Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 67 (2017) 106115

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Control, power and electrical components in wave energy conversion

systems: A review of the technologies
Emre Ozkop n, Ismail H. Altas
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Karadeniz Technical University, Trabzon, Turkey

art ic l e i nf o

a b s t r a c t

Article history:
Received 30 March 2015
Received in revised form
18 March 2016
Accepted 6 September 2016
Available online 13 September 2016

The purpose of this paper is to introduce the status of wave energy conversion (WEC) technologies from
a different perspective. Past studies based on WEC systems are summarized and classied in terms of
WEC system components to clearly reveal the performance, efciency and development of WEC technologies over the last two decades. It has been proved that the individual components of a WEC system,
such as types of wave energy converter and generator motion, control methods and power electronic
converter, have a close relationship with each other and that no single component can be optimized
without considering the others. It can be helpful to divide into descriptive parts to provide a better
understanding of the development process for WEC technologies so that studies based on WEC technologies are discussed by regarding types of wave energy converters, generators, control methods,
controller applied sides, waves, power electronic converters and validations and publication year in this
paper.
& 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords:
Wave energy
Wave energy converter
Electrical control
Mechanical control
Power electronic circuits

Contents
1.
2.

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Wave energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
2.1.
Wave energy systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
2.1.1.
Oscillating Water Column (OWC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
2.2.
Control issues in wave energy systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
2.3.
Power and electrical components in wave energy systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
2.4.
Realization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
2.5.
Publication status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
3. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

1. Introduction
Energy is a key to economic and social development. Though
the world population and national economic growth continue to
affect the energy and electricity demands, approximately 80% of
the world's energy demand is still supplied by fossil fuels (petroleum, natural gas, and coal). The world energy demand is expected
to grow by 70% by 2050 regarding to International Energy Agency
scenario suggested in 2014 [1]. It is assumed that global energy
n

Corresponding author.
E-mail address: eozkop@ktu.edu.tr (E. Ozkop).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.09.012
1364-0321/& 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

demand will increase by nearly one-third from 2013 to 2040 [2].

Energy indicators show that there is still an energy decit in the
world, with almost 1.1 billion people, approximately 15% of the
world population, still living without electricity [3].
There is no need to explain how the energy is important and
how the use of renewable energy is inevitable. It is obvious that
energy is an important necessity for quality of life standards and
strategic development for the nations. An alternative energy
source is thus always in the scope of the research topics for current
and future energy planning. To mitigate the potential crises caused
by the limited resources and the potential disputes between
countries, many nations have targeted investing in renewable

E. Ozkop, I.H. Altas / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 67 (2017) 106115

Nomenclature
AACDCR Active AC/DC rectier
ACDCBR AC/DC boost rectier
ACDCHBBC AC/DC h-bridge boost converter
AFC
Air ow control
AFPIC
Adaptive fuzzy PI control
AGFPIDC Adaptive grey fuzzy PID control
AHBACDCR Active half-bridge AC/DC rectier
AmC
Amplitude control
AWS
Archimedes wave swing
BQE
Bus quantity enhancer
CC
Current control
CycWEC Cycloidal WEC
DCACI
DC/AC inverter
DCDCBBC DC-DC buck-boost converter
DCDCBoC DC-DC boost converter
DCDCBuC DC-DC buck converter
DCDCC DC-DC converter
DeC
Declutching control
DTC
Direct torque control
FC
Feedback control
FFC
Feed-forward control
FLC
Fuzzy logic control
FOC
Field-oriented control
HVDC
High voltage direct current
LC
Latching control
LoC
Load control
NNC
Neural network control
OB
Oscillating bodies

energy as an alternative to the conventional sources.

Renewable energy provides a possibility to reduce environmental problems and increase source diversity. Many countries
have announced regulations to encourage investors to use renewable energy. Over the last decade, the use of renewable energy
sources such as wind and solar has increased tremendously, such
that some countries are generating approximately 420% of their
energy needs from wind and solar resources. Although they are
not used as frequently as solar and wind energy, wave and tidal
energy have recently become alternatives to conventional sources
as devices are developed to resolve the power quality problems.
Because one of the main problems in renewable energy applications is the interfacing of the generating units with the user, the
interface devices have an important role in renewable energy
utilization. In addition to the technical problems, the investors of
renewable energy systems are still facing problems with feed-in
tariffs, renewable portfolio standards, local regulations, and nancial support.
Renewable sources have grown to supply estimated 22.8% of
the global electricity in 2015 [4]. At least 145 countries have renewable energy policy targets or support policies [4]. Moreover,
total global investment in renewable energy in 2014 has increased
by 16.4% over the previous year. As the renewable energy capacity
has grown, the costs have decreased accordingly. At least 100
jurisdictions at the national or provincial level have enacted feedin tariff programs. Many policies have been implemented to popularize renewable energy applications, such as direct capital investment subsidies and grants, tax incentives, credits, and public
nancing [46].
Studies about ocean/wave/tidal energy have been discussed
widely in literature with different perspectives. This paper aims to
review the studies focused on WEC technologies published for

OC
OOC
OT
OWC
PAC
PACDCR
PC
PhC
PIC
PID
PIDC
PLC
PM
PoC
PPICC
PTO
RC
RoC
RSC
SMC
SPF-GP
STC
TC
UnC
UNSD
VC
VoC
WEC
WSE

107

Optimal control
On-off control
Overtopping
Oscillating water column
Phase amplitude control
Passive AC/DC rectier
Predictive control
Phase control
PI control
Proportionalintegral derivative
PID control
Passive loading control
Permanent magnet
Power control
PPI cascade control
Power take off
Reactive control
Robust control
Rotational speed control
Sliding mode control
Switched power lter-green plug
Slow-tuning control
Torque control
Uncontrolled
Unused
Valve control
Voltage control
Wave energy conversion
Wave star energy

about two decades. Different approaches, methodologies and

points of view for the problem solutions are introduced and discussed in these studies. The approaches and methodologies are
mostly focused on electrical wave energy converter, generator,
control methods, power electronic converter, wave types and
power quality issues. A detailed discussion and conclusion of WEC
technologies are presented with a different point of view. Thus,
WEC related topics such as costs, reliability and efciency are not
discussed in this paper. However, they can be found in literature
[713].

2. Wave energy
Over 70% of Earth's surface is covered by oceans, which are the
world's largest solar collectors. Moreover, the oceans are the biggest untapped energy sources on Earth. The power density of wave
energy is much higher than that of wind or solar energy. Depending on the sea surface, weather conditions, the shore structure and the location on Earth, the magnitude and periodic characteristic of waves may vary. Besides, waves show different characteristics from season to season, day to night, day to day, even
hour to hour during the same day. Wave energy converters can
produce power up to 90% of the time according to design and
application methodologies, whereas wind and solar power systems produce 2030% of the time [1417].
Literature survey on the studies related to WEC systems is
performed and categorized with subsections such as wave condition (regular and irregular waves), wave energy converter type
(oscillating bodies, oscillating water column, overtopping), generator type (rotary and linear), control (mechanical and electrical
sides), power electronic converter topology, and study type

108

E. Ozkop, I.H. Altas / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 67 (2017) 106115

Table 1
Types of wave energy converters used in WEC systems in the literature.

Fig. 1. The classication structure of the WEC system review.

(simulation and experiment) and publication year of study, as illustrated in Fig. 1. These eight major subsections are used as the
classication method of the framework for WEC system review
done in this paper.
2.1. Wave energy systems
The energy stored in waves around the world has such a considerable amount of potential, which has been roughly estimated
between 1 and 10 TW [18]. Annual average levels of wave power
differ in various parts of the world. In Ireland, the practical accessible wave energy resource is approximately 21 TWh that is
over 60% of the total electrical energy demand of the country in
2012 [19]. Estimates indicate that approximately 1525% of the
United Kingdom (UK) electricity demand can be supplied by wave
energy in 2008 [16] while the wave power potential in Europe is
approximately 320 GW in 2011 [20]. The total wave power in
several European countries is determined as 1 GW in Sweden,
3.4 GW in Denmark, 10 GW in Portugal and 21 GW in Ireland [21].
At least 25 countries were engaged in wave energy development
in 2010 [5]. This number should be increased so that wave energy
can effectively contribute to world energy demands.
Although the rst patent dates to 1799, the oil crisis of the
1970s led to greater interest in the utilization of energy from renewable resources including waves. As a result of continuing
studies, the world's rst commercial wave farm with a capacity of
2.25 MW was built in Portugal in 2005 [14,16,17]. Although there
are a number of mechanisms, such as attenuator, terminator and
point absorber, to capture wave energy, few commercial projects
are realized [1416,20,22]. WEC is a complex task and is subject to
varying sea conditions. Therefore, currently the cost of wave energy is considerably high [23]. However, these negative factors do
not stop continuing research in WEC systems. There are over 1000
patents on WEC techniques presented in Europe, Japan, and North
America [16]. WEC system can be classied by location, working
principle, type and impact on environment [16,17,193,194]. In this
study, the most common WEC technologies are categorized on
working principle as below [17,24,25]. Detailed information about
wave energy conversion technology developers and devices in
literature can be found in Refs. [2628].
2.1.1. Oscillating Water Column (OWC)
Fixed:
Isolated: Pico [29,30], LIMPET [3133]
Breakwater: Sakata [34], Mutriku [35]
Floating:
Mighty Whale [36,37], Sperboy [38], Spar Buoy [39], Oceanlinx [40,41], Yeti Cluster [27]
Oscillating Bodies (OB)
Floating:

