Eat, Drink and Be Merry: The Mediterranean Diet

Author(s): Oded Borowski

Source: Near Eastern Archaeology, Vol. 67, No. 2, (Jun., 2004), pp. 96-107
Published by: The American Schools of Oriental Research
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4132365
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AND
EAT, DRINK
THE

MEDITERRAN
DIET
by OdedBorowski

theepidemicof obesityin theUnitedStates,one thatshould

mongthemyriaddietstoutedto ameliorate

Diet."Long
be of particularinterestto Near Easternarchaeologists
is theso-called"Mediterranean
Diet
knownin medicalcirclesas the healthiestand bestsuitedfor weightcontrol,theMediterranean
has also beenlaudedfor itspositiveeffectson theprevention
of coronaryheartdiseaseandcancer.Almostdaily

onereadsreports
on thesalutarynutritional
flourandsheep
effectsof oliveoil,redwine,lentils,stoneground
andgoatsmilk,callingtomindthebasicstaplesof theancientpeoplesof theMediterranean
basin.
in theBibleaswellasrecords
Weknowfromseveralreferences
fromelsewherein the regionthatobesitydidexistandmayhave
been a signof privilege-or at leasta logicalresultof it. Eglon,
kingof Moab,wasdescribedas a "veryfat man"in Judges3:17
andthe upper-class
womenof Samariaarecalled"Bashan
cows"
in Amos4:1. In addition,the Queenof Puntwasdepictedin
the templeof Hatshepsutat Deirel-Bharias a corpulentfigure.
Althoughthese arenot favorableimages,beingheavyof jowl
andhavingthe sidesbulgewithfat (Job15:27),seemsto have
also been a markof prosperity,as indicatedby the utterance
attributed
to Moses:"Jacobate andwaswellfed,Jeshurun
grew
fat andbloatedandsleek"(Deut32:15).

TheMediterranean
DietToday

Of courseit is impossibleto determinethe nutritionalvalues

consumedby anysegmentof the ancientsociety.Startingwith
the basicassumptionthat, becauseof similarenvironmental
conditionsthroughout
theancientMediterranean
world,a fairly
uniformwayof eatingprevailedin the region,I will focuson
Israelitefoodwaysas an exampleof the ancientMediterranean
diet andtryto describe"theIsraelitekitchen"of the IronAge.

Whatdidthe IsraelitesEat?
Eating well was always important as implied by
Deuteronomy: "Andyou shall eat, be satiated and bless
YHWHyourGodforthe good landhe has givenyou"(Deut

on
cancershatsdecreasedas a resultof thegn)wingreliability
on
than
and
cereals
rather
the
out
ancient
Indiscussing meritsof
vegetables fruit; energyoutput
foodways,Braunpoints
is
low thus leadingto deficiencyof
until
the
decades
twentieth
there
the
wias
food
for
procurement
first
of
century,
tlhat,
no knowledgeof calories,proteinsor vitamins.Nevertheless, skeletalmuscleand to insulinresistance
followedby diabetes;
he says, it is clear that among the ancient culturesof the increasein dietaryfat (saturatedand trausfattyacids)raises
Mediterraneanregion"observation
had led to soundviews cholesterollevelsleadingto coronarydisease;dietarychanges
on thenourishing,
laxative,andemullientproperties
of certain lead to DHA deficiency,whichaffectsthe brainand causes
a debilitating
depression,
disorder.2
neuropsychiatric
foo(dsand ,onthe meritsof moderatefood consumptionand umipolar
balancedliving,"'whichmayexplainwhynumornnutritionists The "ModernMediterranean Diet" is reminiscentof
are so interestedin thisdiet. Thishas beenmanifestedin the the Cretandiet of the 1960s.' Studiesshow that, with the
recentdietaryadditions,such as citrus
on thissubjectand the exceptionof somnne
countlessarticlesand ooksIpublished
websitesdevotedto thisandrelatedtopics.
fruit, tomatoesand potatoes,the Cretandiet has remained
numermous
Researchshows that bloodpressurein humansis on the the samesince the Minoanperiod(2600-1 100 stuE). Both
increasebecauseof elevatedquantitiesof electrolytes
(sodium, diets include "oliveoil, olives, cereal grains, pulses, wild
resistancetocertain greensand herbs,andfruits,togetherwithlimitedquantities
potassium)resulting
fromfoodprocessing;

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NEAREASTERNARCHAEOLOGY
67:2 (2004)

of goatmeatandmilk,gameandfish."SincetheDoric
era, the diethas also included "apples,grapes,wine,
andsheep."'
pomegranates
Someofthefoodstuffs
enumerated
intheMediterranean
dietareknownfromarchaeological
contextssuchas the
at
which
Ulu
is
datedby tree-ring
Burun,
shipwreck
to
about
1316
BCE.
Food
remains
recovered
analysis
include"almonds,
fromtheshipwreck
figs,olives,grapes
and
(orraisinsorwine),,blackcumin,sumac,coriander
with
a
and
wheat
few grainsof
barley.
pomegranates,
anda bronze
needles,
Leadnetsinkers,netting,
fishhooks,
tridentareevidenceoffishingfromtheship"'All of these
foodtypes,whicharenativeto theMediterranean
region,
in themoderndietand indicatethe
are stillprominent
natureof foodconsumption.
conservative

worldis attested by images like

Obesity in the ancientMediterranean
this one of the Queen of Puntoon a limestonerelieffromthe temple of
Queen Hatshepsut(1495-1475 BCE)in Deirel-Bahri,in additionto other
textual references,and mayhave been a symbolof prosperity.Egyptian
Museum,Cairo,Egypt.Photo@ ErichLessing/ ArtResource,NY

8:10). Forthe Israeliteperiod,the biblicaltext can be used

as a resource, but whenever possible the evidence needs
to be examined against other written and archaeological
evidence.Firstto be consideredhere is the questionof what
the Israelites ate on a daily basis. The written evidence
indicates that the menu originated from two sources,
namely,field plants and fruit trees and their productsand
animalsand animalproducts.The Israelitemenuwasclosely
connected to cultic practices.Animalssuitablefor sacrifice
could also be eaten at regularmeals, while certain other
foods were mainly consumed in cultic contexts and thus
werenot partof the normaldailydiet.
NEAREASTERNARCHAEOLOGY
67:2 (2004)

97

FoodResources

Inthe Middle East, sheep are generally milked in the early morning
and evening (shown in this photo) although the schedule may differ
by season (spring milkingversus summer milking).Awassi sheep, the
dominant breed in this part of the world are known for their amazing
capacity for milkproduction.They can produce more than twice the
amount of milkas many Europeanbreeds. Photos by author unless
otherwise indicated.

