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    An important lesson regarding fluid mechanics

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as DOC, PDF or read online from Scribd
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    9 views90 pages

    Fluid Mechanic, Unit 1

    Uploaded by

    Fawad Hassan
    An important lesson regarding fluid mechanics

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as DOC, PDF or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
    of 90
    THE MECHANICS OF FLUIDS Unit 1 An Introduction to Fluids Section 1 The Nature of Fluids Hydrocarbon processing involves many types of fluids. The Mechanics of Fluids is a programed course in four units on the principles of fluid handling as applied to reflneries and other process industries, Unit 1, An Introduction to Fluids, is about: the types of fluids and their chemical and physical nature, You will learn the nature of phase, how phase change is used, and how it ean be controlled. You will also learn the instruments and units for measuring fluid pressure, temperature, density, and viscosity; the nature of absolute measurements; and how to convert ‘measurements from one unit to another, In Unit 2, The Behavior of Gases, you will learn how to pre- dict the pressure, tomperature, and volume changes that occur in the compression and storing of gases. You will also learn to recognize hazards in gas handling and the precautions used to avoid these hazards, Unit 8, Staties, is about the nature, calculation, and uses of statie pressure, including: how to calculate pressure from liquid level and liquid level from bottom gage pressure; the instruments that operate on the principle of static pressure; ‘the nature and hazards of vacuum; and the uses of static pressure in handling and transporting fluids. In Unit 4, Fluids in Motion, you will learn the factors affecting flow rate and how these ean be controlled; the basic prinetples and instruments of flow measurement; and the control of rate through valves and through pumping. INSTRUCTIONS, ‘This is a programed learning course. Programed learning gives information in a series of steps. called frames. Each frame gives some information and asks you to make use of it Here is how it works, First, eover the response column at the right with a mask. Read this frame and use the information it gives to fill in the blank. A micrometer is an instrament designed to measure in ‘thousandths of an inch, A micrometer is a good tool for measuring very differences in size. Move the mask down to uncover the word at the right of the frame, If you have filed the blank with that word or a word that means the same, you are ready to go ahead to the next irame, ‘The drawing of a micrometer provides information that will help you fill in the next blanks, opueer Tenge ANVIL Ho rage fide renee FRAME Seven major parts are shown in the drawing, but only the —___and the ‘contact the object to be measured samall anvil; spindle ‘The next frame calls for a choice. Circle or underline the ap- propriate word. Of the two parts that contact the object, only the (anvil/ spindle) moves. |A program is a series of frames that work like the ones you have just done: Read the frame. Use the information to fill in the blanks or make a choice. ‘Move the mask down and check the response column. Go on to the next frame. Remember to cover the response column with a mask before you begin each page. Notice that the left-hand pages from here on are printed upside: down. The program is designed so that you will go through all the right-hand pages first, and then turn the book upside down and go through the other pages. spindle SECTION 1 THE NATURE OF FLUIDS Ezhibite 1 through 7 are placed in the center of the book #0 that they may be removed easily for reference. Please remove them now so that you will have them available when needed. 1, Petroleum processing involves many types of fluids. Any substance that can flow 2 Fluids have no definite shape. ‘The oil in a storage tank assumes the of the tank. 8. Oil (is/is not) a flu 4. Water and gasoline are also ___. 5. Oil, water, and gasoline can all be made to 6. Substances exist as liquids, solids, gases, or as mixtures of liguids, solids, or gases. Crude oil is @ (liguid/solid gas). 7. Gasoline is usually 8. Air isa mixture of gases. ‘The hydrogen, oxygen, and other substances are usually the air 9. Natural gas is made up largely of methane, ‘Methane is a substance that exists normally ae a 10, Liquids flow and have no definite shape. Gases, such as methane and air, also ____ ana (have/do not have) a definite shape. 11. Any substance that ean flow is a fluid. Liquids and are fluids. 12. Air (isis not) a fluid. 18. Water and steam are also 14. A fluid is any substance that can 01 ftuid shape ‘tds ow liquid tigate gases flow do not have ases is fluids flow 15. Which of these are usually handled as fuids? water steam catalyst pellets —_— kerosine crude oil methane lump coke air sulfurie acid ay. carbon dioxide gas —— rust ash 16, Wherever you see a pipe, a steam line, a tank, a pump, ‘4 compressor, a tower, an instrument, or even a filled sample container in a’ working refinery, it almost cer- tainly contains a 17, Whenever a problem occurs in any part of the process, it Gs/is not) likely to be related to the laws and prop- erties of fluids. 18 Does the way fluids behave determine: whether oil enters a tower by gravity or must be pumped? whether a fractionating tower foods or not? whether a pump or not? lose sue- whether a storage tank will cave in or not? whether « pump or compressor hhas adequate eapacity or not? whether a sewer system will be overloaded or not? ves No 19, Solving operating problems, increasing operating eff- ciency, and avoiding operating hazards nearly always require an understanding of how ‘THE THREE STATES OF MATTER — behave. 20, All substances are made up of atoms, which combine to form molecules, ‘A molecule of oxygen (0.) is made up of two of oxyiten, (21 water steam kerosine crude oil methane ssulfurie acid carbon dioxide gas ‘uid 2 yes yes yes yes yes fluids atoms a 23, 2 25. 