Reference No

Type

Frequency

[47,60,62,64,67,81150]
[151175]
[176179]

OB
OWC
OT

75
25
4

Translation: AquaBuoy [4244], IPS Buoy [4547], FO3 [48],

Wavebob [49,50],
PowerBuoy [5154], WET EnGen [27], WET NZ [27]
Rotation: Pelamis [5560], PS Frog [61], SEAREV [6264],
Waveberg [27], Wave Rider [27]
Submerged:
Translation: AWS [6567], CETO [68]
Rotation: WaveRoller [69,70], Oyster [71,72]
Overtopping (OT)
Floating: Wave Dragon [7376]
Fixed:
Shoreline: TAPCHAN [77,78]
Breakwater: SSG [79,80]

In literature, the greatest number of studies has focused on OBtype wave energy converters, followed by OWC-type and, nally,
OT-type, as tabulated in Table 1.
Wave energy devices can be categorized as shoreline, nearshore, or offshore in terms of installation locations [180]. In offshore energy technologies, the WEC system is located away from
the shore, and a oating or xing body is used to absorb wave
energy. Nearshore technologies are adapted into the shore.
Channel/reservoir/turbine and air-driven turbine methods are
applied to harvest wave energy. Each mechanism has a variety of
advantages and disadvantages. For instance, whereas locations for
land installations for OWC systems are more limited than offshore
systems, land installations are easier to construct and maintain.
Although the shoreline wave devices have advantages such as
their easy installation and maintenance, the potential of wave
energy extraction is lower than that of other schemes. Nearshore
devices are positioned in water at depths less than 20 m, while the
offshore devices are more typical in deep water (440 m). Several
details, such as environmental impacts, test and measurement
standards, resource assessments, energy production forecasting
and design tools, must be described [180182].
In wave energy systems, energy conversion devices, such as
linear or rotational generators, compressors, turbines, and pumps,
can be used to convert the mechanical energy of a wave into
electrical energy. There are many studies on WEC systems; operation mode; generator types, such as wave-activated linear,
linear, synchronous, longitudinal-ux permanent magnet (PM),
three-phase synchronous, and radial ux PM synchronous generators; switched reluctance machines; turbine models, such as
Wells, self-pitch-controlled blades, and Kaplan; and mechanical
part shapes [23].
In many applications (OB, OWC), mechanical interfaces (air and
water turbines and hydraulic motors) are used to convert alternating motion into a continuous unidirectional movement. Conversely, linear generators, which do not need a mechanical interface, have been implemented in WEC systems since the 1970s.
Rotating electrical generators driven by mechanical turbines, such
as hydraulic turbines or air turbines, are preferred in most wave
energy converters [17]. Both rotational and linear type generators
are employed in same number of studies given Table 2.
There are also many ways to harness waves using device parts
such as oats, aps, ramps and liquid pistons, which can be

E. Ozkop, I.H. Altas / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 67 (2017) 106115

Table 2
Generator types of WEC systems studied in literature.
Reference No

Type

Frequency

[67,81,83,84,86,87,8992,94,96,98
101,103,104,107,108,110,115121,124126,128
130,133,135,136,138,138,139,142146,149
152,167,172,173]
[47,60,62,64,82,85,88,93,95,97,102,105,106,109,111
114,122,123,127,131,132,134,137,140,141,147,148,153
166,168171,174,176179]

Linear

52

Rotary 52

installed at the surface, the sea bed or anywhere else and can use
oil, air, water, steam, or gearing, depending on the wave energy
system type [14,15]. OWC, OT, Pelamis, Wave Dragon, Archimedes
Wave Swing (AWS), and Wave Star Energy (WSE) are the main
technologies used to convert wave power into electricity. Each
technology has advantages and disadvantages in their power
limits, efciency, maintenance, installation and operation costs,
and installation difculties [14,17,23,24]. Some of the wave energy
technologies are summarized below.
The studies on OWC started in the 1970s. Since then, numerous
systems have been built in various places, including Japan, the UK,
Australia, India, and Norway. The system turbine size ranged from
250 kW to 1 MW. Although the large area requirement is one of
the disadvantages of OWC systems, they do not need direct connections among the turbine, generator and water, deep-water
anchorages or long submarine electrical cables [17,23]. Thus, the
mechanical parts are protected against water corrosion. The Wells
turbine and the impulse turbine are two of the most popular types
of air turbines used in OWC systems [14]. Wavegen's LIMPET
(250 kW) and Pico Plan (400 kW) are commercial applications of
xed-structure OWC WEC system [14]. Pelamis is a hinged contour
device applied in offshore applications, which consists of many
different functional components. The cables are used to transfer
energy from the sea side to the land side.
Wave Dragon, which was developed in 1986, incorporates an
overtopping device that is placed in water depths above 20 m and
a oating offshore converter. This model was rst produced in
Denmark. Wave Dragon seems to have a promising future in terms
of power capacity. The rated power for each unit is 411 MW.
Wave Dragon is large and very heavy [22]. The negative effects of
the device are lessened by its size and reduced maintenance cost,
including a reduction in downtime.
The AWS emerged in 1994 and is an offshore submerged device. The surface waves cause the oscillations of pressure, and the
device begins to operate. PM linear synchronous machines are
used in the AWS applications. Energy storage technologies can be
used to improve the efciency of the AWS. The rst AWS, a 1:20
model, was tested in 1995, and experimental tests were subsequently performed for different operating cases. In 2004, a 2 MW
rated capacity pilot plant was submerged and tested in a variety of
sea and operating conditions [14,22].
A WSE developed by the WSE company looks like a millipede
and is called a multipoint absorber. Since 2006, real-time implementations of WSE have continued to be developed. There are
individual hydraulic cylinders for each absorber. To provide continuous energy conversion, the device length holds several wavelengths. The WSE involves a storm protection system to lessen
the undesired mechanical forces.
There are different wave device classication methods. It is not
easy to encompass all device categories. For example, one device
classication method is based on the status of a device, the development time scale and the economic investment cost [14]. This
device classication categorizes the systems as rst-, second- and
third-generation systems. Onshore and nearshore OWC devices

109

that are either currently installed or under development are

members of the rst-generation systems. The oat pump devices
are accepted as second-generation systems. Offshore and nearshore devices, which can capture a high level of power, are part of
the second-generation systems. Offshore devices that are large in
scale concerning both their physical size and power output are
dened as third-generation systems.
Wave energy can be described as a highly promising renewable
energy source for the future. Strategies should be advanced to
increase the commercial use of WEC systems. For example, the
wave energy system in use can be modied, developed and improved, and promising systems can then be built. Nonetheless,
government supports may be required to promote and encourage
the use of WEC systems. A number of prototypes have been proposed and tested, but sufcient effort to reach commercial deployment levels has been made with only a few systems [23].
Future projects have been planned in various countries for
different potential levels such as 20,450 kW in Canada, 2715 kW in
USA, 300 kW in Spain and 7560 kW in China [183]. Although typical energy cost of ocean power is higher than many other renewable energy generation types (2128 US cents/kWh in 2014),
global investment for ocean energy has grown in every year (in
2014, 110% relative to 2013) and countries have set goals to reach
for ocean power such as 1.5 GW by 2030 in Japan, 6 MW by 2020
in Portugal, 100 MW by 2020 in Spain, 2 MW by 2012 in Thailand
[184]. Some countries are also contributing to research and development activities on wave technologies [183]. Research studies
show a promising future for the wave energy market.
2.2. Control issues in wave energy systems
Controllers have been the heart of engineering applications for
many years. There is a wide range of control techniques to improve
the system performances. Controllers are expected to ensure fast
response, low or zero overshoot, zero steady-state error, and a
high stability margin while providing increased productivity by
improving quality and reducing maintenance requirements. A
natural frequency of oscillation should coincide with the frequency
of the incoming waves because maximum efciency is attained at
resonance for OB, OT and OWC WEC systems. It is not easy to
maintain a resonant condition because real waves are comprised
of multiple frequencies and the body dimension is incompatible.
The prominent control methods employed in WEC systems are
illustrated in a number of papers listed in Table 3. The list of abbreviations for the control methods is given in the Nomenclature
section. The top ve control methods considered mainly by
quantitative evaluation in the studies are phase control, latching
control, proportional integral control, optimal and predictive
control methods as given in Table 3.
The studies to control WEC systems have been proposed since
the mid-1970s. First, a method called optimum phase control was
suggested to control the reactive power to maximize the active
power for a power take off (PTO) device [185]. Later, the approximate optimum phase control was developed for use in discrete
time, unlike the optimum phase control that is used in continuous
mode.
Various studies were executed both theoretically and experimentally for the OB and OWC types of WEC technologies in the
1980s. Optimum phase and amplitude conditions with constrained
or unconstrained options were referred to obtain maximum
power. The conditions mentioned above and economic constraints
should be considered when performing optimization. Some alternative control methodologies have been put forward in which the
system's physical quantities are omitted, resulting in a reduction of
the maximum power point of WEC systems. Nevertheless, if control methodologies are implemented with discrete cases, the

