You are on page 1of 80

Table of Contents

Chapter 1............................................................................................................ 7
INTRODUCTION................................................................................................. 7
1.1 Basic Concepts............................................................................................. 8
1.2 Why HVAC Is Important.................................................................................9
1.3 Benefits of HVAC........................................................................................ 11
1.3.1 Lower Utility Bills............................................................................ 11
1.3.2 Healthy Air...................................................................................... 11
1.3.3 Life of the System...........................................................................11
1.3.4 Efficiency........................................................................................ 11
1.3.5 Less Emergency Repairs.................................................................12
1.3.6 Interested in a career in the HVAC/R industry.................................12
Chapter 2.......................................................................................................... 13
TAKE OFF DATA............................................................................................... 13
2.1 Basic Information........................................................................................ 14
2.2 Steps involved in gathering take off data............................................................14
2.2.1 Assigning the Rooms a Specific number.........................................14
2.2.2 Calculating Areas of All Walls..........................................................14
2.2.3 Calculating Areas of All Glass..........................................................15
2.2.4 Floor and Roof slabs........................................................................16
2.2.5 Occupancy...................................................................................... 16
2.5.6 Lights, Fans, Computer and Appliances..........................................16
2.5.7 Ventilation Rate............................................................................... 17
Chapter 3.......................................................................................................... 18
COOLING LOAD CALCULATIONS.......................................................................18
3.1Heating and cooling loads...............................................................................19
3.2 Design Conditions....................................................................................... 20
3.3 Cooling Loads Classified by Source..................................................................21
3.4 Cooling Loads Classified by Kinds of Heat.........................................................23
3.4.1 Sensible Loads................................................................................23
1

3.4.2 Latent Loads................................................................................... 23


3.5 Cooling Loads Classified by Inside-Outside Environment.......................................24
3.5.1Transfer Loads..................................................................................24
3.5.2 Solar Load....................................................................................... 29
3.5.3 Ventilation & Infiltration Air.............................................................34
3.5.4 Internal Loads................................................................................. 36
3.6 TOTAL LOAD............................................................................................ 38
Chapter 4.......................................................................................................... 40
DUCT SIZING AND DUCT LAYOUTS...................................................................40
4.1 Introduction............................................................................................... 41
4.2 General rules for duct design...........................................................................41
4.3 Equal friction method................................................................................... 41
4.4 Calculations............................................................................................... 43
4.4.1 Pressure Drop..................................................................................43
4.4.2 Velocity........................................................................................... 43
4.4.3 Flow Rate........................................................................................ 44
4.4.5 Length............................................................................................. 45
4.4.6 Pressure loss...................................................................................45
4.5 Lay Outs................................................................................................... 45
4.5.1 Air Handling Units...........................................................................45
4.5.2 Chillers............................................................................................ 46
4.5.3 Chilled Water Pumps.......................................................................47
4.5.4 Supply Air Ducts (SAD)...................................................................48
4.5.5 Return Air Grills...............................................................................49
4.5.6 Diffusers.......................................................................................... 49
Chapter 5.......................................................................................................... 51
Chilled Water Piping Layout and Sizing.....................................................................51
5.1 Introduction............................................................................................... 52
5.1.1 Water pressure................................................................................53
5.1.2 Water flow rate...............................................................................54
5.1.3 Flow rate and pipe size Acceptable Solutions.................................55
5.1.4 Systems.......................................................................................... 55
5.1.5 Backflow......................................................................................... 56
2

5.1.6 Mains connection............................................................................56


5.2 Pipe materials and specifications......................................................................56
5.3 Pipe System Layouts.................................................................................... 56
5.3.1 Two Pipe Systems............................................................................57
5.3.2 Four Pipe Systems...........................................................................57
5.4 Pipe Arrangements....................................................................................... 58
5.4.1 Direct Return...................................................................................58
5.4.2 Reverse Return............................................................................... 59
Chapter 6.......................................................................................................... 61
Equipment Selection............................................................................................. 61
6.1 A Summary................................................................................................ 62
6.2 Air Handling Unit Schedule (AHU) Specifications...............................................62
6.2.1 39G offers....................................................................................... 62
6.2.2 Quick Selection............................................................................... 63
6.2.3 Unit Size Selection..........................................................................63
6.2.4 Guide Specifications.......................................................................64
6.2.5 Air Handling Unit Schedule.............................................................68
6.3 Chiller Plans............................................................................................... 68
6.3.1 Circuit Layout..................................................................................68
6.3.2 Fan with Available Pressure.............................................................69
6.3.3 Physical Data of 30XAS...................................................................69
6.3.4 Electrical Data.................................................................................72
6.3.5 Operating Limits............................................................................. 72
6.3.5 Energy Efficiency............................................................................ 72
6.3.6 Chiller Schedule.............................................................................. 73
6.4 Chilled Water Pumps.................................................................................... 73
6.4.1 Key Features................................................................................... 74
6.4.2 Performance.................................................................................... 74
6.4.3 Mode Operations.............................................................................75
6.4.5 Chilled Water Pumps Schedule........................................................75
Annexure.......................................................................................................... 76
Bibliography...................................................................................................... 77
List of Drawings................................................................................................. 78
3

List Of Tables
Table 1 Design conditions for the different States.........................................................21
Table 2 Thermal Resistances of the different materials...................................................25
Table 3 Cooling load temperature difference for different types of building depending upon their
capacity............................................................................................................. 27
Table 4 CLTD for roof and ceilings...........................................................................29
Table 5 SHGC at 32 and 40 degrees north latitude........................................................30
Table 6 (CLF) for glass with interior shading..............................................................31
Table 7 Shading Co efficient...................................................................................34
Table 8 Velocity of different system depending upon the type of ducts selected....................44
Table 9 Floor wise description of capacity in tons and KW along with Volume flow rate.........62
Table 10 Unit Size Selection Table...........................................................................64
Table 11 Air Handling Unit Schedule........................................................................68
Table 12 Fan with the Available Pressure...................................................................69
Table 13 Physical Data of 30 XAS........................................................................... 69
Table 14 Electrical Data of the selected Model 30XAS..................................................72
Table 15 Operating Limits of the selected chiller..........................................................72
Table 16 Energy Efficiencies at 46 degree temp...........................................................73
Table 17 Chiller Plans........................................................................................... 73
Table 18 Performance Table of a Pump......................................................................74
Table 19 Chilled Water Pumps Schedule....................................................................75

List of Figures
Figure1 show cooling load calculations in a space.......................................................................22
Figure 2 shows cooling load distribution in the form of Graph.....................................................39
Figure 3 Air Handling Unit...........................................................................................................46
Figure 4 Chillers...........................................................................................................................47
Figure 5 Chilled Water Pump........................................................................................................48
Figure 6 A supply air duct.............................................................................................................48
Figure 7 Return Air Grills.............................................................................................................49
Figure 8 A square shaped diffusers which supply air in all four directions...................................50
Figure 9 showing the concept of heat conveying process.............................................................53
Figure 10 2 pipe system................................................................................................................57
Figure 11 4 pipe system................................................................................................................58
Figure 12 Direct Return................................................................................................................59
Figure 13 Reverse Return.............................................................................................................59
Figure 14 Comparison of Direct and Reverse Return...................................................................60
Figure 15 Typical hydronic Circuit layout of A Chiller we used...................................................69
Figure 16 Key features of a pump.................................................................................................74
Figure 17 Performance Curve for Selecting a Pump.....................................................................75

Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION

1.1 Basic Concepts


HVAC system design is a sub discipline of mechanical engineering, based on the
principles of thermodynamics, fluid mechanics, and heat transfer. Refrigeration is
sometimes added to the field's abbreviation as HVAC&R or HVACR. HVAC stands for
heating, ventilation, and air conditioning. HVAC is important in the design of medium to
large industrial and office buildings such as skyscrapers and in marine environments such
as aquariums, where safe and healthy building conditions are regulated with respect to
temperature and humidity, using fresh air from outdoors. Air conditioning and
refrigeration are provided through the removal of heat. Heat can be removed
through radiation, convection, or conduction. Refrigeration conduction media such as
water, air, ice, and chemicals are referred to as refrigerants. A refrigerant is employed
either

in

heat

pump system

in

which

a compressor is

used

to

drive

thermodynamic refrigeration cycle, or in a free cooling system which uses pumps to


circulate a cool refrigerant (typically water or a glycol mix). Free cooling systems can
have very high efficiencies, and are sometimes combined with seasonal thermal energy
storage so the cold of winter can be used for summer air conditioning. Common storage
mediums are deep aquifers or a natural underground rock mass accessed via a cluster of
small-diameter, heat exchanger equipped boreholes. Some systems with small storages
are hybrids, using free cooling early in the cooling season, and later employing a heat
pump to chill the circulation coming from the storage. The heat pump is added-in because
the storage acts as a heat sink when the system is in cooling (as opposed to charging)
mode, causing the temperature to gradually increase during the cooling season.
An air conditioning system, or a standalone air conditioner, provides cooling, ventilation,
and humidity control for all or part of a building.
In variable climates, the system may include a reversing valve that switches from heating
in winter to cooling in summer. By reversing the flow of refrigerant, the heat pump
refrigeration cycle is changed from cooling to heating or vice versa. This allows a facility
to be heated and cooled by a single piece of equipment by the same means, and with the
same hardware.
7