26. a 20, 20, In water (H,0), two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen combine to form one of water. ‘A molecule is combination of Or, CH, is (an atom/a molecule) of methane, 1,80, is (an atom/a molecule) of sulfurte acid. ‘The chemical symbol for a substance indicates the kind ‘and number of —— —in each moleeule of the substance, ‘This diagram represents a molecule of ethane, "= CARBON H-HYDROGEN, ETHANE A molecule of ethane conta and — hydrogen atoms. carbon atoms ‘The chemical symbol for ethane is: Hydrocarbons are compounds of hydrogen and carbon, atoms of ap, A\ hydrocarbon molecule contains only ——{C) and atoms of Which of these are hydrocarbons? ——— methane (CH) carbon dioxide (CO,) ethane (C:H.) water (H;0) butane (CAH) —— pentane (CH) ——— octane (CBs) Crude oil is a mixture of many different hydrocarbons. Different hydrocarbon molecules contain (the same num- ber different numbers) of hydrogen and carbon atoms. (3) molecule atoms 2 molecule 4 molecule atoms CH carbon; hydrogen methane ethane butane pentane octane different numbers aL. 32, 35. 36, ar. 39. 40. a, Molecules have weight. Hit, HL ‘There are more heavy carbon atoms in a molecule of (propane/butane) A butane molecule is (heavier/lighter) than a propane moleeule, Which of these molecules is heaviest? —_— methane (CH) ——— butane (C.F) — heptane (C:Ehe) Which of these is lightest? methane (CH,) butane (CoH) ——— heptane (C:Ee) Molecules are always in motion. ‘The molecules of all substances __ constantly in all direetions. Molecules and their motion eannot be seen, but without molecular motion there would be no heat. Heat is the motion of Heating a substance is the same as (Inereasing /decreas- ing) the motion of its molecules. A metal bar expands when it is heated. Heating a substance tends to move its molecules (closer ‘together farther apart), ‘Thermal expansion is the expansion of a substance caused ss ‘Because of thermal expansion, oi] drums are not filled to the top. Some space is loft in the drums for the thermal of liquia. ‘Thermal expansion occurs because heat. (inereases/de- creases) molecular motion and causes molecules to move (closer together/farther apart). 41 butane heavier heptane methane molecules increasing farther apart heat: expansion farther apart 42, aa, 44. 45, 46. a1 48, 49. Cooling a substance is the same as removing heat, or thermal energy. Cooling (speeds up/slows down) molecular motion. slows down A substance (expands/contracts) when it is cooled. contracts ‘This is because the loss of heat energy (inereases/de- ereases) the distance between molecules. decreases Besides heat energy, molecules are affected by internal, attractive forces. The other. of # aubstance are attracted to each molecules ‘These attractive forees tend to hold molecules (together/ apart). together ‘Molecular attractions act against the energy of heat. A heated substance expands (in spite of/because of) in spite of ‘molecular attractions. This diagram represents the molecules of a liquid, solid, and gas, O° Oo oO cas O° ‘The molecules of @______are held together in solid a close, patterned arrangement. ‘The molecules of a ____are farthest apart. ras |. Liquid molecules are attracted to each other, but they slide past each other. ‘The molecules of a liquid move too ____ to be fast, or freely held in a fixed shape. [5] 51. Gases are made up of separate molecules in random and chaotie motion, Attractive forces have almost no effect on the molecules of a dey ‘52, Substances tike methane (CH,) and hydrogen (H,) are ‘made up of small, light molecules. For a given amount of heat energy, these molecules move {more/less) than heavy molecules. 58. In the open air at ordinary temperatures, substances with ‘small, light molecules tend to be (gases/liquids/solids) 54. Sulstances with large, heavy molecules or with strong ‘molecular attractions tend to be— at room temperature and pressure, FLUIDS AND FORCE 55. Heat Is one form of energy. of molecules. Heat energy is caused by the _ 56. Mechanica! force is also a form of energy. Ity push an object to make it move, you are applying to the object. 57. Force is energy applied in a direction. A piston could be used to apply ____ to a fluid. 58, The energy of a moving piston direction, is/is not) applied in a ‘The Compressibility of Gases 58. ‘This cylinder contains gas. HY Applying foree to the gas ____ it into. smaller space (6 sas szases solids ‘motion, or movement force foree compresses, or forces 60. Because gas moleciles are so far apart, a gas ean be into a smaller volume, 61, When a gas is compressed, its______are foreed closer together. 62. Now the gas is replaced by a liquid. Liquio. Liquid molecules are (close together far apart). 63. Because liquid molecules are already close together, a lig= uid (can/eannot) be compressed very much. G4. Gases are compressible fluids Liquids can be compressed so little that for all practical purposes they are (compressible/ineompressible), 65. Below its boiling point, butane is a ligutd. Liquid butane (is/is not) compressible, 66, Above its boiling point, butane is a gas. Butane sas is (compresstbie/practically incompressible). Compressibility is a characteristic of (liquids/gases/lt fluids), 68. Gases are compressible because of the great amount of between gas molecules. 69, Gas handling equipment can be Dullt smaller because ses are 710. And the energy of compressed ___ean be used to do work, 7] compressed, or forced moteeates close together cannot {incompressible is not compressible eases space, oF distance compressible 71, Since gas molecules are so active, a small amount of ‘as can fill even a large container. ‘The gas molecules move (together/apart) to fill the apart larger container. 7. A gas always expands to fill a larger space. And a gas ean be—______i to a smaller space. compressed, or forced 7B. ‘The space a substance occupies volume, Gases (have/do not have) fixed volumes, do not have m4. of a gas changes to fit the available volume 7. A gas always assumes the volume of its container. But when a liquid is poured into a larger container, it (Gills‘does not fill) the container. oes nat fill 16. And a liquid cannot be____into a smaller compressed volume. TT. Both liquids and gases have indefinite shapes. But only have indefinite volumes, eases 7B. Liquids have (definite/indefinite) volumes. definite 79. A fluid exerts pressure on everything it touches, on, ‘The oil in this tank exerts __on the bottom pressure of the tank. [sa 80, sl. 2. 86, 86, at. 88. 