110

E. Ozkop, I.H. Altas / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 67 (2017) 106115

Table 3
Control methods in WEC systems in literature.

Table 4
Control side in WEC systems in literature.

Reference No

Method

Frequency

Reference No

[47,67,82,83,92,93,95,96,99,104,151,167]
[60,62,64,67,81,84,98,125,156,162,173]
[86,89,100,131,137,138,142,144,146,169,174]
[85,122,125,130,132,133,148,157,158]
[90,91,106,112,120,124,126,165,176]
[94,107,116,117,136,140,143,145,149]
[112,113,118,159,179]
[105,161,176178]
[102,103,108,121,170]
[67,127,134,155,156]
[101,129,151,152]
[164,176,177]
[67,99,151]
[154,163,164]
[164,168,171]
[111,172]
[87,166]
[119,128]
[141,147]
[114,135]
[109]
[93]
[99]
[160]
[106]
[88]
[123]
[127]
[110]
[175]
[139]
[150]

PhC
LC
UnC
OC
PIC
PC
OOC
PoC
VC
RC
PIDC
DTC
AmC
AFC
RSC
FC
NNC
VoC
LoC
CC
FLC
PPICC
PAC
FFC
FOC
DeC
TC
PLC
STC
RoC
AGFPIDC
AFPIC

12
11
11
9
9
9
5
5
5
5
4
3
3
3
3
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

[47, 60, 64, 67, 8185, 151158, 87, 162, 88, 163, 93 Mechanical 65
98, 102105, 107111, 179, 113, 167, 115, 116, 121
123, 170173, 125, 129134, 137140, 143, 175,
145149]
Electrical
38
[62,86,8992,99101,106,112,114,117120,124,126
128,135,136,141,142,144,146,150,159
161,164,165,168,169,174,176178]
[166]
Mech./Elect. 1

system performance can be enhanced in many applications

[16,185].
The active control of WEC dynamics can improve the efciency
of WECs [16]. One such active control method is the latching
control, which was rst examined in 1980 and shows discrete and
highly non-linear characteristics. The devices motion is stalled at
its extreme position (when velocity is zero) and is released when
the wave forces are in a good phase. If the natural frequency is
greater than the excitation wave frequency, the control method
can be applicable. Ref. [81] proposes the discrete latching control
to improve the efciency of the PTO system. In [82], an oscillatingbody wave energy converter with a hydraulic PTO system is controlled with a latching control. The hydraulic feature is simplied
to realize the control. Their results are reasonable.
Because the behavior of real sea waves is nonlinear, some assumptions must be made when modeling the WECs and control
strategies. A time-domain model of the WEC system is used to
observe the effect on performance of a dynamically changing wave
frequency and predict the real system output efciency. A frequency-based model is not adequate to model the system characteristics [186,187] because the actual wave frequency is not
constant or predictable. The linear model of the WEC system can
be used in simulations in which the wave frequency is assumed to
be stable. However, the linear model approximation becomes insufcient under variable system conditions. Therefore, the PiersonMoskowitz spectrum is preferred to model the behavior of
real sea waves [188]. An offshore OWC modeling and combination
of control techniques (energy quality, amplitude and phase controls) are proposed and simulation results for energy extraction
obtained using MATLAB/Simulink program [151]. Optimization
techniques are used in this work and shown that power utilization
could be advanced by 500% for some cases and sea states. On the
other hand, the experimental tests are applied with phase and

Side

Frequency

amplitude control methods for regular waves in this study, as well.

Energy utilization control of the WEC systems are based on
mechanical side, electrical side, or both, as noted in Table 4. Discussion about energy utilization control has concentrated on the
mechanical side control in literature.
For mechanical side control in WEC systems, optimal
[85,97,115,122,130,132,133,148,153,157,158],
phase
[47,82,83,
95,96,104,167], latching [60,64,81,84,98,162,173] and predictive
[94,107,116,140,143,145,149] control techniques are mostly preferred to be uses in. There are few studies including power electronic converters connected to WEC output where a mechanical
side control structure is employed [122,139,148]. Conventional PI
controller has been mainly adapted into electrical side control
structure in literature [90,91,106,112,120,124,126,165]. Both mechanical and electrical side control structures have been largely
harnessed with Oscillating Bodies (OB) technologies.
The WEC systems have been tested with only regular, only irregular and both irregular and regular wave conditions, though
most of the system tests have been realized for only irregular
waveforms given in Table 5. In regular wave condition, Oscillating
Bodies (OB) technologies consisting of linear or rotary generator
with PI controller for electrical side control have come into
prominence.
2.3. Power and electrical components in wave energy systems
The energy utilization control with only electrical components
uses different types of power electronics interface topologies used
in WEC systems to provide the requirements between energy
system and load. All power electronic technologies are represented by abbreviations in Table 6, and the abbreviation list is
given in the Nomenclature part.
In Ref. [165], DC-DC buck converter topologies are implemented for battery charging and load supply, H-bridge and
Miller's converters are considered in Ref. [92], a three-phase fullwave passive rectier circuit is proposed in [100], a D-STATCOM
device is adapted to smooth power oscillation in Ref. [160], and an
AC/DC/AC converter is used for electrical power regulation in Ref.
[106]. An AC/DC rectier followed by a DC/AC converter is used to
extract the output power in Ref. [90]. Ref. [177] applies AC/DC/AC
converters including active or passive mode in the AC/DC stage
with transformers to adjust maximum power transmitted to the
consumer. In Ref. [62,91,99,176], an active AC/DC/AC inverter topology is applied to obtain power from the WEC to a utility grid.
Ref. [161] uses an AC/DC converter, high voltage direct current
(HVDC) link and a DC/AC inverter to transfer power to loads. A
rectier is used to charge batteries, and an inverter is used to
convert DC power into AC in Ref. [159]. A three-phase passive
diode rectier is used in a WEC to feed DC loads in Ref. [86]. Ref.
[101] prefers to use a passive diode rectier and a capacitor lter
to obtain a smoother power output. Two different topologies
based on AC/DC passive diode rectier are examined in Ref. [89].
The rst three commonly used power electronic converter (PEC)

E. Ozkop, I.H. Altas / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 67 (2017) 106115

111

Table 5
Wave condition in WEC systems in literature.
Reference No

Condition

Frequency

[90,92,99,102,109,112,117,118,120,123,124,128,131,135,137,138,142,148,150,163,166,169,171174,176,178]
[60,62,83,86,87,89,9496,98,100,101,103,107,108,111,113116,119,122,125127,132,133,140,141,143,145147,149,152,153,155
161,165,168,175,177,179]
[47,64,67,81,82,84,85,88,91,93,97,104106,110,121,129,130,134,136,139,144,151,154,162,164,167,170]

Regular
Irregular

28
48

Regular/
Irregular

28

Table 6
Power electronic converters in WEC systems.
Reference No

Type

Frequency

[62,91,99,106,112,114,136,148,161,164,166,176,177]
[117,119,127,128,141,144,159,168]
[86,89,100,101,146,169,174]
[92,135]
[160]
[90]
[178]
[165]
[118]

