Modern Physics

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DOUBTS
DEFINITION
All
De-broglie wavelength
COMPARE
FRIE N D S
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Diagram
De Broglie's wavelength is the wavelength associated with a massive

particle,hypothesized by De Brogliethat explains Bohr's quantised orbits
by bringing in the wave-particle duality. It is written as
h
=
STUDY TOOLS
mv
Definition
Example
(de broglie wavelength)
DASH B OA RD
PREV I O US PAPERS
DISCUSS
Heisenberg uncertainty principle
ONLI N E COACHING
The position and momentum of a particle cannot be simultaneously

measured with arbitrarily high precision.
Formula
Also Practice This Chap

2
DEFINITION
Solve questions and clear all go

master this chapter.
Photons and Photoelectric Effec
xp >
2
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Stopping Potential and Einstein
E t >
2
Terms
Dual Nature
3
FORMULA
+ 1 more Goal
Uncertainty in position or momentum
Practice All Goals
xp >
2
wherex is the uncertainty in position,

p is the uncertainty in momentum and
is the reduced Planck's constant
DIAGRAM
Intensity of X-rays
DIAGRAM
Variation of photocurrent with potential for different intensity of

incident light
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ONLI N E COACHING
DIAGRAM
Variation of photocurrent with potential for different frequencies of

incident light

Terms
EXAMPLE
Solve problem on cathode ray tube

Example: A cathode ray tube has a potential difference of V volt between
the cathode and the anode. Find the speed of cathode rays.
Solution:
The kinetic energy of electrons is:
1
E =
mv
The potential between cathode and anode is V hence,

1
mv
= eV
2
v
2eV
=
m
19
2 1.6 10
=
31
9.1 10
v
12
= 0.35 10
5
v = 0.35 10 V
5
v = 5.9 10 V
5
v 6 10 V ms
EXAMPLE
Mass of a particle using de-Broglie wavelength

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The de-Brogliewavelength associated with a particle movingwith a

velocity of 10 m/s is 6.6 10 m.Then the mass of the particle is
2
CLASS 1 1
24
=
mv
34
MODULES
m =
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PRACT I C E
TEST S E R I ES
DOUBTS
6.6 10
=
24
6.6 10
12
= 10
kg
10
DEFINITION
Photocell
COMPARE
FRIE N D S
LEAD E R B OARD
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ONLI N E COACHING

Terms
A photocell is a technological application of the photoelectric effect.A

photocellconsists of a semi-cylindrical photo-sensitive metal plate C
(emitter) and a wire loop A(collector) supported in an evacuated glass or
quartz bulb. It is connected to the externalcircuit having a high-tension
battery B and microammeter (A).When light of suitable wavelength falls
on theemitter C, photoelectrons are emitted. Thesephotoelectrons are
drawn to the collector A.A photocell converts a change in intensity
ofillumination into a change in photocurrent.
10
DEFINITION
Particle and wave nature of light

Dual nature of light:
Sometimes it behaves like a particle (called a photon), which explains
how light travels in straight lines
Sometimes it behaves like a wave, which explains how light bends (or
diffracts) around an object
Light also shows interference properties, for example the formation of
dark and bright fringes in Young's Double Slit experiment illustrates this
fact. Light alsoexhibits polarization. Natural light coming from the sky is
partially polarised but it can be made fully polarised by passing through a
polaroid.
11
DEFINITION
Understand the difference between continuous and characteristic Xrays
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At certain sharply defined wavelengths, the intensity of X-rays is very large

as marked K , K in figure. These X-rays are called characteristic X-rays.
At other wavelengths the intensity varies gradually and theses X-rays are
called continuous X-rays.
COMPARE
FRIE N D S
LEAD E R B OARD
12
PREV I O US PAPERS
DISCUSS
Photoelectric current is zero when the stopping potential is sufficient to

repel even the most energetic photoelectrons with the maximum kinetic
energy K
so that K
= eV
For a given frequency of the incident radiation, the stopping potential is
independent of its intensity.
max
13
ONLI N E COACHING
Effect of potential on photocurrent
STUDY TOOLS
DASH B OA RD
DEFINITION
max
DEFINITION
Moseley's law and Bohr model