Central, 'all-air' air conditioning systems (or package systems) with a combined outdoor
condenser/evaporator unit are often installed in modern residences, offices, and public
buildings, but are difficult to retrofit (install in a building that was not designed to receive
it) because of the bulky air ducts required.
An alternative to central systems is the use of separate indoor and outdoor coils in split
systems. These systems, although most often seen in residential applications, are gaining
popularity in small commercial buildings. The evaporator coil is connected to a remote
condenser unit using refrigerant piping between an indoor and outdoor unit instead of
ducting air directly from the outdoor unit. Indoor units with directional vents mount onto
walls, suspended from ceilings, or fit into the ceiling. Other indoor units mount inside the
ceiling cavity, so that short lengths of duct handle air from the indoor unit to vents or
diffusers around the rooms.
Air conditioned buildings often have sealed windows, because open windows would
work against an HVAC system intended to maintain constant indoor air conditions.
All modern air conditioning systems, even small window package units, are equipped
with internal air filters. These are generally of a lightweight gauzy material, and must be
replaced or washed as conditions warrant. For example, a building in a high dust
environment, or a home with furry pets, will need to have the filters changed more often
than buildings without these dirt loads. Failure to replace these filters as needed will
contribute to a lower heat exchange rate, resulting in wasted energy, shortened equipment
life, and higher energy bills; low air flow can result in "iced-up" or "iced-over"
evaporator coils, which can completely stop air flow. Additionally, very dirty or plugged
filters can cause overheating during a heating cycle, and can result in damage to the
system or even fire.

1.2 Why HVAC Is Important

Modern air conditioning is critical to almost every facet of advancing human activity.
Although there have been great advances in HVAC, there are several areas where active
research and debate continue.
Indoor air quality is one that directly affects us. In many countries of the world there is a
rapid rise in asthmatics and increasing dissatisfaction with indoor-air-quality in buildings
and planes. The causes and effects are extremely complex. A significant scientific and
engineering field has developed to investigate and address these issues. Greenhouse gas
emissions and the destruction of the earths protective ozone layer are concerns that are
stimulating research. New legislation and guidelines are evolving that encourage:
recycling; the use of new forms of energy; less energy usage; and low polluting materials,
particularly refrigerants. All these issues have a significant impact on building design,
including HVAC systems and the design codes.
Energy conservation is an ongoing challenge to find novel ways to reduce consumption in
new and existing buildings without compromising comfort and indoor air quality. Energy
conservation requires significant cooperation between disciplines. For example, electric
lighting produces heat. When a system is in a cooling mode, this heat is an additional
cooling load. Conversely, when the system is in a heating mode, the lighting heat reduces
the load on the building heating system. This interaction between lighting and HVAC is
the reason that ASHRAE and the Illuminating Engineering Society of North America
(IESNA) joined forces to write the building energy conservation standard, Standard 90.1
2004, Energy Standard for Buildings Except Low-Rise Residential Buildings, homes,
office buildings, industrial plants, airplanes, cars and computer technology all rely on
complex HVAC/R systems to create and maintain safe, healthy and comfortable living
and working environments. Many industrial, medical, technical and commercial
processes also depend on sophisticated heating, cooling air quality and ventilation
systems. HVAC/R technicians are problem solvers - experts who contribute to making
equipment work better, more efficiently, quicker, and less expensively.
The HVAC/R industry is a $150 billion per year business nationally and employs millions
of people around the globe.

Many people make an investment in a HVAC system, yet fail to maintain proper upkeep.
An HVAC system is similar to that of a car it needs the proper care and maintenance to
function properly. A properly functioning HVAC system is one that will keep your home
cozy or cool for many years to come, which is why HVAC maintenance is important.

1.3 Benefits of HVAC

1.3.1 Lower Utility Bills


Saving money is one of the main reasons a person should maintain their HVAC unit. An
HVAC unit that is running efficiently, as well as a home that is properly insulated, means
less money spent on electricity, heating and cooling costs. HVAC maintenance is
also important to prevent the need for major repairs or entire replacements.

1.3.2 Healthy Air


A properly maintained HVAC unit will not only keep a home warm or cool, but it will
prevent problems with air quality. Clean filters and coils mean better breathing for an
entire family. An unmaintained HVAC unit is a breeding ground for dirt, mold and
bacteria, all of which can cause or worsen respiratory problems for those living in the
home or building.

1.3.3 Life of the System


The better a person maintains their HVAC unit, the longer that unit will be able to
function well and provide cooling and heating to a home or building. With proper HVAC
maintenance, a unit can last well over 10 years. Considering the amount of money a
person spends to install an HVAC unit, it makes sense they would want to keep that unit
running well for as long as possible.

1.3.4 Efficiency
10

As with the life of the system, a well-maintained HVAC unit will run more efficiently.
Research shows that dirty or unmaintained units need to work 20 percent harder to
produce the same amount of cooling or heating as a well-maintained machine. Less
energy will be expended when it is running, which means less stress on
the components of the machine. The less wear and tear on the machine means simple
maintenance during the spring and fall months. Maintenance will be much quicker and
smoother if a person takes the preventive steps to keep a system running in tip-top shape.

1.3.5 Less Emergency Repairs


Most HVAC units may need emergency repairs from time to time. Well-maintained units
are less likely to fail during the months of hard use (June through September and
December through March). Keeping a unit up-to-date on all inspections and maintenance
checks means less worry that the unit will break down when it is needed the most.

1.3.6 Interested in a career in the HVAC/R industry

HVAC/R is a necessity today for personal comfort, medical health, food preservation,
water supply and work productivity. In fact, all human activities rely on HVAC/R in one
way or another. This industry will produce thousands of new jobs in the next decades as
market for these products expand.
HVAC/R technicians plan, install and maintain the climate control systems that make our
environment more comfortable and functional. These jobs are plentiful thanks to the
construction boom and the continual need to upgrade existing systems for greater cost
and environmental efficiency. The HVAC/R field also offers variety, job security, respect,
upward mobility, great salary, lifelong employment, and opportunity. HVAC/R
professionals can use their skills just about any place in the world.

11

Chapter 2
TAKE OFF DATA

12

2.1 Basic Information


COMSATS Institute of Information Technology Sahiwal campus is situated half-way
between Lahore and Multan on COMSATS Road off G.T Road Sahiwal, was formally
inaugurated on September 23, 2007. The campus is purpose built and is spread over area
of 36 acres on land. It has 3 floors ground, first and second floor. We have started our
project with acquiring the architectural drawings of the all three floors along with the 4
orientations i.e north, south, east and west. From the original drawings we have taken out
a print on the tracing paper so that we can return them.

2.2 Steps involved in gathering take off data


The following steps are involved in gathering and completing the take off data sheet.
2.2.1 Assigning the Rooms a Specific number

Starting from the directors office we have assigned each room a number as R1, R2, R3
up to RN. The same thing was done with the first and ground floor. This is done so that
we may not suffer any difficulty.
2.2.2 Calculating Areas of All Walls

After assigning the room number the most important thing was to have all the areas of the
wall with all four orientations i.e north, south, east, west. We have calculated the area
from the architectural drawings in SI m square. The area was calculated using the very
basic formula
Area = Length * Width
13

The area of all the three floors was calculated on excel sheet. When we got the areas of
all the four walls, we multiplied the length, height and width to calculate the volume of
each room. Carrying on with this process we calculated the volume of all the rooms of all
the three floors.
Volume = Length * Width * Height

For the ground floor the complete volume is 6522.45 m3.


As the orientation of building is almost the same for all the three floors so they have an
equal volume.
For the 1st floor the complete volume is 6522.45 m3.
For the 2nd floor the complete volume is 6522.45 m3.

The is the way how we have calculated the areas and volumes of the complete
conditioned space.
2.2.3 Calculating Areas of All Glass

The method use for calculating the area of walls was similar to the method we used for
calculating for the glass.
The formula we used is
Area = Length * Breadth
For the ground floor the complete glass area

The complete west orientation glass area is 62.46 m2.


The complete west orientation glass area is 75.47 m2.
The complete west orientation glass area is 32.86 m2.
The complete west orientation glass area is 31.90 m2.

The total glass area of one floor is 202.69 m2.

14

For the 1st floor the complete glass area

The complete west orientation glass area is 58.99 m2.


The complete west orientation glass area is 56.20 m2.
The complete west orientation glass area is 23.51 m2.
The complete west orientation glass area is 36.69 m2.

The total glass area of one floor is 175.39 m2.

The orientation and structure of the 1st and floors is same so the values remains the same
as well.

2.2.4 Floor and Roof slabs

From the drawings we have found the thickness of floor and roof slabs. The thickness of
floor slab is 0.18 m2 and the thickness of the roof slab is 0.25 m 2 which remains constant
throughout.

2.2.5 Occupancy

Occupancy is very important while calculating the loads of the building. We have
estimated occupancy of student up to 50 in each class. The occupancy of faculty and
other staff remains the same through out.
The occupancy of the ground floor is almost 599.
The occupancy of the 1st floor is almost 691.
The occupancy of the 2nd floor is almost 890.

