Poly Electrostat 2012

Dpartement Premier Cycle
SCANfirst
LECTURES ON PHYSICS
ELECTROSTATICS
2011/2012
National Institute of Applied Sciences - Lyon
With grateful thanks to Andrew Giuliani for his contribution to the translation.
Stphanie Deschanel
LITTERATURE
Books
PURCELL
Electricity and Magnetism Berkeley Physics Course - Volume 2
Publisher: McGraw Hill Higher Education ISBN 9780070048591
FEYNMANN LEIGHTON SANDS
The Pheynman Lectures on physics Volume II
Addison-Weslay publishing company
IDA BASTOS
Electromagnetics and Calculation of Fields Second Edition
Spring Verlag, New York, August 1996, 570 pages - ISBN 0-387-94877-5
FAVERJON, HEPP, ROSSET
Physique 1-Electrostatique,Elecrocintique, Electronique
Collection Grand Amphi Sciences-Bral (2000)
J.P PEREZ, R. CARLES, R. FLECKINGER
Electromagntisme. Fondements et Applications
Masson (1997)
*H. Prpa Electromagntisme 1re Anne MPSI-PCSI-PTSI
Hachette (1995)
**L.T. NESSI, A. DUBOIS, E. GILLETTE, D. LEVY, G. MENTRE
MethodX- Physique 1- Ellipses (1998)
Internet sites
The content of these sites is unequal. Some sites may be ephemeral
http://web.mit.edu/smcs/8.02/
http://www.pa.msu.edu/courses/2000spring/PHY232/lectures/
http://www.physics.wayne.edu/~apetrov/PHY2140/#lectures
http://regentsprep.org/Regents/physics/phys03/aequilines/default.htm
http://www.physics.sjsu.edu/becker/physics51/overview.htm#Slides
http://www3.amherst.edu/~waloinaz/Physics33_f02.html
http://membres.lycos.fr/montagreg/montages/
http://www.ac-bordeaux.fr/Pedagogie/Physique/Physico/index.htm
http://www.physics.ubc.ca/courses/Current/PHYS_list.phtml
http://library.thinkquest.org/16600/
http://hometown.aol.com/lyonelb/
http://www.physics.umd.edu/deptinfo/facilities/lecdem/demolst.htm#j2
http://members.tripod.com/llovesumi/menu.htm
http://geologie.ens.fr/~vigny/cours/chp-gphy-6.html
http://www.physics.isu.edu/physdemos/
http://cours.cegep-st-jerome.qc.ca/203-201/partie2/chap5/section2.htm
http://www.physics.purdue.edu/reports/demo/Electricity.html
http://www.webelements.com/index.html
http://www.phys.ualberta.ca/~gingrich/phys395/notes/phys395.html (electricity)
http://www.sciences-en-ligne.com/Dictionnaire/DictionnaireDIST/p/puis02.htm
(dictionary)
http://www.ee.surrey.ac.uk/Teaching/Courses/EFT/index.html
http://www.ac-rennes.fr/pedagogie/scphys/accueil.htm
http://www.coe.ufrj.br/~acmq/electrostatic.html (electrostatic machines)
CONTENTS
Chapter I: Introduction, Coulombs law
p. 1
Chapter II: The electrostatic field in vacuum
p. 19
Chapter III: The electrostatic field in dielectric media
p. 61
Chapter IV: Conductors in electrostatic equilibrium in a vacuum
p.93
Chapter V: Electrostatic energy of a set of conductors
p.113
Final exam 2011
p.135
Introduction. Coulombs law
-1-
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION-COULOMBS LAW
I- INTRODUCTION.
Electromagnetic interaction and its place among physical phenomena.
II- ELECTRIFICATION. ELECTRIC CHARGE.
II-1 Elementary charge.
II-2 Electrification of bodies.
III- CHARGE DISTRIBUTIONS.
III-1 Volume distribution. Volume charge.
III-2 Surface density, linear charge density, point charge.
IV- INTERACTION BETWEEN CHARGES. COULOMBS LAW.
IV-1 Electrostatic interaction. Characterization of the electrification of a
body by its charge.
IV-2 Coulombs law (Electrostatic force between point charges).
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CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION-COULOMBS LAW
I- INTRODUCTION. Electromagnetic interaction and its place among
physical phenomena.
The inventory of various observable physical phenomena in the Universe
permits distinguishing four types of interactions:
1) The gravitational interaction, which governs the celestial movements
and the fall of bodies, is shown by the existence of a force of attraction between
two bodies, inversely proportional to the square of their distance and
proportional to a characteristic of each of the two bodies that is called their
gravitational mass. This force is written:
mm
F12 = G 1 2 2 u
r
F12 is the force exerted by body 1 on body 2; m1 and m2 are the gravitational
masses of the two bodies 1 and 2, situated at a distance r one from the other, u
is the unit vector directed from body 1 to body 2 and G is a constant called the
universal constant of gravitation. This attractive force of nature, whose
1
intensity varies by 2 , is of infinite range.
r
The gravitational field developed by a body of mass m1, permitting the
expression of the force F = m2 to which the mass m2 is submitted will
therefore be written :
m
= G 21 u
r
2) The electromagnetic interaction, which is responsible for the cohesion
of matter on our scale. It has an influence between bodies having a particular
property that we call charge. It is this electromagnetic interaction that intervenes
for all the properties governing the atoms assemblies. It therefore influences
bonds on the atomic level (metallic bonds, covalent bonds) and most of the
properties and physical phenomena on the microscopic scale (physical and
chemical properties, stability, behaviour after friction). The study of the
properties of this interaction is the object of the electromagnetism course.
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Without entering into a complete description that will be given about it, lets
point out its similarities and its differences with gravitational interaction.
This interaction is expressed under a similar form to the one of
gravitational interaction. Indeed, it is shown by the existence of an interaction
force F12 exerted for example by a body (1) on a body (2), expressed under the
q q
form F12 = k 1 2 2 u , u being the unit vector directed from body (1) to body (2),
r
whose respective charges are q1 and q2.
Like gravitational interaction, its intensity varies by 1 / r 2 and its range is
infinite. In a similar way to the gravitational field, it is also possible to define a
field E created by the charge q1 that we will describe in a static regime as an
electrostatic field, permitting the expression of the force q2 E to which body (2)
is subjected.
The analogy between these two forces stops here, for they have two
fundamental differences. Indeed, the electromagnetic interaction is a lot more
intense than the gravitational force. If we consider for example the interaction
between two electrons, it is about 1036 times stronger than gravitational
interaction. Moreover, depending on the sign of the charge, this interaction may
be either an attraction, or a repulsion.
Interaction types
Relative
intensity
Gravitational
Electromagnetic
1037
Strong nuclear
1039
Weak nuclear
1034
Range
Action
domain
and
phenomena (examples)
Attraction of celestial bodies,
Infinite falling of bodies, black holes
Stability of atoms and
Infinite molecules, electric and optic
phenomena
Stability of nucleons; neutron
10-15 m. stars
radioactivity
10-18 m. Disintegration of mesons,
and mesons.
Characteristics
Mass
Charge
Color charge
Weak charge
Table I
Characteristics of the four fundamental forces of the universe
3) The third type of interaction is the strong nuclear interaction. It is

around 100 times stronger than the electromagnetic interaction but only shows
itself on very small distances (on the order of 10-15 m). The particles on which
this interaction acts are quarks, constituent particles of matter, characterized by
their color (red, green, blue), this property being a characteristic of charge under
the strong interaction. Due to its very weak range, this force is not seen on the
atomic or molecular scale.
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4) The fourth interaction is the weak nuclear interaction which is

responsible for certain radioactive processes like radioactivity. It is also an
interaction with a very short range (10-17 10-18 m) but whose intensity is about
105 times weaker than the strong nuclear interaction.
Table I summarizes the properties of these different interactions. Table
II gives a glimpse of the course of their study in history and the concepts
developed successively to formalize them.
A first summary of the preliminary observations of Johannes Kepler
(1571-1630) on the movement of celestial bodies and of Galilee (Galileo Galilei,
1564-1642) on the falling of bodies, was completed at the end of XVIIth century
by Isaac Newton (1643-1707) which establishes the general theory of
gravitational forces, showing that the force responsible for the falling of bodies
was also that which governed the movement of planets. In 1915, Albert Einstein
(1879-1955) brought a significant contribution to the theory of a gravitational
field by showing that this field was the manifestation of a curvature of
spacetime. Although noted as far back as the antiquity, the magnetic and
electric interaction phenomena, gave rise to a quantitative description in terms of
forces only in 1785, following the work of Charles-Augustin Coulomb (17361806) describing the interactions between charged bodies. In the beginning of
the XIXth century, the work of Hans-Christian Oersted (1777-1851), Michael
Faraday (1791-1867) and Andr-Marie Ampre (1775-1836) permitted the link
between electric and magnetic forces. The synthesis of all this work was
completed by the theory of the electromagnetic field that James Clerk Maxwell
(1831-1879) published in 1873. Henrich Rudolph Hertz ((1857-1894) showed in
1888 the similarity of electromagnetic and light waves.
However, a very different vision of the electromagnetic interaction is
born in the beginning of the XXth century. In 1900, Max Planck (1858-1947)
shows that the energy exchanges by thermal radiation do not take place in a
continuous way but by packages or energy quanta. Einstein in 1905 shows that
we can consider electromagnetic waves as a set of corpuscles called photons. A
new description concept of the interactions, their quantification, had just been
developed. This concept was going to give rise to the birth of the quantum
theory of fields allowing the description of the interactions in terms of particle
exchange. It is like this that, for electromagnetic interaction, the quantum
electrodynamics describes the electromagnetic interaction between particles in
terms of photons exchange.
In 1934, Enrico Fermi (1901-1954) showed that, by analogy with the
photons of electromagnetic interaction, it was possible to describe the weak
nuclear force of interaction by a transmission of this interaction through
This similarity of notion of the
elementary particles called bosons.
electromagnetic and weak nuclear interactions was going to allow slightly later
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the establishment a unified theory of these two interactions called electroweak

theory (1967) by Steven Weinberg (1933- ), Abdus Salam (1926-1996) and
Sheldon Glashow (1932- ).
Since the work of (1968) of Richard P. Feynmann (1918-1988) we know
that the messengers of the strong nuclear interaction between elementary
particles (quarks) are gluons.
The quantum theory of field therefore allowed the description of the
electromagnetic, and weak and strong nuclear interactions with detail. As we
just saw, the first point common to all these forces is that to each force there
corresponds a particle, that we can interpret as the smallest packet of action
associated to the corresponding force, the photon for the electromagnetic
interaction, the boson and the gluon for the weak and strong nuclear interactions.
Their second common point concerns the charge. Every particle carries an
electric charge, a strong charge (color charge) and a weak charge.
So what about the fourth force, the gravitational force? It is the dream of
physicists to establish a single theory allowing the description of the set of
interactions but the conceptual obstacles to this ultimate unification are still
immense. Indeed, the three first forces are described within the scope of
quantum theory (physics of the infinitesimal, of the atom), whereas gravitation
is described within the scope of general relativity (physics of the infinitely large,
galaxies for example). Yet, these two theories seem incompatible if we try to
apply them together to extreme situations where we are witnesses to enormous
concentrations of energy in a very small volume (Big bang theory, creation of
the universe). Certain physicists think however that they have now found a
theory capable, in principle, to assemble all these forces into one single theory,
the superstring theory. According to this theory, which permits, in particular the
prediction of certain properties of the graviton, the particle associated to the
force of gravity, the ultimate elements of matter would be constituted not by
point particles but by little unidimensional filaments called strings whose typical
size would be the Planck length (10-33 m) and whose tension would be enormous
(about 1039tonnes). The different particles currently observed would therefore
only be the manifestation of different modes of vibration of these strings. The
conceptual obstacles to the completion of this theory, which, in its current most
detailed version, brings eleven dimensions into play in spacetime, remain
enormous however, and its experimental verifications are currently problematic.
This brief introduction positions the scope of classic physics which is the
object of your training in the First Cycle. Only gravitational or electromagnetic
interactions are gone over in the physics or mechanics courses, described
through forces or fields. Through simplification, we may say that this view of
physics gives a correct description of macroscopic types phenomena observed at
our scale. However, the description of the infinitely big or infinitely small is not
included in this simplification but it covers an important domain of engineering
-8-
science (mechanics of systems, electrotechnics, mechanics of vibrations,

propagation of waves, ondulatory optics,).
Quantum physics will make up an indispensable to those who, later
would want to comprehend the microscopic properties of matter.
Literature in french (to know more about it)
R. TATON : Histoire des Sciences. PUF Quadrige (Paris). 1995
La thorie de tout . Sciences et Avenir, nspcial 118. Mai/Juin 1999.
B. GREENE, L'Univers lgant, Eds R. Laffont, Paris (2000)
II- ELECTRIFICATION. ELECTRIC CHARGE.