89, 80, ‘The oil also exerts oon the sides of the tank. er asta! mrt semi neye ee A ‘The pressure caused by the weight of the block Is one —— Ss Pounds per square inch, abbreviated PSI, is a measure of (Goree pressure) Pressure is force per unit of are ‘Ton pounds is not a pressure measurement beeause it doesn't specify (force/area). Gas molecules move in all directions. As eas molecules move, they repeatedly —_ ‘each other. When a gas is trapped in a container, its molecules col- lide with the wall of the container. A balloon remains inflated because of the continuing impact of gas —_____ striking, the inside of the balloon. (9a pressure pressure fs not uta pound; square inch pressure strike, or bump, or hit 91. Gas pressure is eaused by the __of gas mole- cules. 92, ‘This gas is being compressed ‘As the gas is compressed, the molecules strike each ‘other and the wall of the eylinder (more/less) often. 98. The force acting on each square Inch of the cylinder (inereases/ decreases) 94, Compressing a gas (Increases decreases) its pressure. 95, A gaa Is compressed: to (increase/lecrease) its volume, and srease decrease) its pressure The Incompressibi of Liquids 96, This eylinder contains Vout to the liquid. lA piston Is applying force — ‘The piston (can/eannot) compress the liguia. 97. Since the eylinder is closed, the piston (can/eannot) move the liquid. 98. The force applied by the piston is transmitted through ‘he Tiquid, ‘The liquid exerts (more/less) pressure on everything it touches, 99. When a liquid is trapped, force applied to a liquid is transmitted equally through the lia ‘This added force increases the — of the liquid. [10] impact, or motion more increases decrease cannot cannot pressure 100. 101. 102. 108, 104, 105. 106. Since liquids are practically incompressible, applying force does not affect the ____ of the liquid. A piston cannot quid into a smaller ‘This drawing shows a hydraulle brake system. ‘The hydraulic ligutd is being used to tranemit from the pedal to the brake, ‘The hydraulic system (is/is not) designed to move liquid from one location to another location. ‘The hydraulic system uses liguid to transmit A piston pump is designed to move liquid. A piston pump must operate into (an open/a closed) dis- charge Tine. The discharge line at this closed. ston pump is accidentally ‘The pamp (can/eannot) discharge quid. may volume compress, or foree force, or pressure is not force, oF pressure an open cannot 107. 108. 109. 110. am. 112, 113, m4, 15. ‘The piston continues to apply force to the liquid. ‘This force is immediately transferred through the liquid to the closed ‘The accident of closing the valve has had the effect of changing the pumping system into a hydraulic system. ‘The liquid becomes a direst means of transmitting: ‘to the valve. However, the valves and piping in the pumping system are not designed to receive the direct force of the piston, In this aituntion, either the piping or some part of the pamp will Piston pumps, gear pumps, and other positive displace ‘ment pumps operate by’ displacing, or pushing at, A positive displacement pump will stall or eause damage it the pump is started up with a—___dis. charge line. ‘The incompressibility of liguids leads to water hammer in piping. ‘This flowing water suddenly encounters a closed ___. ‘The valve _________the flow of water in the line. ‘The force of the flowing liquid is immediately transferred ‘to the valve and piping. ‘Thore is a loud noise or “hammer” a the hits the valve and the walls of the pipe. ‘These “water hammers" are caused by the relay of through the liquid to the piping. 21 force, or pressure fail, or break, or rupture Siquids closed, oF blocked valve stops, or blocks water, oF liquid foree, or pressure 116, This pipe is protected against water hammer. A small pipe in front of the valve contains a pocket of LIT. The liquid in the pipe cannot be compressed. But the ____above the liquid ean be compressed. to 118. Now instead of hammering, the liquid moves up ‘the pipe The pressure of the liquid ‘a smaller volume. the air into 119. When the valve is opened again, the air expands against ‘the liquid. ‘The air forces back into the pipe. mn of air maintains ‘the piping, 120, Thus, the compression and expan: ‘a smooth flow of 121. The air acts as a shock absorber to prevent —_ from developing at closed valves. PHASE CHANGES 122, A phage is a state of matter that can change with changes in heat and pressure, ‘Most matter exists in one of three phases: solid, 128. Most types of materials can exi under in more than one phase ferent conditions of _____or pressure. 124, Many materials can exist in any of the three __. 125. One characteristic of fuids is that they (can/eannot) undergo changes in phase, [13] air ‘compresses liquid, or water water water hammer liquid; gas heat phases can 126, When a fluid changes from one phase to another, its chemical nature does not change. ‘The chemical symbol for water is H.O. "The chemical symbol for ice and steam is also 127. Phase changes (are/are not) changes in the structure of molecules, 128, Phase changes are changes in the —__ between ‘molecules. Melting and Fr 129. Suppose you drop an ice cube into a glass of water ‘The water is hotter than the 130, ‘That is, the molecules are moving faster in the (water/ ice) 131. When the ice reaches the water, heat motion is transferred from the to the 182, The iee molecules move (faster/slower), and the ice Degins to melt. 188. At the same time, the water grows colder. ‘This is because the loss of thermal energy has the speed of the water molecules. 184, When the ice and water reach the same temperature, the system is in thermal equilibrium, Heat (flows/does not flow) when a system reaches equi- brium, 185. In an open container, ice and water can reach equilibrium at 32°F. At atmospheric pressure, 92°F is the melting point of or the freezing: point of — 136. phase system of water 187. You can change the energy balance in the glass by adding or removing thermal energy, or heat. You can also change the energy balance by changing the —on the fluid. 198, Any change in the energy balance will move the system away from equilibrium, Bither water will freeze or fee will ‘the energy halanee is changed. shen. m4] HO are not distance, or space jee water water; ice faster decreased, or slowed does not flow fee; water pressure pressure melt 139. 