AThese sheep are grazing near Tel Halifin Israel.HardyMiddle

Easternbreeds are widely recognized as the most versatile, being
prized for both their meat and milk.
N These wheat sheaves resting amidst olive trees illustratetwo
of the basic components of the Mediterraneandiet that have been
domesticated for thousands of years. Wheat and olives are, of
course, still vitallyimportantcrops in this part of the world both on
an industrialfarming and household production level.

98

NEAR EASTERNARCHAEOLOGY
67:2 (2004)

Geographical,topographical,climatic and other

environmental
factorscreatedifferentecologicalzones,
whichdictatethetypesof faunaandfloranativeto each.
Theseconditionslimitwhatspeciescan be introduced
intotheseareasby humans.As longas theinhabitants
or practicea subsistence
of a regionremainself-sufficient
diet
will
be
the
very limited.The situation
economy,
wouldhave beensomewhatremediedwith the helpof
thatincluded
tradeamongthelocalcommunities
exchange
of producebetweenvillagersas wellas goods.Thiswas
thecasewiththeIsraelitedietduringtheperiod
probably
are
of settlement,althoughconditionsin Syria-Palestine
suchthatmostnativestaplessuchasfieldcrops,fruitsand
vegetables,as wellas herdanimals,couldbe cultivated
theregion.Withtheriseof the
andmaintained
throughout
Israelitemonarchy,
however,theeconomybecamemore
and
trade
complex
helpedenrichthediet.Themonarchy
marketsin centrallocationsthatwerewithin
supported
reachof themostof theoccupants
of theland.
Another dietarydeterminantis foreigninfluence.
Politicalchangesintroducenew culturalmodes,which
in turnintroducenew dietaryhabits.Theseinfluences
tendto befirstencountered
and absorbedby the urban
elite, whichcomesin contactwith thesetrends.Rural
whicharesecludedandmoreconservative,
communities,
tend to maintaintheirtraditionalfood ways. Such a
situationmusthave occurredalso in Israelitesociety,
thoughcertainslow changesmust have taken place
available
through
history.However,
giventheinformation
these
cannot
be
detected.
easily
today,
changes

For the Israelites,food consumptionwas a form of selfdefinition.As IsraelFinkelsteinobserves,"foodis one of the

bypeopleseekingto maintaintheir
symbolsmanipulated
primary
While it is impossible
culturalidentityand groupsolidarity."6
to knowhow closelythe biblicaldietarylawswereobserved,
self-definitionis mostlikelythe basisfor certainbiblicallists
differentkindsof animalspermittedor forbidden
enumerating
forconsumption.In addition,sometaboosdo not relateto the
asin the case
sourceof the foodbutto the modeof preparation,
of boilinga kid in its mother'smilk (Exod23:19;34:26;Deut
14:21).Thereareno listscontainingforbiddenplants,thuswe
can assumethat therewasno prohibitionagainsteatingany
plantor fruit,andthe limitationson consumptionwouldhave
been dictatedby taste and toxicity (2 Kgs4:39-40) and the
fulfillmentof religiousinjunctionssuchas the tithe,whichhad
to be paidbeforethe producecouldbe consumed.
Onlynative-grownproducewasconsideredfit for sacrifice.
studies,certainwild
However,as seen fromzooarchaeological
animals
andfishwereeaten,butwerenotincludedon thesacrificial
musthavebeenengagedin fishing,
lists.AlthoughsomeIsraelites
afterthe sacrificial
listswere
thisactivitywasprobably
introduced
originallycompiled.Thussea creaturesarenot included.Since
certainbirdsarelisted(e.g.,the doveandturtle-dove;Lev1:14;
5:7),we cansafelyassumethattheywereraisedundercontrolled
conditions.
Thebirdsthatcannotbe eatenareidentified
byname
is
(Deut14:12-18),andit seemsthattheircommoncharacteristic
eaters.Deuteronomy
thatmostofthemarebirdsofpreyandcarrion
14:6addressesthe generalrulepermittingthe consumptionof
mammals:
"anyhoofedanimalwhichhasclovenhoofsandalso
chewsthe cud."The mostcommonanimalsto be consumed,
as seenfrombiblicalreferencesandzooarchaeological
evidence
includelargeandsmallcattle.Theruleforwaterfaunais simple:
"Ofcreatures
thatlivein waterthesemaybe eaten:allthathave
finsandscales"(Deut14:9).Creatures
that"swarm
on theground"
(Lev11:29-30)suchasrodentsandlizards,aswellasinsects(Lev
however,the locustis permitted(Lev
11:41-44),areprohibited;
a delicacy.
11:20-23)andevenconsidered
The zooarchaeological
evidencecanhelpmeasurethe extent
to whichthesedietarylawswereadheredto. The pigservesas
"thetabooon thisanimal
an example.As notedbyFinkelstein,
[pig]was alreadypracticedin the hill countryin IronI-pigs
werenot presentin proto-Israelite
IronI sitesin the highlands,
while they werequitepopularat a proto-Ammonitesite and
numerousat Philistinesites."7

Foodsforall Occasions
In addition to the food consumed during their daily meals,
the Israelitesate food preparedduringfestive or ritualoccasions.
Biblical and extra-biblicalsourcesprovide copious information
concerning food consumption at differentoccasions, but most
of them record festive occasions and celebrations such as the
entertaining of guests or civic and cultic festivals. Among the
latter we can count the inaugurationof the Templeby Solomon
(1 Kgs 8:63-66; 2 Chr 7:5-9), Hezekiah'sTempleconsecration
(2 Chr 29:31-35) and Passovercelebration (2 Chr 30:23-24).