II-1. Elementary particles. Elementary charge.
As we have seen in the previous paragraph, to every particle that we will
consider in this course as elementary particles, a characteristic value of its
electric behaviour is attached, which we will call its charge (q). q may be
positive (a proton for example), negative (electron or negative ion such as Cl-,
for example) or nil for neutral particles (neutron for example).
All the natural charged particles (stable particles) that we will consider
here as elementary particles have a charge which is a multiple of the same
quantity e>0, called the elementary charge.
e = 1,60217733 .10-19 C
the coulomb -C- being the unit of charge of the International System of units
(SI)
Quarks, currently believed to be the most basic building block of matter,
but not isolable in a permanent way, have electric charges in multiples of e/3.
Thus, matter is made up of atoms formed:
- with a very dense nucleus containing A elementary particles of two types :
Z protons of charge +e, of rest mass mp = 1,672 10-27 kg,
A - Z neutrons of nil charge, of rest mass mn = 1,674 10-27 kg.
(Z is the atomic number and A is the atomic mass)
- with an electron cloud of Z electrons, each of them having a charge e and a
rest mass me = 9,109 10-31 kg.
Let us note that electrons are a lot lighter than protons or neutrons (about
1800 times).
-9-
II-2. Electrification of bodies.

Overall matter is neutral ; that is, contains as many negative charges as
positive charges. However, it is possible to charge a material. It is very
difficult to extract nuclei from matter but relatively easy to extract electrons
from it.
To positively charge a body (we say electrify), it is necessary to remove
electrons from it. To negatively charge it, one must provide it with electrons.
Various methods may be used to complete this electrification:
1) Charging by friction (triboelectricity): we have seen that its the longeststanding process used. When a material such as glass or plexiglass is rubbed
with a cloth it becomes capable to attract light bodies (such as small pieces of
paper for example). This is explained by the electrification of glass: rubbed, it
acquired some static electricity (in fact the electric charges remain immobile at
the points where they appeared). In this case, the cloth extracts electrons from
the glass, the cloth is charged negatively and the glass positively.
All bodies may be charged through friction but they are categorized in
two categories:
- insulators (or dielectrics) for which the electrification stays localized to
the rubbed points. They are made of neutral molecules or atoms that electrons
cannot spontaneous leave.
Example: sulphur. Sulphur atoms have 6 outer-shell electrons, they tend to
accept 2 extra electrons to fill their external shell up to 8 electrons, but tend not
to give up electrons. So, if we bring negative charges to some sulphur, the
electrons are captured on the spot and the electrification stays localized.
Likewise, if we succeed in extracting electrons from sulphur atoms, the
neighbouring atoms do not tend to give up their electrons and the positive
electrification still remains localized.
- conductors for which the produced electrification in a region appears
very rapidly on the entire surface. Such bodies may only be charged if they are
placed on an insulating support. Metals and alloys are conductors but in
electrostatics, water, earth, and the human body behave like conductors. In
these conductors the charges can circulate freely. We distinguish between:
- metals for which electrons are semi-free ; that is not attached to
a particular atom. The contribution or the withdrawal of electrons modifies the
number of free electrons and creates an imbalance in their distribution. A group
movement of the electrons of the whole sample is produced to minimize this
imbalance (electronic conduction) and rapidly leads to a new distribution of
charges on the entire conductor.
-electrolytes liquid conductors. Here these are positive or
negative ions that assure the conduction (ionic conduction).

-
- 10
2) Charging by contact: If a neutral body (A) is put into contact with a charged
body (B), we notice that:
- if (A) is an insulator, the parts of (A) having been in contact with the
charged parts of (B) ,and they alone, are charged,
- if (A) is a conductor, it charges on its entire surface; the electrification
acquired by (A) has the same sign as that of (B).
3) Other methods of electrifying: We will see later in the course other methods
of electrification resulting solely in the interaction between mobile charges
(electrification by influence or by connection with an electric generator) or in an
induced deformation of insulating anistropic bodies (piezo-electricity,
pyroelectricity).
Electrification of a body will be characterized by the total charge
carried by the body which is the sum of all the elementary charges, as well as by
the distribution of these charges at the surface or in the volume of the charged
body.
III- CHARGE DISTRIBUTIONS.
III-1. Volume distribution. Volume charge.
Let us consider a small volume d containing a set of elementary
charges. Keeping in mind that the dimension of the support particles of
these elementary charges is on the order of 10-15m and that, even if we consider
a volume of matter of very small dimensions at our observer scale, this volume
contains a very high number of charges. Thus a volume of 1m3 of copper
contains about 2.4 1023 electrons and as many positive charges.
We may thus characterize the charge of a material medium by defining a
value , continuous at every point M in space, called a volume charge density.
Let us consider a small volume element d surrounding a point M in space
(figure 1); the charge dq contained in this volume is the sum of all the
elementary charges contained in this volume and is written :
N
dq = q ,
i
i =1
if N elementary charges are present in this volume. The equivalent volume
charge density is defined by dq = d.
is expressed in coulombs.m-3.
The definition of illustrates well the limits of the
classic formalism which replaces the charged particle notion
qi
with that of average charge density and abstains from the
d
M
real description of electrostatic values on a very small scale.
Figure 1
is therefore a scalar function of the coordinates of the point

-
- 11
M considered around which the infinitesimal volume element d is defined. The

total charge Q of a finite volume is therefore written:
Q=
d
()
III-2. Surface density, linear charge density, point charge.

i) Surface density: if the charged volume has a very small thickness and we
agree to not try to describe the electrostatic state in this volume of weak
thickness, we result in the limit notion of charged surface (Figure 2a). The
charge dq contained in the volume d is therefore written:
dq = d = dS = ( ) dS
dl
dS
d
dS
dS
Figure 2a
Figure 2b
If we consider that the thickness is sufficiently small for us to consider

the charged volume a charged surface, we may then describe the charge
distribution by surface charge density defined by = lim () ; is
-2
expressed in coulombs per meter squared (C.m ).

The total charge Q of a finite surface (S) will thus be expressed by:
Q=
dS
(S)
ii) Linear density: if the elementary charged volume has a section dS considered
to be an infinitesimal of high order (Figure 2b), we may write:
dq = d = dS d l = ( dS) d l
In the same way, we will be able to consider this charge distribution to be a
linear charge distribution, characterized locally by a linear charge density
defined by
= lim (dS) , is expressed in coulombs per meter (C.m-1).
dS0
The total charge Q of a charged wire (C) will thus be expressed by:
Q = dl
(C)

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Finally, when the charge occupies a region of space whose three

dimensions are very small compared to the distance at which the electrostatic
effects are observed, we may assimilate this charge to a point charge Q.
Note: the use of any other concept than that of volume charge density
(surface, linear, or point charge) signifies that we abstain from any description
of the electrostatic values inside the charged volume, which is reduced to a
smaller dimension of space. We will see that this is the origin of singularities in
the variation of electrostatic values (discontinuities, values tending to infinity) in
the neighbourhood of these distributions.
IV- INTERACTION BETWEEN CHARGES. COULOMBS LAW.

IV-1. Electrostatic interaction. Characterization of the electrification of a
body by its charge.
Let (A1) and (A2) be two charged bodies placed at a distance r = A1A2
from each other. We will consider that the dimensions of (A1) and (A2) are
sufficiently weak compared to their distance r so that we may consider the
electrostatic charges carried by the two bodies to be point charges. We will call
F12 the force exerted by (A1) on (A2) and F21 the force exerted by (A2) on (A1).
The experimental study of these interaction forces shows that:
F21 = - F12
Moreover, these forces have as direction that of the A1A2s support (figure 3a)
The electrification state of these bodies will be characterized by their
electric charge (or quantity of electricity) that they carry, assimilated to a point
charge. We will compare the electrification degree of two point charges placed
at two points A1 and A2 by comparing their separate effect on a same reference
charge q0 placed at the point A0, when we place them in the same position with
respect to the point A0 (Figure 3b).
A1
r
A2
F12
Figure 3a
F21
A0
q0
A1
q1
F01
A0
q0
A2
q2
F02
Figure 3b

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If F01 and F02 are the forces exerted in these conditions by the charged
body (A0) on the body (A1) and the body (A2), we will write by definition that
F
q
the charges q1 of (A1) and q2 of (A2) are such that: 1 = 01 ;
q 2 F02
q1 and q2 are of the same sign if F01 and F02 are in the same direction.
Thus, after the definition of a unit charge, the electric charge is a
measurable quantity through the measurement of electrostatic interaction forces.
We will see further on that the unit of charge, the coulomb (C), is defined from
the ampere.
Note : we can experimentally check that, if F10 and F20 are the forces exerted
by the charges placed respectively at A1 and A2 on the charge placed at A0, the
total force felt by A0 is F10 + F20 . This nature of force additivity confers to the
charges the same character of extensive quantity and moreover shows that the
interaction between two charges is independent of the presence of other charges.
IV-2. Coulombs Law (electrostatic forces between point charges).

We saw that two point charges q1 and q2 placed at A1 and A2 in a
vacuum (or in dry air) exert on each other forces that only depend on their
distance. Guided by Newtons law that governs the gravitational forces
(inverse-square law), Coulomb experimentally studied the influence of the
distance on electrostatic forces. To conclude his work, he proposed the
following law:
The force (attractive or repulsive) F that a point charge exerts on another is

inversely proportional to the square of the distance that separates them.
The forces at play being weak, Coulomb had to resort to particular
sensitive methods and the verification of this law posed numerous experimental
problems.
To take into account all that had been seen previously concerning the
force F21 that the point charge q1 placed at A1 exerts on the charge q2 placed at
A2, that is:
it is proportional to q1 and to q2,
it is inversely proportional to the square of the distance r,
it is attractive if the charges have opposite signs, repulsive if they are of same
sign,
we write :

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F12 = k
q1q 2
u
r2
introducing the unit vector u carried by A1A2 and directed from A1 to A2 ; k is a

constant that depends on the units.
Note: we sometimes set A1 A 2 = r u = r and we write:

F12 = k
q1q 2
r
r3
Expression of Coulombs formula in the SI system: we could in principle fix k =

1 and make Coulombs formula the formula of definition for the unit of electric
charge, which would then be a unit derived from mechanical units. To have a
system of rational units from the standpoint of electric quantities, we were
brought, in the SI system, to take a fourth fundamental unit: current intensity,
the ampere. This leads one to introduce in electrostatic laws a coefficient 0
called the vacuum permittivity, such that k = 1/40. This coefficient 0
possesses one dimension. We will see later on in the course that it is expressed
in Farad.m-1. Its value is:
0 =
1
36 .10
Farad.m-1
We will also see that a constant 0, the vacuum permeability, is introduced

into the laws of magnetostatics. 0, 0 and the velocity c of light in a vacuum are
linked by:
0 0 c 2 = 1
Coulombs formula is finally written in the SI system:

F12 =
1 q 1q 2
u
4 0 r 2
Strictly speaking, this law is only valid in a vacuum. Indeed, if the two
point charges are not placed in a vacuum but in an insulating medium, the two
charges produce a polarization of the insulator; this polarization intervenes to
modify the electrostatic force. We will study this effect in the chapter treating
the electrostatic field in matter. This effect is very large for liquid or solid
insulators, it is a lot weaker for gases and for all intents and purposes we will be
able to approximate electrostatics in air and electrostatics in a vacuum, at least
as long as the air is dry and not ionized.

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IIN
N FFR
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EN
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CH
H IIN
N FFR
RE
EN
NC
CH
H IIN
N FFR
RE
EN
NC
CH
H IIN
N FFR
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EXERCICES DE NIVEAU I
NONCS
1 Un feuillet trs mince de 0,1 mm dpaisseur contient une charge volumique
de 10-5C.m-3. Si on lassimile une surface charge, quelle est la charge
superficielle de cette surface ?
2 Un conducteur cylindrique de section 100 m2 contient une charge
volumique de 10-5C.m-3. Si on lassimile un fil charg, quelle est la charge
linique de ce fil ?
3 Un fil rectiligne de longueur L porte une charge linique . Calculer sa
charge totale,
a) si est constant
b) si = x, x tant labcisse par rapport une extrmit du fil. Quelle est la
dimension de ?
4 Un disque mince de rayon R porte une densit de charge superficielle .
Calculer sa charge totale.
a) si est constant
b) si = r, r tant la distance dun point de la surface au centre du disque.
Quelle est la dimension de ?
5 Une sphre de rayon R porte une densit de charge volumique . Calculer sa
charge totale.
a) si est constant
b) si = r, r tant la distance dun point au centre de la sphre.
6 - Comparer en grandeur et en sens linteraction lectrostatique et linteraction
gravitationnelle entre deux lectrons.
Constante de gravitation : G = 6,67259. 10-11 N.m2.kg-2.
Masse de llectron : m = 9,1094. 10-31 kg.
7 Deux charges ponctuelles de +1 C sont distantes lune de lautre de 80 cm
dans lair, celui ci tant suppos avoir les mmes proprits que le vide du point
de vue lectrostatique. Calculer la force exerce par chacune des charges sur
lautre. Faire une figure reprsentant ces forces.