140. a, 12, 143, ua, 146, ut. 18, 149, 150, 151. If you add heat or if you increase the pressure on the system, the lee will melt. When a substance is af its melting point, adding energy Withdrawing energy from a substance that is at its melt- ing point causes Exerting pressure on a solid affects its melting point. If the solid ezpands as it freezes (like water), increasing. the pressure lowers its melting point. Increasing the pressure raises the melting point of a solid that _____a it freezes. ‘This chart shows some melting points at atmospheric pressure, SUBSTANCE. MELTING Port Lead (Ps) e215 Sulfurie Acid (H.S0,) 50.9°F Water (H.0) 82.07 Heptane (C:Hu) —130.8°F Butane (CAH) ~211.0°F Methane (CH,) =296.7°F ‘The melting point of lend is ‘The melting point of sulfurie acid ig ___sR, In an open container at 60°F, lead is a solid and sulfuric acid is a ‘The melting point of heptane is___°F, ‘The melting point of butane is ‘The melting. point of methane I ‘Methane has a (higher/lower) melting point than butane, Methane molecules are (heavier/lighter) then butane rmoleentes At a given pressure, a chemically pure substance freezes at a certain temperature, You can test a product for purity by finding the at whieh it freezes. A liquid that freezes over a range of temperatures (is/ is not) chemically pure. Petroleum and its products are (mixtures/chemieally pare substances). 15] melting freoring ‘contracts e215, 509 Sigua ~180.8 -2110 206.7 lighter temperature, or point fs not mixtures 152, 153. 1B. 166, 156. 151. 158. 159. 160, ‘An asphalt has @ point defined as its softening point; it (Gnas doos not have) a sharply defined melting point. Hydrocarbon products are tested for pour points and cloud points. ‘The pour point of a liquid is the temperature at which it will conse to Ifa liquid is below its pour point, it (will/will not) pour. Liquids flow at temperatures (above/below) their pour points. ‘When solid particles, such as paraifin, begin to settle out {in a ligutd, the liquid is. (clear/eloudy). ‘The cloud point of a liquid is the temperature at which it becomes: When a liquid drops below its cloud point, particles of ‘are forming in the liquid. ‘A liquid appears clean or clear as long as It is above its point Melting or freezing points, pour points, and cloud points are properties of liquids, ‘These properties are known and caleulated for most uid, and are helpful in analyzing the composition of Evaporation ond Condensation 161 162. 163. ‘The words gas and vapor mean the same thing. Another word for gas is Some molecules are always escaping from the surface of a liquid When molecules escape the liguld surface, they are in the ___ phase. Suppose an empty container is partially fled with liquid. VAPOR Liauip: Escaping molecules form a____ahove the liquid. [161 does not have our, oF flow will not above cloudy ‘loudy solid cloud liquids, or mixtures vapor vapor, or gas vapor 164. 165. 166. 16t. 168, 169. 170, am. 1m, 113, 114, 115, ‘These vapor molecules move rapidly in all directions. ‘They strike exch other and the wall of the ‘Molecules that strike the liquid surface are absorbed back into the liquid, ‘Thus, molecules are always passing between the Tiqutd and_____phase, ‘Equilibrium is reached when equal numbers of are exchanged between the liquid and vapor phase. In equilibrium, the number of molecules escaping from the liguid ‘the number of molecules ab- sorbed back into the liquid, ‘When the system reaches equilibrium, the level of liquid fn the container (rises/falls/remains the same) Evaporation oecurs when more molecules are loaving the liquid phase Condensation occurs when more molecules are leaving the Ciquid vapor) phase ‘The vapor pressure of a liquid is measured by heating liguid in a closed container and allowing the liquid and its vapors to reach equilibrium, ‘Then the measured pressure of the vapors is the of the liquid at that tem- perature Vapor pressure is the pressure exerted by a Tiquid’s vapors when the liguld and its vapors are in a state of For a given temperature of any liquid, there is a cor responding vapor pressure. ‘This vapor pressure represents the energy available for molecules to escape into the —_____phase. [As temperature increases, the molecules exert more pres- sure as they reach a state of equilibrium, Heating a liquid (inereases/decreases) its vapor pressure All liquids have higher vapor pressures at higher At the same temperature, different liquids have different ‘vapor pressures, Propane (C;H.) molecules are (heavier/lighter) than ‘butane (C,H) molecules. ty container vapor molecules equals, oF balances remains the same vapor vapor pressure eau vapor ‘temperatures lighter 116. am. 178. 179. 180, 181. 182, 188, 184. 185. For the same amount of heat, (propane/butane) mole- cules move more rapidly. At the same temperature, propane has a (higher/lower) vapor pressure than butane. Liquids with low boiling points have high vapor prossures. Propane has a (higher/lower) vapor pressure than water. A trapped liquid is subject to many other sources of pres- sure along with vapor pressure. ‘Mechanical foree increases the ____ of a trapped liquid. ‘Heat also increases liquid ___by increasing. the speod of liquid molecules. ‘The total pressure of the fluid in a closed system may be greater or less than the vapor pressure of the liquid. If mechanical foree is applied to the system, the pressure of the fluid is ‘than the liquid’s. vapor pressure. If a pump or other means is used to draw off liquid or vapors, a partial vacuum may form in a closed system, ‘Then the total pressure of the fluid may be less than the of the liquids at the existing temperature. Suppose you use a piston to apply mechanical force to a. liquid and vapor that are in equilibrium. Molecules are forced into the (iquid/vapor) phase. AAs the pressure Increases, the molecules require (more/ less) energy to eseape the liquid phase. ‘The number of molecules escaping the liquid surface (increases /decreases) as pressure increases. [181 propane higher higher pressure pressure ereater, or more vapor pressure liquid decreases EXHIBIT Avan 21sIo3as I a ame othe ps0 page as Tata TT a1 /n4e rr 4 91/18 ost Waive ayaa of6 “a7 /n4a Ost oIsd 0 wvais aaivawaaans 02. ov 001 et aNnod wag nie ANNO “L¥3H EXHIBIT 2 POUNDS PER POUNDS PER INCHES OF SQUARE INCH, SQUARE INCH, WERCURY GAGE ‘ABSOLUTE. aa cs a 7 ie Fas Positive PRessURE © 20 i (ABOVE ATMOSPHERIC | Ee E. PRESSURE) L fF E F20 Fw ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE [0 aa VACUUM PRESSURE (BELOW ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE) Eo EXHIBIT 3 TEMPERATURE SCALES [ Ane ra ~ Sarge ae ee ae ws ee aryereeezes | : EXHIBIT 4 ‘TEMPERATURE SCALES DEGREES DEGREES DEGREES DEGREES FAHRENHEIT CENTIGRADE KELVIN RANKINE °F te °K oR (A if] (r) -|500 00 son 200 ryaso | 800 300 150 F 400 i |4700 a -+H}100 - F (350 j ; 600 50 i noo E |} 300 WATER FI eer 500 " + 250, 50 400 =100 + 200 100 5 a 150 150 f 200 100 300 =200 +50 ae 400 | 250 460 273 & EXHIBIT 5. S3RH2 SRERE Snag 3 | |22222 22883 REGGE GRRE GREER 23383 SHG BREN THERE 28a: aaa33 #eR83 23528 uaa aaa a SaRAY FREER GEARY SRERE Seeue Hocus Geced Hanae 2 agi GRE SSeael aan eet Taaae HRHE WARES GEGES ERRER SERRE SERRE ZEEE 32929 20089 2 Hale WA GN AE ada WARRA AH8RR FAGHE FERRR 0) aided GAUZE G8353 G33 GO5SE G83R8 REDUCTION OF OBSERVED API GRAVITY TO API AT 60" F T=i=l*"]*1* bas Satay euats Satia Galt wea Ba Ge uaa ROERE TRARA WEREE ERENT SEARe TEAS 8) | Bae Seana BREE 3 ak WERE HHL GUE TE 3 Php] sses onune ses ossee eres lave aonva agiyinoqv¥3——4 ee 0 4a a oz - 4 ae aaiva wii SHO! ava ww aaiavan 7 os + 08 anova. 2 | 00 } os oot i! i ae out EXHIBIT 6 EXHIBIT 7 AlaHNaMHY4 S3a49g0 “aunLyaadNaL T 9 110 yoLow y Yio YoLOW E aio Nidavava Z SNISOUaX L “Gre o) Sionaaad wnavouLas anor vos ‘uuyit Suna viadnSeAutSG9sIK GBvONVAS mS SQNOD3S TYSUAAINN LIOBAVS “ALISODSIA 186. And, as pressure increases, more and more vapor mole- ceales are foreed into the phase. quia 187, ‘Therefore, increasing the pressure on a liquid-vapor sys- ‘tem tends to eause (evaporation/condensation) condensation 188, Suppose the pressure on a Liquid drops below the vapor pressure of the liquid. ferut eiiatiace Molecules require (more/less) eneray to escape the liquid Jess phase. 189, Fewer molecules ave forced back into the ligula phase as pressure decreases. 190. Deereasing the pressure on a Tiquld tends to cause (evap oration condensation) evaporation 191, In an open container, water bolle at 212°F. At 212°F, the vapor pressure of water is equal to the ~of the atmosphere. pressure 192. After a liquid reaches its boiling point, adding more heat does not change the liquid temperature, but only produces auditions evaporation, oF ‘vaporization 193. Suppese you heat water in vacuum eylinder. ‘The molecules requtte (more/less) energy to eseape Sor Jess the liquid phase. 194. In a vacuum eylinder, water boils at (more/ess) than Jess 21, 195. Decreasing the pressure on a liguld has the effect of (raising/lowering) its boiling polnt temperature, lowering 196, ‘Suppose the water is in a pretsurized cylinder. ‘The vapor pressure of the water must overcome the ‘on the water, if evaporation is to oecur, pressure [197 197, Vapor pressure is increased by (heating/cooling) the water. 198. The water requires more heat to vaporize as the ‘on the water Increases. 199. In a pressurized eylinder, the boiling: point of water is (greater/less) than 212°F. 200, Increasing the pressure on a liquid has the effect of (vaisingy/lowering) its boiling point temperature. 201. In changes between the liquid and solid phase, heat and pressure tend to act with each other, but in changes be- tween the liquid and the vapor or gas phase, heat and pressure tend to act against each other. You can evaporate a liquid by heating it or by (ineroas- ing./decreasing) the pressure on the liquid. 202, Heat tends to cause evaporation. ‘Mechanical force or pressure tends to cause (evaporation/ condensation). 208, ‘The general effect of heat is to melt a solid or vaporize ia. ‘The general effect of pressure is to maintain a substance in the hase, 204. A common process in petroleum processing is fractiona- tion or distillation. Ina fractionating tower, crude oil is heated until it begins Ge, 205. The “light” fractions in the erude oil are hydrocarbons with small molecules, low boiling: points, and high vapor pressures. HYDROCARBON BOILING POINT Methane (CH) -258°F Ethane (CH) -128°F Propane (C\Hs) 40 Butane (C,H) 31 Pentane (C:H),) 90°F Hexane (CsHy.) 16°F Octane (CoH) 257°F Decane (CvH.2) 3a5°F Duodecane (C).Hix) a21cF Octadecane (CysHs) 02°F ‘The light fractions vaporize (before/after) the heavier fractions in the crude oil [20] heating pressure sreater decreasing: condensation Nata vaporize, or boil before 200, 207. 208, 209. 20, au, 212, 28. au, 215. 21, 2, ai, [As the different fractions vaporize, the vapors can be collected separately and condensed. Fractionation isa way of separating the different ‘out of crude oll, Fractionation does not involve @ change in molecular structure. Fractionation involves changes of hydrocarbons. the (structare/phase) Some hydrocarbon processing ular structure, wolves changes in molec- In cracking operations, large hydrocarbon molecules are broken down into molecules In reforming operations, different hydrocarbon molecules are formed. Cracking and reforming (change do not change) molecu- Jar structure Cracking and reforming operations require chemical re- actions. ‘A chemical reaction changes the _____ of mole- cules, A phase change changes the rmolecules, between Excessive heat ean esuse coke formation in fractionating: towers Coke is formed from a chemical____hetween hydrocarbon molecules, CChomieal reactions can be caused by exeessive ‘Suppose you reduee the pressure in a fractionating tower. ‘The hydrocarbons require (more/less) heat to vaporize. ‘You can fractionate oll at a lower temperature hy redue- {ing the _____0n the oil ‘Vacuum towers are often necessary for fractionation. In a vacuum tower, the pressure on the oil is (more/‘ess) than atmospheric pressure. Fractionation can be carried on at lower temperatures ina (vacwum/pressurized) tower. So vacuum tower operations tend to reduce the amount ‘of coke formation during fractionation, ‘Undesirable chemical reactions ean be prevented by a com- bination of reduced pressure and reduced tay hydrocarbons, or fractions phase smaller, or other change structure, o” makeup distance, or space reaction heat pressure temperature 219. 220. 222, 228, 2 225, 226, 22 228. 