Moseley's Law:
= a(Z b)
where a and b are constants

and is frequency of X-rays
According to Bohr's model, the energy released during the transition from
n = 2 to n = 1 is given by
Terms
E = h = Rhc(Z b)
so that
14
1
(
3Rc
=
(Z b)
DEFINITION
Einstein's photoelectric equation

Einstein's photoelectric equation :
hc
Kmax =
= h
The kinetic energy of the photoelectron coming out may be anything

between zero and (E ) where E
individual electrons.
hc
=
is the energy supplied to the
Kmax = E
15
DEFINITION
Stopping potential
The smallest magnitude of the anode potential which just stops the
photocurrent is called the stopping potential.
hc
V0 =
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16
CLASS 1 1
DEFINITION
Factors affecting stopping potential
The stopping potential V depends on the wavelength of light and the

work function of the metal. It doesn't depend on the intensity of light.
0
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17
FORMULA
Energy and momentum of photoelectrons

Energy:
DOUBTS
hc
E = h =
Momentum:
COMPARE
FRIE N D S
p =
E
=
Example: A radiation of wave length 2500 A is incident on ametal plate

whose work function is 3.5 eV. Thenthe energy and momentum of
thephotoelectrons emitted by the surface is(h = 6.63 10
Js and
c = 3 10 m/s)
Given:
0
LEAD E R B OARD
34
STUDY TOOLS
DASH B OA RD
10
= 2500 10
PREV I O US PAPERS
26
6.63 3 10
E =
DISCUSS
ONLI N E COACHING
m
19
10
= 7.95 10
2500 10
p =
E
c
19
7.9510
310
27
= 2.65 10
kg. m. s
18
DEFINITION
Saturation current

Terms
If the potential of the anode is increased gradually, a situation arrives

when the effect of the space charge becomes negligible and any electron
that is emitted from the cathode is able to reach the anode. The current
then becomes constant and is known as the saturation current.Further
increase in the anode potentiaal does not change the magnitude of the
photocurrent.
19
DEFINITION
Photoelectron
Whenlightof suitable frequencyshines upon a metal surface electrons are
emitted from the surface. These electrons are called photoelectrons.
20
DEFINITION
Bound and conduction electrons

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CLASS 1 1
The electrons which are in orbits close to the nucleus are called the bound
electrons because they are tightly bound to the nucleus by the strong
attractive force between the positive charge of the nucleus and the
negative charge of electrons.
When large number of atoms come together to form a solid, the loosely
bound electrons of the outermost orbit leave their individual atom and
become free to move inside the solid. These electrons remain within the
solid. They are called conduction electrons.
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21
DEFINITION
frequency vs potential
COMPARE
FRIE N D S
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PREV I O US PAPERS
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ONLI N E COACHING
The maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons varies linearly with the
frequency of incident radiation, but is independent of its intensity.
For afrequency of of incident radiation, lower than the threshold
frequency no photoelectric emission is possible even if the intensity is
large.
0

Terms
22
DEFINITION
Work function
The minimum amount of energy required to emit electrons from a metal
surface is called the work function. It is characteristics of a metal. Work
function for some metals are as follows:
Platinum
6.2
Tungsten
4.52
Chromium 4.37
Zinc
4.24
Sodium
2.3
From above table it's evident that the alkali metals have low work
function.
23
DEFINITION
Thermionic Emmision
The emission of electrons from a metal surface when heat energy is
imparted to it is called the thermionic emission.Thermionic emissionis
the thermally induced flow ofcharge carriersfrom a surface or over a
potential-energy barrier. This occurs because the thermal energy given to
the carrier overcomes thework functionof the material. After emission, a
charge that is equal in magnitude and opposite in sign to the total charge
emitted is initially left behind in the emitting region. But if the emitter is
connected to a battery, the charge left behind is neutralized by charge
supplied by the battery as the emitted charge carriers move away from
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the emitter, and finally the emitter will be in the same state as it was
before emission.
CLASS 1 1
24
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EXAMPLE
Work function of metals
COMPARE
FRIE N D S
LEAD E R B OARD
From the graph shown, the value of Work function ifthe stopping
potential, V , and frequency of theincident light, , are on y and x- axes
respectivelyis:
hv = h0 + K . E
STUDY TOOLS
DASH B OA RD
at stopping potential K . E =eV