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- 16
8 Mme question que 7 mais avec deux charges, lune de +1 C et lautre de

-2 C, situes 80 cm lune de lautre.
9 Trois charges QA , QB , QC sont disposes au sommet dun triangle quilatral
de 1,732 m de ct et une quatrime QG = +1 C au centre de gravit de ce
triangle. Dterminer la rsultante des forces exerces sur QG dans les cas
suivants :
a)
QA = QB =QC = +1 C,
b)
QA = QB = +1 C, QC = -1 C,
QA = QB = +1 C, QC = +2 C.
c)
10 - La force rpulsive entre deux charges de mme signe vaut 1N quand elles
sont distantes de 10 cm. Leur distance est rduite 5 cm ; la force qui sexerce
entre elles est prsent :
Rpulsive et quatre fois plus intense
(1)
(2)
Rpulsive et deux fois plus intense
(3)
Rpulsive et de mme intensit
Attractive et de mme intensit
(4)
(5)
Attractive et quatre fois plus intense

-
- 17
SOLUTIONS
1 1 nC.m-2
2 10-15 C.m-1
1
L2 ; [ ] = C . m 2
2
2
4 a) Q = R 2 ; b) Q = R 3 ; [] = C . m 3
3
4
5 a) Q = R 3 ; b) Q = R 4
3
m2
G
2
2
m
Force gravitationnelle
r
6
=
= 4 0 G = 3,59 . 10 33
2
Force lectrostatique
1 q
q
3 a) Q = L ; b) Q =
7 Force de
F = 1,4 . 10 2 N.
4 0 r 2
rpulsion porte par la droite joignant les deux charges.
8 Force dattraction porte par la droite joignant les deux charges.

F = 2,8 . 10 2 N.
9
C
a) FR = 0
10 rponse (1)
B A
b) FR = 18.10 3 N.
c) FR = 9.10 3 N.

-
- 18
The electrostatic field in a vacuum
-19-
CHAPTER II
THE ELECTROSTATIC FIELD IN A VACUUM
A FUNDAMENTAL PROPERTIES
I- ELECTROSTATIC FIELD CREATED BY A POINT CHARGE OR A
SET OF CHARGES.
I-1 Definition for a distribution of point charges.
I-2 Definition for a continuous distribution.
I-3 Topography of the electrostatic field.
I-3-1 Field lines.
I-3-2 Level surfaces.
I-3-3 Field tubes
II- SYMMETRIES AND INVARIANCES OF THE ELECTROSTATIC
FIELD LINKED TO THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CHARGE
DISTRIBUTION.
II-1 Symmetries.
II-2 Invariances.
II-3 Interest of the study of symmetries and invariances.
III- FLUX OF THE ELECTROSTATIC FIELD. GAUSS THEOREM.
III-1 Additional geometry. Solid angle.
III-1-1 Definition.
III-1-2 Elementary solid angle.
III-1-3 Particular values.
III-2 Flux of the electrostatic field.
III-2-1 Case of a point charge.
III-2-2 Generalization . Gauss Theorem.
III-3 Application of Gauss Theorem to the determination of the
electrostatic field.
IV- CIRCULATION OF THE ELECTROSTATIC FIELD. POTENTIAL.
IV-1 Circulation of the electrostatic field.
IV-1-1 Case of a point charge.
IV-1-2 Generalization.
IV-2 Electrostatic potential.
-20-
IV-2-1 Definition.
IV-2-2 Units of field and potential.
IV-2-3 Example.
V- LOCAL FORMS OF LAWS OF ELECTROSTATICS.
V-1 Local relations in a continuous medium.
V-1-1 Local form of the law of circulation.
V-1-2 Local form of Gauss Theorem.
V-1-3 Local equations of potential.
V-2 Boundary relations at the separation surface of two media.
V-2-1 Electrostatic field.
V-2-2 Electrostatic potential.
V-3 Example of the use of the local laws and the boundary relations.
VI- SUMMARY OF GENERAL ELECTROSTATIC LAWS IN A
VACUUM.
B ELECTROSTATIC ENERGY OF A DISTRIBUTION OF

CHARGES
I- ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL ENERGY OF A SYSTEM OF
CHARGES PLACED IN AN EXTERNAL FIELD E0
I-1 Case of a point charge.
I-2 Case of several point charges.
I-3 Case of a dipole.
II- INTERACTION ENERGY OF A SYSTEM OF CHARGES.
II-1 System of several point charges.
II-2 System formed by a continuous distribution of charges.
III- ELECTROSTATIC ENERGY DENSITY. LOCALIZATION OF
ENERGY.
-21-
CHAPTER II
THE ELECTROSTATIC FIELD IN A VACUUM

A-FUNDAMENTAL PROPERTIES
I- ELECTROSTATIC FIELD CREATED BY A POINT CHARGE OR A
SET OF CHARGES
I-1. Definition for a distribution of point charges

Coulombs Law (Chapter 1) giving the expression of the interaction
force F1 between two point charges q and q1,
1 q 1q
F1 =
u
4 0 r 2
can be interpreted by saying that the presence of the charge q modifies the
properties of space which surrounds it when it creates an electric field E , such
as on all other charges q1, placed in the presence of q, a force is exerted:
F1 = q1 E
The electrostatic field E created at every point in space by the charge q is
therefore written:
E=
1 q
u
4 0 r 2
It results from this definition that:

- E has the same line of direction as F ,
- E is pointed in the same way on this line of direction as the exerted
force on a positive test charge.
We now consider, in a region of space some immobile electrostatic
charges Q1, Q2, . . .Qn (these charges belong for example to a charged body)
(figure 1). We place in the presence of this charged system another point charge
q0. In practice, we will take a charge q0 sufficiently small not to perturb in a
sensitive way the pre-existing electric state; that is, the initial distribution of the
charges Qi. We call such a charge q0 a test charge.
-22-
We will therefore admit that

this test charge is submitted to a force,
F which is the resultant of the various
Coulomb
forces
(superposition
principle). If:
1 q0 Qi
fi =
u
4 0 ri2
fi M
(q0)
F
A2 (Q2) Ai ui
A1
(Qi)
(Q1)
Figure 1
Then :
F=

fi =
1 q0 Qi ui = q
0
40 ri2
1 Qi ui
40 ri2
The electrostatic field vector at M is therefore written F = q0 E with :
E=
1 Qi ui
40 ri2
The vectorial additivity of forces then leads to the vectorial additivity of fields.
Dimension and unit:

E = F/q
[E] = [F] [Q]-1
The unit to measure E in the SI system could be the N/C. In reality, we will
justify later on an other way of writing the N/C: the volt/meter (V/m).
I-2. Definition for a continuous distribution
We consider a continuous charge distribution in a volume () with a
volume density and we consider an elementary volume d centered around a
point O of the charged zone and containing the charge dQ=d (Figure 2). The
elementary electrostatic field dE created by this elementary charge at a point M
of space, defined by OM = r u , is written :
dE =
1 dQ
u
4 0 r 2
The total electrostatic field created by the charged volume () at point M

is therefore obtained by integration from the elementary fields produced by each
elementary charge (vectorial addition).
E=
1
4 0
r
()
u=
1
4 0
()
d
r
r3
-23-
dE
dQ
M
u
O
dQ
(<0) d
O
(S)
(>0)
dS
u
M
()
Figure 2
dE
Figure 3
The case of surface distributions (usage for example for the electrostatics
of conductors) is treated in the same way; being the surface charge density, we
will write:
E=
1
4 0
(S)
dS
1
u=
2
r
4 0
(S)
dS
r
r3
Concerning the linear density distributions , we will write likewise :

E=
1
dl
1
dl
u=
r
2
4 0 (C) r
4 0 (C) r3
Notes :
-1) The calculation of the field can prove to be very complex, even
impossible from an analytical point of view. Only simple cases will be able to
be treated easily, for example, if the distributions are uniform or with high
symmetry (see examples dealt within this course).
-2) In the case of a discontinuous distribution of charges, the
electrostatic field is defined at every point in space, with the exception of the
points corresponding to the charges themselves. On the other hand, in the case
of continuous volume distributions, the field is defined everywhere; indeed, the
integral cannot diverge in the neighborhood of r=0 since the volume element
tends to 0 like r2dr. This amounts to saying that as long as stays finite, the
field stays finite everywhere inside or on the surface of a volume charge
distribution. As we have already pointed out in chapter I, all other type of
distribution will be able to introduce discontinuity effects.
-24-
I-3. Topography of the electrostatic field.

I-3-1. Field Lines.
- Definition
At every point M in space, the field line element dl has the same line of
direction, and points the same way along this line as the field E(M) . The
cartography of field lines indicates therefore the local direction of the force
which a test charge would experience when placed in the considered field. If this
charge, initially immobile, is left free to move in the field, its trajectory will
follow the field line. This is obviously true only for a permanent field (time
independent).
Field line equation

This will be defined by the previous property. We will have, for
example in Cartesian coordinates, if dx, dy and dz are the components of the
element dl and Ex, Ey, Ez those of the field E :
dx dy dz
=
=
Ex Ey Ez
- Properties of field lines

Outside of certain unique points, the field lines cannot cut across each
other. Indeed, if at a point M two field lines cut across each other, E would
have at this point two possible directions; a test charge placed at M would be
subjected to two distinct forces, which has no physical meaning. The unique
points where the field lines can cut across each other are of two types:
- the points where the field is nil,
- the points where a point charge is found as in this case the field
is not defined on the charge.
- Examples :
Case of a point charge:
q>0
q<0
Figure 4
-25-
Case of two charges of same absolute value:
+q
+q
+q
-q
Figure 5
I-3-2. Level surfaces.

These are the surfaces that are orthogonal to the field lines at any point.
We will show in the end of this chapter that they are assimilated to the so-called
equipotential surfaces.
I-3-3. Field tubes.
A field tube is formed out of the set of field lines leaning on a closed
outline. The field lines forming the tube shall not present any peculiarities.
II- SYMMETRIES AND INVARIANCES OF THE ELECTROSTATIC

FIELD LINKED TO THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CHARGE
DISTRIBITION
II-1. Symmetries.
Let there be a charge distribution displaying a plane of symmetry (P) and
two points A and A from the symmetric space with respect to this plane (Figure
6).
At two symmetric points M and M of the charge distribution, the charge
density and are identical and the charge dq of two symmetric elementary
volumes d and d centered at M and M will be the same: dq = d = d
We will have:
dq MA M'A
dE(A) =
(
+
)
40 MA3 M'A 3
and
dq MA' M'A'
dE(A') =
(
+
)
40 MA'3 M'A'3
-26-
As MA and M'A' are symmetric vectors, as well as M'A and MA' , dE(A) and
dE(A') are symmetric vectors with respect to the plane (P). The same will
therefore go for the resulting fields E(A) and E(A') .
dE t(A')
dE t(A)
dE(A)
dEn(A) A
dE(A')
A
(P)
d
dEn(A')
Figure 6
At two points in space A and A symmetric with respect to the plane of symmetry
of the charge distribution, the fields E(A) and E(A') are symmetric.
- Consequences:
1) If we decompose each field at A and A into two components En and
E t respectively perpendicular and parallel to (P) (Figure 6), we will therefore
have:
En(A) = En(A') (1)
E t(A) = E t(A') (2)
2) If A is a point from the plane of symmetry, relation (2) implies :
En(A) = 0
The electrostatic field at every point of the plane of symmetry of the charge
distribution is continuous in this plane.
3) If a point A in space belongs to two planes of symmetry of the charge
distribution, the electrostatic field at this point is carried by the line of
intersection of the two planes. If it belongs to three planes which are not in the
-27-
same zone (that is, they do not cut across each other according to a common
line), the field at this point is necessarily nil.
II-2. Invariances.
If the charge distribution possesses certain properties of spatial
invariance, the field will possess these same properties.
Thus, in the case where a charge distribution is invariant by translation
along an axis, the field does not depend on the coordinate that measures the
displacement along this axis.
Likewise, if a charge distribution is invariant by rotation around an axis,
the modulus of the field will not depend on the angle which measures the
rotation around this axis.
II-3. Interest of symmetries and invariances.
The general determination method of an electrostatic field consists in
projecting on a system of axes the elementary field vector dE and in calculating
through integration its three components. Thus for example, we will have for a
volume distribution, in Cartesian coordinates:
d
E x =
dE x = 1
2 ux
4 0 () r
d
d
E=
dE = 1
dE y = 1
uy
2 u E y =
r2
r
0
0
()
()
()
d
1
E
=
d
E
=
z
z
2 uz
0 ()
In these expressions, , r can be functions of coordinates in space as well as ux,

uy and uz which are the components of the unit vector u .
The prior knowledge of the direction i of the resultant field will permit
the simplification of this tedious calculation. All that is necessary indeed, is to
project each elementary field in this direction and to sum these contributions.
We will therefore have:
d
dE = dE .i = 1
u. i
40 r 2
d
E = Ei = 1 [
u .i ] i
r2
40
We therefore understand the interest of the determination, through
symmetry considerations, of the resultant field direction. Other examples of this
will be given later in the course.
-28-
Application: electrostatic field on the axis of a uniformly charged disc.