To get an idea what might have been consumedon such

occasions,biblicalsourcestell us thatSolomon'sdailyprovisions
includedthirtykorof fine flourandsixtykorof flour(koris a
measurement
introducedin the post-exilicperiod;one
probably
=
220
ten
kor
liters), fat oxen andtwentyoxen anda hundred
as
well
asstags,gazelles,roebucksandfattenedfowl(2Kgs
sheep,
we aretoldthatwhenAshurnasirpal
5:2-3 [4:22-23]).Similarly,
II inaugurated
in
the palace Calah,he winedanddined69,574
men andwomenforten dayswith a menuconsistingof cattle,
sheep, stags,gazelles,ducks,geese, doves, fish, eggs, bread,
wine,beer,vegetables,oils, condiments,parchedbarley,fruit,
nuts,garlic,onions,turnipsandmuchmore.
It is obvious that what was eaten on these occasionswas
not dailyfare,but thesedescriptionsoffera glimpseinto what
resourceswereavailable.One examplefor a completemealis
that of Abrahamfeedingthe threemessengers(Gen 18:6-8).
On thisoccasion,Abrahamofferedcakes,a well-prepared
young
calf,curdsandmilk.The text providesno detailsas to howthe
in hasteand
calfwasprepared.
Althoughthismealwasprepared
was meantfor guests,it is verysimilarto what is describedin
the storyof Sinuhe (ca. nineteenthcenturyBCE),an Egyptian
weremade
noblemanwhoresidedin Canaanfora time:"Loaves
forme daily,andwineas dailyfare,cookedmeat,roastfowl,as
wellasdesertgame.Fortheysnaredforme andlaidit beforeme,
in additionto the catchof myhounds.Manysweetsweremade
forme, andmilkdishesof allkinds."8
Both Sinuhe and Abrahamweremembersof a well-to-do
socialclass,thuswhatwasavailableto themmightnothavebeen
typical.TheBookof Ruth,in contrast,maydescribethepractices
of the poorerpeople.Duringthe day,the workersin the field,
atebread,whichtheydippedin
whoin thiscasewereharvesting,
vinegar,andparchedorroastedgrain(Ruth2:14).Toquenchtheir
thirsttheydrankwater(Ruth2:9).A similarmealis consumed
today.The traditionalMiddleEasternbreakfastinvolvespita
dippedin olive oil, zacatar(a MiddleEasternmixtureof wild
witha
thyme,saltandsummersavory)andonion,9occasionally
fat.
hard-boiled
eggdippedin oil orsheep-tail

BakedGoods
In season, grain could be eaten fresh (whole or mashed)
and when dryit could be parchedor roastedfor immediate
consumption. Whole or cracked (Arabicbulghur;Turkish
graincouldbe usedin gruel(Gen25:29,34) andstew.
burghul)
Usinggrainin thismanneris veryhealthybecauseit retainsthe
bran and germ and suppliesadditionalcalories.10
While ground wheat flour can be used for leavened bread,
barleyflouris mostlyused in makingflat cakes."Leavenedbread
was preferredover unleavened. Under certain circumstances,
a multi-grain bread was baked. The prophet Ezekiel was
instructed to "take wheat, barley,broad beans, lentils, millet
and emmer wheat, and mixing them all in one bowl make your
bread from them" (Ezek4:9).
As in the modern Mediterranean diet, bread was a major
component of each meal, thus the same term was applied to
food in general and to food processed from grain.'2Besides

NEAR EASTERN ARCHAEOLOGY 67:2 (2004)

99

A Few Times
Per Month
(orsomewhat moreoften
inverysmallamounts)M

A Few
Times Per
Week

Red Meat
eat

Sweets
Eggs

-Wine
Daily

The modern Mediterraneandiet, whichis mostlyvegetarian, has been plotted

on this food pyramid.Since the ancient Israeliteshad nutritionalresourcesvery
similarto those availableto the inhabitantsof modern Crete, we can assume
that their diets were similar,as, the evidence suggests, were those of other
ancient Mediterraneancultures.(AfterLiebman1994: 9).

suggestedin the storyof JaelandSisera:"He [Sisera]saidto

her [Jael],'Giveme somewaterto drink,forI am thirsty.'She
openeda skinof milk,(and)gavehima drink"(Judg4:19).The
samescenedepictedin Judg5:25 suggeststhe possibilitythat
JaelofferedSiseraprocessedmilkin a formsimilarto ayran,a
Turkishdrinkmadeof yogurtthinnedwith water.The most
in
commondrinksforquenchingthirstwerewaterandmilk,the
latterwasdrunksometimesin its processed
formof yogurt(Judg
Moderation
waswhey,
4:19;5:25).A seconddrinkmadeof a dairyby-product
whichcontainssugar,minerals,
andlactalbumin,
a milkprotein."3
The sameideais behind"eatingcurdsandhoney"(Isa7:15,22).
Freshmilkcannotbe storedfor longwithoutrefrigeration,
in the warmclimateof theNearEast.Therefore,
since
especially
the ancientMediterranean
economyreliedheavilyon herding,
people learnedto processthe milk and turn it into several
storyof Sinuhe,whowas
products,as hintedbythe pre-Israelite
fed "milkdishesof all kinds."Theseproductsincludedyogurt,
differentkindsof butter,differentkindsof cheeseandmore.
Processingmilkstartswith churning,which separatesthe
fat, usinga containermadeof goatskinor clay.This kind of
vessel,stillusedin somesocieties,is hungin a waythat allows
it to swingbackandforth,a motionthatseparatesthe fat and
permitsthe makingof variousproducts.