h = h0 + eV
h
V =
PREV I O US PAPERS
DISCUSS
ONLI N E COACHING
( 0 )
from the graph for = 0

work function = h =
25
3eV
DEFINITION
Factors affecting the rate of thermionic emission
The number of electrons emitted per second from a surface depends on

the following three factors:
1. The nature of the metal surface: Lower the work function of the metal,
greater is the rate of emission of electrons from its surface.
2. The temperature of the surface: Higher the temperature of the surface,
greater is the rate of emission of electrons from the surface.
3. The surface area of the metal: Larger the surface area of the metal
emitting the electrons, greater is the rate of emission of electrons.

Terms
26
DEFINITION
Decay of X-Rays in a medium

X-rays travelling through a medium suffers decay with distance as they
travel.
x
I = Io e
where,
I : Intensity after travelling a distance x in the medium.
I : Incident intensity.
: Absorption coefficient.
o
27
EXAMPLE
Einstein's photoelectric equation example
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CLASS 1 1
MODULES
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Three metals have work functions in the ratio 2:3:4.Graphs are drawn for
all between the stoppingpotential and the incident frequency. The
graphshave slopes in the ratio:
Here equation is
V = (h )/e
COMPARE
or V
h
=
FRIE N D S
or comparing with
LEAD E R B OARD
we get m = h/ec = /e
So, slope (m) = h/e
which is a constant.
So, ratio is 1:1:1.
y = mx + c
STUDY TOOLS
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ONLI N E COACHING
28
DEFINITION
Principle and construction of cathode ray tube

Terms
The essential parts of a cathode ray tube makeuse of the following three
processes:
1. Thermionic emission
2. Deflection of electron beam by the electric and magnetic fields
3. Fluorescence produced by the electron beam on a fluorescent screen
Construction: It consists of a long hollow evacuated glass tube containing
the three main components: 1. The electron gun 2. The deflecting system
3. The fluorescent screen.
29
DEFINITION
Explain the properties of X rays

1. They have a very short wavelength (about the same size as the
diameter of an atom).
2. They cause ionisation (adding or removing electrons in atoms and
molecules).
3. They affect photographic film in the same way as visible light (turning it
black).
4. They are absorbed (stopped) by metals and bones.
30
EXAMPLE
Problem on variation of energy and wavelength of X-rays

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CLASS 1 1
Example:
The voltage applied to an X-ray bulb increases to1.5 times the initial
voltage. The short wavelengthlimit of continuous X-ray spectrum shifts
by25 pm. Then find the original wavelength.
Solution:
MODULES
LEAR N
hc
=
eV
2hc
25 =
PRACT I C E
3eV
3
=
TEST S E R I ES
DOUBTS
25
2 = 3 75
= 75 pm
COMPARE
FRIE N D S
LEAD E R B OARD
31
PREV I O US PAPERS
DISCUSS
ONLI N E COACHING
Working of the electron gun, the deflecting system and the

fluorescent screen in hot cathode ray tube
1. The electron gun: It is the part of cathode ray tube which gives out a fine
beam of electrons. By varying the negative potential on the grid, the
number of electrons striking the screen can be changed which changes
the brightness of the pattern on the screen.
2. The deflecting system: It is the part of cathode ray tube which deflects
the electron beam.
3. Deflection of electrons by the electric fields: When an electric field is
produced between the two plates, the electron beam on entering the
space between the plates, gets deflected towards the positive plate.
STUDY TOOLS
DASH B OA RD
DEFINITION

32
EXAMPLE
Terms
Maximum velocity of photoelectrons

hc
Kmax =
then v
mvmax
2
hc
)
2(
=
m
max
The work function of a metal surface is 1 eV. Alight of wavelength 3000A

is incident on it. Themaximum velocity of the photoelectrons is found as:
The maximum K.E with which electrons comes out,
hc
1
1eV =
mv
2
19
2 3.14 1.6 10
31
10
= v
9.1
v
12
= 1.10461 10
6
v = 1.05 10
6
v = 10
33
DEFINITION
Deflection of electrons by electric field and magnetic field