We consider a disc of radius R carrying a uniform charge density
(Figure 7). We consider the axis (xOx) of the disc and we try to determine the
field E at every point M of this axis such as OM = x .
a
O
a+da
dS
dE
ux
dE
Figure 7
We can notice that every plane going through the axis of the disc is a
plane of symmetry for the charge distribution, due to the uniformity of . The
axis (xOx) is therefore the axis of symmetry of the distribution and the field at
every point M of this axis is carried by this axis. Moreover, the plane of the disc
is a plane of symmetry. We therefore have:
E(x) = E(x)
Considering this note, all that is necessary is to determine E in the
domain x>0 and to complete by symmetry. The elementary field dE created by
an elementary surface dS centered on a point P of the disc is written :
dS
dE = 1
u
with PM = r u
2
40 r
The projection of this elementary field on the axis will give us its
dS cos
contribution to the resultant field, ie: dE = dE .u x = 1
.
r2
40
This contribution is the same for all the elements dS that are defined for r and
constant. We will therefore take as a surface dS, an elementary crown included
between circles of radius a and a+da.
cos
x
x
a da
Thus, we have dS = 2a da and 2 =
, i.e d E =
.
3
3
2
r
0
(x 2 + a 2 ) 2
(x 2 + a 2 ) 2
-29-
The total field at point M will therefore be :

x R
a da
x
E=
=
(1
)
3
2
2
2 0 0 2
2
R
+
x
0
(x + a 2 ) 2
It immediately follows the expression of E along the axis (xOx) :

For x>0 :
x
E = (1
) ux
20
2
2
R +x
For x<0
x
E = (1+
) ux
20
R 2 +x 2
2 0
Figure 8 represents the

variation of E along the axis. We will
notice that:
for x 0 + , E
2 0
for x 0 , E
2 0
At the crossing of the charged surface,
the field has a discontinuity of

.
0
2 0
Figure 8
III- FLUX OF THE ELECTROSTATIC FIELD. GAUSS THEOREM

III-1. Additional geometry. Solid angle
III-1-1. Definition.
This is the extension to space of
the notion of a plane angle; the solid
angle is measured with the opening of
cones (a cone is the surface generated
by a straight line both passing through
a fixed point (the top of a cone), and
having the base of a closed outline).
O
S
Figure 9
Let there be a sphere of center O and of radius R. A cone of vertex O meets the
sphere, creating a surface of area S (Figure 9).
-30-
S
that characterizes the opening of the cone is called the solid
R2
angle of the cone. This ratio is independent of the choice of sphere. The unit of
measurement of solid angles is the steradian (srd), which is a number without
dimension.
The ratio =
III-1-2. Elementary Solid Angle.

A surface element dS surrounds a point M (Figure 10). We want to
express the solid angle d of the cone of vertex O with the base dS (we also say,
solid angle under which from O we can see dS). OM = R and is the acute
angle that OM makes with the normal to dS drawn from M. We plot the sphere
of center O and of radius OM.
The cone meets this sphere,
dS
creating a surface dS which, since it is
small, is comparable to the orthogonal

M
projection of dS on the plane at a

dS
tangent to the sphere at M. We
O
therefore have dS = dS cos :
dS
d
M
dS' dS. cos dS. u

d = 2 =
=
R2
R
R2
dS
u
O
d
OM
with u =
Figure 10
R
III-1-3. Specific values.
4R 2
- all of space : =
= 4 srd
R2
- the cone of revolution of half angle at the vertex :
The elementary area cut out of a sphere of radius R is, in spherical coordinates
dS = Rd Rsin d.
= S2 = sind d = 2(1cos)
R
III-2. Flux of an electrostatic field.

III-2-1. Case of a point charge.
- Elementary Flux
We consider the elementary flux d, created by the charge q through the
q
surface element d (Figure 11); d=E . d , with E = 1 2 u , that is to say:
4 0 r
-31-
q u . d
2
40 r
We see the solid angle d appear, it is
the solid angle subtended at O by the
d =
E
M
d
surface d
O (q)
d =
Figure 11
q
d
4 0
- Case of any surface

- Open surface: all the d are oriented in the same way by continuity :
q
= ( ) d =
d
4 0 ( )
q
=
4
0
being the solid angle of the cone of
vertex O subtended by the surface ( ).

O(q)
Figure 12
- Closed surface: in the case of a closed surface, we always orientate the

normals towards the exterior of the closed surface. The flux defined like this, is
therefore called the outgoing flux.
i) The charge is placed outside the closed surface ()

d'
E'
d
M
d
O
(q)
M
E
()
Let Ox be a ray that

cuts () (Figure 13).
There are at least two
points of intersection M
and M of (Ox) with ()
and always an even
x number of points of
intersection.
Figure 13
An elementary cone of vertex O, of average direction (Ox), and of solid angle
d intersects the surface () an even number of times (leading to an even
number of elementary surfaces). Let d and d be two surfaces surrounding
-32-
two successive points of intersection M and M. The flux of E created by q

through these elements have respectively as absolute value:
q
q
d = E . d =
d
d' = E' . d' =
d
40
40
Therefore :
d = d' .
'
Considering the relative orientation of the fields E and E and the

normals d and d' , the flux d and d are of opposite sign and d+ d =
0.
By grouping two by two in this way all the elements of (), we see that
the total flux of the electrostatic field created by q through () is nil.
=0
ii) The charge is placed inside the closed surface ()

This time Ox intersects the
surface an odd number of times. The
d
surfaces intercepted by the elementary
()
cone with an even number of
E
intersections carry like previously a nil
contribution to the total flux.
O
We therefore have to consider a single
(q)
surface d for which the vector d is
orientated towards the exterior and
across which the exiting flux of E is
Figure 14
q
d =
d .
4 0
q
We therefore have a total flux :
=
4 0
is the solid angle of the closed surface measured from O, from which we see
the whole of its interior, that is the solid angle corresponding to all space ie. 4
q
srd. It follows that :
=
0
-33-
III-2-2. Generalization - Gauss Theorem.

- Discontinuous distribution.
Lets consider a set of point charges and a closed surface () containing
a part of the charged space. The point charges can be categorized, with respect
to (), as:
- interior charges whose algebraic sum is noted qint,
- exterior charges.
The set of these charges (interior plus exterior) creates at any point M an
electrostatic field E =
Ei . Through the same element d of () we have :
E .d = E1 .d + .... + Ei .d + .... + En .d
ie :
d = d1 + + di + + dn
Through a closed surface () we will therefore have, according to the additivity
of flux :
= 1 + + i + + n
Considering the results of the previous paragraph
leaving () =
int
This result constitutes Gauss Theorem.
The flux of the electrostatic vector field leaving a closed surface is equal to the
quotient of the algebraic sum of the interior charges of this surface and 0.
- Continuous distribution (in volume).
The previous proposition will be
written, in the case of a continuous volume
charge distribution contained in a volume ()
as follows:
E . d = 1
d
0
()
()
()
(0)
Figure 15
(0)
where (0) is the part of the charged volume ()

inside () (Figure 15).
-34-
- Notes :
1) The flux of the electrostatic field is conservative in all regions of space
devoid of charges.
2) Properties of field tubes :
dL E
()
()
Electrostatic field tubes can only

be defined when the field is itself
defined: they are defined outside of
point charges and discontinuities.
Let (T) be a field tube and ()
and () be its sections. We thus
define a closed surface inside which
there are no charges, therefore:
( ) + ( ') + ( L ) = 0
Figure 16
Yet ( L ) = 0 as E is tangent to each surface element cut out of the
lateral surface of the tube.
We therefore deduce that:
( ) + ( ') = 0
these fluxes being the fluxes leaving from the closed surface defined by (), ()
and (L). We can also express this result by writing:
entering through () = leaving (')
This means : through all the sections of a field tube whose normals are oriented
in the same way, the flux of the electrostatic vector field is invariant.
A field tube cannot therefore display a constriction in any zone where
the field does not display a singularity (infinite field or discontinuity).
III-3. Application of Gauss theorem for the determination of the

electrostatic field.
In the cases where the electrostatic field created by a charge distribution
possesses properties of symmetry and of substantial invariance, it may be
possible to use Gauss theorem to calculate the local value of this field.
Example : calculation of the electrostatic field created at every point in space by
a sphere of radius R carrying the uniform volume charge density .
For any point M in space, O being the center of the spherical
distribution, the axis OM is the axis of symmetry of the charge distribution: the
field is therefore radial (Figure 17 a).
-35-
Moreover, any rotation around the center of the sphere leads to an

identical configuration : the electrostatic system is therefore invariant in
rotation.
These two observations lead therefore to write the field E at M under
the form :
E = E(r) u
with : OM = r u
Lets consider a sphere () of center O and of any radius r. The flux of

the electrostatic field leaving this closed surface is written:
=
()
E .d
()
E
M
O u
R
Figure 17
The vectors E and d being collinear ( E = E u and d = d u ) and
E being constant on the entire surface of the sphere, we can write :
E d = E d = 4r
()
Moreover, for r < R ,
()
q int = 3 r 3
; for r > R,
q int = 3 R 3
from which we deduce:
R3
r
for r < R : E =
u (1) ; for r > R : E =
u (2)
30
30 r2
4
Figure 17b represents the variation of E with r. Q = R 3 being the total
3
charge of the spherical distribution, expression (2) of the electrostatic field can
be written:
Q
E=
u
2
40 r
-36-
We will notice that it is the same expression as that of a point charge, of

same value, placed at the center of the sphere.
IVCIRCULATION
OF
THE
ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL.
ELECTROSTATIC
FIELD.
IV-1. Electrostatic field circulation.

IV-1-1. Case of a point charge.
Lets consider a point charge q placed at a point O. It creates at every
point in space, such as OM = r u (figure 18), an electrostatic field defined by:
E=
1 q
u
4 0 r 2
The elementary circulation C of this field from a point M to a point

infinitely close M, such as MM' = dl , is written :
1 q r
C =
u .dl
4 0 r 2
2
dl = d(r u) = u dr + r du . As u =1 , we
r
q
O
can
write
d(u ) = 2 u du =0 ,
i.e:
B u .dl = dr . Hence :
1 q
q
1
C =
dr =
d( )
2
4 0 r
4 0 r
dl M
Figure 18
This shows that C is an exact differential form dC. The electrostatic

field E thus has a conservative circulation. In other words, the circulation, to go
from A to B, does not depend on the path taken:
B
CB
A
= dC =
A
q 1 1
40 rA rB
IV-1-2. Generalization.
The result can generalize to a set of point charges qi (Figure 19). The
electrostatic field at M is the sum of all the fields created by each charge:
E=
-37-
i Ei . The elementary circulation of this field along a segment
dl is
written :
C = E .dl =
E .dl = E .dl . = C
i
E
Ei
q1
qi
ui
q
1
d( i )
4 0 i
ri
i
If the field is created by a
continuous charge distribution, the
result stays valid by replacing the
by an integral. The generalization of
B
the previous result, allows us to assert
i
M
M
that
the
circulation
CB
A
= E . dl
A
Figure 19
between two distinct points A and B
only depends on the starting point and the point of arrival and not the path
taken, and this is true whatever the charge distribution that created the field.
The electrostatic field therefore has a conservative circulation, which results in
E dl = 0 , on a closed circuit.
(C)
IV-2. Electrostatic Potential.

IV-2-1. Definition.
Since the field E has a conservative circulation, we can write :
E .dl = dV
dV being the differential of a scalar potential function that we call the
electrostatic potential.
We can therefore define the potential difference between two points A and B :
B
VA VB = E .dl = CBA
A
which, in the case of a discontinuous charge distribution, leads to :

q 1
1
VA VB = C BA = i
,
riB
i 4 0 riA
qi
the potential function V being defined by : V =
+ K.
i 4 0 ri
-38-
The constant K is arbitrary and depends on the choice of origin for the
potentials.
- Particular important case: the absolute potential.

When the distribution of charges has a limited extension (when there are
no charges at infinity), we notice that if the point M where we calculate the
potential approaches infinity, all the distances ri tend to infinity ; so V tends to
K. So, we postulate logically that V is nil at infinity, meaning that K = 0.
The potential thus defined is called absolute potential at point M. Thus,
we will have with the various distributions already considered:
Qi
1
4 0 i ri
dl
1
V=
4 0 ( C ) r
V=
discontinuous distribution
linear distribution
V=
1
dS
4 0 (S) r
surface distribution
V=
1
4 0
d
( ) r
volume distribution
IV-2-2. Field and potential units.

E
b
Figure 20
The volt is defined from the Joule power

(see electrokinetics lecture). It is from the volt that
the electrostatic field unit is defined. We use the
expression of a potential difference in a uniform
field. We take the segment AB as path.
VA VB = E .AB = E. ab
If VA - VB = 1 V, and ab =1m, then E = 1Vm-1
The Volt per meter (V.m-1) is the electrostatic field unit in the S.I. system.
IV-3. Example.
Taking again the example of a charged disk (Figure 21), the contribution
dV of an elementary surface dS of the disk at the potential created by the disk at
a point M of the axis will be written :
-39-
dS
4 0 r
dS
This contribution is the same for
r
R
M x two points of the axis, symmetric
a
x
O
a+da
with respect to the disk: V(-x) = V(x),
the function V(x) is even.
By choosing the same integration
method as for the field calculation
Figure 21
(see II-3), we obtain :
R
R
2a da
a da
V=
=
=
( R 2 + x 2 x)
2
2
2 0
0 4 0 r
0 2 0 a + x
For any x, we have :
V=
( R2 + x2 x )
2 0
dV =
We will be able to express the field on the axis, noticing that the later is
along this axis, due to the symmetry of the system and we will be able to write:
Ex = E =
ie :
V( x ,0,0)
x
dV
dx
x ) , with +1 if x>0 and 1 if x<0.

E = (1
2
20
x +R 2
V
E
20
20
x
Figure 22
Figure 22 represents the variations of E and V as a function of x. We

notice that V does not display a discontinuity crossing the disk, but that the
curve V(x) has a retrogression point at O, the two tangents to the curve at this
point having for slope the two opposite values of the electrostatic field for x = 0+
and x = 0-.
-40-
V- LOCAL FORMS IN ELECTROSTATIC LAWS.