2.5.6 Lights, Fans, Computer and Appliances

15

For Ground Floor


The no. of tube lights are 250.
The no. of fans are 110.
The no. of computers are 122.
The no. of of other appliances are 39.

For 1st floor


The no. of tube lights are 238.
The no. of fans are 103.
The no. of computers are 122.
The no. of of other appliances are 59.

For 2nd floor


The no. of tube lights are 220.
The no. of fans are 97.
The no. of computers are 122.
The no. of of other appliances are 50.

2.5.7 Ventilation Rate

We have multiplied the occupancy with the factor 2.5 as it is a non smoking zone to
calculate the ventilation rate per second.
We found the rate of ventilation for ground floor is 14.97 L/s
the rate of ventilation for ground floor is 16.02 L/s
the rate of ventilation for ground floor is 2225.0 L/s

This is how we have calculated our take off data sheet which consists of the above data.
16

Chapter 3
COOLING LOAD CALCULATIONS

17

3.1Heating and cooling loads


Cooling & heating load calculations are normally made to size HVAC (heating,
ventilating, and air-conditioning) systems and their components. In principle, the loads
are calculated to maintain the indoor design conditions. The first step in any load
calculation is to establish the design criteria for the project that involves consideration of
the building concept, construction materials, occupancy patterns, density, office
equipment, lighting levels, comfort ranges, ventilations and space specific needs.
Architects and other design engineers converse at early stages of the project to produce
design basis & preliminary architectural drawings. The design basis typically includes
information on:
1) Geographical site conditions (latitude, longitude, wind velocity, precipitation etc.)
2) Outdoor design conditions (temperature, humidity etc)
3) Indoor design conditions
4) Building characteristics (materials, size, and shape)
5) Configuration (location, orientation and shading)
6) Operating schedules (lighting, occupancy, and equipment)
7) Additional considerations (type of air-conditioning system, fan energy, fan location,
duct heat loss and gain, duct leakage, type and position of air return system.
Before we have designed an efficient and effective air conditioning system, we first
calculated the load using established techniques. There are various methods in use. The
most basic of these methods is a rule-of-thumb value --for example, square feet of floor
area per ton of cooling. The "square-foot-per-ton" sizing method avoids calculating the
cooling load of the building and proceeds directly from the square footage of the
building. While this approach is rapid and simple, it does not account for orientation of
18

the walls and windows, the difference in surface area between a one story and a two-story
home of the same floor area, the differences in insulation and air leakage between
different buildings, the number of occupants, and many other factors. Such rules-ofthumb are useful in schematic design as a means of getting an approximate handle on
equipment size and cost.

3.2 Design Conditions


The amount of cooling that has to be accomplished to keep buildings comfortable in hot
summer depends on the desired condition indoors and on the outdoor conditions on a
given day. These conditions are, respectively, termed the indoor design condition and
the outdoor design condition.
The design conditions are directly related to human comfort. Current comfort standards,
ASHRAE Standard 55-1992 [4] and ISO Standard 7730 [5], specify a comfort zone,
representing the optimal range and combinations of thermal factors (air temperature,
radiant temperature, air velocity, humidity) and personal factors (clothing and activity
level) with which at least 80% of the building occupants are expected to express
satisfaction. As a general guideline for summer air-conditioning design most of the
comfort systems, the recommended indoor temperature and relative humidity are:
Summer: 43C outdoor 24C indoor temperatures 50% relative humidity
The standards were developed for mechanically conditioned buildings typically having
overhead air distribution systems designed to maintain uniform temperature and
ventilation conditions throughout the occupied space.

19

Table 1 Design conditions for the different States.

3.3 Cooling Loads Classified by Source


Cooling loads fall into the following categories, based on their sources:
1) Heat transfer (gain) through the building skin by conduction, as a result of the outdoorindoor temperature difference.
2) Solar heat gains (radiation) through glass or other transparent materials.
3) Heat gains from ventilation air and/or infiltration of outside air.
20

4) Internal heat gains generated by occupants, lights, appliances, and machinery.

Figure1 Cooling load calculations in a space.

In cooling load calculation, there are four related heat flow terms; 1) space heat gain, 2)
space cooling load, 3) space heat extraction rate and 4) cooling coil load.
The cooling load is an hourly rate at which heat must be removed from a building in
order to hold the indoor air temperature at the design value. In other words, cooling load
is the capacity of equipment required to account for such a load. Theoretically, it may
seem logical to address that the space heat gain is equivalent to space cooling load but in
practice Heat gain cooling load.
The primary explanation for this difference is the time lag or thermal storage affects of
the building elements. Heat gains that enter a building are absorbed/stored by surfaces
enclosing the space (walls, floors and other interior elements) as well as objects within
the space (furniture, curtains etc.) These elements radiates into the space even after the
heat gain sources are no longer present. Therefore the time at which the space may realize
the heat gain as a cooling load is considerably offset from the time the heat started to
flow. This thermal storage effect is critical in determining the instantaneous heat gain and
the cooling load of a space at a particular time. Calculating the nature and magnitude of

21

these re-radiated loads to estimate a more realistic cooling load is described in the
subsequent sections.

The convective heat flows are converted to space cooling load instantaneously whereas
radiant loads tend to be partially stored in a building. The cooling load for the space is
equal to the summation of all instantaneous heat gain plus the radiant energy that has
been absorbed by surfaces enclosing the space as well as objects within the space. Thus
heat gain is often not equal to cooling load.
In heating load calculations however, the instantaneous heat loss from the space can be
equated to the space heating load and it can be use directly to size the heating equipment.

3.4 Cooling Loads Classified by Kinds of Heat


There are two distinct components of the air conditioning load; (1) the sensible load (heat
gain) and (2) the latent load (water vapor gain).
3.4.1 Sensible Loads

Sensible heat gain is the direct addition of heat to a space which shall result in increase in
space temperatures. The factors influencing sensible cooling load:
1) Solar heat gain through building envelope (exterior walls, glazing, skylights, roof,
floors over crawl space)
2) Partitions (that separate spaces of different temperatures)
3) Ventilation air and air infiltration through cracks in the building, doors, and windows
3.4.2 Latent Loads

22

A latent heat gain is the heat contained in water vapor. Latent heat does not cause a
temperature rise, but it constitutes a load on the cooling equipment. Latent load is the
heat that must be removed to condense the moisture out of the air.
The sources of latent heat gain are:
1) People (breathing)
2) Cooking equipment
3) Housekeeping, floor washing etc.
4) Appliances or machinery that evaporates water
5) Ventilation air and air infiltration through cracks in the building, doors, and windows
The total cooling load is the summation of sensible and latent loads.

3.5 Cooling Loads Classified by Inside-Outside Environment


Buildings can be classified as envelope-load-dominated and interior-load-dominated. The
envelope heat flows are termed external loads, in that they originate with the external
environment. The other loads are termed internal loads, in that they are generated from
within the building itself. The percentage of external versus internal load varies with
building type, site climate, and building design decisions. It is useful to identify whether
internal or external loads will dominate a building, as this information should
substantially change the focus of design efforts related to control and energy efficiency.
3.5.1Transfer Loads

External cooling loads consist of the following


Sensible loads through opaque envelope assemblies (roofs, walls, floors)
Sensible loads through transparent or translucent envelope assemblies (skylights,
windows, glazed openings)
Sensible loads through ventilation and infiltration (air leakage)
Latent loads through ventilation and infiltration.

23

Because of the inherent differences in these types of heat flows, they are calculated
(estimated) using four different equations.
3.5.1.1 Load through roofs, external walls

The equation used for sensible loads from the opaque elements such as walls, roof,
partitions and the conduction through glass is:
Q = U * A * (CLTD)
Q = A * CLTD / R Total
U = Thermal Transmittance for roof or wall or glass.
R = Thermal Resistances
CLTD = Cooling Load Temperature Difference for roof, wall or glass.
The values of R and U are constant which are listed in the table below.
Table 2 Thermal Resistances of the different materials.

24

25

26

The CLTD values can be found from tables listed in the table below as it is also constant.
From the table we have calculated the values of R Total depending upon the type of material
of the walls.
RTotal = 0.9156 m2K/w
U = 1.092 W/m2K

Table 3 Cooling load temperature difference for different types of building depending upon their
capacity.

The CLTD is determined by the type of wall (assembly construction) and is affected by
thermal mass, indoor & outdoor temperatures, daily temperature range, orientation, tilt,

27

month, day, hour, latitude, solar absorbance, wall facing direction and other variables.
Corrections and adjustments are made if the conditions are different.
Depending upon the type of the building we selected we fall in the C category building
for CLTDmax.
Using the values from the table we have calculated the solar heat gain through the north,
west, south and east orientation buildings.
The solar heat gain through south, west, east, north is as

The total

3.5.1.2 Heat Gain through Building Walls

The heat flow through the wall is calculated by the following equation:
Q = U * A* (Ti - To)
OR
Q= A * (Ti - To) / Rtotal
3.5.1.3 Heat Gain through Building Roof

The heat flow through the roof is calculated by the following equation:
Q = U * A* (CLTD)
Or
Q = A * CLTD/ R Total
28

Just like the case with the walls, the materials used in the construction of roof shall be
used to calculate the resistance (R) and the U-value of the roof. The area of the roof is
calculated from building plans. The materials parameters and the solar time shall than be
used to determine the maximum CLTD value for the roof.
Table 4 CLTD for roof and ceilings.