Deflection of electrons by the electric field: When an electric field is
produced between two plates, the electrons beams on entering the space
between the plates, gets deflected towards the positive plate in the
influence of electric field.
Deflection of electrons by the magnetic field: On entering the magnetic
field, the electrons of the electron beam get deflected in a direction given
by the Fleming's left hand rule.
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34
DEFINITION
Methods of electron emission

CLASS 1 1
Different methods of electron emission are:

1. Thermionic Emission: By suitably heating, sufficient thermal energy can
be imparted to the freeelectrons to enable them to come out of the metal.
2. Field Emission: By applying a very strong electric field (of the order of
10 V /m ) to a metal, electrons can be pulled out of the metal.
3. Photo-electric Emission: When light of suitable frequency illuminates a
metal surface, electrons are emitted from the metal surface.
MODULES
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35
COMPARE
DEFINITION
Uses of a cathode ray tube
FRIE N D S
LEAD E R B OARD
A cathode ray tube is used mainly to convert electrical signal into a visual
signal by applying the electric signal on the deflecting plates. Some of its
usage are given below:
1. To determine the unknown frequency of an alternating potential by
applying it on one pair of deflecting plates and comparing it with the
known frequency of other alternating potential applied on other pair of
plates.
2. To check the wave form of a varying electrical signal.
3. To measure a short time interval.
4. In television as a picture tube.
STUDY TOOLS
DASH B OA RD
PREV I O US PAPERS
DISCUSS
ONLI N E COACHING
36
DEFINITION
Maximum frequency of X-rays

Terms
X-ray frequency,
eV
=
h
This shows that the maximum frequency is directly proportional to the

accelerating voltage.
The maximum frequency of X-rays produced in an
X-ray tube at an operating voltage of 25kV is
(h=
34
6.63 10
J s and c
= 3 10
m/s)
Operating voltage =
e
operating voltage e
=
h
25 10
19
1.6 10
34
6.63 10
=6.08 10 H z
18
37
EXAMPLE
Photocurrent for a given intensity

Let the intensity of the incident photons be I and frequency be .
Then, the incident power is P = I A where A is the area of the conductor.
Energy of one photon, E
hc
p
Then, number of photons incident per unit time is given by, n
P
=
Ep
Since, each photon emits one electron, number of electrons emitted is n.

Photocurrent is given by I = ne where e : charge of an electron.
p
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38
DIAGRAM
Plot of stopping potential v/s frequency

CLASS 1 1
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COMPARE
FRIE N D S
LEAD E R B OARD
Plot of stopping potential v/s frequency for incident light is shown in the
attached figure. Some salient characteristics of plot are:
1. x-intercept gives the threshold frequency of the material.
2. y-intercept obtained by interpolationis the work-function of the
material in eV.
3. Slope of the graph is given by h/e. Hence, it can be used to calculate
the value of Planck's constant.
STUDY TOOLS
DASH B OA RD
PREV I O US PAPERS
DISCUSS
ONLI N E COACHING
39
EXAMPLE
Problems on Millikan's drop experiment

Terms
In Millikan's oil drop experiment a fine mist of oil droplets was sprayed
into a chamber above the plates. The oil was of a type usually used in
vacuum apparatus and was chosen because it had an extremely low
vapour pressure. Ordinary oil would evaporate under the heat of the light
source causing the mass of the oil drop to change over the course of the
experiment. Some oil drops became electrically charged through friction
with the nozzle as they were sprayed. Alternatively, charging could be
brought about by including an ionising radiation source (such as an X-ray
tube). The droplets entered the space between the plates and, because
they were charged, could be made to rise and fall by changing the voltage
across the plates. It was found that the charge on an oil droplet was
always an integral multiple of an elementary charge, 1.602 10 C .
Thus, it was established that electric charge is quantized and from the
values of charge (e) and specific charge (e/m, the mass (m) of the electron
could be determined.
19
Example: In a Millikans oil drop experiment, an oil drop ofmass