V-1. Local relations in a continuous medium.
V-1-1. Local form of the law of circulation.
Everything that was said (see note on Scalar fields and vector fields)
concerning fields having conservative circulation obviously applies to the
electrostatic field. We therefore know that the local equivalent to the integral
relation E . dl = 0 is expressed by:

rot E = 0
V-1-2. Local form of Gauss Theorem.

Considering a closed surface () defining a volume (0), we can write:
E . d =
divE d
()
(0)
Yet, according the Gauss Theorem

E . d = 1
0
()
d
(0)
These two relations, having to be true whatever the volume (0) considered, it
follows that we must have at every point in space:
divE =
the local expression of Gauss theorem.
Particular case: in a region of space where there are no volume charges = 0

and div E = 0; local expression of a field having a conservative flux. In regions
having no volume charges, the flux of the electrostatic field is conservative (case
of electrostatics of conductors).
V-1-3. Local equations of potential.
The field and potential are linked by E = gradV , or written otherwise,
in Cartesian coordinates :
V
V
V
Ex =
Ey =
Ez =
y
x
z
Electrostatic field lines are therefore normal to equipotential surfaces
and directed in the direction of decreasing potentials.
-41-
Gauss theorem results in divE =

V+
=0
0
, or div ( grad V) = V = , and further:

0
0
(Poissons equation)
Particular Case: in a region of space where there are no volume charges we

therefore have :
V = 0
(Laplaces equation)
V-2. Boundary relations at the separation surface of two media.

The previous local relations only have meaning in a continuous space;
that is, when the charge is defined by a volume charge density. Yet, we have
seen in chapter 1, that the use of any concept other than that of volume charge
density (point, linear, or surface charge) signifies that we abstain from any
description of electrostatic quantities inside the charged volume, which we cut
down to a space of inferior dimension.
In these conditions, by comparing for example a charged volume of
small thickness to a charged surface, neglecting this thickness can make a field
discontinuity appear when crossing the charged surface. Thus, how may we
express this discontinuity?
V-2-1. Electrostatic Field.
i) Circulation property: continuity of the tangential component of the field
when crossing a charged surface.
Lets consider (Figure 23) two
2
regions of space (R1) and (R2)
E2
B2
separated by a surface (S) able to carry
n
M2
(S)
a surface charge distribution (in general
A2
M
not uniform). Each of the regions (R1)
B1
and (R2) can contain a continuous
M1
A1
volume charge distribution. This
E1
volume charge can sustain a
1
Figure 23
discontinuity when crossing (S).
Let M be a point of the surface; n is the unit vector of the normal to (S)
oriented from (R1) to (R2). We consider a rectangular outline A1B1B2A2 whose
center of symmetry is M, A1B1 and A2B2 being parallel to the plane tangent to
-42-
the surface ; A1B1 and A2B2 are infinitely small of the first order. A1A2 and B1B2
are infinitely small of the second order or higher.
The direction of the normal to (S) intersects A1B1 at M1 where the field is
E1 and A2B2 at M2 where the field is E2 .
By expressing that the circulation of the field is conservative along the
closed outline A1B1B2A2, and by neglecting the contributions of A1A2 and B1B2
we obtain :
E1 . A1 B1 + E2 . B2A2 = 0
and taking B2A2 = A1 B1 into account
E1 E2 . A B = 0
1 1
The components of E1 and E2 in the direction of A1 B1 ; that is, in the plane

tangent to the charged surface, are therefore equal. If E t1 and E t 2 are these
components, we therefore have E t1 = E t 2 , the relation which can still be
expressed under the form (relation (1)):
n E 2 E 1 = 0
(S )
This relation expresses the continuity of the tangential component of the
electrostatic field when crossing the surface (S).
ii) Property of Flux : discontinuity of the normal component of the field
when crossing a charged surface
We apply Gauss theorem to a closed
surface generated by the rotation of the rectangle
E2
A1B1B2A2 around n; this closed surface is a cylinder
n
() (Figure 24). The flux leaving by the lateral
M2
surface of () is neglected for this surface is an
M1
infinitely small of at least the second order. The
common area to the two cross sections of the
cylinder being dS, we therefore have:
E1
d = E2 .n dS E1 .n dS
Figure 24
As the points M1 and M2 are merged by the 2nd order, in the same way
that we neglected the flux through the lateral surface of (), we can, in order to
express Gauss theorem, neglect the volume charge inside the cylinder and only
-43-
take into account the charges carried by the separation surface of the two media;
we therefore have:
dS
d = E2 E1 . n dS =
0
From which we get (relation 2):
n . E E =
2 1
0
(S)
This relation expresses the discontinuity of the normal component of the
electrostatic field when crossing the surface (S).
, with : E2 .n = En2 and E1 .n = En1

0
We can group together the relations (1) and (2)
into one single relation :
It may be written also as: E n 2 E n1 =

En2
E2
E2 E1
En1
E1
E2 E1 =
n
0
illustrated by figure 25.

Figure 25
V-2-2. Electrostatic Potential.

Considering two points M1 and M2 infinitely close, on both sides of the
charged surface, we can write:
VM1VM2 = VM1 VM + VM VM2 = E1 . M1 M + E2 . MM2
E1 and E2 are finite quantities while M1 M and MM2 are infinitesimals.
VM1VM2 is therefore an infinitesimal, which signifies that:
when crossing a charged surface, there is no discontinuity in potential.

V-2-3. Example of the use of local laws and boundary relations:
Determination of the field and of the potential created by a sphere carrying a
uniform volume charge density .
We go back to the case of the distribution studied in paragraph III-3
(Figure 26). In view of the symmetries and invariances, we know that the field
E is radial and that E and V at any point M of space only depends on OM = r,
O being the center of the sphere.
-44-
The potential V therefore

Poissons
equation
satisfies
R
r
V +
= 0 inside the sphere (r<R)
0
and Laplaces equation V = 0 outside
O u
the sphere (r>R). In view of the
properties pointed out, the functions
Ve ( r ) and Vi ( r ) satisfy the following
Figure 26
equations, by expressing the Laplace operator in spherical coordinates :
1 d 2 dVe
1 d 2 dVi
(
r
)
=
0
for
r
>
R
(1)
and
(
r
)
+
= 0 for r < R (2)
dr
dr
0
r 2 dr
r 2 dr
d 2 dVe
As r 0 , (1) is reduced to
(r
) = 0 , which by successive integrations
dr
dr
with respect to r leads to:
A
Ve ( r ) = + B , A and B being two constants
r
Likewise, the integration of (2) leads to
r 2 C
Vi ( r ) =
+ + D , C and D being two constants.
6 0 r
The constants A, B, C, D are determined by the following factors
- the charge distribution is localized : it is possible to define an absolute
potential : Ve ( ) = 0 , i.e B =0
- the potential stays finite at the center of the sphere : C = 0
- there is continuity of potential for r = R, that is:
A
R 2
Vi ( R ) = Ve ( R )
=
+D
(1)
R
6 0
- there is continuity of the field for r = R (no surface charge)
dV
dV
R A
( i ) r =R = ( e ) r = R
=
(2)
dr
dr
3 0 R 2
The solution of the system (1-2) leads to the following expressions of V, if Q
is the total charge carried by the sphere
R 3
Q
V=
=
, for r > R,
3 0 r 4 0 r
V=
(3R 2 r 2 ) for r < R
6 0
-45-
VI- GENERAL ELECTROSTATIC LAWS OF VACUUM.

The following table summarizes the various possible expressions of the
properties of flux and circulation of the electrostatic field in a vacuum.
Property
Flux
Circulation
Integral form
E . d = 1
qint
()
0
E . dl = 0
or
VA VB =
Local form
divE =
0
rot E = 0
or
E . dl
A
E = grad V
V + = 0
0
Boundary relations
n . E E =
2 1
0
(S )
n E 2 E 1 = 0
(S )
V1 = V2
-46-
B-ELECTROSTATIC ENERGY OF A CHARGE

DISTRIBUTION
We only consider here forces of electric or electrostatic origin, the
effects of gravity forces does not intervene in this study.
I- POTENTIAL ELECTROSTATIC ENERGY OF A SYSTEM OF

CHARGES PLACED IN AN EXTERNAL FIELD E0.
I-1. Case of a point charge.
We consider a point charge q (test charge)
E0
A
placed at a point A in a field E0 created by an
q
(C)
invariable system (S). E0 at every point in

space therefore only depends on the coordinates
of the point, but does not depend on time.
The electrostatic force that acts on the
(S)
Figure 31
charge q is F = q E0 .
If the charge q moves along a curve (C) going from the point A where
the potential is VA to a point B where the potential is VB, the work of the
electrostatic forces in this displacement is:
B
WAB = q
. dl = q (- grad V0 ) . dl
i.e. :
B
WAB = q (-dV0 ) = q(V0A V0B)

A
This work is conservative since it is independent of the path taken (it

only depends on the initial and final position of the charge). We can therefore
say that the electrostatic forces come from a potential energy Ep such that:
dEp = W0 = qE0 . dl
or
dE p = q dV0
We may therefore define a potential energy Ep for the system constituted

of the charge q, expressed by Ep = qV0 + Cst. By taking a reference electric state
such that the potential energy is nil when the charge is at infinity, very distant
from the system which creates the field E0 , (case where there are no charges at
infinity and where we can take the potential V 0 = 0 ), the constant is therefore
nil and:
-47-
Ep = qV0 = W0
W0 measures the electrostatic potential energy of the charge q placed, in the
field E0 , at the potential V0.

This potential energy corresponds to the work of electrostatic forces for a
displacement from the point P where the absolute potential is V0 to infinity.
W0 = q E0 . dl = q (V0 - V0 ) = q V0
P
Conversely, to bring the charge q from infinity to the point P, in a

reversible displacement, defined by a succession of equilibrium states where the
force exerted by the operator is equal and opposite to the electrostatic force, the
work T of the operator is equal and opposite to the work of the electrostatic
forces, i.e.:
P
T' =
F . dl = P F . dl = W
= Ep
W0 therefore also measures the work done by an operator to bring the

charge q, during a reversible displacement, from infinity to the point P where
the absolute potential is V0.
Analogy between electrostatic potential energy and gravity potential energy
WAB = q(V0A V0B) = - (qV0B qV0A) = - (EpB - EpA) = - Ep
The work of the electrostatic forces is equal to the opposite of the variation of
potential electrostatic energy Ep (with Ep = Ep(final state) - Ep(initial state)) like the
work of gravity forces is equal to the opposite of the variation of gravity
potential energy.
Important Note
We mean by operator, any exterior agent
enabling the charge to pass from a potential VA
to a potential VB. Thus, during its passage
q
across a voltage source maintaining a potential
difference U=VA-VB between its A and B
A
B
terminals (Figure 32), a charge q acquires,
Figure 32
during its trip from the B terminal to the A
terminal, an electrostatic potential energy W = q(VA-VB) = qU. This energy is
provided by the source and comes for example, if the source is a battery, from
the energy provided by the reduction-oxidation reaction accompanying the
passage of the current.
-48-
I-2. Case of several point charges.

Lets consider a system (S) of n point charges q1, q2, qn, placed
respectively at the points A1, A2, An.. Lets designate by E01 , E02 , E0n ,
the value of the electric field created at every point Ai by an exterior system
(Sext) assumed invariant; that is, insensitive to the introduction of charges from
the system(S).
The system (S) is itself assumed rigid; that is, the charges are assumed to
have relative invariable positions (example: charges on a perfect insulator).
The total electric force acting on this set is the sum of the forces acting on
each of the charges. This will therefore be the sum of the forces exerted by
(Sext) on (S), the interior forces between the charges of the system (S) cancelling
each other two by two in a rigid system (law of action and reaction chapter 1).
F=
F = q
i
i =1
i=1
E0i
The potential electrostatic energy of the rigid system of charges (S) placed in
the field E , can be defined as the work carried out by the electrostatic forces
when the set of charges is moved, without modifying their relative positions,
from the position they occupy up to infinity. In these conditions it is expressed
by W0 such that:
n
W0 =
i=1
qi E . dl =
q i V0i
i =1
Ai
where V0i is the electrostatic potential of the field E , created by the system (Sext)
at the point Ai , the position of the charge qi of the system (S).
Note: In this displacement, the forces that are exerted between the different
charges of the system (S) does not produce any work, since the system is not
deformed (the relative positions of the charges stays unchanged).
I-3. Case of a dipole.

Lets consider a dipole of dipole moment p = q AB placed in a field E0 .
The potential energy of this dipole will by definition be:
W = q (V0B V0A)
Due to the very low distance AB, we can write:
V0B V0A = E0 . BA
-49-
i.e. :
W = q E0 . BA = -q AB. E0
W == - p . E0
II- INTERACTION ENERGY OF A SYSTEM OF CHARGES.