3.5.2 Solar Load


3.5.2.1 Solar load through Glass

The equation used for radiant sensible loads from the transparent/translucent elements
such as window glass, skylights and plastic sheets is:
Q = A * (SHGC) * (CLF)
A = area of roof, wall or glass calculated from building plans
SHGC = Solar Heat Gain Coefficient
CLF = Solar Cooling Load Factor

29

SHGC is the total solar heat transmission which includes both directly transmitted energy
and indirectly transferred heat from energy initially absorbed by the glazing. Max SHGF
is the maximum solar heat gain factor for window.
The values of SHGC are listed below in the table.
Table 5 SHGC at 32 and 40 degrees north latitude.

Cooling Load Factor (CLF) is also a constant. The values are listed below in the table.
South Wall Gain =300*0.55*Area
North Wall Gain= 150*0.55*Area
West Wall Gain = 680*0.53*Area
East Wall Gain= 680*0.55*Area
CLF is the cooling load factor (dimensionless). CLF factors are used to account for the
fact that building thermal mass creates a time lag between heat generation from internal

30

sources and the corresponding cooling load. A CLF represents the fraction of the heat
gain that is converted to cooling load. The cooling load factor is defined as:
CLF = Sensible Cooling Load / Sensible Heat Gain

Table 6 (CLF) for glass with interior shading

Hence by putting the values of SHFG and CLF we have calculated the solar heat gain
through the windows.
For Ground floor
The solar heat gain through the north oriented window is 1,939.67 watts
The solar heat gain through the south oriented window is 6,053.65 watts
The solar heat gain through the east oriented window is 21,019.82 watts
The solar heat gain through the west oriented window is 21,261.37 watts

For 1st floor

31

The solar heat gain through the north oriented window is 1,939.67 watts
The solar heat gain through the south oriented window is 6,053.65 watts
The solar heat gain through the east oriented window is 21,019.82 watts
The solar heat gain through the west oriented window is 21,261.37 watts

For 2nd floor


The solar heat gain through the north oriented window is 1,939.67 watts
The solar heat gain through the south oriented window is 6,053.65 watts
The solar heat gain through the east oriented window is 21,019.82 watts
The solar heat gain through the west oriented window is 21,261.37 watts
The value of U for glass is 5.9 W/m2K
SC with venician blind =0.55

The total heat transfer laod through the wall are calculated using this data.

The total solar gain transfer through the glass for ground floor is 69.49 KW
The total solar gain transfer through the glass for first floor is 69.49 KW.
The total solar gain transfer through the glass for second floor is 69.49 KW.

3.5.2.2 Solar loads through glazing

Solar heat gain through glazing is a sum of the transmitted radiation and the portion of
the absorbed radiation that flows inward. The solar heat gain is estimated by a two-step
process. 1) For conduction and 2) the heat gain due to solar radiation transmitted through
or absorbed by glass.
The conduction heat flow for the windows is calculated closely to the same manner as
described in for walls and roof.
32

Q = U * A * CLTD
Where:
1) Q describes Sensible heat flow in Btu/hr
2) U is overall heat transfer coefficient for glazing and is inverse of the resistance of the
glazing material.
3) A is area of glazing including area of frame and is function of building design. Area is
calculated from plans and elevations.
Glass permits a portion of the solar radiation to be transmitted. This number is known as
the Solar Heat Gain Coefficient (formerly the Shading Coefficient). Shading devices
typically block the direct solar radiation, but not the diffuse.
The transmission solar heat gain through the windows is calculated separately for the
different directions, the windows are facing. The heat flow through the window due to
transmission is calculated by following equation:
Q = A s * max SHGF * SC * CLF
Where
Q describes Sensible heat flow
As is the un-shaded area of window glass, plastic including area of frame and is function
of building design. Area is calculated from plans and elevations.

SC (shading coefficient) is a measure of the shading effectiveness of a glazing product.


To determine shading coefficient one must first determine Solar Heat Gain Coefficient
(SHGC). Shading Coefficient is the dimensionless ratio of the SHGC of a particular
glazing compared to the SHGC of clear, double strength (DS or 1/8 thick) glass.
The values of SC are also constants which are listed below in the table.

33

Table 7 Shading Co efficient

3.5.3 Ventilation & Infiltration Air

Ventilation air is the amount of outdoor air required to maintain Indoor Air Quality for
the occupants and makeup for air leaving the space due to equipment exhaust, exfiltration
and pressurization.
We have find out the occupancy of each room to calculate the ventilation in L/s. the
occupancy of each floor is as
34

The occupancy at room in ground floor = 590


The occupancy at room in 1st floor = 691
The occupancy at room in 2nd floor = 730
We have multiplied the occupancy with 2.5 to calculate the ventilation rate.
The ventilation rate at room in ground floor = 1475L/s
The ventilation rate at room in 1st floor = 1602.5L/s
The ventilation rate at room in 2nd floor = 1825L/s
q Sensible = 1.23 * Q * (To Tc)
q Latent = 3000 * Q * (Wo Wc)
Q= volumetric flow rate of outside air (L/s)
To = Outside temperature, C
Ti = temperature of air leaving the cooling coil, C
Wo = Outside humidity ratio, kg (water) per kg (dry air)
Wi = Humidity ratio of air leaving the cooling coil, kg (water) per kg (dry air)
We have used a formula
Qsensible = 1.23Q(to-ti)
Using this formula we have calculated the sensible load for the three floors.
For ground Floor Qsensible = 35.77 KW
For 1st Floor Qsensible = 52.05 KW
For 2nd Floor Qsensible = 53.05 KW

We have calculated the latent loads of all the three floors separately room by room using
the formula

35

Qlatent = 3000Q(Wo-Wi)
For ground Floor Qlatent = 70.98 KW
For 1st Floor Qlatent = 105.58 KW
For 2nd Floor Qlatent = 113.47 KW
The total cooling load is the summation of sensible and latent loads.
So
Qventilation = Qlatent + Qsensible
For ground Floor Qventilation = 105.44 KW
For 1st Floor Qventilation = 157.64 KW
For 2nd Floor Qventilation = 165.66 KW

3.5.4 Internal Loads

Internal cooling loads consist of the following:


1) Sensible & latent loads due to people
2) Sensible loads due to lighting
3) Sensible loads due to power loads and motors (elevators, pumps, fans & other
machinery)
4) Sensible & latent loads due to appliances
An internal load calculation is the area of engineering judgment. The internal loads are
sometimes about 60% of the load; however, these data are generally the least amount of
information available to you at the design stage and therefore the generic rules are most
often employed to fix the variables. The equations used in estimating internal loads are:

3.5.4.1 People

Q sensible = N * (QS) * (CLF)


Q latent = N * (QL)
36

N = number of people in space.


QS, QL = Sensible and Latent heat gain from occupancy
CLF = Cooling Load Factor
CLF = 1.0, if operation is 24 hours or of cooling is off at night or during weekends.
By using the formula we have calculated the values of load by people and found it as
For ground floor the Qpeople is 45.66KW
For 1st floor the Qpeople is 48.84KW
For 2nd floor the Qpeople is 49.81KW

3.5.4.2 Lights fan and appliances

The lights result in sensible heat gain.


Q = 3.41 * W * FUT * FBF * (CLF)
W = Installed lamp watts input from electrical lighting plan or lighting load data
FUT = Lighting use factor, as appropriate
FBF = Blast factor allowance, as appropriate
CLF = Cooling Load Factor, by hour of occupancy
Note: CLF = 1.0, if operation is 24 hours or if cooling is off at night or during weekends.
By putting the values we have calculated the internal load of all the three floors.

The lights load of ground floor is 6.33 KW


The lights load of 1st floor is 7.07 KW
The lights load of 2nd floor is 7.33 KW

The fans load of ground floor is 9.33 KW

37

The fans load of 1st floor is 10.40 KW


The fans load of 2nd floor is 10.88 KW

The appliances load of ground floor is 57.33 KW


The appliances load of 1st floor is 60.62 KW
The appliances load of 2nd floor is 63.33 KW

The total internal load for 1st floor is 116.33 KW


The total internal load for 1st floor is 127.76 KW
The total internal load for 1st floor is 133.37 KW

3.6 TOTAL LOAD


The total load is the summation of external and internal load or both sensible and latent
loads.
We calculated all the four loads i.e transfer, solar, infiltration and internal separately for
each floor. We will sum up all the loads to calculate the values of total load.
Total Load = Qventilation + Qsolar + Qtransfer + Qinternal
Total Load for ground floor = 359.64 KW
Total Load for 1st floor = 359.01 KW
Total Load for 2nd floor = 366.01 KW
Usually 10% safety margin is added but it all depends on how accurate are the inputs.
The final load is then used to size the HVAC equipment. HVAC equipment is rated in
Btuh, but is commonly expressed in tonnage. A Btu (British thermal unit) is the amount

38

of heat needed to raise one pound of water one degree Fahrenheit. A Ton of cooling
load is actually 12,000 Btu per hour heat extraction equipment. The term ton comes from
the amount of cooling provided by two thousand pounds or one ton of ice.
Traditionally, cooling loads are calculated based on worst case scenarios. Cooling loads
are calculated with all equipment & lights operating at or near nameplate values,
occupant loads are assumed to be at a maximum, and the extreme outdoor conditions are
assumed to prevail 24 hours per day. Real occupant loads are seldom as high as design
loads. In detailed designing, the internal and external loads are individually analyzed,
since the relative magnitude of these two loads have a bearing on equipment selection
and controls. For example check the figure below:

Figure 2 Cooling load distribution in the form of Graph

Analysis of this breakup provides an idea of how much each component of the building
envelope contributes to the overall cooling load and what can be done to reduce this load.
Reducing solar heat gain through windows is clearly one of the key areas.
The architect must also be aware of the heat load equations and the calculation
methodology as these influence the architectural design decisions that will in turn
influence the energy consumption and comfort potential of the facility. The majority of
these decisions are made--either explicitly or by default--during the architectural design
process.
Information on each of the components of cooling load equations -- and the design
decisions that lie behind these equations -- is covered in the subsequent sections. There
39

are files attached which is a summary of all the gross load of each floor. The detailed
calculation data sheet is attached with the annexure.