0.64 10
kg , carrying a charge 1.6 10
C remains stationary
between two platesseparated by a distance of 5 mm. Given
g = 9.8m/s ; find the voltage that must be applied between theplates.
14
19
Solution:
Let the voltage applied by V ,
According to equilibrium eqn.,
0
14
0.64 10
16
9.8 = 1.6 10
V0
5
0.64 5 9.8 10
1.6
= V0
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V0 = 1960volts
CLASS 1 1
40
MODULES
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DOUBTS
DEFINITION
Photon
The particles of light are photons. Its properties are:
A photon always travel at a speed c = 3 10 ms in vaccum.
The rest mass of a photon is zero.
Each photon has a definite energy and linear momentum.
8
hc
E = h =
COMPARE
p =
E
=
FRIE N D S
LEAD E R B OARD
During collisions, the number of photons may not be conserved.

If the intensity of a given wavelength is increased, there is an increase
in the number of photons crossing a given areain a given time. The
energy of each photon remains the same.
STUDY TOOLS
DASH B OA RD
PREV I O US PAPERS
DISCUSS
41
FORMULA
Energy of a photon
hc
E = h =
ONLI N E COACHING
Example: Consider a parallel beam of light of wavelength 600 nm and

intensity 100 W m . Then energy of each photon is :
15
hc
E =
(4.14 10
eV s) (3 10 ms
1)
= 2.07eV
600 10

Terms
42
EXAMPLE
Bragg's law and its application
Suppose, and X-ray bean is incident on a solid, making an angle with the
planes of the atoms. These X-rays are diffracted by different atoms and
the diffracted rays interfere. In certain directions, the interference is
constructive and we obtain strong reflected X-rays. The analysis shows
that there will be a strong reflected X-ray beam only if
2d sin = n
where n is an integer. this equation is known as Bragg's law.

Example: X-rays are known to be electromagnetic radiation with
wavelength of the order of 1A . They are produced when accelerated
electrons strike target inside an evacuated tube. It is well known that
when an electron is accelerated through a potential difference of V it
acquires energy eV. If all this energy is used in producing one quantum of
X-radiation, then hf = eV . It is likely that the electron may have lost
some of its acquired energy before producing the quantum of radiation.
The f gives the maximum possible frequency of X-radiation emitted and
that corresponds to the short wavelength limit of the emitted spectrum. In
general, therefore, X-ray spectra consist of a continuous spectrum upon
which is superposed a line spectrum that is characteristic of the element
used as target. For some time after the discovery of X-rays, there was
considerable speculation about the nature of X-rays. Max Von Laue found,
in 1912 that if X-rays are passed through a crystal they get diffracted. As
Laue
patterns are difficult to interpret, Bragg worked out a simple equation
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CLASS 1 1
that predicts the conditions under which diffracted X-rays beams from a
crystal are possible. In its simplest form, Bragg's Law is given by
= 2d sin where d is the perpendicular distance between the planes
contining atoms and is the glancing angle at which the X-rays fall on the
crystal. is known, the distance may be found from experimental
measurements. This is the basis for the field of X-ray crystallography in
which the structure of crystals is determined by using X-rays. Find the
photon is the order of energy associated with an x-ray.
MODULES
LEAR N
PRACT I C E
TEST S E R I ES
Solution:
Using the equations
hc
DOUBTS
E =
E = eV
COMPARE
and equating we get:

34
hc
V =
FRIE N D S
LEAD E R B OARD
STUDY TOOLS
43
DASH B OA RD
PREV I O US PAPERS
DISCUSS
ONLI N E COACHING
6.63 10
=
10
10
3 10
= 12, 413V 10K eV (order)
19
1.6 10
DEFINITION
Davisson and Germer experiment

Davison and Germer observed the diffraction of electrons by crystals. The
setup consists of an electron gun firing electron beam onto a nickel target
inside a vaccum chamber. The diffracted electrons are observed by the
galvanometer.The experiment was performed by varying the voltage from
44V to 68V. It was observed that a strong peak appeared when the voltage
was 54V at a scattering angle of 50 due to constructive interference
effects of the electrons. The wavelength of the matter waves was found to
be 0.168 nm from diffraction measurements which matches that of deBroglie wavelength at 54 V thus verifying the wave nature of electrons.
0