MeatDishes
Forthe averageIsraelite,meatwasnot dailyfare.Whatwas
eatencamemostlyfromdomesticated
animals,althoughhunted
animalswerealsoavailable
asseenfromcertainbiblicallists(Deut
evidence.Thathuntedanimals
14:5)andfromzooarchaeological
a delicacycanbe presumed
fromIsaac'srequest
wereconsidered
of Esau:"Takeyourhuntinggear,yourquiverandbow,andgo
out into the countryandget me somegame.Then makeme a
dish,thekindI like,andbringit formeto eat"(Gen27:3savoury
The earthen bread oven, or tabun, has been a feature of village sites
datarecoveredin a marketat Ashkelon
4). Zooarchaeological
in the MiddleEastfor thousands of years. Thisone was excavated at
indicatethatgameanimalsweresoldto thosewhocouldnothunt
TellGezer.The typicaltabun installationconsists of a large pottery
vessel that serves as the actualoven and an oven shelter. Driedsheep
or trapthem.14Domesticanimalswereavailable
directlyfromthe
herd (Gen 18:7;27:9;Judg6:18-19) or werekeptclose to the
dung is packed aroundthe sunken pottery vessel and kept burningby
adding new fuel every evening and removingthe ash build-up.
houseandfattenedforspecialoccasions(1 Sam28:24).
Therewereseveralwaysfor preparingmeatand theywere
Extra-biblical
sources
andethnographic
bread,severalbakedgoodsarementionedin the HebrewBible, determined
bytheoccasion.
bread; 2 Sam 13:6), 'ugdh studiesindicatethatforlongstorage,meatwaseithersmoked,
includinglbtfbdh("heart-shaped"
thereis no mentionin the Bibleof such
(Gen 18:6;small,roundbread)or mad6g(1 Kgs17:12),re-qiq driedor salted.However,
indicateit
(Exod29:2;thinbread),halldh(Lev24:5;loaf),massdh(Exod practices.The biblicalreferencesto meatpreparation
onbutchering,
12:15;thin, unleavenedbread),and sappfhft(Exod 16:31; waseaten immediately
usuallyon festiveoccasions
sweetcake).
suchas thehostingof guestsorduringculticfestivals.Onewayof

DairyProducts

The meal served by Abrahamto his guests (Gen 18:8)

illustrates
verywellthatfreshmilkwasan important
component
of a sumptuousmeal.It wasalso a thirst-quenching
drink,as
100

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67:2 (2004)

preparingmeatwasboilingit in waterin a largepot. A by-product

of this processis broth and this was consideredgood enough for
servingto honoredguests(Judg6:19-20). Anotherwayof cooking
meat was roastingit on an open fire. In Isaiah44:16 and 19, the
prophetmocksidol worshipersfor usingpartof the same tree for

The fresh fruit of the grape was eaten in season. For long-term use, however, grape juices had to be preserved as wine. Vineyardslikethis one
in the Hebron Mountainsare frequently mentioned in biblicaltexts and there is little doubt that the productionof wine was well established
even before the biblicalperiod. Almost all of the wine produced in the world today descends from a single subspecies of wild grape that once
thrived from Spain to CentralAsia.

carvingidols and the rest for roastingmeat. But this passagealso

revealsthat roastingwas not reservedforfestiveoccasionsalone.
Studies of culinary customs made in traditional Middle
Eastern societies, such as Bedouin and Druze communities,
demonstrate how meat has been prepared and under what
conditions. Klenck's observation that "despite their varied
geographical origins, Bedouin sacrificed sheep and goat in
similar ways"'suggests that these customs are old and might
illustratebiblicalmodes of behavior.The Bedouin still continue
to preparemeat on festive occasions in this manner.The Druze
boil the meat in water or lebani(thin yogurt).'"
Bedouinfamiliessacrificeat certainshrines,in a wayreminiscent
of what is describedin 1 Samuel 1:3. Furthermore,although the
Bedouin head of the familyis the one to slit the animal'sthroat,
others help in the butchering,and often a professionalbutcher
in 1 Samuel9:23-24, is entrustedwith
(ashar),similarlyto the tabbah
the dismembering.
Justas the priestsin the Templereceivea portion
(Deut 18:3), the ashargets certainpartsof the animalin returnfor
the servicehe renders.Thepreferredsacrificialanimalwas a young
malesheepor goat (preferably
six to twelvemonths,andneverolder
thantwoanda halfyears).Butcheringfolloweda carefullyprescribed
procedure,whichproducedspecificcuts of meat.'1

In traditionalMiddleEasternsocieties,as in antiquity,mealswith
meat dishes signifyspecial occasions, such as weddingsand the
hostingof guests,and arefull of symbolism.Invitation,acceptance
or refusal,andthe protocolobservedduringthe mealserveas means
of communication."Thechoice of meat served,the choice of dish
served, and the orderin which the guest(s) are servedsignal the
recognitionof socialstatus,the importanceof the occasion,andthe
seriousnessof intenton the partof the host."'8
The hostsitswiththe
gueststo encouragethemto eat and to see to all theirneeds,as with
Abrahamwho "thereunderthe tree waitedon them himselfwhile
they ate" (Gen 18:8). However,no businessshould be discussed
until,at the end of the meal,the host communicateshis readiness.
The food is servedon a largecommunaltray.Duringthe Iron
Age, large kraters fulfilled this function. The order in which
guests areservedis determinedby the social hierarchyperceived
by the hosting society.While everyone eats from the communal
tray,no one will take food from the trayor eat before the guest.
Special parts are reserved for the guest. All these customs are
well reflected in the way Samuel treated Saul on his visit:
SamuelbroughtSaulandhis servantinto the dining-hallandgave
them a place at the head of the invitedcompany,aboutthirtyin

NEAR EASTERNARCHAEOLOGY
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101

This replica of beam olive oil presses at Kibbutz Revadim uses authentic stone basins and weights recovered from the nearby site of Tell MiqneEkron. With the arrival of the Philistines, Ekron became a large fortified, urban center and supplied both the Egyptians and the Assyrians with
olive oil. The olive oil installations of the time consisted of a crushing basin and pressing vats. The liquid from the crushed olives was transferred
to storage jars where the oil was allowed to rise to the top before the reserve liquid was drained.

number.He saidto the cook,"Bringthe portionthatI gaveyouand

toldyou to put on one side."The cook took up the wholehaunch
andlegandputit beforeSaul;andSamuelsaid,"Hereis the portion
of meatkeptforyou.Eatit: it hasbeenreservedforyouat thisfeast
to whichI haveinvitedthe people."(1 Sam9:22-24)
Here we see that certain parts of the animal, like the breast
and the right thigh, were considered choice and were reserved
for the honored participantsin the meal who could be guests or
priests. Other parts of sacrificial animals, like the fat, kidneys
and liver,were given to the priests.