229, 220, Vacuum tower operations depend on the principle that liquids vaporize at lower temperatures when they are at pressures. Sometimes liquids evaporate at the suction of a pump. ‘The low pressure at a pump's suction can cause liquid to. [Liquid evaporates when suction pressure is (jreater/ less) than the vapor pressure of the liquid at pumping ‘temperature. You can prevent evaporation of liquid by cooling the Liquid. Cooling (inereases/decreases) the liquid’s vapor pressure. You ean also prevent evaporation by increasing the sue- tion pressure at the pump. A liquid will not vaporize as long as the pressure of the liquid is than the vapor pressure of the liquid 2¢ the existing temperature Some hydrocarbons have very low boiling points. Yor example, st abmospinesie preature, propane bails at 40"F ‘To condense propane at atmospheric pressure, you would need to cool the propane to—____°F. In the open alr at room temperature, propane is a Suppose you inerease the pressure on the propane. ‘The propane requires (more/less) heat to remain in the sraseous phase. ‘The boiling point temperature of the propane fas the pressure on the propane inereases. At a gage pressure of 150 PSI, the boiling: point tem- perature of propane is 90°F. At 89°F, propane is liquid if the — on the propane is 150 PSI or more. Gas at higher temperatures can be condensed or liquifled by Increasing the on the gas, Petroleum gases are often liquifed for ease In storage and handling, Liquified Petroleum Gas, abbreviated LPG, ts gas that ‘has teen forced into the phase by a com bination of cooling and high pressure. [22] evaporate, or vaporize ese decreases ‘more, or greater increases pressure pressure Aiguia 281, At atmospheric pressure and temperature, the hydrocar- bons in LPG would be Ciqulds/sases). 282, "These gates are forced into the liquid phase primarily by Increasing the _____on the fui. 283, When gas is compressed into the liquid phase, the pres: sure on the gas must be (as great as/ess than) the vapor prosure of the fraction In its liquid phase. 284, Suppose « pressurized eylinder of LPG is heated ‘The vapor pressure of the LPG (Increases/decrenses) 235. As the vapor pressure of the liquid increases, the LPG begins to. 286, ‘Total pressure in the cylinder inerenses, and the cylinder could rupture. ‘To prevent overpressuring, storage cylinders of methane, propane, butane, and other LPG are often —____ in the simmer. 287. Heat from the sum can be great enough to these liguids and cause a eylinder to overpressure Heat Effects of Phase Change 288, ‘The temperature of a substance is not the same ax its hheat content. ‘These tivo metal balls have the same. 289. If you touch them both: the large ball will feel hotter, —— the small ball will feel hotter. both will feel equally hot, 240. However, suppose you wanted to raise the temperature of each ball to 150°R, You would need to add more thermal energy to the axgor smaller, hall, ‘This is because there is more ____in the larger ball. (231 gases pressure as great as inerenses ‘evaporate, oF vaporize Shaided, oF cooled, or removed vaporize, or evaporate temperature both will feet equally hot taser material, or metal, 242, Temperature does not measure the amount of heat in a substance, ‘Temperature measures only heat. the (amount intensity) of 248, ‘The amount of heat in a substance depends on both its temperature and its mass. At the same temperature, there is more heat in (one pound /five pounds) of iron 244, Amount of heat is measured in British Thermal Units, abbreviated BTU, 1 POUND WATER One BTU is the amount of heat required to raise the tem- perature of one pound of ———__by IF, 245. ‘Two BTU will raise the temperature of a pound of water me 246. To heat three pounds of water from 40°F to 41°F requires BTU of heat. 247. The heat content of a substance is measured in (*F/BTU), 248. One BTU is the amount of heat required to raise the tem- perature of one __of water by one 249. Most metals heat up more easily than water. One BTU of heat will cause a greater temperature in crease in a pound of (water/iron). 250. In other words, it requires less heat for a pound of (water/iron) to reach a temperature of 100°F. 261. Since iron heats up more easily than water, a pound of iron at 100°F eontains heat than a pound of water at 100°F, [241 five pounds water 252, 253, 254, 255. 256. 251, 258, One BTU will raise the temperature of a pound of erude oll 2F. Oi! heats up (more/less) easily than water. ‘At 100°F, the heat content Is twice as great in a pound of (water/erude ofl) ‘The specific heat of a substance is the number of BTU required to raise the temperature of one pound of the substance by 1°F. ‘The specific heat of water is _____. It requires only 1% or 05 BTU to raise the temperature of crude oil 1°F. ‘The specific heat of erude ol If the specific heat of a substance is less than 1, the sub- stance heats up (more/less quickly than water. ‘A substance heats up less quickly than water if its specific heat is than 1. Substances that heat up quickly have (high/low) specific heats. ‘Substances have higher heat contents per pound per °F If their specife heat is (high/low). For the same heat content, a substance has a higher temperature if its specific heat is ——____. For frames 261 through 289, look at Exhibit 1, which shows the heat content of H.0 in its three phases. 261 262. 203. 264, Look at the specific heat of ice. ‘The specific hout of ice is (One BTU per pound will raise the temperature of ice 2°F. ‘To raise the temperature of a pound of ice from 0°F to 82°F requires __ BTU of heat. Teo melts at 82°F. Look at the heat content of ico at 32°F. ‘To melt a pound of ice requires heat. BTU of ‘While the ice is melting, its temperature does not change. ‘As the ice starts to melt, its temperature is ___°F. [257 water 05 ‘more, or greater high low 05 16 aaa 265. 266. 267. 268. 269, 210. 2m. 272, ana, 214. 216. 216. 2m. ts. At the point where all the fee has turned to water, the ‘temperature of the water is still _—__°F. ‘Tho melting of a solid is called fusion, During fusion or melting, heat is being used to over ‘come the attractive forcos between ‘The heat of fusion does not change the temperature of fa substance, Only, as more and more heat is added, more and more jee thrns to. ‘A pound of ice absorbs 144 BTU of heat in changing to water. ‘This heat (shows/doos not show) on a thermometer. Since the heat of phase change does not change a ther- mometer reading, it is called latent heat. Latent heat is absorbed or given off when & substance changes from one to another. Boiling and freezing points indieate the temperature at which substances are affected by ______ heat. ‘When all the ice has melted, heat added to the water [x sensible heat. Heat that you can feel or sense is called —___ heat. ‘Thermometers show changes in (sensible/Iatent) heat. ‘The 16 BITU that raises the temperature of a pound of {ce from O°F to 22°F is (sensible/Iatent) heat. ‘The 144 BTU that changes a pound of ie into water is heat. Tt requires much more heat ———to raise the temperature of a pound of ice from O°F to 82°F. to melt a pound of fee. Look at the heat of water between 82°F and 212°F, ‘The specific heat of water is ‘To raise the temperature of a pound of water from 92°F to 212°F requires BTU of sensible heat ‘At atmospheric pressure, water boils at 212°F. While the water is boiling, it is absorbing (senstble/ latent) heat. [26] 32 molecules water oes not show phase latent. sensible sensible to melt a pound of ice 10 180 latent 218. 