Terms
44
DEFINITION
Threshold frequency
The minimum frequency (characteristic of the metal)below which no
photoelectric emission takes place, no matter how large the intensity may
be.
c
0 =
where is the threshold frequency, is thethreshold wavelength, is

the work function and h is the planck's constant.
0
45
DEFINITION
Photoelectric effect
When lightof suitable frequencystrikes upon a metal surface electrons

are emitted from the surface. This phenomenon is called photoelectric
effect.
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CLASS 1 1
46
EXAMPLE
Calculate the de broglie wavelength of an electron accelerated by a

given potential
MODULES
LEAR N
PRACT I C E
TEST S E R I ES
Example: An electron of charge e and mass m is acceleratedfrom rest by a

potential difference V. Find the de-Brogliewavelength.
Solution:
1
2
DOUBTS
mv
= eV
mv = 2eV m
So de-broglie wavelength
h
COMPARE
=
mv
FRIE N D S
LEAD E R B OARD
h
=
2meV
STUDY TOOLS
DASH B OA RD
PREV I O US PAPERS
47
EXAMPLE
Planck's constant using de-broglie equation

If U.V. light of wavelengths 800 A and 700 A canliberate electrons with
kinetic energies of 1.8eV and 4eV respectively from hydrogen atom in
groundstate, then the value of Planck's constant is found as follows :
From first eqn of photoelectric effect,
0
DISCUSS
ONLI N E COACHING
hc
(
10 ) W = 1.8
8
---------------(I)

Terms
From second equation of photoelectric effect,

8
hc 10
W = 4
7
-----------------(II)
Solving (I) and (II) simultaneously we get,

h = 4.10625 10
eV
15
Converting this h in terms of J s we get,

1915
h = 4.10625 1.6 10
34
h = 6.57 10
J s
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De Broglie's wavelength is the wavelength associated with a massive

(de broglie wavelength)

Heisenberg uncertainty principle

The position and momentum of a particle cannot be simultaneously

Also Practice This Chap

Solve questions and clear all go

Photons and Photoelectric Effec

toppr About Android App

Stopping Potential and Einstein

Uncertainty in position or momentum

Practice All Goals

wherex is the uncertainty in position,

Variation of photocurrent with potential for different intensity of

Variation of photocurrent with potential for different frequencies of

toppr About Android App

Solve problem on cathode ray tube

The potential between cathode and anode is V hence,

Mass of a particle using de-Broglie wavelength

The de-Brogliewavelength associated with a particle movingwith a

toppr About Android App

A photocell is a technological application of the photoelectric effect.A

Particle and wave nature of light

Understand the difference between continuous and characteristic Xrays

At certain sharply defined wavelengths, the intensity of X-rays is very large

Photoelectric current is zero when the stopping potential is sufficient to

Effect of potential on photocurrent

Moseley's law and Bohr model

toppr About Android App

Be an Educator Bytes Blog

where a and b are constants

Einstein's photoelectric equation

The kinetic energy of the photoelectron coming out may be anything

is the energy supplied to the

Factors affecting stopping potential

The stopping potential V depends on the wavelength of light and the

Energy and momentum of photoelectrons

Example: A radiation of wave length 2500 A is incident on ametal plate

toppr About Android App

Be an Educator Bytes Blog

If the potential of the anode is increased gradually, a situation arrives

Bound and conduction electrons

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Work function of metals

at stopping potential K . E =eV

from the graph for = 0

Factors affecting the rate of thermionic emission

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The number of electrons emitted per second from a surface depends on

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Decay of X-Rays in a medium

Einstein's photoelectric equation example

Principle and construction of cathode ray tube

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Explain the properties of X rays

Problem on variation of energy and wavelength of X-rays

Working of the electron gun, the deflecting system and the

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Maximum velocity of photoelectrons

The work function of a metal surface is 1 eV. Alight of wavelength 3000A

Deflection of electrons by electric field and magnetic field

Methods of electron emission

Different methods of electron emission are: