 mm crack depth and
location 50 mm from fixed end
Fig. 3.34 (a) CWT 2D plot of original mode shape of Cracked Beam with 10 mm crack depth and
location 50 mm from fixed end
77
Chapter 3
Fig. 3.34 (b) CWT 3D plot of original mode shape of Cracked Beam with 10 mm crack depth and
location 50 mm from fixed end
In order to overcome this difficulty an investigation is carried out with the mode shape difference of
cracked and cracked free beam as an input signal to wavelet analysis. Three cracked beam are taken
with 1 mm, 5mm, and 10 mm depth at a distance 50 mm from fixed end respectively. Figure 3.35,
3.36 and 3.37 shows DWT and CWT of three cracked beam of different depth input signal being
relative first mode shape difference of crack free and cracked beam. From the plots it is evident that
there is a crack at node 6 at a distance of 50 mm from fixed end. It is to be pointed out that though
CWT plots could indicate the position of the crack in all cases, DWT plot fails to identify crack
position when crack depth is small, 1 mm (Figure 3.37 (a)).
Fig 3.35 (a) DWT plot of mode shape difference of Crack free and Cracked Beam with 1 mm crack
depth at crack location 50 mm from fixed end.
78
Fig 3.35 (b) CWT 2D plot of mode shape difference of Crack free and Cracked Beam with 1 mm
crack depth at crack location 50 mm from fixed end.
Fig 3.35 (c) CWT 3D plot of mode shape difference of Crack free and Cracked Beam with 1 mm
crack depth at crack location 50 mm from fixed end.
Fig 3.36 (a) DWT plot of mode shape difference of Crack free and Cracked Beam with 5 mm crack
depth at crack location 50 mm from fixed end.
79
Chapter 3
Fig 3.36 (b) CWT 2D plot of mode shape difference of Crack free and Cracked Beam with 5 mm
crack depth at crack location 50 mm from fixed end.
Fig 3.36 (c) CWT 3D plot of mode shape difference of Crack free and Cracked Beam with 5 mm
crack depth at crack location 50 mm from fixed end.
Fig 3.37 (a) DWT plot of mode shape difference of Crack free and Cracked Beam with 10 mm crack
depth at crack location 50 mm from fixed end.
80
Fig 3.37 (b) CWT 2D plot of mode shape difference of Crack free and Cracked Beam with 10 mm
crack depth at crack location 50 mm from fixed end.
Fig 3.37 (c) CWT 3D plot of mode shape difference of Crack free and Cracked Beam with mm crack
depth at crack location 50 mm from fixed end.
81
Chapter 3
Fig 3.38 (a) DWT plot of mode shape difference of Crack free and Cracked Beam with 3 mm crack
depth at crack location 150 mm from fixed end.
Fig 3.38 (b) CWT 2D plot of mode shape difference of Crack free and Cracked Beam with 3 mm
crack depth at crack location 150 mm from fixed end.
Fig 3.38 (c) CWT 2D plot of mode shape difference of Crack free and Cracked Beam with 3 mm
crack depth at crack location 150 mm from fixed end.
82
Fig 3.39 (a) DWT plot of mode shape difference of Crack free and Cracked Beam with 3 mm crack
depth at crack location 250 mm from fixed end.
Fig 3.39 (b) CWT 2D plot of mode shape difference of Crack free and Cracked Beam with 3 mm
crack depth at crack location 250 mm from fixed end.
Fig 3.39 (c) CWT 3D plot of mode shape difference of Crack free and Cracked Beam with 3 mm
crack depth at crack location 250 mm from fixed end.
Now investigation is carried out for other location of crack. Two cracked beams are taken with 3
mm crack depth at a distance of 150 mm and 250 mm from the fixed end respectively. Figure 3.38
83
Chapter 3
and 3.39 shows DWT and CWT of three cracked beam at different location, input signal being
relative first mode shape of cracked free and cracked beam. From Figure3.38 it is clearly shown that
there is a crack at node 16 at a distance of 150 mm from fixed end. Similarly Figure 3.39 exhibits that
there is a crack at node 26 at a distance of 250 mm from fixed end.
Identification of depth
Similar analysis is carried out to estimate of crack depth. If wavelet analysis is performed with
various cracked beam having deferent depth at same location, the maximum wavelet coefficient
obtained from CWT response from Table 3.22 it is observed that maximum coefficients of cracked
beam found to occur at location 50 mm from fixed end for all cases of crack depth. Figure 3.40 shows
graphical representation of Table 3.22. Therefore it is possible to determine the crack depth of an
identical beam by knowing maximum wavelet coefficient of the beam (Figure 3.40) if location of
crack is at a distance of 50 mm from fixed end.
Table 3.25 Maximum wavelet coefficient at different depth at location 50 mm from fixed end for
dynamic modal analysis of cracked beam
Depth (mm)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Maximum coefficient
0.0066
0.0239
0.051
0.0874
0.1369
0.1944
0.266
0.3575
0.4601
0.5798
84
Fig 3.40 Maximum wavelet coefficient versus depth at location 50 mm from fixed end for
dynamic modal analysis of cracked beam
85
Chapter 3
In order to predict crack through a cracked free beam is also required. This is not essential
in case of wavelet transform.
Even with the help of static analysis also, detection of crack is possible using wavelet
transform. However it is not possible in case of ANN analysis.
86
Chapter 4
CONCLUSION AND SCOPE FOR FUTURE WORK
4.1 Conclusion
The dynamic behavior of beam structure undergoes remarkable changes in presence of crack so far
as natural frequencies and mode shapes of the structure is concerned using this characteristics of a
vibrating beam two different techniques have been employed for identification of crack of a cracked
cantilever beam. Two techniques are Artificial Neural Network and Wavelet Transform. First finite
element modeling of crack and crack free beam is done for subsequent modal analyses of the beam
using ANSYS software. Then the result obtains from finite element analysis is used for ANN and
Wavelet Transform analysis.
The neural network technique considered here is used to predict the crack location and its intensity
by using relative deviation of first three natural frequencies and first three mode shapes as inputs. Six
different Artificial Neural Networks are used for detection of crack depth and its location. Feed
forward back propagation Levenberg Marquardt algorithm is used for this analysis. After proper
training results are obtained by simulation. Lastly output targets are comparing with the FEA data. It
is observed that predicted results by ANN are reasonably acceptable and agreement with the FEA
data.
In the second method, wavelet transform is applied to detect the crack in the cantilever beam. Both
dynamic and static wavelet analysis is done in this present work. For analysis bior6.8 wavelet is used.
It has been observed that better detection of crack is possible when relative mode shape difference
between crack and crack free beam is introduced as the input signal instead of when only mode shape
of the cracked beam is fed as input for wavelet analysis. It is also shown that crack detection is also
possible from the results of static analysis also in conjunction with wavelet transform. It can be
inferred that wavelet analysis could be very efficient tool for prediction of crack in beam like
structure in most cases. However, it may fail to detection the existence of crack with certainty when
crack is situated near the boundary.
ANN analysis can be used in crack identification for other different beam-type structures.
The cracked cantilever can be analyzed under the influence of external forces.
The dynamic response of the cracked beams can be analyzed for different crack
orientations.
87
Chapter 4
To establish an accurate methodology for the selection of the optimal wavelet and to derive a
procedure to eliminate the effects free end.
88
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