Chapter 4
DUCT SIZING AND DUCT LAYOUTS

40

4.1 Introduction
The chief requirements of an air conditioning duct system are:
1. It should convey specified rates of air flow to prescribed locations
2. It should be economical in combined initial cost, fan operating cost and cost of
building space
3. It should not transmit or generate objectionable noise
Generally at the time of designing an air conditioning duct system, the required airflow
rates are known from load calculations. The location of fans and air outlets are fixed
initially. The duct layout is then made taking into account the space available and ease of
construction. In principle, required amount of air can be conveyed through the air
conditioning ducts by a number of combinations. However, for a given system, only one
set results in the optimum design. Hence, it is essential to identify the relevant design
parameters and then optimize the design.

4.2 General rules for duct design.


1. Air should be conveyed as directly as possible to save space, power and material
2. Sudden changes in directions should be avoided. When not possible to avoid sudden
changes, turning vanes should be used to reduce pressure loss.
3. Diverging sections should be gradual. Angle of divergence 20

4. Aspect ratio should be as close to 1.0 as possible. Normally, it should not exceed 4
5. Air velocities should be within permissible limits to reduce noise and vibration
6. Duct material should be as smooth as possible to reduce frictional losses Version 1

41

4.3 Equal friction method


In this method the frictional pressure drop per unit length in the main and branch ducts
(p /L) are kept same, i.e.,
f

(p /L)A = (p /L)B = (p /L)C = (p /L)D


f
f
f
f

Then the stepwise procedure for designing the duct system is as follows:
i. Select a suitable frictional pressure drop per unit length (p /L) so that the combined
f
initial and running costs are minimized.
ii. Then the equivalent diameter of the main duct (A) is obtained from the selected value
of (p /L) and the airflow rate. As shown in Fig.38.1, airflow rate in the main duct QA is
f
equal to the sum total of airflow rates to all the conditioned zones.
QA = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 + Q4 + Q5 =n i=1 Qi
From the airflow rate and (pf/L) the equivalent diameter of the main duct (Deq,A) can be
obtained either from the friction chart or using the frictional pressure drop equation, i.e.,
(Deq,A) = {0.022243 QA1.852/(p /L)A}(1/4.937)
f
iii. Since the frictional pressure drop per unit length is same for all the duct runs, the
equivalent diameters of the other duct runs, B to I are obtained from the equation
1.852

{Q

/ D 4.937eq,A }A = {Q1.852/ D 4.937eq,A }B = {Q1.852/ D 4.937eq,A }C

iv. If the ducts are rectangular, then the two sides of the rectangular duct of each run are
obtained from the equivalent diameter of that run and by fixing aspect ratio as explained
earlier. Thus the dimensions of the all the duct runs can be obtained. The velocity of air
through each duct is obtained from the volumetric flow rate and the cross-sectional area.
v. Next from the dimensions of the ducts in each run, the total frictional pressure drop of that
run is obtained by multiplying the frictional pressure drop per unit length and the length, i.e.,
42

Pf,A = (p /L)A . LA
f

Pf,B = (p /L)B . LB
f

vi. Next the dynamic pressure losses in each duct run are obtained based on the type of bends
or fittings used in that run.
vii. Next the total pressure drop in each duct run is obtained by summing up the frictional and
dynamic losses of that run, i.e.,
PA = Pf,A + Pd,A

PB = Pf,B + Pd,B

4.4 Calculations
We have divided one floor into two halves to divide the load on the combination of Air
handling Unit and chillers. For this purpose we have used equal friction method. In this
method we have to calculate the pressure drop along each run.
Following are the steps involved in calculating the pressure drop along each run.

4.4.1 Pressure Drop

Pressure drop is calculated using the formula


(D

eq,A

) = {0.022243 QA1.852/(p /L)A}(1/4.937)


f

As we are not having the value of value of (Deq,A) so for this we ll assume a value of
velocity in the main duct.

4.4.2 Velocity

We have assumed the velocity in the main duct as 9m/s to find the value of (Deq,A) in
the main duct.

43

Table 8 Velocity of different system depending upon the type of ducts selected

Type of duct
Main duct
Main branch ducts
Branch Ducts

Comfort System
4-7
3-5
1-3

Industrial System
8-12
5-8
3-5

High speed Systems


10-18
6-12
5-8

4.4.3 Flow Rate

The first step is to calculate the flow rate Q. we have calculated the volume flow rate of
each room by using the formula
Mass flow rate = q(total)/(1.006*Ts)
Ts = Temperature supplied = 15
Volume Flow rate = Mass/Density
Density = 1.3 kg/mcube
For Ground Floor Mass flow rate and vol flow rate are 20.03 and 15.53 respectively.
For 1st Floor Mass flow rate and vol flow rate are 20.79 and 15.30 respectively.
For 2ndFloor Mass flow rate and vol flow rate are 18.82 and 15.59 respectively.

44

4.4.5 Length

We have calculated the lengths from the architectural drawings.


4.4.6 Pressure loss

The pressure loss depends upon the pressure drop of straight duct, pressure drop of
elbows, and pressure drop through diffusers. In a run we will add all the pressure drops
and calculate the final pressure loss of that run.
After calculating all the pressure drops of all the runs now we select the pressure drop
which has a maximum value whether it is not the longest run.

4.5 Lay Outs


The layout consists of air handling uints, chillers, pumps, ducts, diffusers and grills.
Depending upon the building we have divided each floor into two halves. One half will
have one combination of air handling unit + chiller and the other half is having the same
combination. In this way the load is divided and split up into two halves. Lets see the
description of each air handling units and chiller.
4.5.1 Air Handling Units

An air handler, or air handling unit (often abbreviated to AHU), is a device used to
condition and circulate air as part of a heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning (HVAC)
system. Usually, an air handler is a large metal box containing a blower, heating and/or
cooling elements, filter racks or chambers, sound attenuators, and dampers. Air handlers
usually connect to ductwork that distributes the conditioned air through the building, and
returns it to the AHU. Sometimes AHUs discharge (supply) and admit (return) air directly
to and from the space served, without ductwork.

45

Figure 3 Air Handling Unit

We have selected two air handling units for each floor. So from this we decided to select
6 air handling units for the main building.
4.5.2 Chillers

A chiller is a machine that removes heat from a liquid via a vaporcompression or absorption refrigeration cycle. This liquid can then be circulated through
a heat exchanger to cool air or equipment as required. As a necessary byproduct,
refrigeration creates waste heat that must be exhausted to ambient or, for greater
efficiency, recovered for heating purposes. Concerns in design and selection of chillers
include performance, efficiency, maintenance, and product life cycle environmental
impact.
In air conditioning systems, chilled water is typically distributed to heat exchangers,
or coils, in air handling units or other types of terminal devices which cool the air in their
respective space(s), and then the water is re-circulated back to the chiller to be cooled
again. These cooling coils transfer sensible heat and latent heat from the air to the chilled
water, thus cooling and usually dehumidifying the air stream. A typical chiller for air
conditioning applications is rated between 15 and 1500 tons (180,000 to
18,000,000 BTU/h or 53 to 5,300 kW) in cooling capacity, and at least one manufacturer
can produce chillers capable of up to 6,000 tons of cooling. Chilled water temperatures
can range from 35 to 45 F (2 to 7 C), depending upon application requirements.

46

Figure 4 Chillers

Chillers are attached with the air handling units. Each air handling unit has one chiller
attached to it. So a combination of 6 (Air handling unit + chiller) for the whole building
was selected. We have selected air cooled chillers to save the land as land is money. For
water cooled chilled, we need a separate cooling tower. A new building is necessary for
its placement.
4.5.3 Chilled Water Pumps

Chilled water pumps are available in infinite number of pumping configurations. The
pumps have variable speed drives which are used when one pump feeds multiple chillers
and also when cooling loads are connected to the outside air temperature. A chilled water
pump circulates chilled water to and from heat exchangers that may be used in an air
conditioning system.