280, 281. 282, 288, 288, 28, 286. 2a At atmospheric pressure, the latent heat of vaporization for water is ___"__ BTU per pound. Compare the sensible and latent hests of ice, water, and steam, It requires much more heat per pound to: raise the temperature of a substance, change the phase of a substance Since this heat of phase change does not show on x thermometer, it is called —— heat Steam that you can see still contains droplets of water At 219°P, steam is a saturated vapor. Superheating steam changes it to a dry gas, or (a sate rated an unsaturated) vapor Look at the exhibit, As the steam is superheated, its temperature (ehanges/ oes not change) Superheating steam is adding (sensible/latent) heat. ‘The specific heat of steam is about 0.5, If atmospheric pressure is maintained, the amount of heat required to superheat steam from 212°F to 312°F is approximately BTU per pound. ‘At 812°F then, the heat content of superheated steam is approximately BTU per pound. Of this hest content, approximately (60/1150) BTU is sensible heat from the superheating. ‘The sensible heat required to bring water from the melting point to the boiling point is approximately __ BTU, |. The remaining 970 BTU is (sensible/latent) heat. ‘The latent heat of fusion and vaporization is different for different aubstances. Latent heat is recorded by measuring the number of ~ per pound required to chanue the phase of a substance, ‘A substance absorbs latent heat when it is melting or boiling. A fluid gives off latent heat when it is condensing or vr 970 change the phase of a substance latent. ‘an unsaturated changes sensible 1200 50 180 Tatent BTU freeing 202, 298. 294. 295. 298, or. 298, 209, 300, aol. 302, All substances, including hydrocarbons, require (latent/ sensible) heat to change phase. ‘There are many uses of Intent heat in a refiners. For example, steam ean be used as n source of for processing. ‘The steam is generated at a central location and then piped to reboilers at the base of fractionating towers, ‘where it is allowed to condense, ‘Heat flows from the hot condensing ___to the process ligula, When the steam Is allowed to condense to water, a pound of saturated steam at 860°F can yield approximately 1100 BTU of heat. ‘Most of this heat loss is (sensible/latent) heat. ‘You can recover more hest from a pound of steam if you: reduce its temperature, ———allow it to condense, ‘This table shows the latent heat of vaporization for three fluid HEAT OP VAPORIZATION. HOMLING POINT Water 970 BTU per pound 212°. Gasoline 140 BTU per pound 240°F Butane 165 BTU per pound UF Condensing: steam at 212°F to a pound of water yields = __ BTU of heat. Condensing gasoline vapor yields ___ BT per pound of gasoline, Condensing butane yields __ BTU per pound of butane, Of these three fluids, the one with the highest latent heat of vaporization is Steam is not the only fuid used in heat exchangers. But the high latent heat of steam makes it a (good /poor) fluid for heating, Even low pressure exhaust steam from steam pumps and turbines can be used to.___ process liquid. [28] latent heat steam latent, allow it to condense 970 40 165 water, oF steam heat 202, 204, 305, 806, 307, 308, 309, 310. ‘And because of its high specific heat, water (is/is not) a ‘00d fluid for use in cooling systems. Suppose you are using liquid as part of a cooling system. ‘The cooling liquid must absorb _______ from a hhot process fluid, A liquid absorbs more heat when it (is/is not) evapo- rating, But at atmospheric pressure, the boiling point of water ig O12°P, Excopt under vacuum conditions, water doos not begin to absorb latent heat until its temperature Is at least ‘This diagram shows a refrigeration cycle using: propane. HEAT EXCHANGER EXPANSION VALVE CONDENSER LIQUID OUT I~ WARM COOL WATER IN ee ‘The eyele starts as propane gas enters a ‘The compressor increases the —___ of the gas. ‘Then the pressurized propane passes through a condenser. ‘The condenser removes latent ______from the propane. Propane gas is changed to liquid propane at the [291 rest a2 compressor pressure heat condenser au, 312, 318, 314 315, a6, 317, aia, sis, 820. 32. ‘The liquid propane is expanded before entering the heat exchanger. Hot process fluid is also fed into the tube side of the ‘The process fluid heats the _____ and eauses it to evaporate, ‘This loss of heat ___the process uid. Propane is used in refrigeration cycles because it has 1 low boiling point As the liquid propane evaporates, It is absorbing (sen sible/latent) heat. ‘The cooling power of the propane is greatest when the propane (is/is not) evaporating. AAs the propane leaves the heat exchanger, it is again in the ____ phase. ‘The propane gas is fed back into the compressor. ‘The compressor______the gas, and the eyele begins again. When the propane enters the heat exchanger, it is a igquia/gas) Heat irom the process fluid causes the propane to ‘The evaporating propane absorbs still more —__ from the process fluid. ‘The propane leaves the heat exchanwer as a —___. TYPES OF FLUIDS 922, 328. ‘Many substances can be fnids, A substance is a fluid if it ean be made to. Both pressure and temperature affect the physical state of a substance, Whether or not a substance is a fluid depends on both its temperature and its Pressure and temperature also help to define « physical system. ‘A substance or mixture is a system if it is under a cor ‘tain condition of pressure and [30] heat exchanger propane Tatent as ‘compresses liquid evaporate heat flow pressure temperature 825, 926, 327, 828, 829, 20, 382. 383, 334, 335, 336. 33. 