Seafood
Zooarchaeological and textual evidence indicate that
the ancient Mediterranean diet contained fish as well.
We know that the Egyptians ate and exported fish and
the Israelites ate fish. How often did the Israelites eat
fish or how they prepared fish cannot be determined from
present archaeological data. What can be determined from
zooarchaeological remains is that not all the kinds of fish
consumed at Israelite sites were in adherence to the biblical
rule. Biblical instructions dictate that,
of creaturesthat live in water these maybe eaten: all, whether
in salt wateror fresh,that have fins and scales;but all, whether
in salt or freshwater,that have neitherfins nor scales,including

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both small creatures in shoals and larger creatures, you are

to regardas prohibited. Everycreature in the water that has
neitherfins nor scalesis prohibitedto you. (Lev 11:9-10, 12;see
also Deut 14:9-10)
The Hebrew Bible refersto fish only in the collective, ddgah.
No fish is mentioned by name, but zooarchaeological data
from sites identified as Israelite show that the inhabitants of
these settlements consumed a variety of fresh and salt-water
fish. Remains of fresh and salt water molluskswere discovered
in small numbers at several sites and it cannot be determined
whether they were used as food or for other purposes such as
jewelry and decoration. The small numbers of shells suggest
very strongly that they were not the byproduct of dying.
To be consumed, fresh fish can be boiled, fried or roasted.
Many inland sites yielded fish remains and it is obvious
that no fresh fish were consumed there. Fish were supplied
by fishermen from Palestine as well as from other places
such as Egypt. To enable the transport of fish they needed
to be processed either by smoking or by drying and salting.
Written and artistic extra-biblical sources illustrate that
fish were processed before shipment. Egyptian sources
demonstrate fish processing by first cleaning and then
salting. The Egyptians knew how to salt not just fish but
also fowl. Wen-Amon reports receiving a shipment of thirty
baskets of fish from Egypt.'"

FowlandPoultry

No architectural evidence,
in the form of columbaria
(dove-cotes), for example, is
availablethat provesthat fowl
were domesticatedpriorto the
Hellenisticand Romanperiods.
However, the inclusion of
certainbirdsin thesacrificial
lists
stronglysuggeststhat pigeons
and turtledoves were raised
under controlled conditions.
Bone remainsof chicken,geese
and ducksfromexcavationsat
the Ophel in Jerusalemshow
that these domestictypeswere
available. Biblical references
andzooarchaeological
evidence
demonstrate that certain
wild birds were hunted. The
consumption of birds was
not differentthanwhat
probably
is beingpracticedin the region
today, which is similar to the
consumption of other meats. Oliveoil presses cut intothe bedrockare seen at a numberof terracedarchaeologicalsites in Israel.Thisphoto
Thereferenceto "fattenedfowl," showsan examplefromTelHalif.Theintensityof oliveoil productioninthis regionseems to havemarked
whichwereservedon Solomon's increasedby the IronAge IIperiodwitha morecomplexpressinginstallationhavingbeen introducedinvolving
table(1 Kgs5:3 [4:23])indicates a crushingbasinoperatedby a roller.(Photoby PattySeger,courtesyof LahavResearchProject.)
that, like other animals,birds
werefattenedforconsumption
on specialoccasions.
otherevidenceto the use of the fruitof this tree.Duringthe
Untilthe domestication
of the chicken,eggsmusthavebeen Roman-Byzantine
period,the citronbecameveryprominent
availablein limitedquantities.Twobiblicalreferencessuggest in Jewish mosaics, however.21
thateggswereavailable
fromthewildandthuswereconsidered
a
Although driedfruit were consumedas sweets, the most
common
sweetenerwasbee honey,fromwildor domesticated
Isa
In
delicacy(Deut22:6; 10:14). Egypt,imagesdepicttheoffering
bees.
Other
fruit-basedsweetenerswere thick syrups,which
ofbowlsfilledwithlargeeggs,possibly
ostrichandpelican.20
wereproducedby boilingdifferentkindsof fruit,for example
dates,untilthe desiredconsistencywasattained.
FruitsandOtherFoods

FruitTrees
While the valleys were suitable for field crops, the hillcountry was not as convenient for their cultivation. An
efficientwayof utilizingthe slopeswas by buildingterraces
and using the artificially-createdleveled plots for planting
fruittreesof differentkinds.Treesnative to this regionthat
were planted and harvested included figs, pomegranates,
grapevines, apricots,date palms,applesand olives.With the
exceptionof the latter,all of thesetreesyieldfruitthat can be
usedin similarways.In season,fruitsof these treescan either
be eatenfreshand theirfreshjuicecan be drunk,or they can
be processedforfutureuse.
A poor person's fruit was the sycomore fruit, which
resemblesa fig. This tree was very commonin Egyptwhere
the fruitwas eaten and the wood was used for construction.
Citron, a memberof the citrus family,is also a tree native
to the region, but there are no ancient references or any

OliveTrees
Becauseof its oil, the olive tree was consideredone of the
mostimportantnaturalresourcesof Palestine(Deut8:8).Until
the Romanperiod,the fruitof the olive tree was used only
for oil production.22
There were other oil producingplants,
like sesame,but olive oil was consideredbettertasting,more
versatile,andhad a longer"shelflife."When storedproperly
in an airtightvesselin a cool anddarkplace,oliveoil can keep
longer than any other plant oil.23Sesameis used as food in
differentways.It is eaten as dryseedsandcan be groundand
madeintopaste(tehini)thatwiththe additionof wateris made
into a sauce.
Palestine was a majorproducerof olive oil not only for
its inhabitants,but as a commoditytradedto other partsof
the ancient Near East, includingEgyptand Mesopotamia.
Oliveoil can be usedfora varietyof purposessuchas lighting,
cosmetics,medicineandmore.Althoughit wasan important

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103

food source, there is surprisingly

little textual information about
olives in the diet. Very little is
said in the Bible concerning the
use of oil in the kitchen.Its use in
frying,for example,was probably
common,but is describedmainly
in the context of recipesfor grain
"onetenthof an ephahof
sacrifices:
half
flour,the usualgrain-offering,
of it in the morningandhalfin the
evening.It is to be cookedwith oil
on a griddle.Bringit well-mixed,
and present it crumbledin small
a soothing
piecesasa grain-offering,
odorto YHWH"(Lev6:13-14 [2021]; see also7:9-10, 12).

Vegetables

An importantfoodgroupthat is
not well known fromthe written Manyof ancientwine presses can be seen at sites in the centralhills.Wine presses consisted of two
and archaeological records is basinscarvedin the soft limestone-sometimes up to a depth of three feet. Usuallyone of the basins
vegetables. The Bible talks very was higherand connected to the other by a channel.Sizes could varybut they had to be large enough
ResearchProject.)
little about vegetables and when to accommodatethe feet of the treaders. (Photoby PattySeger,courtesyof Laohav
they are mentionedthe attitudeis
Plantspiceslikecumin,dill,coriander,
thyme,blackmustard,
mixed,at timestheywereconsidereda delicacyorevena must,
andat timesthe lowliestfood.Certainvegetablesarenativeto
fitches,caperbush,saltbush,
saffron,hyssop,mint,marjoram,
this regionandhavebeen cultivatedandeaten formillennia. dwarfchicoryand reichardia,and importedplantspices,like
These include carrots,cucumbers,muskand watermelons, myrrh,galbanumandcinnamon,wereusedformedicinaland
onions, garlic and more. Many leafy plants (field greens) cosmetic,aswellas culinary,
purposes.
and root plantsweregatheredin the wild and consumedas
FoodPreservation
part of the meal. Dandelion greens are still picked by the
Not all food could be consumed immediately after
localsfor salads.They providea good sourceof calciumand
vitaminA and contain some thiamine,riboflavin,iron and production. Furthermore, it was in the interest of the
Otherplantsand theirfruitare collectedin
producers to produce surplus so it could be used out of
carbohydrates.24
the wildincludemallow,hollyhockandcaperbush.25
seasonand for tradeand exchange.The need forlargescale
storageof agriculturalsurplus,grainin particular,led to the
NutsandBerries
developmentof an effectiverepertoireof food preservation
Anothercomponentof the Israelitediet is nutsandberries. practices. People did nevertheless suffer from intestinal
diseases(2 Chr 21:18 19) and parasitesdue to poorsanitary
Among the nuts, we can include pistachios, walnut, pine
nuts and domesticatedalmonds.Among the berriesnative andfoodpreservationconditions.27
to this region,most prominentare the black mulberryand
Grain was typically stored in jars. Wine, oil and water
werealsostoredin jarsof a varietyof sizesandshapes.Other
blackberry.A totally different "found"food was insects.
were commodities,includingdriedfruit,weresometimesalsostored
Accordingto Leviticus11:20-23 certaingrasshoppers
allowed to be eaten. They could be grilled on skewersor in jars.Milk,however,waskeptin a goatskin.Salted,driedand
fried, and Assyrianreliefs demonstratethat these insects otherwisepreservedmeat and milkproductswereplacedin
wereconsidereda delicacy.26
basketsorjarsforfutureuse.
Storagejarswereusuallykeptin a storeroom.Forcommunal
storageneeds, stone-linedand plasteredpits werelocatedin
Seasonings
Foodwasseasonedwith saltor withherbs(bothcultivated variousplacesin the domesticcompound.This was a matter
and collected). Some spices had to be imported. Most of convenience, since the grain was close to the grinding
installations. Flour was also stored in jars, although the
communitieshad to purchasesalt, whichwas transportedto
otherpartsof the countryfromeitherthe Mediterranean
or the preferencewas to grindit daily.Undercertaincircumstances
Dead Seas.Its importanceis demonstratedby the fact that it
(e.g.,militaryservice),breadwouldlasta maximumof fourdays.
wasalsousedas a sacrifice(Lev2:13).
Foractivitieslastingbeyondthatperiod,flourwasissued.28
104

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67:2 (2004)

Thisfood preparationarea was discovered in Field IIIof Tel Halifand dates form the late IronAge 11(700-650 BCE).The room shown in the
foreground contains a grindinginstallation,grindingstones, and a kraterwith food remains.The middle and far rooms both containtabuns,
while the latter also has a workbench.To the left of these rooms is a courtyardwith an open hearthvisible in the middle. (Photoby PattySeger,
courtesy of Lahav Research Project.)

Because of their high sugar content, most fruits can be

processed into alcoholic drinks so, for long-term use, juices
were preserved as alcoholic beverages, namely wine. The
most commonly-used fruit for this purpose was, of course,
grapes, followed by pomegranates and dates. One other
use for fruits was boiling them to make a thick, sweet syrup
referred to in the Bible as dbda' (honey). Grapes, as well as
figs, dates and apricots can be dried, and the fruit preserved
individually, or put on a string or pressed into cakes. Dried
fruit, like raisins, was eaten as such when sweets were
desired. Because of their high sugar content, raisins were
the most efficient source of energy and were taken on long
marches to provide energy.
Wine was the most popular alcoholic beverage for secular
as well as cultic occasions. Another alcoholic beverage
common in the ancient Near East, however, was beer. While
Egypt and Mesopotamia were well known as beer producers,
biblical references to this drink show that it was also
consumed in Israel. Another alcoholic beverage was mead
(Prov 16:24; Ps 19:11) made by mixing water and honey,
and fermented with malt, yeast and other ingredients.29