AACDCR, DCACI
PACDCR, DCACI
PACDCR
AHBACDCR
D-STATCOM
PACDCR, DCDCBoC
DCACI
DCDCBuC
PACDCR, DCDCBBC,
DCACI
[120]
SPF-GP
[122]
PACDCR, DCDCC
[124]
ACDCBR, ACDCHBBC
[126]
PACDCR, DCACI,
DCDCC
[139]
DCDCC
[150]
BQE
[47, 60, 64, 67, 81, 82, 151158, 8385, 87, 162, 88, 163, 9398, 102105, 107111, 179, 113, 167, 115, 116, 121, 170, 123, 171, 172, 125, UNSD
173, 129134, 137, 138, 140, 142, 143, 175, 145, 147, 149]

13
8
7
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
63

topologies are AACDCR, DCACI and PACDCR. These topologies are

mostly used in OB technologies, managed by PI and power control
methods and tested for both regular and irregular wave
conditions.
In fact, the irregularity, which means an irregular voltage shape
and irregular power condition from generation to dissipation, and
discontinuity in sea wave behavior causing discontinuity, uctuation, ripples and drops in current and voltage in the WEC system
output must be eliminated. Therefore, an isolation unit, which acts
as a power conditioner between the WEC system and the load to
ensure the power quality and voltage stabilization in the system,
should be installed between the WEC unit and the load. Various
types of power electronics interface topologies exist in literature to
be applied to the WEC systems. Depending on the application
areas and studies, these topologies are used in energy systems to
provide the interfacing requirements between the WEC system
and load [189192]. The power electronics interface devices
mentioned above each have benets over the other in terms of
factors, including efciency, cost, reliability, compliance with
standards, and total harmonic distortion.

commercially available wave energy systems is a difcult, slow and

expensive process. First, theoretical and numerical system models
are developed, and prototypes are then tested under real operation conditions after a time-consuming and expensive task. The
difculty of establishing an experimental process affects studies
on WEC systems. Therefore, most of the papers refer only to the
simulation validation methods (%70).
The validation of the ve control methods (phase control,
latching control, PI, optimal and predictive control) applied in the
literature given in Table 3 has been predominantly fullled with
only the simulation works. The phase and latching control methods have been predominantly performed with regular and irregular waves in the WEC systems, whereas the PI control has been
applied to only the regular wave models. There are few studies to
test the systems by experimental conditions in the literature (%11).
Experimental studies on WEC system have hardly employed
power electronic converter topologies and also electrical side
control strategies [99,119,165].

2.4. Realization

WEC related studies in literature are addressed in terms of

publication year in this section. Table 8 gives information regarding papers related to WEC systems with the year of publication.
For the last four years, the number of publication related to WEC

The WEC system performances can be validated by experimentation, simulation, or both as given in Table 7. To develop

2.5. Publication status

Table 7
Validation type in WEC systems in literature.
Reference No

Type

Frequency

[47, 62, 64, 67, 8188, 151, 153155, 157, 158, 160, 161, 162, 90, 91, 9398, 100, 164, 177, 102106, 178, 108, 109, 112116, 166168, 118, 121, Simulation 73
170, 122, 171, 172, 125128, 173, 130, 132134, 136, 139141, 174, 143, 175, 145, 148, 149]
[99,107,110,119,123,131,152,156,163,165,179]
Experiment 11
[60,89,92,101,111,117,120,124,129,135,137,138,142,144,146,147,150,159,169,176]
Sim./Exp.
20

112

E. Ozkop, I.H. Altas / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 67 (2017) 106115

Table 8
Publication status of WEC systems in literature.
Reference No

Year

Frequency

[83,84,152158]
[60,62,64,67,81,82,85101,159164,176,177]
[47, 102151, 165175, 178, 179]

19972003
20042010
20112015

9
31
64

system based on the classication structure given in Fig. 1 has

been increased.
In the rst quarter of publication year section, controllers were
realized only on mechanical side and power electronic converter
topologies were not employed. On the other hand, WEC system
performances were mostly examined for irregular wave conditions
with optimal control methods where OWC technologies with rotary generators were tested [153,157,158]. In the second quarter of
publication year section, the number of studies increased and WEC
system output characteristics were observed for only irregular or
both regular and irregular wave cases. Power electronic converters
also began to be applied in this period [62,86,8992,99101,159
161,164,176,177]. WEC system validations by experimental setups
have been increased in this quarter, as well [60,89,92,99,101,
159,163,176]. The number of publications has grown exponentially
since 1997 along with the utilization of various types of controllers
and power electronic converters has increased.

for the increasing demand. Despite considerable research, studies

and development, questions arise over which conguration, control method, generator type, and implementation mode (electrical,
mechanical) should be used to improve the performance. The individual components such as wave energy converter type, control
method, generator type, implementation approach, validation
method and wave types have a close relationship with each other,
and no single component should be optimized without considering the others.
Long-term studies should be conducted focusing on control
strategies and power electronics interface topologies to improve
the energy utilization for WEC systems. Although the rst patent
related to WEC is two centuries old, there are still no universal
consent protocols or standards. Presumably, changes and progress
for the sake of accepted international WEC standards will be established in the coming years.
Compared with the other renewable energy sources, wave
energy is still in the early stages of research and development.
Therefore, WEC systems are still closed boxes. Research must be
performed to create reliable, cost-effective, exible, manageable,
scalable, durable and efcient WEC systems. This survey paper
shows that a wide range of studies in WEC systems has been done.
However, the best conguration with the best components has not
yet been designed. The authors of this paper hope that the survey
and analysis given here will help the research community and
investors accelerate the development process of electricity generation from wave energy.

3. Conclusions
This paper describes the status of WEC technology from a different perspective. A survey of the literature related to WEC systems is performed, and the systems classication is made in terms
of wave energy converter types, generator types, implementation
methods, wave status, validation approach and controller types.
An 18 years of work period is summarized in this paper. To clearly
demonstrate the performance, efciency and development of the
WEC system technologies during that time, the WEC system is
divided into descriptive parts.
The studies published over approximately the last two decades
indicate a rapidly growing interest in WEC systems. This survey
has shown that energy utilization control in WEC systems is
mostly provided by using mechanical components by applying
mostly the irregular waveforms to observe the performance of
WEC systems.
Many control methods have been studied and applied to the
WEC systems. The most commonly used type of control method is
phase control. The validation of these control methods has predominantly been performed with only simulation studies. The
phase and latching control methods have used with both regular
and irregular waves, whereas the PI control has primarily been
used for regular waves in the WEC systems. These three control
methods have been chiey used in OB-type WEC systems. Although these three controllers seem to be widely preferred, the
controllers are still an open research area for the WEC system
applications because the WEC technology is still in the development stage.
Due to the high installation costs and maintenance difculties,
the studies are primarily performed using computer simulation
models. Government support seems to be required for the improvement of WEC technology. This support might include using
feed-in-tariffs and providing real sea environments for testing and
nancial support for the research projects. Many types of support
from the government and energy companies would increase the
number of studies on WECs, thus expanding the research and
accelerating the growth of installations to provide more electricity

References
[1] International Energy Agency. Energy technology perspectives 2014: Harnessing electricity's potential.
[2] International Energy Agency. World Energy Outlook 2015 Factsheet: Global
energy trends to 2040.
[3] Sustainable Energy for All (SE4ALL). Progress toward sustainable energy:
Global tracking.framework 2015 summary report; 2015.
[4] REN21. Renewables 2015 Global Status Report. Available from: http://www.
ren21.net/GSR-2015-Report-Full-report-EN. Accessed 1.01.16.
[5] REN21. Renewables 2011 Global Status Report. Available from: http://www.
ren21.net/Portals/0/documents/Resources/GSR2011_FINAL.pdf. Accessed
29.03.15.
[6] Petrova MAS. Determinants of public opinion on renewable energy: the case
of wave energy development in Oregon. Oregon State University; 2011.
[7] Rourke FO, Boyle F, Reynolds A. Marine current energy devices: current
status and possible future applications in Ireland. Renew Sustain Energy Rev
2010;14(3):102636.
[8] Ambhl S, Kramer M, Sorensen JD. Reliability-based structural optimization
of wave energy converters. Energies 2014;7:8178200.
[9] Mueller M, Wallace R. Enabling science and technology for marine renewable
energy. Energy Policy 2008;36(12):437682.
[10] Oh JS, Jang JH. OWC design to increase wave energy absorption efciency in
wave conversion systems. J Mech Sci Technol 2015;29(7):298793.
[11] Sheng W, Alcorn R, Lewis A. On improving wave energy conversion, (part I):
optimal and control technologies. Renew Energy 2015;75:92234.
[12] Rusu E. Evaluation of the wave energy conversion efciency in various
coastal environments. Energies 2014;7:400218.
[13] Astariz S, Iglesias G. The economics of wave energy: a review. Renew Sustain
Energy Rev 2015;45:397408.
[14] Cruz J. Ocean wave energy: current status and future perspectives.New York:
Springer; 2008.
[15] Falnes J. A review of wave-energy extraction. Mar Struct 2007;20(4):185
201.
[16] Drew B, Plummer AR, Sahinkaya MN. A review of wave energy converter
technology. P I. Mech Eng A-J Pow 2009;223(8):887902.
[17] Falco AFD. Wave energy utilization: a review of the technologies. Renew Sust
Energ Rev 2010;14(3):899918.
[18] Galarraga I, Eguino MG, Markandya A. Handbook of sustainable energy.
Edward Elgar Publishing, Inc; 2011.
[19] Sharkey K, Honer K, Conlon M, Gaughan K, Robinson E. The domestic and
export market for large scale wave energy in Ireland and the economics of
export transmission. Universities Power Engineering Conference 2013,
Dublin.
[20] Ghosh TK, Prelas MA. Energy resources and systems: volume 2: renewable
resources.New York: Springer; 2011.
[21] Vicinanzaa D, Contestabilea P, Ferrantea V. Wave energy potential in the

E. Ozkop, I.H. Altas / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 67 (2017) 106115

north-west of Sardinia (Italy). Renew Energy 2013;50:50621.

[22] Lindroth S, Leijon M. Offshore wave power measurements-a review. Renew
Sust Energ Rev 2011;15(9):427485.
[23] Khaligh A, Onar OC. Energy harvesting: solar, wind, and ocean energy conversion systems.Florida: CRC Press; 2010.
[24] Melo AB, Bhuyan G. 2008 annual report on ocean energy systems. International Energy Agency Implementing Agreement on Ocean Energy Systems
(IEA-OES); 2009. Available from: http://en.calameo.com/read/
000672419c4522995f708. Accessed 29.03.15.
[25] The Carbon Trust. Marine Energy Challenge, Oscillating Water Column Wave
Energy Converter Evaluation Report; 2005.
[26] http://www.emec.org.uk/marine-energy/wave-developers/.
[27] Joubert JR, Niekerk JLv, Reinecke J, Meyer I. Wave energy converters (WECs).
Centre for Renewable and Sustainable Energy. Studies 2014:196.
[28] Pound A. Understanding opportunities for south west businesses to diversify
into the marine renewable energy supply chain. MSc thesis. University of
Exeter; 2013.
[29] Fodorean D, Szabo L, Miraoui A. Generator solutions for stand alone picoelectric power plants. IEEE International Electric Machines and Drives Conference, IEMDC'09: Miami, FL, USA, 2009; pp. 434438.
[30] Pop E, Leba M, Barbu CT, Pop M. Modeling, simulation and control of picohydro power plant. 4th WSEAS/IASME International Conference on Dynamical Systems and Control, CONTROL'08: Corfu, Greece; 2008, pp. 103108.
[31] Alcom RG, Beattie WC. Power quality assessment from a wave-power station.
16th International Conference and Exhibition on Electricity Distribution:
Amsterdam, Netherlands; 2001, pp. 238238.
[32] The Queen's University of Belfas. Islay Limpet Wave Power Plant: Publishable
Report 1 November 1998 to 30 April 2002. Available from: http://cordis.
europa.eu/documents/document library/66628981EN6.pdf. Accessed
29.03.15.
[33] Whittaker TJT, Beattie W, Folley M, Boake C, Wright A, Osterried M, Heath T.
The LIMPET wave power project-the rst years of operation. Renew Energy
2003:18.
[34] Suzuki M, Arakawa C, Takahashi S. Performance of wave power generating
system installed in breakwater at Sakata port in Japan. 14th International
Offshore and Polar Engineering Conference (ISOPE 2004): Toulon, France;
2004, pp. 2029.
[35] Enciso YT, Ortubia I, Aguileta LIL, Marques J. Mutriku wave power plant: from
the thinking out to the reality. 8th European Wave and Tidal Energy Conference Proceedings: Uppsala, Sweden; 2009, pp. 319329.
[36] Osawa H, Miyazaki T. Wave-PV hybrid generation system carried in the
offshore oating type wave power device Mighty Whale. Oceans'04 MTS/
IEEE Techno-Ocean'04 Conference: Kobe, Japan; 2004, pp. 18601866.
[37] Osawa H, Washio Y, Ogata T, Tsuritani Y. The offshore oating type wave
power device Mighty Whale open sea tests: performance of the prototype.
12th International Offshore and Polar Engineering Conference (ISOPE-2002):
Kyushu, Japan; 2002, p. 595600.
[38] Wave-Energy Buoy. Wins Grant. Prof Eng 2007;20(17):19.
[39] Bradley C., Venezia W. Spar buoy platform for water wave, turbulence and
underwater electric eld sensors. 2011 IEEE/OES 10th Current, Waves and
Turbulence Measurements (CWTM): Monterey, CA, USA, 2010; pp. 1907.
[40] Wave power. Modern Power Systems 2007; December; 4447.
[41] Oceanlinx. Oceanlinx Technical Facts Sheet. Available from: http://www.
oceanlinx.com/images/ reportsandlinks/oceanlinx_technical_facts_sheet_
v3_eng.pdf. Accessed 29.03.15.
[42] Holzman DC. Blue power: turning tides into electricity. Environ Health Persp
2007;115(12):A5903.
[43] Dunnett D, Wallace JS. Electricity generation from wave power in Canada.
Renew Energy 2009;34(1):17995.
[44] Weinstein A, Fredrikson G, Parks MJ, Nielsen K. AquaBuOY-the offshore wave
energy converter numerical modeling and optimization. Oceans'04 MTS/
IEEE Techno-Ocean 04 Conference: Kobe, Japan, 2004;4: pp. 18541859.
[45] Payne GS, Taylor JRM, Parkin P, Salter SH. Numerical modelling of the sloped
IPS buoy wave energy converter. The Sixteenth (2006) International Offshore
and Polar Engineering Conference Proceedings: San Francisco, California,
USA, 2006; pp. 396402.
[46] Gomes RPF, Henriques JCC, Gato LMC, Falco AFO. IPS 2-body wave energy
converter: acceleration tube optimization. Int J Offshore Polar 2010;20
(4):24755.
[47] Falcao AFO, Candido JJ, Justino PAP, Henriques JCC. Hydrodynamics of the IPS
buoy wave energy converter including the effect of non-uniform acceleration
tube cross section. Renew Energ 2012;41:10514.
[48] Garnaud X, Mei CC. Comparison of wave power extraction by a compact
array of small buoys and by a large buoy. Iet Renew Power Gen 2010;4
(6):51930.
[49] Knight H. Offshore device is hydropowers next wave. Engineer 2003;292
(7628) 9-9.
[50] Wave Bob. Available from: www.wavebob.com/key-features. Accessed
29.03.15.
[51] Wood J. Racing the waves. Power Eng 2004;18(3):246.
[52] Kime P. Harnessing wave energy: Navy program in Hawaii to see fully
functional. Power this Year Sea Power 2010;53(3):289.
[53] Testing time for the navy buoys. Modern Power Systems 31 9; 2011, pp. 4747.
[54] Marine Renewables. Available from: www.sea-technology.com. Accessed
29.03.15.

113

[55] Dalton GJ, Alcorn R, Lewis T. Case study feasibility analysis of the Pelamis
wave energy convertor in Ireland, Portugal and North America. Renew Energ
2010;35(2):44355.
[56] Ahmed T, Nishida K, Nakaoka M. The potential for grid power integration of
offshore ocean wave energy in the UK. The 2010 International Power Electronics Conference: Sapporo, Japan, 2010; pp. 320411.
[57] Ahmed T, Nishida K, Nakaoka M. The commercial advancement of 16 mw
offshore wave power generation technologies in the southwest of the UK.
The 8th International Conference on Power Electronics-ECCE Asia: The Shilla
Jeju, Korea, 2011; pp. 14761483.
[58] Polinder H, Scuotto M. Wave energy converters and their impact on power
systems. 2005 International Conference on Future Power Systems: Amsterdam, Netherlands, 2005; pp. 19.
[59] Ahmed T, Nishida K, Nakaoka M. Grid power integration technologies for
offshore ocean wave energy. 2010 IEEE Energy Conversion Congress and
Exposition (ECCE): Atlanta, GA, USA, 2010; 237885.
[60] Henderson R. Design, simulation, and testing of a novel hydraulic power
take-off system for the Pelamis wave energy converter. Renew Energ
2006;31(2):27183.
[61] McCabe AP, Bradshaw A, Meadowcroft JAC, Aggidis G. Developments in the
design of the PS Frog Mk 5 wave energy converter. Renew Energ 2006;31
(2):14151.
[62] Ruellan M, Ahmed HB, Multon B, Josset C, Babarit A, Clement A. Design
methodology for a SEAREV wave energy converter. IEEE Trans Energy Conver
2010;25(3):7607.
[63] Babarit A, Clement A, Ruer J, Tartivel C. SEAREV: a fully integrated wave
energy converter. Proceedings of the Offshore Wind and Other Marine Renewable Energies in Mediterranean and European Seas, OWEMES'06: Rome,
Italy, 2006; 111.
[64] Babarit A, Clement AH. Optimal latching control of a wave energy device in
regular and irregular waves. Appl Ocean Res 2006;28(2):7791.
[65] Wu F, Zhang XP, Ju P, Sterling MH. Modeling and control of AWS-based wave
energy conversion system integrated into power grid. IEEE Trans Power Syst
2008;23(3):1196204.
[66] Polinder H, Mecrow BC, Jack AG, Dickinson PG, Mueller MA. Conventional
and TFPM linear generators for direct-drive wave energy conversion. IEEE
Trans Energy Conver 2005;20(2):2607.
[67] Valerio D, Beirao P, Costa JS. Optimisation of wave energy extraction with the
Archimedes Wave Swing. Ocean Eng 2007;34(1718):233044.
[68] Webb C. Wave energy: size matters. Power 2015;159(7) 11-11.
[69] Wood K. Wave-energy conversion. Compos Technol 2010:301.
[70] Waveroller Technology. 1 MW Wave Energy Power Plant. Available from:
http://www.cm-peniche.pt/_uploads/pdf_noticias/waveroller
awenergyoyeneolicasagrupolena.pdf. Accessed on 29.03.15.
[71] Whittaker T, Folley M. Nearshore oscillating wave surge converters and the
development of Oyster. Philos T R Soc A 2012;370(1959):34564.
[72] Collier D, Whittaker T, Crowley M. The construction of Oyster a nearshore
surging wave energy converter. 2nd International Conference on Ocean Energy: Brest, France, 2008; 17.
[73] Beels C, Troch P, De Visch K, Kofoed JP, De Backer G. Application of the timedependent mild-slope equations for the simulation of wake effects in the lee
of a farm of Wave Dragon wave energy converters. Renew Energy 2010;35
(8):164461.
[74] Kofoed JP, Frigaard P, Friis-Madsen E, Sorensen HC. Prototype testing of the
wave energy converter Wave Dragon. Renew Energy 2006;31(2):1819.
[75] Tedd J, Kofoed JP. Measurements of overtopping ow time series on the
Wave Dragon, wave energy converter. Renew Energy 2009;34(3):7117.
[76] Zhou Z, Knapp W, MacEnri J, Sorensen HCh, Madsen EF, Masters I, Igic P.
Permanent magnet generator control and electrical system conguration for
Wave Dragon MW wave energy take-off system. IEEE International Symposium on Industrial Electronics, ISIE 2008: Cambridge, England, 2008; 15805.
[77] ABS Energy Research. Ocean Energy Report 2007; 1932.
[78] Mehlum E. Commercial tapered channel wave power plants in Australia and
Indonesia. Ocean Technologies and Opportunities in the Pacic for the 90s,
OCEANS'91: Honolulu, HI, USA, 1991; 535538.
[79] Vicinanza D, Frigaard P. Wave pressure acting on a seawave slot-cone generator. Coast Eng 2008;55(6):55368.
[80] Vicinanza D, Ciardulli F, Buccino M, Calabrese M, Koefed JP. Wave loadings
acting on an innovative breakwater for energy production. J Coast Res
2011;64:60812.
[81] Babarit A, Duclos G, Clement AH. Comparison of latching control strategies
for a heaving wave energy device in random sea. Appl Ocean Res 2004;26
(5):22738.
[82] AFDO Falcao. Phase control through load control of oscillating-body wave
energy converters with hydraulic PTO system. Ocean Eng 2008;35(34):358
66.
[83] Eidsmoen H. Tight-moored amplitude-limited heaving-buoy wave-energy
converter with phase control. Appl Ocean Res 1998;20(3):15761.
[84] Korde UA. Latching control of deep water wave energy devices using an
active reference. Ocean Eng 2002;29(11):134355.
[85] Falco AFDO. Modelling and control of oscillating-body wave energy converters with hydraulic power take-off and gas accumulator. Ocean Eng
2007;34(1415):202132.
[86] Thorburn K, Leijon M. Farm size comparison with analytical model of linear
generator wave energy converters. Ocean Eng 2007;34(56):90816.
[87] Valerio D, MJGC Mendes, Beirao P, da Costa JS. Identication and control of

114

E. Ozkop, I.H. Altas / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 67 (2017) 106115

the AWS using neural network models. Appl Ocean Res 2008;30(3):17888.
[88] Babarit A, Guglielmi M, Clement AH. Declutching control of a wave energy
converter. Ocean Eng 2009;36(1213):101524.
[89] Bostrom C, Lejerskog E, Stalberg M, Thorburn K, Leijon M. Experimental
results of rectication and ltration from an offshore wave energy system.
Renew Energy 2009;34(5):13817.
[90] Luan H, Onar OC, Khaligh A. Dynamic modeling and optimum load control of
a PM linear generator for ocean wave energy harvesting application. 24th
Annual IEEE Applied Power Electronics Conference and Exposition, APEC
2009: Washington, USA, 2009; 73943.
[91] Wu F, Zhang XP, Ju P, Sterling MJH. Optimal control for AWS-based wave
energy conversion system. IEEE Trans Power Syst 2009;24(4):174755.
[92] Blanco M, Navarro G, Lafoz M. Control of power electronics driving a switched reluctance linear generator in wave energy applications. 13th European
Conference on Power Electronics and Applications, 2009, EPE'09: Barcelona,
Spain, 2009; 19.
[93] Costa PR, Garcia-Rosa PB, Estefen SF. Phase control strategy for a wave energy hyperbaric converter. Ocean Eng 2010;37(1718):148390.
[94] Belmont MR. Increases in the average power output of wave energy converters using quiescent period predictive control. Renew Energy 2010;35
(12):281220.
[95] Falco AFD, Pereira PER, Henriques JCC, Gato LMC. Hydrodynamic simulation
of a oating wave energy converter by a U-tube rig for power take-off
testing. Ocean Eng 2010;37(1415):125360.
[96] Yang L, Hals J, Moan T. Analysis of dynamic effects relevant for the wear
damage in hydraulic machines for wave energy conversion. Ocean Eng
2010;37(13):1089102.
[97] Beatty SJ, Wild P, Buckham BJ. Integration of a wave energy converter into
the electricity supply of a remote Alaskan Island. Renew Energy 2010;35
(6):120313.
[98] Kara F. Time domain prediction of power absorption from ocean waves with
latching control. Renew Energy 2010;35(2):42334.
[99] Shek JKH, Marcpherson DE, Mueller MA. Experimental verication of linear
generator control for direct drive wave energy conversion. IET Renew Power
Gen 2010;4(5):395403.
[100] Bostrom C, Leijon M. Operation analysis of a wave energy converter under
different load conditions. IET Renew Power Gen 2011;5(3):24550.
[101] Rahm M, Bostrom C, Svensson O, Grabbe M, Bulow F, Leijon M. Offshore
underwater substation for wave energy converter arrays. IET Renew Power
Gen 2010;4(6):60212.
[102] Cho BH, Yang DS, Park SY, Choi KS, Lee DH, Byun SH, Jung H. Modeling and
control of a 75 kW class variable liquid-column oscillator for highly efcient
wave energy converter. Ocean Eng 2011;38(23):43643.
[103] Yang L, Moan T. Dynamic analysis of wave energy converter by incorporating
the effect of hydraulic transmission lines. Ocean Eng 2011;38(11):184960.
[104] Candido JJ, Modelling Justino PAPS. control and Pontryagin maximum principle for a two-body wave energy device. Renew Energy 2011;36(5):154557.
[105] Saulnier JB, Clement A, Falco AFD, Pontes T, Prevosto M, Ricci P. Wave
groupiness and spectral bandwidth as relevant parameters for the performance assessment of wave energy converters. Ocean Eng 2011;38(1):13047.
[106] Tedeschi E, Carraro M, Molinas M, Mattavelli P. Effect of control strategies
and power take-off efciency on the power capture from sea waves. IEEE
Trans Energy Conver 2011;26(4):108898.
[107] Truong DQ, Ahn KK. Wave prediction based on a modied grey model MGM
(1,1) for real-time control of wave energy converters in irregular waves. Renew Energy 2012;43:24255.
[108] Kurniawan A, Pedersen E, Moan T. Bond graph modelling of a wave energy
conversion system with hydraulic power take-off. Renew Energy 2012;38
(1):23444.
[109] Ahn KK, Truong DQ, Tien HH, Yoon JI. An innovative design of wave energy
converter. Renew Energy 2012;42:18694.
[110] Flocard F, Finnigan TD. Increasing power capture of a wave energy device by
inertia adjustment. Appl Ocean Res 2012;34:12634.
[111] Siegel SG, Fagley C, Nowlin S. Experimental wave termination in a 2D wave
tunnel using a cycloidal wave energy converter. Appl Ocean Res 2012;38:92
9.
[112] Martinez M, Molina MG, Machado IR, Mercado PE, Watanabe EH. Modelling
and simulation of wave energy hyperbaric converter (WEHC) for applications
in distributed generation. Int J Hydrog Energy 2012;37(19):1494550.
[113] Li G, Weiss G, Mueller M, Townley S, Belmont MR. Wave energy converter
control by wave prediction and dynamic programming. Renew Energy
2012;48:392403.
[114] Aubry J, Ben Ahmed H, Multon B. Sizing optimization methodology of a
surface permanent magnet machine-converter system over a torque-speed
operating prole: Application to a wave energy converter. IEEE Trans Ind
Electron 2012;59(5):211625.
[115] Fusco F, Ringwood JV. A simple and effective real-time controller for wave
energy converters. IEEE Trans Sustain Energy 2013;4(1):2130.
[116] Richter M, Magana ME, Sawodny O, Brekken TKA. Nonlinear model predictive
control of a point absorber wave energy converter. IEEE Trans Sustain Energy
2013;4(1):118226.
[117] Vermaak R, Kamper MJ. Experimental evaluation and predictive control of an
air-cored linear generator for direct-drive wave energy converters. IEEE Trans
Ind Appl 2012;48(6):181726.
[118] Gargov NP, Zobaa AF. Multi-phase air-cored tubular permanent magnet linear generator for wave energy converters. IET Renew Power Gen 2012;6

(3):1716.
[119] Rahm M, Svensson O, Bostrom C, Waters R, Leijon M. Experimental results
from the operation of aggregated wave energy converters. IET Renew Power
Gen 2012;6(3):14960.
[120] Ozkop E, Altas IH, Sharaf AM. A novel switched power lter-green plug (SPFGP) scheme for wave energy systems. Renew Energy 2012;44:34058.
[121] Vicente PC, Falcao AFO, Justino PAP. Nonlinear dynamics of a tightly moored
point-absorber wave energy converter. Ocean Eng 2013;59:2036.
[122] Scruggs JT, Lattanzio SM, Taanidis AA, Cassidy IL. Optimal causal control of
wave energy converter in a random sea. Appl Ocean Res 2013;42:115.
[123] Chaplin RV. Seaweaver: a new surge-resonant wave energy converter. Renew
Energ 2013;57:66270.
[124] Nie Z, Xiao X, McMahon R, Clifton P, Wu Y, Shao S. Emulation and control
methods for direct drive linear wave energy converters. IEEE Trans Ind Inf
2013;9(2):7908.
[125] Abraham E, Kerrigan EC. Optimal active control and optimization of a wave
energy converter. IEEE Trans Sustain Energy 2013;4(2):32432.
[126] Zhang H, Nie Z, Xiao X, Aggarwal R, Kang Q, Ainslie M, Zhu J, Coombs T, Yuan
W. Design and simulation of SMES system using YBCO tapes for direct drive
wave energy converters. IEEE Trans Appl Supercon 2013;23(3):14.
[127] Alberti L, Tedeschi E, Bianchi N, Santos M, Fasolo A. Effect of the generator
sizing on a wave energy converter considering different control strategies.
COMPEL 2013;32(1):23347.
[128] Kurupath V, Ekstrom R, Leijon M. Optimal constant DC link voltage operation
of a wave energy converter. Energies 2013;6(4):19932006.
[129] Zurkinden AS, Ferri F, Beatty S, Kofoed JP, Kramer MM. Non-linear numerical
modeling and experimental testing of a point absorber wave energy converter. Ocean Eng 2014;78(1):1121.
[130] Nielsen SRK, Zhou Q, Basu B, Sichani MT, Kramer MM. Optimal control of an
array of non-linear wave energy point converters. Ocean Eng 2014;88:242
54.
[131] Bikas GS, Ramesh H, Vijaykumar H. Study on performance of Savonius rotor
type wave energy converter used in conjunction conventional rubble mound
breakwater. Ocean Eng 2014;89:628.
[132] Korde UA. On a near-optimal control approach for a wave energy converter in
irregular waves. Appl Ocean Res 2014;46:7993.
[133] Sichani MT, Chen JB, Kramer MM, Nielsen SRK. Constrained optimal stochastic control of non-linear wave energy point absorbers. Appl Ocean Res
2014;47:25569.
[134] Genest R, Bonnefoy F, Clment AH, Babarit A. Effect of non-ideal power takeoff on the energy absorption of a reactively controlled one degree of freedom
wave energy converter. Appl Ocean Res 2014;48:23643.
[135] Pan JF, Zou Y, Cheung N, Cao G. The direct-drive sensorless generation system
for wave energy utilization. Int J Elec Power 2014;62:2937.
[136] Andrade DE, Jaen AD, Santana AG. Considering linear generator copper losses
on model predictive control for a point absorber wave energy converter.
Energy Convers Manag 2014;78:17383.
[137] Di Fresco L, Traverso A. Energy conversion of orbital motions in gravitational
waves: Simulation and test of the Seaspoon wave energy converter. Energy
Convers Manag 2014;86:116472.
[138] Harne RL, Schoemaker ME, Dussault BE, Wang KW. Wave heave energy
conversion using modular multistability. Appl Energy 2014;130:14856.
[139] Truong DQ, Ahn KK. Development of a novel point absorber in heave for
wave energy conversion. Renew Energy 2014;65:18391.
[140] Li G, Belmont MR. Model predictive control of sea wave energy converters
part II: (the case of an array of devices. Renew Energy 2014;68:5409.
[141] Tedeschi E, Santos-Mugica M. Modeling and control of a wave energy farm
including energy storage for power quality enhancement: the BIMEP case
study. IEEE Trans Power Syst 2014;29(3):148997.
[142] Cappelli L, Marignetti F, Mattiazzo G, Giorcelli E, Bracco G, Carbone S, Attaianese C. Linear tubular permanent-magnet generators for the inertial sea
wave energy converter. IEEE Trans Ind Appl 2014;50(3):181728.
[143] Richter M, Magana ME, Sawodny O, Brekken TKA. Power optimisation of a
point absorber wave energy converter by means of linear model predictive
control. IET Renew Power Gen 2014;8(2):20315.
[144] Liu C, Yu H, Hu M, Liu Q, Zhou S, Huang L. Research on a permanent magnet
tubular linear generator for direct drive wave energy conversion. IET Renew
Power Gen 2014;8(3):2818.
[145] Oetinger D, Magana ME, Sawodny O. Decentralized model predictive control
for wave energy converter arrays. IEEE Trans Sustain Energy 2014;5(4):1099
107.
[146] Ekstrom R, Kurupath V, Bostrom C, Waters R, Leijon M. Evaluating constant
DC-link operation of wave energy converter. J Dyn Syst-T Asme 2013;136(1)
014501-0141.
[147] Velez C, Qu Z, Lin KC, Jin S. Design, modeling and optimization of an ocean
wave power generation buoy. Mar Technol Soc J 2014;48(4):5160.
[148] Sanchez EV, Hansen RH, Kramer MM. Control performance assessment and
design of optimal control to harvest ocean energy. IEEE J Ocean Eng 2015;40
(1):1526.
[149] Amann K, Magana ME, Sawodny O. Model predictive control of a nonlinear
2-body point absorber wave energy converter with estimated state feedback.
IEEE Trans Sustain Energy 2015;6(2):33645.
[150] Ozkop E, Sharaf AM, Altas IH. An adaptive fuzzy PI controlled bus quantity
enhancer for wave energy systems. Turk J Electr Eng Co 2014. http://dx.doi.
org/10.3906/elk-1312-198.
[151] Nunes G, Valerio D, Beirao P, da Costa JS. Modelling and control of a wave

E. Ozkop, I.H. Altas / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 67 (2017) 106115

energy converter. Renew Energy 2011;36(7):191321.