47

Figure 5 Chilled Water Pump

A combination of 1 air handling unit and chiller is provided with a pair of pumps. This is
done so that the load shifts. For 1 st eight hours one pump will have the entire load and for
the next eight hours the second will have the load. In this way both the pumps will get a
time to take rest. We have used a total of 12 pumps for 6 pairs of (Air handling units +
Chillers).
4.5.4 Supply Air Ducts (SAD)

Ducts are used in heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) to deliver and
remove air. These need airflows include, for example, supply air, return air, and exhaust
air. Ducts also deliver, most commonly as part of the supply air, ventilation air. As such,
air ducts are one method of ensuring acceptable indoor air quality as well as thermal
comfort.
A duct system is often called ductwork. Planning ('laying out'), sizing, optimizing,
detailing, and finding the pressure losses through a duct system is called duct design.

Figure 6 A supply air duct

48

The supply air ducts are connected to the air handling units from where they bring the
cool air inside.
4.5.5 Return Air Grills

The purpose of return air grill is o take back the hot air of the room to the air handling
units. The return air grills are attached to the air handling unit as well.

Figure 7 Return Air Grills

4.5.6 Diffusers

A diffuser is the mechanical device that is designed to control the characteristics of a


fluid at the entrance to a thermodynamic open system. Diffusers are used to slow the
fluid's velocity and to enhance its mixing into the surrounding fluid. In contrast,
a nozzle is often intended to increase the discharge velocity and to direct the flow in one
particular direction.
Frictional effects may sometimes be important, but usually they are neglected. However,
the external work transfer is always assumed to be zero. It is also assumed that changes
in thermal energy are significantly greater than changes in potential energy and therefore
the latter can usually be neglected for the purpose of analysis.
Diffusers
are
very
common
in heating,
ventilating,
and
airconditioning systems. Diffusers are used on both all-air and air-water HVAC systems, as
part of room air distribution subsystems, and serve several purposes:

To deliver both conditioning and ventilating air

Evenly distribute the flow of air, in the desired directions

To enhance mixing of room air into the primary air being discharged

49

Often to cause the air jet(s) to attach to a ceiling or other surface, taking
advantage of the Coand effect

To create low-velocity air movement in the occupied portion of room

Accomplish the above while producing the minimum amount of noise

When possible, dampers, extractors, and other flow control devices should not be placed
near diffusers' inlets (necks), either not being used at all or being placed far upstream.
They have been shown to dramatically increase noise production. For as-cataloged
diffuser performance, a straight section of duct needs serve a diffuser. An elbow, or
kinked flex duct, just before a diffuser often leads to poor air distribution and increased
noise.
Diffusers can be as a shape of round, rectangular, or can be as linear slot diffusers(LSDs,
e.g.: Linear slot diffusers takes the form of one or several long, narrow slots,mostly semiconcealed in a fixed or suspended ceiling.

Figure 8 A square shaped diffusers which supply air in all four directions

According to our requirement we have selected different sized a square shaped diffusers
in each room varying the capacity of each room starting from 1 and ending at 8.

This complete detail of the duct layout is on the drawing which is attached at the end.

50

Chapter 5
Chilled Water Piping Layout and Sizing

51

5.1 Introduction
The water supply system must be designed to achieve appropriate water pressure and
flow, and to avoid contamination to potable water.
The important points in this are

Water pressure
Water flow rate
Flow rate and pipe size Acceptable Solutions
System layout
Connection to the mains supply
Backflow
Mains connection
Pipe materials and specifications
As well as avoiding contamination and achieving the right pressure and flow, the system
must be suitable for the temperature of water carried. A well-designed and installed
system will also be durable, minimize noise from water flow and from problems such as
water hammer, and support efficient use of water.
All water supply systems use a combination of pipes (of different dimensions and
materials), valves and outlets to deliver water to building users. Some water supply
systems also use storage tanks and pumps. Designing a water supply system involves
getting all of these elements right so that clean water is delivered to the user at the
appropriate rate and temperature.

52

Figure 9 Concept of heat conveying process

5.1.1 Water pressure

If the aim is to provide for building users needs while also using water efficiently, the
right water pressure is crucial. If water pressure is too low, this will be inconvenient for
building users for example, because showers have poor water flow, and baths take a
long time to fill. If pressure is too high, this will lead to wastage of water, as well as high
wear and tear on the system.
Typically, new buildings in areas with mains water supply will have mains pressure
systems. Existing buildings, and buildings that are not connected to mains water, may
have low pressure systems or unequal pressure systems (with different pressures for hot
and cold water supply).
As an example of the difference in water usage, a low pressure hot water system shower
flow may average about 7 litres per minute, while a mains pressure shower may average
about 12.5 litres per minute.
Mains pressure systems require pressure limiting and pressure reducing valves to control
water pressure and temperature. Typically, pressure limiting or pressure reducing valves

53

will be used to control pressure in mains-supplied hot water systems or where high
pressure may lead to problems such as burst pipes.
Low pressure systems require few valves or controls. In low or unequal pressure systems,
pressure can be increased to adequate levels by storing water in a header tank (typically
in the ceiling space) so that gravity can be used to create water pressure. If a tank is being
used, see the BRANZ publications Water and Plumbing for details of installation
requirements.
Pressure can also be raised to adequate levels using a pressurising pump, in which case it
may be necessary to use pressure limiting and pressure reducing valves.
5.1.2 Water flow rate

The Building Code requires that sanitary fixtures and appliances have adequate water
supply at an adequate flow rate.
As with water pressure, flow rates are crucial. A flow rate that is too high will result in
water being wasted, whereas a flow rate that is too low will mean that sanitary fixtures
and appliances dont work properly.
Flow rate is affected by:

Water pressure
Pipe diameters The smaller the internal diameter of the pipe, the lower the

pressure and flow rate. (Note that pipes are generally referred to by their inside nominal
diameter (DN), but it is actually the internal diameter that counts; a pipe rated as DN 15
may have an actual inside diameter ranging between 1018 mm.)
Pipe lengths longer pipes will result in a lower flow rate
Number of bends and fittings the more bends in a length of pipework and the

more fittings, the lower the flow rate


Water temperature higher temperatures will tend to raise pressure and flow rates
(note: also see materials below).
A flow regulator can be used to maintain a constant flow, independent of water pressure.
As an example, if someone is in the shower and the kitchen tap is turned on full, the
temperature and flow are likely to remain more stable if a flow regulator is used.
54

Limiting the flow for a tap or appliance to a reasonable rate helps balance the available
pressure throughout the system. Regulating flow allows a simpler design and minimum
pipe sizes as peak flow rates can be specified accurately and can also reduce noise,
splashing taps, and water hammer.
Manufacturers recommendations must be referred to for pressure and flow information
when selecting tempering valves and outlets (taps, mixers and shower heads).
Flow rate can also be controlled by specifying low-flow outlets.
5.1.3 Flow rate and pipe size Acceptable Solutions

Building Code compliance document G12/AS1 sets out Acceptable Solution for flow
rates and pipe sizes. Pipes must be sized to achieve flow rates set out or the pipes must be
sized in accordance.
When calculating pipe size, the speed of the water (velocity) moving through the pipes
must not exceed 3.0 m/s.
5.1.4 Systems

In the design process, the layout of the plumbing system will largely follow room layout.
Nonetheless, there are many things to consider which relate to Code compliance, building
users comfort, and sustainability.
When planning a water supply layout, the following must be considered:

Pipe runs and lengths Keep pipe runs as short as possible. Pass pipes close to

fixtures to minimise the number of branches and unnecessary elbows, tees and joints.
Having longer pipe runs and more fixtures will reduce flow rate, increase heat losses, and
increase use of materials
Point of entry into the building This should be into a utility space such as

garage/laundry and include an accessible isolating valve, line strainer and pressure
limiting valve (if required)
Water heating system Locate centrally to reduce the length of pipe runs to
fixtures because longer pipe runs require more water to be drawn off before hot water is
discharged. Install a separate point-of-use water heater for fixtures that are more than 10
m from the main water heater
55

Noise prevention Avoid running pipes over or near bedrooms and living areas.

5.1.5 Backflow

Backflow is the unplanned reversal of flow of water (or water and contaminants) into the
water supply system. The system must be designed and used to prevent contamination
from backflow. See preventing backflow for more.
5.1.6 Mains connection

Where the water source is a mains supply, the network utility operator is responsible for
the water supplied to the property boundary. The property owner is then responsible for
providing the pipe work to bring the water into the building.
An isolating valve must be fitted at the point of connection to allow for maintenance and
repair of the buildings water supply system if required.

5.2 Pipe materials and specifications

The pipes used in a building must not contaminate potable water supply, and must be
suitable for the water pressure, flow rate and temperature of water they will be carrying.
This will be influenced by the materials used and also by other factors such as the wall
thickness.
Other considerations are durability, ease of installation, cost, and sustainability. Common
materials include copper, polybutylene (PB), unplasticised polyvinylchloride (uPVC or
PVC-U), polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP-3 or PP Type 3), and cross-linked
polyethylene (PEX).