II-1. System of several point charges.
The problem considered here is fundamentally different from the
previous one. We consider here the work that an operator must provide to build
up a system () of n point charges q1, q2, qn placed respectively at the points
A1, A2, An, by bringing successively the charges qi initially situated at infinity
and very distant from each other, at the points Ai where we immobilize them.
This work corresponds to the energy it would have been necessary to spend to
constitute the system of charges () outside of the exterior presence of any other
charged system.
i) Case of two charges :
The transportation of the first charge q1 from infinity to A1 does not
cause any work from the operator against the electrostatic forces since the
charge is isolated in space:
T1' = 0.
When the second charge q2 is transported at the position A2, an electrostatic
force due to the field created by q1 exists. The potential at A2 is therefore
q1
1
V21 =
and the work provided by the operator will be:
4 0 A1A 2
1 q1q 2
T2' = q2(V21 - 0) =
.
4 0 A1A 2
The energy to build up this system will therefore be equal to the total work done
by the operator, in other words:
1 q1q 2
T21 = T1' + T2' =
4 0 A1A 2
We may also build up the same system of two charges
- by transporting first the charge q2 at A2
T2'' =0
q2
1
:
- then the charge q1 at A1 where the potential is V12 =
4 0 A1A 2
-50-
T1'' = q1(V12 - 0) =
1 q 1q 2
4 0 A1A 2
The total work T12= T1'' + T2'' is obviously equal to T21, the two operations
being equivalent. We may therefore write formally, the two operations being
identical:
1
1
W = (T12 + T21) = (q1V12 + q2V21)
2
2
ii) Case of 3 charges

The two charges q1 and q2 being placed at A1 and A2, it is necessary, in
order to bring the charge q3 at A3, to provide the work :
T3' = q3(V31 + V32 - 0)
q2
q1
1
1
with
V31 =
and
V32 =
4 0 A1A 3
4 0 A 2 A 3
Hence the work provided to build up the system of three charged particles:
W = T1' + T2' + T3' = 0 + q2V21 + q3(V31 + V32)
(1)
If we adopt a different order, by bringing first q3 at A3, then q2 at A2 and
finally q1 at A1, the operator will perform the works one after the other:
T3'' = 0
T2'' = q2V23
T1'' = q1(V12 + V13)
The final system being the same, the provided work is also the same and:
W = T1'' + T2'' + T3'' = q1V12 + q1V13 + q2V23
(2)
By adding member to member the relations (1) and (2), we end up with:
1
W = [q1(V12 + V13) +q2(V21 + V23) + q3(V31 + V32)]
2
By calling Vi the potential created at Ai by all the charges qj other than qi :
Vi =
Vij ,
ji
We obtain for three charges

1
W = (q1V1 + q2V2 + q3V3)
2
iii) Generalization in the case of n charges

In a general way for any number of charges n we will have:
n
qj
1 n
1 n n qiq j
W = q ; (
) =
2 i=1 j=1 4 0 rij
2 i =1 j=1 4 0 rij
j i
i j
-51-
rij being the distance between the charges qi and qj.

Or with the definition of Vi, the potential created at Ai by the other charges:
1 n
W = q i Vi
2 i =1
This potential energy W is due to the forces of interaction at a distance between
the charged particles of the system () hence the interaction potential energy
designation for W. It corresponds to the work that was necessary to build up the
system. We also call it the electrostatic energy of the system.
Note : As it was pointed out at the beginning of the paragraph, the energy W0
and W correspond to completely different situations. We note in particular that
the potentials Vi dont have the same meaning as the potentials V0i, the latter
being due to a distribution exterior to the system of charges while the potentials
Vi are due to the charges of the system itself.
II-2. System forced by a continuous distribution of charges.
We consider a continuous charge
distribution of volume density situated
( )
( )
in a volume restricted by a surface ()
(figure 33)
M
The electrostatic potential energy of
d
this system is deduced easily from the
previous expression by replacing each
Figure 33
point charge qi by an elementary charge
d, d being an infinitesimal volume element surrounding the point M, by
replacing the potential Vi by the potential V created by this charge distribution at
the point M, and by replacing the discrete summation on the set of the point
charges by an integral on the charged volume. The previous relation therefore
becomes:
Vd
W= 1
2
III- ELECTROSTATIC ENERGY DENSITY. LOCATION OF THE

ENERGY.
1
The previous expression W=
Vd may be written :
2
W=
1
2
V d
whole space
-52-
being nil outside of the charged volume.

We know that at every point in space: = 0 div E
Hence:
W=
1
2
r
(
div
E
0 ) V d
whole space
By using the identity: div (m a )= m div a + a . grad m , it yields:

V div E = div(V E ) - ( grad V ). E
Further:
Hence:
V div E = div(V E ) + E
W=
1
2
div(V E) d + 2
whole space
E 2 d
whole space
By applying Ostrogradskys Theorem, the first integral is written:

1
2
r
V
E
dS
Sphere of infinite radius
Yet, such an integral on a sphere of radius tending to infinity tends to 0, for the
1
product (V E ) varies with r like 3 whereas the surface of the sphere grows
r
2
proportionally to r . The result of this integral therefore varies with r in 1/r
therefore tending to 0 when r tends to infinity. We therefore obtain:
W=
d
2 whole space
This result can be interpreted by supposing that at every point in space where an
electrostatic field E exists, a volume density of energy is located.
1
w = 0 E 2
2
-53-
IIN
N FFR
RE
EN
NC
CH
H IIN
N FFR
RE
EN
NC
CH
H IIN
N FFR
RE
EN
NC
CH
H IIN
N FFR
RE
EN
NC
CH
H
NONCS
1 Vocabulaire.
Quappelle-t-on :
- ligne de champ ?
- quipotentielle ?
- tube de champ ?
- angle solide ?
- diple lectrostatique ?
2 Vrai ou faux ?
a) Si un volume charg prsente un plan de symtrie (), le champ en tout point
de ce plan () lui est perpendiculaire.
b) Si un volume charg prsente un plan de symtrie (), le champ en tout
point de ce plan () est contenu dans ().
c) Si une distribution de charges prsente un plan de symtrie () , le champ en
tout point de ce plan () lui est perpendiculaire.
d) Si une distribution de charges prsente un plan de symtrie () , le champ en
tout point de ce plan () est contenu dans ().
e) Si, en un point de lespace, passent deux axes de symtrie dune distribution
de charges, le champ en ce point est port par la bissectrice de langle form par
ces deux axes concourants.
f) Si, en un point de lespace, passent deux axes de symtrie dune distribution
de charges, le champ en ce point est nul.
3 Vrai ou faux ?
a) Une ligne de champ peut en croiser une autre.
b) Une ligne de champ est perpendiculaire une quipotentielle.
c) Le module du champ est constant le long dune ligne de champ.
d) Une ligne de champ part toujours dune zone de charge positive pour aboutir
une zone de charge ngative.
4 On considre un plan rapport un systme daxes (Ox, Oy). Le champ dans
ce plan est un champ uniforme dont les composantes sont :
-54-
Ex = 5 V.m-1 , Ey = -2 V.m-1.
Donner lquation gnrale des lignes de champ.
5- Dcrire les lignes de champ et les quipotentielles du champ produit par :
a) une charge ponctuelle ?
b) une sphre uniformment charge ?
c) un plan infini uniformment charg ?
6 - Quelle est la dfinition d'un angle solide? Quelle est l'unit d'angle solide?
Un angle solide est-il une grandeur dimensionne?
7 Calculer langle solide sous lequel un observateur terrestre voit
a) la Lune
b) le Soleil.
c) Quel est langle solide sous lequel est vue la France depuis le centre de la
Terre ?
Distance moyenne Terre - Soleil :1,5.108 km ; rayon de la Lune : 1700 km ;
distance Terre Lune : 3,8. 105 km ; rayon du Soleil : 700 000 km ; rayon de la
Terre : 6370 km ; superficie de la France : 550 000 km2.
8 Quel est la valeur de langle solide correspondant lespace entier ? Quel est
langle solide sous lequel est vue une face dun cube partir de son centre ?
9 Complter pour donner une dfinition correcte (plusieurs possibilits):
Langle solide lmentaire d sous lequel est vu, dun point O, une petite
surface dS centre autour dun point M de lespace est donn par :---------------o dS est le vecteur --------- la surface dS, u est le vecteur unitaire dfini par
OM = r u = r , et est langle entre les vecteurs -----et ----. Selon lorientation de
-----, d peut prendre deux valeurs opposes.
10 Calculer le champ lectrique auquel est soumis de la part du proton,
llectron de latome dHydrogne (rayon de lorbitale : 5,3 10-11m).
11 - Quatre charges lectriques QA, QB, QC, QD, sont disposes respectivement
aux sommets A, B, C, D d'un carr de 5 cm de ct. On mesure le champ au
centre du carr et on constate qu'il est nul. Quelle est la configuration
impossible? Dans ce cas, donnez la valeur du champ au centre du carr (L'unit
de charge est ici le C)
- QA = 1 , QB = 1 , QC = 1 , QD = 1
- QA = 1 , QB = 1 , QC = 0 , QD = 0
- QA = -1 , QB = 1 , QC = -1 , QD = 1
-55-
- QA = 1 , QB = 0 , QC = 1 , QD = 0
- QA = 1 , QB = 2 , QC = 1 , QD = 2
12 Deux charges lectriques, lune, en un point A, de +1 C, lautre, en un
point B, de -4 C sont places une distance de 50 cm lune de lautre. Existe
t-il un point M de lespace o le champ cr par ces deux charges est nul ? Si
oui, donnez de faon prcise sa position.
13 On considre un triangle isocle ABC tel que AB=AC. On place en B et C

deux charges de +1 C et en A une charge de -3 C. Dterminer (module,
direction, sens) le champ lectrostatique produit par cette distribution de charges
au milieu M de BC. On donne BC = 40 cm, AM = 50 cm.
14 - Quel est le flux d'un champ uniforme de 250 V.m-1 travers une surface
rectangulaire de 100 cm2 dont la normale fait un angle de 60 avec le champ?
Donner l'unit correspondante.
15 Enoncer le thorme de Gauss et prciser les conventions ncessaires pour
un nonc correct. Quelles sont les conditions ncessaires pour que lon puisse,
laide du thorme de Gauss, dterminer la valeur du champ lectrostatique en
tout point de lespace ?
16 Remplir, sans consulter votre cours, le tableau suivant concernant les
proprits du champ lectrostatique :
Proprit
Formulation
intgrale
Formulation locale
Equation de
passage
Flux
Circulation
17 - Rappeler les expressions des oprateurs en coordonnes cartsiennes. On

considre dans un espace rapport un tridre (Ox, Oy, Oz) o rgne un champ
lectrostatique tel que le potentiel sexprime sous la forme (units S.I.) :
V = 50 x2 - 25 y2 - 25 z.
a) Caractriser le champ lectrostatique au point (1,1,2).
b) Lespace est-il charg ? Si oui, caractriser la distribution de charges.
-56-
18 Une surface charge porte une densit superficielle de charge = 1nC.m-2.

Dcrire compltement la discontinuit du champ lectrostatique la traverse de
cette surface charge.
19 Une unit dnergie sappelle llectron-volt. (produit de la valeur absolue
de la charge de llectron par la valeur unit du potentiel lectrostatique).
Justifier cette appellation. Quelle est sa valeur en Joules ? Quelle est lnergie
potentielle lectrostatique de llectron dun atome dhydrogne ? Lexprimer en
Joule et en lectron-volt. Commentez son signe. Le rayon approximatif de
lorbite lectronique est 5,3. 10-11m.
20 - Une charge de 5 coulombs traverse une batterie de 20 volts en allant du
ple au ple +. Lnergie acquise par le gnrateur est :
a) -100 Joules
b) +50 Joules
c) +100 Joules
d) 50 Joules
e) Aucune de ces rponses.
21 Trois charges QA = QB =+1 C, QC = +2 C sont disposes aux sommets A,
B, C dun triangle quilatral, de 1m de ct . Lnergie lectrostatique de cette
distribution est :
a) 0,009 Joules
b) 45 Joules
c) 90 Joules
d) 4,5 J
22 Quelle est lnergie lectrostatique emmagasine dans une rgion de
lespace de volume 1 m3 o rgne un champ lectrostatique uniforme de
120V.m-1 (ordre de grandeur du champ lectrique atmosphrique par beau
temps)? Quelle est alors lnergie lectrostatique totale contenue dans
latmosphre terrestre en prenant un modle simplifi de champ atmosphrique
constant, sachant que la diffrence de potentiel totale est de lordre de 400 000
Volts?
23 La molcule de NH3 peut tre considre comme un diple form de deux
charges +e et e spares par une distance de 0,0375 nm.
a) Calculer son moment dipolaire.
b) Retrouver lexpression du potentiel cr par un diple. A quelle distance
minimale cette molcule cre-t-elle un potentiel de 1V ?
c) Retrouver lexpression du champ lectrostatique cr par un diple. Calculer
le champ cr par la molcule de NH3 une distance de 10 nm, pour les
positions particulires =0 et = /2.Quelle est son sens ?
d) Cette molcule est place dans un champ E0 de 1kV.cm-1. Quelles sont les
valeurs extrmes entre lesquelles varie son nergie potentielle ? Ces deux
extrma correspondent deux positions dquilibre. Vrifier, en faisant le
schma des forces appliques, le caractre de ces quilibres.
-57-
SOLUTIONS
1 Voir cours.
2 Seuls d et f sont vraies. Attention ne pas confondre la symtrie du support
et la symtrie de la distribution de charges
3 a) En gnral ce nest pas possible, sauf si le champ est nul au point
dintersection, ou pour un point singulier o le champ nest pas dfini (point o
se trouve une charge)
b) vrai c) faux d) vrai
dx dy
=
2x = 5y + C
5 2
des droites
Les lignes de champ sont videmment
5
Element
Lignes de champ
Charge (au point O) Demi-droites issues de O et
orientes vers O si q<0 et dans
le sens contraire si q>0
Sphre(de centre O) Partant de la surface de la
sphre et constitues par des
demi-droites dont le support
passe par O et orientes vers O
si <0 et dans le sens
contraire si >0
Plan
Demi-droites perpendiculaires
au plan et orientes vers le
plan si <0 et dans le sens
contraire si >0
6 Voir cours
7 a) 6,287 .10-4 srd
b) 6,84 .10-5 srd
c) 1,36 .10-2 srd
Equipotentielles
Sphres de centre O
A lextrieur de la sphre
charge : Sphres de
centre O
Plans parallles au plan

charg.
8 4 srd ; =
-58-
4
= 2,094 srd
6
9 Langle solide lmentaire d sous lequel est vu, dun point O, une petite
surface dS
centre autour dun point M de lespace est donn
dS .u
dS. cos
o dS est le vecteur orient perpendipar : d = 2 ou d =
r
r2
culaire la surface dS, u est le vecteur unitaire dfini par OM = r u = r , et est
langle entre les vecteurs dS et u -. Selon lorientation de dS , d peut prendre
deux valeurs opposes.
10 3,2 . 1011 V.m-1