FoodPreparation

Stone mortarswith pestles and grindingstones were used to

grind grain. Mortars could be portable or carved in bedrock.
Alternatively, a pair of stones were used, the upper made to
rub against the lower, with the grain in between. The flour
from these implements contains a high amount of grit, which,
when consumed, grindsdown the tooth enamel (see the article
by Ebeling and Rowan in this issue). When mixed with liquids
and spices, flour can be made into differentproducts,the most
common of which is dough.
A wooden board was used to knead the dough. The board
was placed on a stone workbench or on the floor. Like other
tedious chores, it was probablyaccompaniedby singing.When
leavened bread was desired, a fermented piece of dough from
the previous day had to be kneaded with the fresh dough.30
Bread could be made in two ways, with a tray on an open fire
(Lev 7:9; Isa 44:19) and in a covered oven (Lev 26:26).
Baking ovens were round, dome-shaped installations
constructed of clay, with an opening at the top. They were
placed where the smoke would not hamper other activities,
either in the courtyard or in a room by the door. They were

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105

EatWell,LiveLong

Biblical wisdom literature is rife with admonitions on the

proper ways to eat, drink and, consequently, enjoy a long and
healthy life. For the average Israelite, it is presumed, meals
were eaten and servedin accordancewith both workschedules
and the ritual calendar (on special occasions). Guests were, no
doubt, providedwith more elaboratefare as hospitalityusually
functions partly to reinforce social status-both that of the
host and that of the guest.
Most of the people of ancient Israel dined adequately if
not sumptuouslybut the upper classes (royalty,nobility, high
priesthood)apparentlyhada muchricherdiet and, thus,wouldbe
subjectto someof the ills now affectingover-indulgentAmerican
society.The prophetAmos' rebukeof the behaviorof the upper
class is very tellingwhen it comes to theireatinghabits:
This brokenjarfound nearthe stone workbenchin the far room of
the complex shown in the photo above may have been used to store
grainfor household use.

mostly individually owned by the household but there were

also shared ovens (Lev 26:26). The term "Towerof Ovens" in
Nehemiah 3:11 suggests the existence of public ovens and the
references to a "Bakers'Street"in Jeremiah37:21 suggests the
existence of professionalbakers.Animal dung primarilyfueled
the ovens, while small branches, straw, flax fibers and olivepressingleftoversprovidedthe kindling.
Large bowls (kraters), made of clay or stone, were used in
food preparationfor mixing ingredientsand as communalfoodservingvessels. At Tel Halif,a largekraterfilledwith carbonized
lentils was discovered in the middle of a floor surroundedby
severalsmallbowls.
Cookingpotsof variousshapesandsizeswereusedon the hearth,
dependingon whatwason the menu.Forexample,waterwasboiled
in a pot that was shapeddifferentlythan the ones usedforcooking
meat or for makinggruel or stew.31Thelatter were wide-mouth
pots that could be coveredfor betterand fasterresults.Although
pans and griddlesare not known in the ceramicrepertoireof the
Israeliteperiod, certain biblicaltermssuch as
suggest
marhe.eet
that theremusthave been such a utensil.32It is possible
that what
archaeologistsinterpretas breadtrayswereusedalsoforfrying.
Cooked meals at home were eaten at the end of the workday.
On special occasions such as when guests were present, meals
were eaten at the appropriatetime. Field workers must have
eaten something before leaving for work (Prov 31:15). Meals
"on the run"included bread, cheese and yogurt, vegetables in
season, dried fruit, water and/or wine. Cooked meals included
mostly soup, gruel and stew, which were served in bowls. The
only utensil availablewas the knife, so eating involved gulping
and shoving food into the mouth, and using one's hand to take
the food, probablywith the help of a piece of bread.At the end,
the dish or bowl were wiped clean with bread, as illustratedin
the metaphor "I shall wipe Jerusalemas one wipes a plate and
turns it upside down" (2 Kgs 21:13). Turning the dish upside
down was probablya sign that the diner had had enough.

106

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67:2 (2004)

Youlollon bedsinlaidwithivoryandloungeon yourcouches;

youfeaston lambsfromthe flockandstall-fedcalves;
you improvise on the lute and like David invent musical
instruments,
you drinkwine by the bowlfuland anointyourselveswith the
richestoils. (Amos6:4-6)
The so-called "Mediterraneandiet" is not only very old, but
geographicallywidespread.Its nutritional soundness,however,
probablyhad more to do with the social class than anythingelse.
People at either end of the economic scale, no doubt, were not
as healthy as those in between who ate well but not opulently.
Moderation for people with limited resources at their disposal
may not be counted as a particularvirtue by some but, in the
case of ancient Israel, it was clearly considered praiseworthy
(Prov 23:2; Ecc 10:17). Food was for nourishment and fine
dining was not an end in itself. Furthermore,how a meal was
eaten and with whom were as importantas the food served.As
the old sage said, "bettera dish of vegetablesif love goes with it
than a fattened ox eaten amid hatred"(Prov 15:17).

Notes
1.Braun(1991:13).
2. Eaton,Eaton,et al. (2002).
3. de Lorgeril
andSalen(2000).
andSidossis(2000:25).
4. Simopoulos
5. Bass(1996:74).
6. Finkelstein
(1996:206).
7. Finkelstein
(1996:206),Hesse(1990:219-20),Borowski
(1998:140-44).
8. Storyof Sinuhe,AELI:227.
9. Frankel,
Avitsuret al. (1994:92).
10.SeeTverandRussell(1981:68, 513)on theusesandbenefitsof grain
in thediet.
11.Braun(1991:16-23).
12.Reed(1992:778).
13.TverandRussell(1981:514),Berdanier
(1998:173).
14.HesseandWapnish
(1996:62).
15.Klenck(1995:71)
16.Grantham
(1995:76).
17.Klenck(1995:60-64).

18. Grantham(1995:73).
19. Reportof Wen-Amon,AELII:227.
20. Brothwelland Brothwell(1969:54 andfig. 18).
21. Zohary(1982:68-69 [sycomorefruit],123 [citron]).
22. Haran(1962:547), Borowski(1987: 117-26).
23. Farah(1986:40).
24. Tver and Russell(1981:486-87).
25. Zohary(1982:98-99).
26. Brothwelland Brothwell(1969:fig.24)
27. Cahill,Reinhardet al. (1991), ReinhardandWarnock(1996).
28. Smelik(1991: 106).
29. Tver and Russell(1981:281).
30. Braun(1991:32).
31. Zimhoni(1997:65: 4.5:11;5.6:3-9; 65: 2.6:1-2; 2.9:1-2; 5.6:1-2).
32.
fromthe rootrhi, is translatedby someas "bakingpan"and
as "stew-pan,sauce-pan."The context in which it is used (Lev
Marhe.eet,
by others
2:7; 7:9) suggeststhat it is a fryingpan. Anotherutensil that mighthave
been a fryingpan is maha'bat(Lev2:5;6:14;7:9).