338, If the mixture flows under these conditfons, the system is a fluid system, ‘A fluid system may contain more than one kind of sub- stance under the same conditions of temperature and Fluid systems may contain substances in more than ‘one phase. In an absorber, gas scrubber, or distillation tower, sas bubbles up through liquid ‘This is an example of a liquid-_______ uid aystem, One part of the fuid in a distillation tower is In the liquid phase; the other partis in the Since it contains two phases, a Liquid: also ealled a A boiling mixture is @ liquid-_____ fluid system. ‘Steam that is condensing to water is also a fluid system, In an absorber, the gus bubbles up through a liquid and is partly absorbed by the liquid. ‘The fluid in an absorber ig a_____-phase fluid system. If you grind clay catalyst to the fineness of powder for use in a Fluid-Catalytic Cracker and mix it with oll, the ‘mixture will low and ehange shape. ‘This catalystoll mixture is a (solid/uid). A slurry is a solid-liquid uid system, Ina slurry, solid particles are suspended in—__. ‘The “bottoms” from a Catalytic Cracking unit is an example of a slurry, ‘These “bottoms” contain particles of suspended in il A slurry is a solid-______fluid system. Like a liquid-gas system, a slurry is a phase fluid system, ‘The two phases in a slurry are—_______and Flowing water that contains particles of mud or sand ‘would be an example of a [si] pressure as fas, or gaseous two gas Tiquid as uid tiquid solid, or catalyst guid two solid liquid slurry 339, 30, 341. m2, aa, S44, as. se. sat. sas, Suspended solid particles (can /eannot) be part of a fluid system, Fiuidized beds are often used in Catalytic Cracking opera- tions, CATALYST DRY CATALYST VAPORIZED FEED SPENT CATALYST Tn a fluidized bed, —___ of powdered catalyst, flow up through a hed Some of the catalyst is suspended in the. ‘This mixture is a Auid because it flows and has no defi nite A Muidized bed is a soli. — fluid system. In the fluidized bed, particles of _____are sus- pended in In a slurry, particles of solid are suspended in —__. Ina listillation tower, bubble up through, Fluidized beds, slurries, and tiquid-gas mixtures are all examples of phase fluid systems. Suppose a liquid contains some particles of suspended solids and some gas, This is an example of a__-phase fluid system. [a2] vapors vapors shape ‘gas, or vapor solld vapor liquid vapors liquid two ‘three 349. 350. 351. 352, 358, 354, 356, 357, 358, 359. 360. 361. 362. A fluid may contain liquid, of suspended __., or particles ‘The mixture is n fluid if it has no definite —__ and ean be made to Many fluids are mixtures, of different For example, crude petroleum liquids. Liquids that mix readily with each other are misetble. Gasoline is a blend of (miscible/immiscible) liquids. ‘The different liquids in erade oil (are/are not) miscible. All gases are miscible. Gases readily with each other. Some liquids are immiscible, i and water do not usually — But when ofl and water are shaken together rapidly, an ‘emulsion is formed. ‘An emulsion is a fluid made up of two ____ that do not ordinarily mix, Tn an emulsion, one liquid is suspended in another liquid, An emulsion may be made up of droplets of oil suspended Useful produets are formed from. of ax phalt, lubricating ofl, or waxes suspended in water. ‘Misoperation can also cause _______of il and water to form. ‘Once an emulsion is formed, it requires chemical or heat, treatment to break the emulsion, When the emulsion is broken, the liquids are again (miscible immiscible) Fluids may be made up of any number of miscible liquids, Immiseible liquids combine only if the fuid is an An emalsion is a liquid. fluid system. [33] ras solid shape flow mixture miseible mix hiquids water ‘emulsions immiscible ‘emulsion liquid 368, In each of these drawings, name the type of uid and tell whether it is a single- or two-phase fluid system, (Example: gas, single-phase). STORAGE TANK phase. OXYGEN BOTTLE BUBBLE TRAY ON TOWER ee ls amy A. Tiquid; single B gas; single ©, Tiquid-ras; two CATALYTIC REACTOR Te REVIEW AND SUMMARY 364. Fluids are substances that ____and that have no definite ——___ 365. (Liquids/Gases) are compressible fuids, 366. (Liquids/Gases) are practically incompressible fuids, 867. Look at this air leg. AIR WATER Its purpose is to prevent. 368. Compressing a gas increases its _____and de- creases its 369. Increasing the pressure on a gold (affects does not affect) ‘the melting point of the solid. 810. Inereasing: pressure the boiling point of a liquid. (851 D. solld-gas; two flow shape Gases Liquids water hammer pressure volume ‘nereases, oF raises B71. ‘The specific heat of a substance is the number of required to raise its temperature 1°F. 372, Steam gives off more heat when it is (cooling /eondens- ing). ‘873. Propane Is used in refrigeration cycles because it has a low. pear 874. This mixed-phase fluid system is called : 8 Fluidized Bea. a slurry. an emulsion. 875. A Fluidized Bed is a system. [361 a slurry solid-gas Section 2 Units of Measurement SECTION 2 UNITS OF MEASUREMENT. 1, Pressure and temperature are two fluid variables, Pressure and temperature transported and handled. asa fluid is vary, or change 2, These variables must be — to be know) measured 8, The temperature effect on the volume of quids is small. But volume is an important variable in handling 4. Gas volume, like gas pressure and temperature, must be —to be known measured 5. Fluids have properties that affect their behavior, For example, mercury is (heavier/lighter) than water. heavier 6, Heaviness, or density, is a (variable/property) of fluids. property 7. ‘The properties of chemically pure substances, such as mereury or water, ave always the same at the same pros- sure and temperature. But the properties of chemically complex mixtures, such as crude oil and its products, differ. For example, the heaviness or density of crude oil is (the same/different) for different conditions. different 8, Inthe petroleum industry, many tests have been developed for the measurement of fluid properties. ‘These tests are used to_____ the properties of measure petroleum and its products as these fluids are processed and transported. PRESSURE Pounds per Square Inch (PSI) 9, Pressure is usually measured in pounds per square inch, abbreviated. [37] 10, Pressure in units of PSI can be represented as pres- '500 POUNDS ‘This block of lead weighs ________ pounds. 500 11, The area at the base of the block is 100 square inches. ‘The PSI at the base of the block is ____ PSI. 5 12, Bach of these blocks has the same weight.

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