11 Configuration impossible : (1,1,0,0). Valeur du champ : 1,02.107 V.m-1
12
a) Les champs lectrostatiques tant des quantits vectorielles, ils doivent tre
ports par le mme support pour que leur somme puisse sannuler : le point M,
sil existe, est sur la droite AB.
b) Les champs ayant, le premier , le sens de AM, le second, le sens de MB, M
est obligatoirement lextrieur de lintervalle AB sur la droite joignant A et B
c) Comme Q B > Q A , M doit tre plus proche de A que de B si lon dsire que
les modules des deux champs soient les mmes . M est donc lextrieur de
lintervalle AB, du ct de A. Si x est la distance MA,
1
4
=
x = 0,5 m
2
x
(x + 0,5)2
13
Les champs EB et EC sannulent.
E = E A = 1,08 .10 5 V.m 1

EA
C
EC
14 1,25 V.m
EB
-59-
15 Voir cours. Il faut que lintgrale de flux puisse sexprimer sous une forme
du type Cte.E.S , ce qui exige que le champ soit identique en module et en
direction par rapport la normale la surface. Ceci, en tout point de la surface
o le produit scalaire E.dS est diffrent de 0 (champ nul ou champ contenu dans
la surface)
16 Voir cours.
17 Oprateurs : voir cours
a)
E x = 100x
100
E = grad V = E y = 50y
E('1,1,2) = 50 E('1,1,2) = 114,56 V.m1
25
Ez = 25
b) = 0 div E = 0 ( 100 + 50 ) = 50 0
On a une distribution volumique de charge uniforme de 0,442 . 10-9 C.m-3
18 Voir cours. Discontinuit de la composante normale de 113 V.m-1

19 Cest bien une unit dnergie (dfinition de lnergie potentielle
lectrostatique). 1 lectron-volt = 1,6 . 10-19Joule
1 e
E p = e V = e
= 4,347 .10 18 Joules = 27,17 eV
4 0 r
La valeur ngative de Ep traduit le fait qulectron et proton sattirent et quil
faut donc fournir de lnergie llectron (nergie dionisation) pour le librer
de lattraction du noyau. (Ep= 0 lorsque llectron est hors du champ du noyau)
20 c)
21 a)
22 W =
1
0 E 2 = 6,36 .10 8 Joules
2
Distance sur laquelle rgne le champ terrestre dans le modle simplifi :D =

Energie totale Wt = W 4 R 2 D , si R est le rayon terrestre
Wt=1,09. 1011 Joules!!
23 a) p = e.d = 6.10-30 C.m
U
E
b) Voir cours. r =
-60-
p
= 232 nm
4 0 V
c) Voir cours. E =0 = 108 kV.m 1 ;
E = / 2 = 54 kV.m 1 E
d) W = p .E = p E cos , si est langle entre p et E

Wmax= + pE = + 6. 10-25 Joules ( = ) ;
Wmin= - pE = - 6. 10-25 Joules ( = 0)
= 0 correspond donc une
E
position dquilibre stable et
=
une
position
dquilibre instable, comme
on peut le vrifier en faisant
le schma des forces
appliques.
p
p
Champ lectrique dans la matire
- 61 -
IIN
NF
FR
RE
EN
NC
CH
H IIN
NF
FR
RE
EN
NC
CH
H IIN
NF
FR
RE
EN
NC
CH
H IIN
NF
FR
RE
EN
NC
CH
H
CHAPITRE III
LE CHAMP ELECTRIQUE DANS LES MILIEUX DIELECTRIQUES
INTRODUCTION
I- THE ELECTROSTATIC DIPOLE.
I-1 Definition.
I-2 Potential created by a dipole.
I-3 Field created by a dipole.
I-4 Effect of an exterior field on a dipole.
II- POLARISATION DES MILIEUX DIELECTRIQUES. ASPECT MICROSCOPIQUE.

II-1 Diples atomiques et molculaires.
II-2 Mcanismes microscopiques de polarisation.
II-2-1 Polarisation lectronique.
II-2-2 Polarisation atomique ou ionique.
II-2-3 Milieux molcules polaires. Polarisation par orientation.
II-2-4 Autres mcanismes de polarisation.
III- CHAMP DANS LES MILIEUX DIELECTRIQUES. ASPECT MACROSCOPIQUE.

III-1 Dfinition.
III-2 Charges de polarisation.
III-3 Potentiel et champ lectrostatiques crs par un dilectrique polaris.
III-4 Proprit des charges de polarisation.
IV- PROPIETES FONDAMENTALES DU CHAMP ELECTROSTATIQUE DANS LES

MILIEUX DIELECTRIQUES.
IV-1 Champ lectrostatique total. Champ dpolarisant.
IV-2. Equations gnrales du champ lectrostatique dans les dilectriques quelconques.
IV-3 Cas des dilectriques parfaits.
V- RESUME. LOIS GENERALES DE L'ELECTROSTATIQUE DANS LES MILIEUX

DIELECTRIQUES.
V-1 Relations de milieu.
V-2 Proprits de flux et de circulation.
VI- EVALUATION DE LA PERMITTIVITE D'UN MATERIAU.
- 62 -
- 63 -
CHAPITRE III
LE CHAMP ELECTRIQUE DANS LES MILIEUX DIELECTRIQUES
IINTRODUCTION
En lectricit, on classe les matriaux en fonction de leur plus ou moins grande conductivit lectrique,
cette conductivit tant caractristique de la mobilit des porteurs de charges : lectrons ou ions.
Dans un isolant, les charges lectriques ne peuvent pas se dplacer (mobilit ou conductivit nulle) ; ils
gardent donc trs longtemps la charge quon leur communique.
Pour les conducteurs, les charges sont trs mobiles et, sils ne sont pas trs bien isols, ils ne conservent
pas la charge quon leur communique. En ralit, les choses ne sont pas aussi tranches et on trouve entre ces deux
catgories toute une gamme de matriaux allant du mdiocre conducteur au mauvais isolant en passant par les semiconducteurs (lments essentiels en lectronique). (voir cours Electrocintique).
Si l'on soumet un corps isolant creus d'une cavit vide un champ lectrique extrieur E 0 , et que l'on mesure le
champ lectrique au sein de cette cavit, on constate que ce champ nest pas nul. Cette premire exprience met en
vidence une proprit particulire des corps isolants qui peuvent tre "traverss" par un champ lectrique extrieur.
Cette proprit est lorigine de lautre nom donn aux milieux isolants savoir les milieux dilectriques (construit
sur le prfixe dia : travers). Si maintenant on refait la mme exprience mais avec un corps conducteur, on constate
que le champ lectrique au sein de la cavit vide est nul (principe de la cage de Faraday).
E0
+
+p
+
+
+
+
Vide
Conducteurr
Vide
E =0
-----
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
E0
Vide
Isolantt
Vide
E0
-----
Figure 1
Ce chapitre est consacr ltude du champ lectrique dans les milieux isolants ou dilectriques. Le
cas des matriaux conducteurs sera prsent dans le chapitre suivant (chapitre IV).
Afin daborder ltude du champ lectrostatique dans les milieux dilectriques, il est ncessaire
dintroduire la notion de diple lectrostatique. Dans un deuxime temps, nous verrons que, du point de vue
- 64 -
lectrostatique, on peut considrer que les atomes ou molcules qui constituent les matriaux isolants ou
dilectriques se comportent comme des distributions de charges constitues par des diples lectrostatiques. Enfin,
nous verrons comment modifier les lois de llectrostatique du vide pour tenir compte des effets de polarisation.
I- THE ELECTROSTATIC DIPOLE.

We will see in the chapter dedicated to the study of the electrostatic field in matter that, from the
electrostatic point of view, we can consider that the atoms or molecules of these materials act like charge
distributions made up of electrostatic dipoles. The study of the properties of this distribution therefore presents a
very particular interest.
I-1. Definition.
We consider a set of two point charges +q and q placed
+M
respectively at two point A and B (Figure 27). We state that AB = d

and we call O the middle of AB. We will consider that this particular
set of two charges constitutes a dipole or electrostatic doublet when we
-q
B
The vector
study the potential and the electrostatic field created by this system at a
+q
Figure 2
point M (OM = r), such that d<< r.
p = q BA , applied at O is the dipole moment.
Its magnitude (norm) is q d.
I-2. Potential created by a dipole.

We orientate (Ox) from (-q) towards (+q). We locate M by its
polar coordinates (OM = r , ) (Figure 28).
V=
q BMAM
1 q
q
=
4 0 AM BM 4 0 BM.AM
Yet, AM
H
B(-q)
To evaluate BM - AM, we trace the circle (M , MA=r)

which intersects MB at H. Since AB << r we can approximate the
BM OM = r
A(+q)
chord
AH
with the arc AH and with the tangent to the circle at
H.
Figure 3
Therefore : ( AHB
) and BM - AM = BH. Moreover,
2
By introducing the dipole moment, we obtain:
or with the unit vector
u of OM : V = 1 p.u
40 r 2
V=
(AOM) and BH = d cos , i.e : V = q d cos

4 0 r 2
p cos
4 0 r 2
- 65 -
Other expressions of the potential:

We can notice that the expression
V=
q
q 1
1 may be written
V=
4 0
4 0 AM BM
1
,
r
1
1
being the variation of the quantity when we pass from B to A. In view of the very small value of AB
r
r
compared to r, we may therefore write, O being the midpoint of AB:
q
grad(O)(1) . BA
r
40
1
V=
p . grad(O)(1)
r
40
V=
That is
We characterize the field by :
I-3. Field created by a dipole.
- its radial component

O to M,
Er
M
Er , along OM, orientated from
- its orthoradial component
along the normal to

OM at point M, such that (Mr,Mt) = + (Figure 29).
2
By using the relation E = gradV in polar
coordinates, dl having for components, in polar

coordinates, dr and rd, we have
Er =
B(-q)
A(+q)
1 V further:
r
p sin
V
=
4 0 r 2
and E =
2p cos
V
=
r
4 0 r 3
V
r
We therefore obtain:
Figure 4
Er =
1 2p cos
4 0
r3
; E =
1 p sin
4 0 r 3
I-4. Effect of a uniform field on a dipole.

We consider a dipole of dipole moment
placed in a uniform electrostatic field
(Figure 30).
The charge (+q) placed at A is subjected to the force
FA = + q EA = q E
FA
The charge (-q) placed at B is subjected to the force
FB = q E B = q E
B(-q)
O
A(+q)
FB
Figure 5
i.e.
FA and FB form a couple C which tends to orientate the dipole in the

direction of the field such that
r
r
s
r
r
C = OA qE + OB (qE ) = BA qE = q BA E
C= p E
- 66 -
II- POLARISATION DES MILIEUX DIELECTRIQUES.

ASPECT MICROSCOPIQUE.
Nous savons que la matire est faite datomes et de molcules, composs de particules lmentaires, dont
certaines sont charges (protons ou lectrons), lensemble tant gnralement globalement neutre (sauf pour les
milieux ioniss).
Nous pouvons donc, du point de vue lectrostatique, considrer tout milieu comme un ensemble d'atomes ou de
molcules comportant des charges positives et ngatives, places dans le vide
La description de la polarisation sappuie sur cette description de la matire.
II-1. Diples atomiques et molculaires.

