the electric circuit element.

The ratio between the

voltage and the electric current is called the
Resistance of the electric circuit element.

R=

V
I

Unit: 1 V/A = 1 ohm = 1

Electric Current may be described as any motion of
charge from one region to another. Considering a
conducting wire of cross-section area A, the electric
current I is described as the rate at which electric
charge passes through the cross-section area A.

dq
I=
dt
Unit: 1 C/s = 1 ampere = 1 A

Rearranging the equation:

V = IR
For ohmic materials, this equation is often referred
to as Ohms Law. An ohmic material is one that
obeys Ohms Law as discovered by Georg Simon
Ohm in 1826 (i.e. the current density is directly
proportional to the electric field and the ratio
between their magnitudes is constant). In terms of
resistance R:

Rohmic material = constant

Resistance is a property of an electric circuit
element that depends upon the elements material as
well as its size and shape. Considering a cylindrical
circuit element of length L and cross-section area A:
Potential difference or Voltage across an electric
circuit element has been found to be directly
proportional to the electric current passing through

R=

L
A

where:
L = length of electric circuit element
A = cross-section area of electric circuit element
= resistivity of the material of the element.

An electric circuit element or circuit device that has

been made to have a specific value of resistance
between its ends is referred to as a Resistor.

Resistivity is a property of the material that

comprises the material of the electric circuit
element. Its unit is in terms of m.
The resistivity of metallic materials has been found
to vary with temperature.

= 0 [1 + (T T0 )]

where:
= resistivity at temperature T
0 = resistivity at reference temperature T0, often
taken as being equal to 0C or 20C
= temperature coefficient of resistivity
= constant that depends on the material of the
element.
The inverse of resistivity has been referred to as the
Conductivity of the material.

conductivi ty =
Unit: (m)1 = 1/(m)

Consider a simple electric circuit composed of a

power source, say a battery, wires, and an electric
circuit element, say a light bulb, as shown.
For the electric current to
continuously flow through the
circuit and keep the bulb
shining, there must be a way
by which the electric charges
can move from low electric
potential (i.e. negative battery
terminal) to high electric potential (i.e. positive
battery terminal). The influence that makes the
current flow from low potential to high potential is
called Electromotive Force (emf).

It must be noted that the name electromotive

force is a poor term as emf is actually describing
an energy-per-unit-charge quantity like electric
potential and potential difference.

In electric circuits, a Power Source is a device that

provides the emf necessary to keep the charges
flowing. Such a device is also referred to as a
Source of emf. Examples of emf sources include
batteries, solar cells, electric generators,
thermocouples, and fuel cells.

The sign in the equation refers to the two

possible directions of the electric current I. If the
electric current is seen to leave the positive
terminal of the emf source, the is used; if the
current is seen to enter the positive terminal, the
+ is used.

In circuit analysis, there are two types of emf

sources: Ideal emf Source and Real emf Source.

As can be seen in the above equation, terminal

voltage in a real emf source is equal to the emf
only if there is no current passing through the
real emf source.

1. Ideal emf Source

In an ideal emf source, the Terminal Voltage, V,
or the voltage across the terminals of the power
source is equal to the emf, , produced by the
power source.

V =
2. Real emf Source
A real emf source is one that the material it is
constructed out of affects the charges or current
passing through it; in other words, the current
passing through the real emf source encounters
resistance. Hence the terminal voltage is not
equal to the emf.

V = Ir
where:
I = current passing through the emf source
r = internal resistance of the emf source

The power associated with emf sources and circuit

elements, whether the power is being delivered to a
resistor, dissipated by a resistor, outputted by a
power source, or inputted into a power source, is
given by the following relationship:

dW
V2
2
= P = VI = I R =
dt
R
Unit: 1 W = 1 VA = 1 A2 = 1 V2/

Voltmeter

Variable resistance

Conducting wire;
conductor of negligible
resistance.
R
Resistor
+

There are two types of electric circuits: Direct

Current (dc) Circuits and Alternating Current (ac)
Circuits. The primary concern of this course is with
dc circuits, in which the direction of the current in a
given line does not change with time. In contrast, ac
circuits have currents that oscillate back and forth.

Source of emf

I
Electric current
r

Emf source with internal

resistance, r

Switch
A

Ammeter

Resistors have been used in all kinds of circuits;

often times, several kinds of resistors are used in the
same circuit. It is imperative therefore to consider
how these resistors are combined in the circuit. In
general, there are two ways by which resistors may
be arranged in a circuit: Parallel and Series.
Resistors are said to be connected in parallel
between points a and b when each resistor provides

an alternative path between the two points as shown

in following figure.

R1

R1

R2

Vab = V = V1 = V2 = V3

Req

I = I1 + I 2 + I 3
1
1
1
1
=
+
+
Req R1 R2 R3

V ab = V = V1 + V2 + V3
I = I1 = I 2 = I 3
Req = R1 + R 2 + R3

Req

R3

R3

R2

A Junction in a circuit is a point where three or

more conducting paths or wires meet. Junctions are
also called Nodes and Branch Points.
Resistors are said to be connected in series between
the two points a and b when they form only a single
current path between the two points.

A Loop is any closed conducting or current path.

Starting at any point in the circuit, trace a current
path and if you end up back the starting point, the
path you just traces is considered a loop.

Kirchoffs Rules consist of two statements:

1. Junction Rule
The algebraic sum of the currents about any
junction is zero.
Currents entering the junction are considered
positive while those leaving the junction are
considered negative.

I = I

in

EXAMPLE 1
Consider the circuit shown below. The terminal
voltage of the 24.0-V battery is 21.2 V. What is a)
the internal resistance r of the battery; b) the
resistance R of the circuit resistor?
r

+
24 V

I out = 0

2. Loop Rule
The algebraic sum of the potential differences in
any loop is zero.
If the loop enters the positive side of a emf
source, the potential difference across the emf
source is considered positive.
If the loop enters the negative side of a emf
source, the potential difference across the emf
source is considered negative.
If the loop has the same direction as the
current passing through a resistor, the
potential difference across the resistor is
considered positive.
If the loop has opposite direction as the current
passing through a resistor, the potential
difference across the resistor is considered
negative.

V = 0

4A

4A
R

V = 21.2V = Ir

= 24V
I = 4A

21.2V

24V 21.2V
= 0 .7
4A
I
Since R is parallel to the battery, R has a voltage
equal to V.

r=

V = IR
R=

V 21.2V
=
= 5.3
4A
I

r = 0.7

R = 5.3

EXAMPLE 2
Compute the equivalent resistance of the network
shown below and find the current in each resistor.
The battery has negligible internal resistance.

R + R4
1
1
1
=
+
= 3
R3 R4
R34 R3 R4
R34 =

60 V

3.00

(12 )(4 ) = 48 = 3
R3 R4
=
R3 + R4 12 + 4 16
60 V

12.00
2.00

6.00

4.00

3.00

R12 and R34 are in series connection . Therefore :

Req = R12 + R34 = 2 + 3 = 5

V = 60V
R1 = 3

V = IR = I tot Req I tot =

R2 = 6

V12 = I tot R12 = (12 A)(2 ) = 24V

R3 = 12
R4 = 4
R1 and R2 are in parallel connection while R3 and R1
are in parallel connection such that :
R + R2
1
1
1
=
+
= 1
R12 R1 R2
R1 R2

(
R1 R2
3 )(6 ) 18 2
R12 =
=
=
= 2
R1 + R2 3 + 6
9

60V
V
=
= 12 A
Req
5

V12 = V1 = V2 24V = I1 R1 = I 2 R2
24V
= 8A
3
24V
I2 =
= 4A
6
V34 = I tot R34 = (12 A)(3 ) = 36V
I1 =

V34 = V3 = V4 36V = I 3 R3 = I 4 R4
I3 =

36V
= 3A
12

I4 =

I1 = I 3 + I 4 I 2

36V
= 9A
4

Using Loop1 :

Req = 5

I1 = 8 A

I3 = 3 A

I2 = 4 A
I4 = 9 A

60V I 3 (12 ) (I 3 + I 4 I 2 )(3 ) = 0

60V I 3 (15 ) I 4 (3 ) + I 2 (3 ) = 0

(a)

Using Loop2 :
(I 3 + I 4 I 2 )(3 ) I 2 (6 ) = 0
I 3 (3 ) + I 4 (3 ) I 2 (9 ) = 0

5[I 3 (3 ) + I 4 (3 ) I 2 (9 ) = 0 ]

EXAMPLE 3
Example 2 above can also be solved using Kirchoffs
Rules.
60 V

3.00

12.00

6.00

4.00

I 3 (15 ) + I 4 (15 ) I 2 (45 ) = 0

(a ) + (b ) = 60V + I 4 (12 ) I 2 (42 ) = 0

Dividing by 3 :

20V + I 4 (4 ) I 2 (14 ) = 0

Adding this eq. from Loop4 :

80V I 2 (20 ) = 0 I 2 = 4 A

20V + I 4 (4 ) (4 A )(14 ) = 0

I 4 (4 ) 36V = 0 I 4 = 9 A

Loop 1 : + 60V I 3 (12 ) I1 (3 ) = 0

Using Loop 2 :
I 1 (3 ) (4 A )(6 ) = 0 I 1 = 8 A

Loop 3 : + I 3 (12 ) I 4 (4 ) = 0

I3 = 3A

Using clockwise loops, the Kirchoff' s Rules give us :

Loop 2 : + I1 (3 ) I 2 (6 ) = 0

Loop 4 : + 60V I 4 (4 ) I 2 (6 ) = 0
Junction Rule : I = I1 + I 2 = I 3 + I 4

I 1 + I 2 = I 3 + I 4 8A + 4A = I 3 + 9 A
I = I 1 + I 2 = 12 A

(b)

V = IReq Req =

V 60V
=
= 5
I 12 A

Req = 5

I1 = 8 A

I3 = 3 A

Junction Rule : I + 4 A 6 A = 0

I2 = 4 A
I4 = 9 A

EXAMPLE 4

I = 2A
28V (2 A )R + (4 A )(6 ) 42V = 0

10V (2 A )R = 0
10V
R=
= 5
2A

R=5

In the circuit shown below, find the current in

resistor R, the resistance R, and the unknown emf .
28 V

6A

4A
6.00

= 42 V

I=2A
EXAMPLE 5

A resistor with a 15.0-V potential difference across

its ends develops thermal energy at a rate of 327 W.
What is its resistance? What is the current in the
resistor?

V = 15V
P = 327W
V2
V 2 (15V )
P=
R=
=
= 0.688
R
W
327W
P 327W
P = VI I = =
= 21.8 A
15V
V
2

3.00

Using a clockwise loop :

Loop 1 : 28V IR + (4 A)(6 ) = 0

Loop 2 : (4 A)(6 ) (6 A)(3 ) = 0

24V 18V = 0
= 42V

R = 0.688

I = 21.8 A