Crabtree.Philadelphia:MASCA/Universityof Pennsylvania
Museumof ArchaeologyandAnthropology.12.

Haran,M.
1962 Food and Drink. Pp. 543-60 in Encyclopedia
Biblica,Vol. 4,
editedby B. Mazar.Jerusalem.
Hesse,B.
1990 Pig Lovers and Pig Haters: Patterns in Palestinian Pork
Production.Journalof Ethnobiology
10(2): 195-225.
Hesse,B., andP Wapnish
1996 Pigs'Feet,CattleBonesand Birds'Wings.BiblicalArchaeology
Review22(1): 62.
Klenck,J. D.
1995 BedouinAnimalSacrificePractices:Case Studyin Israel.Pp.
Roleof Animalsin Archaeology,
editedby
57-72 in TheSymbolic
K. RyanandP J.Crabtree.Philadelphia:
of
MASCA/University
12.
Museumof ArchaeologyandAnthropology.
Pennsylvania
Liebman,B.
1994 Just the MediterraneanDiet Facts.NutritionActionHealth
Letter21(10): 8-9.
Reed,S. A.
AEL
1992 Bread.Pp. 777-80 in AnchorBibleDictionary,
editedby D. N.
Vol.I: TheOldand
1975 M. Lichtheim,AncientEgyptian
Literature,
Freedman.New York:Doubleday.
MiddleKingdoms.
Berkeley:Universityof California.
Reinhard,K., andP Warnock
1976 M. Lichtheim,AncientEgyptianLiterature,Vol.II: The New
1996 Archaeoparasitology
and the Analysisof the LatrinePit Soils
Kingdom.
Berkeley:Universityof California.
from the City of David. Pp. 20-23 in Illnessand Healingin
Bass,G. E
AncientTimes.Haifa:Hecht Museum.
in theBodrumMuseumof Underwater
1996 Shipwrecks
Archaeology. Simopoulos,A. and L. S. Sidossis
P,
Bodrum:BodrumMuseumof UnderwaterArchaeology.
2000 What is so Specialaboutthe TraditionalDiet of Greece.Pp.
Borowski,O.
24-42 in Mediterranean
Diets,editedby A. P Simopoulosand
in IronAgeIsrael.WinonaLake,IN: Eisenbrauns.
1987 Agriculture
E Visioli.Basel:Karger.
1998 EveryLivingThing:Daily Use of Animalsin AncientIsrael.
Smelik,K. A. D.
WalnutCreek,CA: AltaMira.
1991 WritingsfromAncientIsrael:A Handbookof Historicaland
Braun,T.
Knox.
Documents.
Louisville,KY:Westminster/John
Religious
1991 AncientMediterranean
Food.Pp. 10-55 in TheMediterranean Tver,D. E, and P Russell
Dietsin HealthandDisease,ed. G. A. Spiller.New York:Van
1981 NutritionandHealthEncyclopedia.
New York:Van Nostrand
NostrandReinhold.
Reinhold.
Brothwell,D. R., and P.Brothwell
Zimhoni,O.
1969 Foodin Antiquity:A Surveyof the Diet of EarlyPeople.New
1997 StudiesintheIronAgePottery
Archaeological,
ofIsrael:Typological,
York:Praeger.
and ChronologicalAspects. Tel Aviv: Tel Aviv University
Cahill,J. M., K. Reinhard,et al.
Instituteof Archaeology.
1991 It Had to Happen:Scientists ExamineRemainsof Ancient
Zohary,M.
Bathroom.BiblicalArchaeology
Review17(3):64-69.
1982 Plantsof theBible.Cambridge:
CambridgeUniversity.
de Lorgeril,M., and P Salen
2000 ModifiedCreatanMediterraneanDiet in the Preventionof
CoronaryHeartDiseaseandCancer.Pp. 1-23 in Mediterranean
Diets,editedby A. P Simopoulosand E Visioli.Basel:Karger.
Eaton,S. B., S. B. Eaton,III,et al.
2002 Evolution, Diet, and Health. Pp. 7-17 in HumanDiet: Its
OriginandEvolution,editedby P S. Ungarand M. E Teaford.
OdedBorowski
isAssociate
Westport,CT:Berginand Garvey.
Professor
Farah,A. EP
at
Hebrew
and
Biblical
of
Archaeology
1986 The Good Oil: Olive Oil MakesHealthyComeback.Health
in
EmoryUniversity Atlanta,Georgia.
18(6):38-40, 42-43.
He is also the Co-Directorof the
Finkelstein,I.
LahavResearch
Project.He hasdone
1996 Ethnicityand Originof the IronI settlersin the Highlandsof
at
Tell
Gezer,TellDan,Beth
fieldwork
Canaan:Can the RealIsraelStandUp?"BiblicalArchaeologist
His
Tel
198-212.
59(4):
Shemesh, HalifandAshkelon.
Frankel,R., S. Avitsur,et al.
include
three
books
manypublications
1994 HistoryandTechnology
of OliveOil in theHolyLand.Arlington,
in IronAgeIsrael,Every
Agriculture
IsraelMuseum.
VA/TelAviv:OlkariusEditions/Eretz
LivingThing:DailyUse of Animals
Grantham,B.
in AncientIsraeland,mostrecently,
1995 Dinnerin Buqata:The SymbolicNatureof FoodAnimalsand
Oded Borowski
DailyLifein AncientIsrael.
MealSharingin the DruzeVillage.Pp. 73-78 in TheSymbolic
Roleof Animalsin Archaeology,edited by K. Ryan and P.J.

References

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