5.3 Pipe System Layouts


All water systems, as typically installed can be classified in to two systems.
56

Two pipe systems


Four systems
5.3.1 Two Pipe Systems

A two-pipe fan coil system consists of fan coil units with single coils, which are
connected to two pipes (one supply pipe and one return pipe) that either provide hot
water or chilled water throughout the building. A building with a two -pipe system is
either entirely in a heating mode or entirely in a cooling mode. It is not possible to cool
some rooms while heating others.
A two-pipe system is usually operated in the heating mode in the Winter and the cooling
mode in the Summer. In the Spring and Fall it is not uncommon to have alternating hot
and cold spells, or cold mornings with warm afternoons. This would require that the
Owner either tolerate some temperature swings or switch the mode of the system. For
example, suppose a warm day was encountered in October, when the system was in the
heating mode. The Owner could either accept the lack of air conditioning for a few hours
or days, or manually switch the system from heating to cooling. Automatic switchover is
not recommended as it can lead to unnecessary cycling.
Two pipe systems cannot handle simultaneous heating and cooling, and are not
acceptable where there are internal rooms with high internal gains, such as computer
rooms. Two pipe systems are less complicated in the sense that there are fewer pipes,
coils, valves and controls.

Figure 10 2 pipe system

5.3.2 Four Pipe Systems

The system's piping consists of four insulated pipes, two supply and two return lines. One
set is dedicated to chilled water, kept between 60 degrees F and 40 degrees F. Another set
of pipes is dedicated to hot water, generally kept between 150 degrees F and 200 degrees
57

F. The pipes run to air handlers, which use the chilled or hot water to change the air
temperature.
The four-pipe HVAC system has a number of advantages over a two-pipe system. Fourpipe systems have separate heating and cooling fan coil units and separate pipes for
heating and cooling. This means that hot or chilled water is always available, so the
system can immediately change over from heating to cooling mode. Two-pipe systems
have to be manually switched over, which is not only inconvenient but time-consuming.
Four-pipe systems also can cool some rooms while heating others, offering great
flexibility in a building with a variety of heating and cooling needs.
Four-pipe HVAC systems have a number of disadvantages compared to a two-pipe
system. They are more expensive to install and maintain and have twice as many valves,
coils, controls and pipes to maintain. They also are twice as prone to congestion due to
the
increased
piping.

Figure 11 4 pipe system

5.4 Pipe Arrangements


There are two types of pipe arrangements which are mainly used.
Direct Return
Reverse Return
5.4.1 Direct Return

In a two-pipe direct return system, the return piping takes the water back to the pump by
the shortest possible path. Since the main piping is the most difficult and expensive
piping to install, this has the advantage of keeping the mains shorter. A direct return
system also routes terminals so that their locations on the supply and return pipes
correspond; that is, the first terminal on the supply is the first on the return, and the last
on the supply is the last on the return. A direct return system requires less main piping,
58

but because flow will be uneven (favoring the front terminals), the system will require
manual or automatic balancing valves.

Figure 12 Direct Return

5.4.2 Reverse Return

A reverse return system is routed to be the opposite of a direct return: the first terminal in
the supply is the last terminal on the main and vice-versa. This is possible because the
return is set up to be the same length as the supply, and it often runs in a circle around the
building. A reverse return system means that supplies and returns are the same length
throughout the water system, making for a more even water flow to all terminals.
However, unless the system is designed to be self-balancing, balancing valves will still be
necessary to ensure consistent water flow.

Figure 13 Reverse Return

59

Figure 14 Comparison of Direct and Reverse Return

The complete layout is designed one the drawing sheets which are attached in the
annexure.

60

Chapter 6
Equipment Selection

61

6.1 A Summary
The equipment is selected depending upon the type of arrangement and the structure of
the building. As the building is divided into three floors, to divide the load we have
selected two combinations of chiller + air handling unit for each floor. According to this
arrangement there are 6 pairs of chiller + air handling unit for the three floors. We have
selected two pumps for each pair which are arranged in a parallel sequence so that one
work for eight hours and then the other works for eight hours. A total of 12 pumps have
been selected for 6 pairs.

Lets see the description of general data through which we have to select the equipment.
Table 9 Floor wise description of capacity in tons and KW along with Volume flow rate

S. No.

Floors

Q cooling KW

1
2
3

Ground
1st
2nd

359.64
365.60
418.01

Q cooling
Tons
102.75
104.45
119.41

Area msq
1493.3
1493.3
1493.3

Vol flow rate


m3/s
14.5
15.01
17.2

6.2 Air Handling Unit Schedule (AHU) Specifications


The air handling unit we have selected is 39G which has a unit size 1825 with the face
coil area of 3.698 m2. Air volume
a.)1.5m/s minimum velocity (cooling or heating) is 5.55 m/s2
b.) 2.5m/s maximum velocity for cooling coil without drift eliminator 9.25 m/s2
c.) 4.5m/s maximum velocity for heating coil only 16.64 m/s2
6.2.1 39G offers

Units are design in accordance to: ARI Standard for coils (ARI 410)
Double wall with 1 & 2 40kg/m CFC-Free PU insulation (HCFC 141b). Isolates
insulation exposure to the air stream.
Wide range of coil offering 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 rows and 8, 10, 12, 14 FPI for chilled water.
Optimized coil circuiting. DX Coil (4, 6 rows) and Hot Water Coil (1, 2 rows) are also
available.
All chilled water, DX and Hot Water coils are factory pressure tested at 400 psig as
standard.
62

Coil tracks enable easy coil removal for complete cleaning and assurance of a dry unit
interior.
Powder painted sloped galvanized steel drain pan with bottom drainage.
Forward curved, Backward curved and Airfoil fan.
- Forward curved sizes 160 to 1000mm diameter
- Backward curved / Airfoil blade sizes 225 to 1000mm diameter
Low leak construction with hex socket compression, type latch and nitrile gasket on
mating panel parameter.
Factory installed unit base of 100mm height, constructed of 14 gauge galvanized steel.
6.2.2 Quick Selection

Carrier offers you three easy quick selection steps for 39G:
1.) Determine the unit size based on air flow or coil face area.
a.) 1.5m/s minimum velocity (cooling or heating).
b.) 2.5m/s maximum velocity for cooling coil without drift eliminator.
c.) 4.5m/s maximum velocity for heating coil only.
2.) Use roughing-in dimensions to find approximate size of base unit and it's accessory
sections.
3.) Compute weights of base casing unit
4.) To compute total of unit weight and respective fan, coil and motor drive package
weight (if applicable).
6.2.3 Unit Size Selection

The air handling unit we have selected is 39G which has a unit size 1825 with the face
coil area of 3.698 m2.

63

Table 10 Unit Size Selection Table

6.2.4 Guide Specifications

6.2.4.1 GENERAL

1 F ih 1. Furnish and install central air handling units of the type, size and capacity shown
on the equipment schedule.
2. Equipment schedules are based on Carrier 39G C-series. The design of the air handling
unit is based on the use of modular panels and extruded aluminum perimeter frames with
composite corner piece.
3. Units shall be horizontal/vertical draw-through type or horizontal blow-through type as
shown on the certified drawings.
In general, the unit shall consists of:
Mixing box section
Filter section
Coil section
Access or Plenum section
Fan section
6.2.4.2 CASING

1. Unit shall be constructed of a complete frame with easily removable panels. Removal
of any panel shall not affect the structural integrity of the unit.

64

2. All 39G unit sections shall be supplied with 14-gage G90 galvanized (100mm height)
steel structural unit base. Holes are provided for rigging purposes and are positioned to
suit optimum hoisting stability.
3. Casing panels shall be solid double wall of 50mm (or 25mm) nominal construction
with injection foam insulation in between. The outer panel shall be painted 0.5mm thick
galvanized steel (sky blue color RAL 5012) and inner panel shall be unpainted 0.5mm
thick galvanized steel. The coating shall meet or exceed ASTM B117 Standard for 500hour salt spray test.
4. The casing panels shall be insulated with injected insitu CFC-Free Polyurethane
insulation foam with thermal conductivity of 0.020W/mK and a density of 40kg/m3 in
between. The insulation shall be sandwiched and encapsulated between the inner and
outer panel. Exposed insulation is not acceptable.
5. Casing panels shall have no exterior exposed raw edges that could lead to rust
formation. All casing corners shall be radiused or chamfered.
6. All panels shall seal against a full casing perimeter with nitrile gasket to ensure a tight
seal.
7. Mixing boxes shall be solid double wall, insulated and complete with necessary air
dampers for return and fresh air mixing. Accessibility options shall be hinged access door
on hand side, hinged access doors on both sides, or removable access doors.
a. Viewports shall be available as a factory-installed option on the door of this section.
b. Marine lights shall be available as a factory-installed option.
8. Filter section shall be solid double wall, insulated and complete with necessary tracks
for filters installation.
Accessibility options shall be hinged access door on hand side, hinged access doors on
both sides, or removable access doors.
a. Pressure gages or switches shall be available as a factory-installed option
b. Filter sections shall be designed and constructed to house one of the following filter
types:
Face/side loading 25mm or 50mm pre-filters
Side loading 50mm angle filters
Face loading 529mm bag filters with 50mm pre-filters
Side loading 529mm bag filters
Face loading HEPA filters
9. Coil sections shall have solid double wall and insulated casing. Accessibility options
shall be hinged access door or removable access doors (applicable for vertical type).
10. Access and plenum sections shall have solid double wall and insulated casing.
Accessibility options shall be hinged access door on hand side, hinged access doors on
both sides or removable access doors.
a. Viewports shall be available as a factory-installed option on the door of this section.
b. Marine lights shall be available as a factory-installed option. 11 F ti h ll h 11. Fan
section shall have solid double wall and insulated casing. Accessibility options shall be
hinged access door on hand side, hinged access doors on both sides or removable access
doors.
a. Viewports shall be available as a factory-installed option on the door(s) of this section.
b. IP44 marine lights shall be available as a factory-installed option.

65

c. Blow-thru sections shall have a diffuser plate as an integral part of the fan section if
used immediately downstream of the fan section.
6.2.4.3 FANS

1. Forward-curved fans shall have one double width double inlet (DWDI) fan wheel and
scroll. They shall be constructed of galvanized steel. They shall be designed for
continuous operation at the maximum rated fan speed and motor horsepower. Completed
fan assembly shall be statically and dynamically balanced in accordance to ISO 1940.
2. Backward inclined fans shall have one double width double inlet (DWDI) fan wheel
and scroll. The fan assembly shall be cleaned, primed and painted with alchidicmelamminic paint. They shall be designed for continuous operation at the maximum rated
fan speed and motor horse-power. Completed fan assembly shall be statically and
dynamically balanced in accordance to ISO 1940.
3. Airfoil fan sections shall have one double width double (DWDI) airfoil fan wheel and
scroll. The fan assembly shall be cleaned, primed and painted with epoxy paint.
Completed fan assembly shall be statically and dynamically balanced in accordance to
ISO 1940.
4. Fan wheels shall be keyed to the shaft and shall be designed for continuous operation
at maximum rated fan speed and motor horsepower. Fan wheels and shafts shall be
selected with a maximum operating speed 25% below the first critical.
5. Fan shafts shall be solid carbon steel, turned, ground, polished and coated with
protective paint. Hollow shafts are not acceptable.
6.2.4.4 DRIVES

1. The drive assembly shall consist of V-belts and a set of fan and motor pulley.
2. The V-belts shall be SPZ, SPA, SPB or SPC grades, oil and heat resistance and having
anti static characteristic which prevent electrical discharge.
3. The motor and fan pulley dimension shall conform to ISO 4183 and shall be using
taper-lock bush with set screws for easy and quick assemble and disassemble process.
The pulley shall be phosphated and coated with a layer of rust prohibitive paint for
protection against corrosion.
4. Drive shall be designed for a minimum 1.5 service factor as standard with a 2.0 service
factor options. Drives shall be fixed-pitch with variable pitch as an option. All drives
shall be factory mounted, with sheaves aligned.
6.2.4.5COILS

All cooling, heating and refrigerant (DX) coils shall be provided to meet the scheduled
performance. All coil performances shall be rated in accordance with ARI Standard 410
and shall be tested at 400 psig air pressure while submerged under water.
1. All water and refrigerant coils shall have minimum 12.7mm (1/2-in.) OD copper tubes
mechanically expanded into fins to ensure high thermal performance.
2. Aluminum fin type shall be with belled collars. Optional copper fins or fins with
protective coatings shall be supplied, if specified.

66

3. Aluminum-finned coils shall be supplied with die formed casing and galvanized steel
tube sheet. Optional stainless steel or aluminum tube sheet shall be available if specified.
Copper-finned coils shall be supplied with stainless steel casing and tube sheets.
4. Moisture eliminator shall be provided if specified on the equipment schedule. The
moisture eliminator material shall be mesh aluminum type or PVC type as specified.
Cooling and Heating Coils
1. Headers shall be constructed of steel with MPT connections. Headers shall have drain
and vent connections accessible from the exterior of the unit. Optional non-ferrous
headers with sweat connection shall be supplied if specified.
2. Coils shall be drainable, with non-trapping circuits and without turbulence promoting
devices. Coils will be suitable for a design working pressure of 300 psig at 93oC (cooling
coils) or 175 psig at 205oC (heating coils).
3. Coil shall be designed for counter flow arrangements.
6.2.4.6 ELECTRIC HEATERS

1. Electric heater capacity and steps shall be as indicated on the equipment schedule.
2. The electric heater element shall be constructed from 80/20 nickel chrome resistance
wire which is connected to terminal pins and centered in SS304 stainless steel sheath
tubes by compressed magnesium oxides.
3. The manufacturer shall furnish a control box containing contactor, thermostat and
circuit breaker. Heater control box shall be mounted on the designated hand side of the
unit.
6.2.4.7 FILTER SECTIONS

1. Provide the type and efficiency of the filters as per the equipment schedule.
2. High velocity filter sections shall accept 25mm or 50mm (G3 or G4) washable or
throw-away filters.
3. Angle filter sections shall accept 50mm (G3) washable filters of standard flat filter
sizes, arranged in a horizontal V formation.
4. Bag filter sections shall be capable of accepting (F5 - F9) bag filters with length up to
529mm with 22mm header.
5. Blow-thru HEPA filter sections shall contain a face loading filter frame and be capable
of accepting standard size
300mm deep HEPA filters (H13-H14).
6. Optional Magnehelic filter gages complete with necessary tubing to measure the
pressure drop across the filters shall be provided if specified.
6.2.4.8 MXB DAMPERS

1. Provide factory installed opposed acting dampers as per the approved drawings.
2. Damper frame shall be made of extruded and anodized aluminum. Damper blades shall
also be extruded and anodized aluminum airfoil shape to withstand high velocity and
static pressure. Dampers shall be provided with flexible synthetic blade edge seals for
low leakage application.
3. Damper shall be sectionalized to limit blade length to be less than 1800mm in order to
prevent excessive blade warping. Outdoor air and return air damper size shall be of the
same area for equal air mixing.
67

6.2.5 Air Handling Unit Schedule

Carrier
Table 11 Air Handling Unit Schedule

S.
No
.

Equipment
ID

Equipment
name

Qyt

Make

Model

Flow

AHU 1
AHU 2
AHU 3
AHU 4
AHU 5
AHU 6

Air Handling
Unit
(AHU)

Australia

39 G
(galaxy
AHU)

9.8 L/s

Sydney

6.3 Chiller Plans


The chiller we have selected is 30XAS with the cooling capacity of (174kw to 455kW) as
per our requirements.
6.3.1 Circuit Layout

68

Figure 15 Typical hydronic Circuit layout of A Chiller we used

6.3.2 Fan with Available Pressure


According to our requirement this data is what we have to use to select our fan with the available
pressure.
Table 12 Fan with the Available Pressure

6.3.3 Physical Data of 30XAS


Table 13 Physical Data of 30 XAS

69

70

71

6.3.4 Electrical Data


Table 14 Electrical Data of the selected Model 30XAS

6.3.5 Operating Limits


Table 15 Operating Limits of the selected chiller

6.3.5 Energy Efficiency

72

Table 16 Energy Efficiencies at 46 degree temp

6.3.6 Chiller Schedule


Table 17 Chiller Plans

S.

Equipment

No.

ID

CH 1

Qyt

Equipment

Make

Model

Name
6

Chillers

New

30

CH 2

castle

XAS

CH 3

Sydne

CH 4

Energy

Water

Pressure

Efficienc

Flow

drop

y
2.13

9.8

12 kPa

L/s

CH 5
CH 6

6.4 Chilled Water Pumps


The pump which we have selected upon our design requirements is PC3. Total 12 pumps
are attached to 6 combinations of air handling units and chillers. The arrangement is in
series.

73

6.4.1 Key Features

Figure 16 Key features of a pump

6.4.2 Performance
6.4.2.1 Performance Data
Table 18 Performance Table of a Pump

74

6.4.2.2 Performance Curves

Figure 17 Performance Curve for Selecting a Pump

6.4.3 Mode Operations

Auto Circulator adapts to system demand over time.


PC1 Lowest proportional-pressure curve
PC2 Highest proportional-pressure curve
PC3 Lowest constant-pressure curve
PC4 Highest constant pressure curve
Highest constant speed
Medium constant speed
Lowest constant speed
75

6.4.5 Chilled Water Pumps Schedule


Table 19 Chilled Water Pumps Schedule

S.

Equipmen

Equipmen

Make

Model

Qyt

Water

Pressur

Power

No.
1

t ID
P1 to P12

t Name
Chilled

Brisban

PC3

12

Flow
9.8

e drop
36kpa

kW
242

Water

L/s

Pumps
Darwin
This is the complete detail of equipment selection.

Annexure
The annexure consists of all the calculation of the excel data sheet arranged floor wise.
Load Calculation Data Sheet First Floor 15th April 2014.xlsx
Load calculation Data Sheet GF 2F-15April 2014.xlsx
..\Diffusers and Grills.xlsx

76

Bibliography

ASHRAE Handbook 2001 Fundamentals


ASHRAE Handbook 2002 Refrigeration
ASHRAE Handbook 2003 Applications
ASHRAE Handbook 2004 Systems and Equipment
ASHRAE Design Guide for Cool Thermal Storage, 1993
ASHRAE Underfloor Air Distribution Design Guide, 2003
ASHRAE Humidity Control Design Guide, 2001

1997 ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals

ASHRAE Cooling and Heating Load Calculation Manual

ASHRAE Standard 62, Indoor Air Quality

Trane C.D.S. Program Description and Capabilities

77

Elite Software Program Description and Capabilities

78

List of Drawings
Architectural drawings with the complete duct layout and pipe design layout of ground,
first and second floor.

79

You might also like