[152] Korde UA. Performance of a wave energy device in shallow-water nonlinear
waves: part II. Appl Ocean Res 1997;19(1):1320.
[153] Korde UA. On providing a reaction for efcient wave energy absorption by
oating devices. Appl Ocean Res 1999;21(5):23548.
[154] Falco AFD, Justino PAP. OWC wave energy devices with air ow control.
Ocean Eng 1999;26(12):127595.
[155] Korde UA. Efcient primary energy conversion in irregular waves. Ocean Eng
1999;26(7):62551.
[156] Korde UA. Control system applications in wave energy conversion. Oceans
2000 MTS/IEEE Conference and Exhibition: Providence, RI, USA, 2000;3: pp.
181724.
[157] Falco AFD. Control of an oscillating-water-column wave power plant for
maximum energy production. Appl Ocean Res 2002;24(2):7382.
[158] Falco AFD, Rodrigues RJA. Stochastic modelling of OWC wave power plant
performance. Appl Ocean Res 2002;24(2):5971.
[159] Sharmila N, Jalihal P, Swamy AK, Ravindran M. Wave powered desalination
system. Energy 2004;29(11):165972.
[160] Barnes M, El-Feres R, Kromlides S, Arulampalam A. Power quality improvement for wave energy converters using a D-STATCOM with real energy storage. 2004 1st International Conference on Power Electronics Systems and
Applications: Hong Kong, China, 2004; pp. 727.
[161] Wang L, Lee DJ, Lee WJ, Chen Z. Analysis of a novel autonomous marine
hybrid power generation/energy storage system with a high-voltage direct
current link. J Power Sources 2008;185(2):128492.
[162] Lopes MFP, Hals J, Gomes RPF, Moan T, Gato LMC, Falcao AFD. Experimental
and numerical investigation of non-predictive phase-control strategies for a
point-absorbing wave energy converter. Ocean Eng 2009;36(5):386402.
[163] Jayashankar V, Anand S, Geetha T, Santhakumar S, Kumar VJ, Ravindran M,
Setoguchi T, Takao M, Toyota K, Nagata S. A twin unidirectional impulse
turbine topology for OWC based wave energy plants. Renew Energ 2009;34
(3):6928.
[164] Amundarain M, Alberdi M, Garrido AJ, Garrido I, Maseda J. Wave energy
plants: control strategies for avoiding the stalling behaviour in the Wells
turbine. Renew Energy 2010;35(2):263948.
[165] OSullivan D, Grifths J, Egan MG, Lewis AW. Development of an electrical
power take off system for a sea-test scaled offshore wave energy device.
Renew Energy 2011;36(4):123644.
[166] Alberdi M, Amundarain M, Garrido A, Garrido I. Neural control for voltage
dips ride-through of oscillating water column-based wave energy converter
equipped with doubly-fed induction generator. Renew Energy 2012;48:16
26.
[167] Falcao AFO, Henriques JCC, Candido JJ. Dynamics and optimization of the
OWC spar buoy wave energy converter. Renew Energy 2012;48:36981.
[168] Murray DB, Hayes JG, OSullivan DL, Egan MG. Supercapacitor testing for
power smoothing in a variable speed offshore wave energy converter. IEEE J
Ocean Eng 2012;37(2):3018.
[169] Hsieh MF, Lin IH, Dorrell DG, Hsieh MJ, Lin CC. Development of a wave energy
converter using a two chamber oscillating water column. IEEE Trans Sustain
Energy 2012;3(3):48297.
[170] Fonseca N, Pessoa J. Numerical modeling of a wave energy converter based
on U-shaped interior oscillating water column. Appl Ocean Res 2013;40:60
73.
[171] Zullah MA, Lee YH. Performance evaluation of a direct drive wave energy
converter using CFD. Renew Energy 2013;49:23741.
[172] Heikkinen H, Lampinen MJ, Boling J. Analytical study of the interaction between waves and cylindrical wave energy converters oscillating in two
modes. Renew Energy 2013;50:15060.
[173] Henriques JCC, Falcao AFO, Gomes RPF, Gato LMC. Latching control of an

[174]

[175]

[176]

[177]

[178]
[179]

[180]

[181]

[182]

[183]
[184]

[185]
[186]

[187]

[188]
[189]
[190]
[191]

[192]
[193]
[194]

115

oscillating water column spar-buoy wave energy converter in regular waves. J

Offshore Mech Arct 2013;135(2):021902/18.
Samrat NH, Bin Ahmad N, Choudhury IA, Bin Taha Z. Modeling, control, and
simulation of battery storage photovoltaic-wave energy hybrid renewable
power generation systems for island electrication in Malaysia. J Sci World
2014;2014:121.
Fusco F, Ringwood JV. Hierarchical robust control of oscillating wave energy
converters with uncertain dynamics. IEEE Trans Sustain Energy 2014;5
(3):95866.
Kazmierkowski MP, Jasinski M. Power electronics for renewable sea wave
energy. 12th International Conference on Optimization of Electrical and
Electronic Equipment, OPTIM 2010: Brasov, Romania, 2010; pp. 13811386.
Igic P, Zhou Z, Kanpp W, MacEnri J, Sorensen HC, Friis-Madsen E. Multimegawatt offshore wave energy converters-electrical system conguration
and generator control strategy. IET Renew Power Gen 2011;5(1):107.
Bracco G, Giorcelli E, Mattiazzo G. ISWEC: a gyroscopic mechanism for wave
power exploitation. Mech Mach Theory 2011;46(10):141124.
Fernandez H, Iglesias G, Carballo R, Castro A, Fraguela JA, Taveira-Pinto F,
Sanchez M. The new wave energy converter wavecat: concept and laboratory
tests. Mar Struct 2012;29(1):5870.
Clement A, McCullen P, Falcao A, Fiorentino A, Gardner F, Hammarlund K,
Lemonis G, Lewis T, Nielsen K, Petroncini S, Pontes MT, Schild P, Sjostrom BO,
Sorensen HC, Thorpe T. Wave energy in Europe: current status and perspectives. Renew Sust Energ Rev 2002;6(5):40531.
Langhamer O, Haikonen K, Sundberg J. Wave power-sustainable energy or
environmentally costly? A review with special emphasis on linear wave
energy converters Renew Sust Energ Rev 2010;14(4):132935.
Grecian WJ, Inger R, Attrill MJ, Bearhop S, Godley BJ, Witt MJ, Votier SC.
Potential impacts of wave-powered marine renewable energy installations
on marine birds. IBIS 2010;152(4):68397.
2014 Annual report: Implementing agreement on ocean energy systems. The
Executive Committee of Ocean Energy Systems 2014.
REN21. Renewables 2015 Global Status Report. Available from: http://www.
ren21.net/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/REN12-GSR2015_Onlinebook_low1.
pdf. Accessed 9.01.15.
Falnes J. Optimum control of oscillation of wave-energy converters. Int J
Offshore Polar 2002;12(2):14755.
Yavuz H, Mistikoglu S, Stallard T. Processing irregular wave measurements to
enhance point absorber power capture performance. Ocean Eng 2011;38
(4):68498.
McCabe AP, Stallard TJ, Baker NJ, Yavuz H. Estimation of the responses of
axisymmetric bodies in spread irregular waves. Ocean Eng 2007;34
(10):137182.
Rodriguez GR, Soares CG. Correlation between successive wave heights and
periods in mixed sea states. Ocean Eng 2001;28(8):100930.
Wens M, Steyaert M. Design and implementation of fully-integrated inductive DC-DC converters in standard CMOS.New York: Springer; 2011.
Kazimierczuk MK. Pulse-width modulated DC-DC power converters.United
Kingdom: Wiley; 2008.
Carrasco JM, Franquelo LG, Bialasiewicz JT, Galvan E, Guisado RCP, Prats
MAM, Leon JI, Moreno-Alfonso N. Power-electronic systems for the grid integration of renewable energy sources: a survey. IEEE Trans Ind Electron
2006;53(4):100216.
Bellar MD, Wu TS, Tchamdjou A, Mahdavi J, Ehsani M. A review of softswitched DC-AC converters. IEEE Trans Ind Appl 1998;34(4):84760.
http://www.emec.org.uk/marine-energy/wave-devices/.
Margheritini L, Hansen AM, Frigaard P. A method for EIA scoping of wave
energy converters-based on classication of the used technology. Environ
Impact Assess Rev 2012;32:3344.