Considrons un modle simple de l'atome o le noyau constitue une charge ponctuelle positive, la
structure lectronique tant considre comme un nuage charg ngativement dont la densit varie de faon continue
dans une zone dlimite entourant le noyau. Le mme modle peut tre adopt pour des molcules formes de
plusieurs atomes, le centre de charge positif tant alors le barycentre des charges positives formes par les divers
noyaux des atomes constituant la molcule. On peut distinguer deux types d'atomes ou de molcules :
- Les molcules dites non polaires, dont le barycentre des charges positives, en labsence de champ
lectrique appliqu, concide avec le barycentre des charges ngatives. Il en est ainsi pour les corps simples
monoatomiques (Ne, A...) ou diatomiques (O2, H2,...) ou pour les molcules possdant un centre de symtrie
(CO2,...). La figure 5a reprsente par exemple une molcule d'oxygne pour laquelle on a suppos que le nuage
lectronique a une forme sphrique.
+8
+8
O
p0
centre de gravit des

charges ngatives
+8
+H

charges positives et
ngatives
+1
+1

charges positives
Figure 6
- A l'inverse, on appellera molcules polaires celles dont le barycentre des charges positives ne concide
pas avec le barycentre des charges ngatives. Il en est par exemple ainsi de la molcule d'eau H2O (Figure 5b). On
peut considrer alors que chaque molcule polaire forme un diple lectrique lmentaire auquel on peut associer un
moment dipolaire permanent p 0 .
- 67 -
II-2. Mcanismes microscopiques de polarisation.

Nous distinguerons trois mcanismes microscopiques de polarisation :
- La polarisation lectronique due la modification de la rpartition des charges d'un atome ou d'un ion.
Cette polarisation se manifeste pour tous les matriaux.
- La polarisation atomique ou ionique due au dplacement, sous l'influence du champ appliqu, des
atomes ou des ions par rapport leur position dans le rseau cristallin du matriau.
- La polarisation par orientation, due l'apparition d'une orientation prfrentielle des molcules sous
l'influence du champ appliqu.
II-2-1. Polarisation lectronique.
Dfinition de la polarisabilit dune molcule

Considrons une molcule non polaire soumise un champ local E l (local, en ce sens qu'il concerne le
champ existant au niveau de la molcule). Sous l'influence de ce champ lectrique, les lectrons sont dplacs dans
un sens (dformation du nuage lectronique), alors que les noyaux sont dplacs dans le sens inverse. Il s'ensuit un
lger dplacement relatif des barycentres des charges positives et ngatives et donc l'apparition d'un moment
dipolaire induit p (Figure 6).

Cette polarisation induite est dite polarisation lectronique
El = 0
El
puisqu'elle rsulte du dplacement du cortge lectronique de l'atome

ou de la molcule par rapport au(x) noyau(x) sous l'influence du
champ appliqu.
+
-
Le moment dipolaire induit est en gnral (par exemple
dans le cas d'un corps simple) proportionnel au champ local E l :
p = e0 El
Figure 7
La constante de proportionnalit e (qui sexprime en m3) est appele la polarisabilit lectronique de
l'atome ou de la molcule.(voir problme de TD sur le calcul de e pour latome dhydrogne)
Ordres de grandeur :
Pour l'atome d'hydrogne e = 8,42 10-30 m3, pour le sodium e = 339.10-30 m3.
II-2-2. Polarisation atomique ou ionique.
Dans le cas des molcules ou des cristaux ioniques, l'application d'un champ lectrique peut provoquer un
dplacement des atomes ou des ions par rapport leur position dans la structure d'quilibre naturel. Ce dplacement
se traduira par l'apparition d'un moment dipolaire induit.
- 68 -
Ce phnomne est sensible dans les structures liaisons prsentant un caractre ionique marqu. Dans le
cas de molcules, on parlera de polarisation atomique et dans le cas de solides ioniques, on parlera de polarisation
ionique, mais le phnomne fondamental (dformation de la structure sous l'effet du champ) reste le mme. Cette
polarisation viendra ventuellement se superposer la polarisation lectronique
On pourra dfinir une polarisabilit atomique a ou ionique i de la structure dont le moment dipolaire,
compte tenu de sa polarisabilit lectronique, sera alors :
p = 0 e + a E l ou p = 0 e + i E l
Soit :
p = 0 El
Remarque : Dans le cas gnral, la polarisation induite peut ne pas tre dans la direction du champ appliqu E l . Il
en sera ainsi dans le cas de molcules telles que la molcule de CO2. Cette molcule, constitue d'un atome de
carbone entour de deux atomes d'oxygne se polarise beaucoup plus facilement si le champ est appliqu dans la
direction de l'axe (Ox) joignant les atomes de carbone et d'oxygne que dans la direction perpendiculaire
(Oy).(Figure 7)
On peut ainsi reprsenter la polarisabilit de la molcule
par deux constantes x et y, telles que px = x 0 Elx et py = y 0
El
Ely si px et Elx d'une part, py et Ely d'autre part, sont les
composantes de la polarisation induite et du champ dans les
directions (Ox) et (Oy). Les vecteurs p et E l ne sont alors plus

colinaires.
Figure 8
Ordres de grandeur :
La polarisabilit atomique est en gnral plus faible que la polarisabilit lectronique, d'un facteur 10
environ. La polarisabilit ionique est du mme ordre de grandeur. Ainsi, dans le cas du chlorure de csium CsCl, la
polarisabilit lectronique par maille est de 80.10-30m3, et la polarisabilit ionique par maille est de 100.10-30m3.
II-2-3. Milieux molcules polaires. Polarisation par orientation.
Soit un ensemble de molcules polaires, par exemple des molcules d'eau. En l'absence de champ
lectrique appliqu, les moments dipolaires permanents lmentaires p 0 associs chacune des molcules sont
orients au hasard. Si nous considrons un ensemble suffisamment grand de molcules, la somme vectorielle de tous
leurs moments dipolaires lmentaires sera statistiquement nulle (Figure 8a). Autrement dit, quelle que soit la
direction Oz de l'espace considre, la valeur moyenne p 0,z
de la composante de p 0 sur cet axe est nulle.
- 69 -
p0
p0
El = 0
El 0
=0
a)
b)
Figure 9
Par contre, sous l'influence d'un champ lectrique local E l , les molcules polaires subissent un systme
de forces lectriques tendant les orienter dans le sens du champ (Figure 8b). Un tel effet est contrari par l'agitation
thermique des molcules qui tend au contraire rtablir un tat compltement dsordonn. Cette orientation
prfrentielle sous l'action du champ extrieur entranera l'apparition d'une valeur moyenne non nulle de la
composante p 0,E de p 0 selon la direction du champ E l , inversement proportionnelle la temprature absolue T.
On peut montrer (voir problme de TD) que p 0,E
sexprime par p 0,E =
p 02
E , k tant la constante
3kT l
de Boltzmann. (k = 1,38 10-23 J.K-1)

On peut donc de mme dfinir la polarisabilit d'orientation Or par p 0,E
Or =
E , soit :
Or 0 l
p 02
30 k T
II-2-4. Autres mcanismes de polarisation.
Dans le cas des solides, il peut exister une polarisation permanente en l'absence de champ extrieur. Ceci
peut tre d, dans le cas de substances amorphes, une polarisation par orientation rmanente (de tels solides
s'appellent des lectrets). Une autre cause peut tre la structure cristalline. C'est ce qui se passe pour les matriaux
ferrolectriques, qui possdent, en dessous d'une temprature limite, dite temprature de Curie, un moment
dipolaire permanent (voir paragraphe VII).
L'influence d'un champ lectrique extrieur n'est pas la seule cause possible de polarisation pour un
dilectrique solide. L'application un cristal d'une contrainte extrieure permet d'obtenir galement une polarisation.
C'est le phnomne de pizo-lectricit.
- 70 -
centre de symtrie
des charges positives
et ngatives
+
+
centre de symtrie
des charges positives
et ngatives
centre de symtrie des charges

positives
ngatives
+
+
Figure 10
Ce phnomne dpend de la structure cristalline du matriau. L'application d'une force provoque une
dformation du rseau qui n'entrane pas de dissymtrie dans la rpartition des charges lectriques si le motif
possde un centre de symtrie (Figure 9A). Par contre, si ce centre de symtrie n'existe pas, le centre de gravit des
charges positives ne concide plus avec celui des charges ngatives lorsqu'une contrainte est applique au cristal
(Figure 9B). D'o l'apparition d'une polarisation induite et ainsi d'une tension lectrique entre les faces du cristal. Ce
phnomne est utilis pour la mesure, par l'intermdiaire d'un signal lectrique, de toute grandeur mcanique
conduisant une contrainte sur le cristal (force, pression, acclration..).
Le mme effet de polarisation peut se manifester quand on chauffe un dilectrique, par suite de la
dilatation thermique. C'est le phnomne de pyrolectricit.
III- CHAMP ELECTROSTATIQUE DANS LES MILIEUX DIELECTRIQUES. ASPECT

MACROSCOPIQUE.
L'tude du comportement microscopique de la matire nous a permis de montrer qu'un milieu dilectrique
plac dans un champ lectrique pouvait tre considr comme un ensemble de diples lectriques lmentaires. Ces
diples se crent en gnral sous l'influence d'un champ extrieur appliqu (polarisation induite) et crent galement
eux-mmes leur propre champ. Le champ global rsultant sera la somme du champ appliqu et de celui cr par la
matire polarise. Comment dfinir alors, partir de nos constatations l'chelle microscopique, l'tat
lectrostatique rsultant du milieu?
Rappelons notre dmarche en lectrostatique du vide. Dans ce cas, nous avons dfini, partir d'une
distribution discrte de charges (les particules charges), une distribution volumique de charges , grandeur
continue en tout point de l'espace. Ceci nous a permis de dfinir des grandeurs lectrostatiques (champ et potentiel)
- 71 -
galement continues en tout point de l'espace. Les valeurs ainsi calcules du champ et du potentiel ne sont cependant
pas valables des distances trop proches des centres de charges, c'est dire de l'ordre de grandeur des dimensions
des particules charges (Figure 10). En ce sens, nous pouvons donc dire que les grandeurs ainsi dfinies sont des
grandeurs moyennes macroscopiques.
Rappelons
Vlocal, rel
galement
que
les
discontinuits ou valeurs infinies que nous
Vmoyen
constatons alors pour le champ lectrostatique

ou le potentiel ne rsultent que de l'introduction
de densits de charges (surfacique, linique ou
ponctuelle) conduisant une valeur infinie de
. La dmarche employe pour les milieux
molcule
position
+Q
-Q
Figure 11
s'inspire du mme principe, conduisant dfinir

par une grandeur continue l'tat de polarisation
du matriau.
III-1. Dfinition.
Considrons un trs petit lment de matire (du
d
M
pi
dp =
P=
dp
d
point de vue macroscopique), de volume d, centr autour

d'un point M (Figure 11). Faisons la somme de tous les
moments dipolaires microscopiques p i qu'il contient et
appelons dp =
le moment dipolaire rsultant.
Figure 12
Ltat de polarisation au M dun milieu dilectrique sera reprsent par un vecteur P appel vecteur polarisation.
Le vecteur polarisation P dun matriau est dfini comme la somme vectorielle des moments dipolaires
lmentaires par unit de volume du matriau.
Soit:
P = dp /d
P s'exprime en C.m-2
Cette dfinition permet, partir de la structure discontinue de la rpartition des diples, de dfinir comme
une grandeur macroscopique continue, dfinie en tout point du matriau polaris.
Nous allons montrer que tout milieu dilectrique polaris ( P non nul) peut tre modlis par une distribution
quivalente de charges places dans le vide. Ces charges sont appeles charges de polarisation ou encore
charges lies (par opposition aux charges libres telles que celles apparaissant au cours de l'lectrisation d'un
conducteur.
- 72 -
III-2. Potentiel et champ lectrostatiques crs par un dilectrique polaris.

Nous allons calculer le potentiel et le champ crs par un volume donn de dilectrique, caractrise par
sa polarisation P . Pour traiter le cas dans sa gnralit, la polarisation P sera considre comme variable en
fonction de la position dans le dilectrique.
Pour cela nous utilisons l'expression du potentiel lectrostatique V cr dans le vide, en un point M de
l'espace, par un diple de moment dipolaire p situ une distance r de ce point. Nous avons tabli dans le
paragraphe I que ce potentiel scrit :
V=
1
p.grad M
1
4 0
Remarque importante :
Bien que cette expression ne soit valable qu' une distance du diple grande devant celle des deux charges
le constituant, nous admettrons qu'elle peut tre utilise pour calculer le potentiel et le champ aussi bien l'intrieur
qu' l'extrieur du dilectrique. Du fait de cette hypothse, le potentiel et le champ ainsi calculs dans le dilectrique
sont un potentiel et un champ macroscopique moyen. Si nous en revenons une description microscopique de la
matire, l'expression de ce champ et de ce potentiel ne sera pas valable trs faible distance des diples crs dans
la matire polarise. Cette approximation est la mme que celle faite en lectrostatique du vide lorsque l'on passe de
la distribution relle de charges discrtes celle d'une rpartition continue d'une densit volumique de charge.
Considrons alors un volume de dilectrique limit par sa surface (S) reprsent sur la figure 12. Un
petit lment de volume d entourant un point Q du dilectrique sera quivalent un diple de moment dipolaire
dp = Pd . Le potentiel lmentaire dV cr en un point M de l'espace par cet lment de volume s'crira alors :
1
1
1
dp.grad M
P.grad M
=
d
r
4 0
4 0
r
1
dV' =
(S)
()
Soit encore, en utilisant les proprits du

gradient des fonctions de r
dV' =
P
d Q x
y
z
O
x
x
M y
z
1
P.grad Q d
4 0
r
1
le gradient tant alors calcul par rapport aux

coordonnes (x',y',z') de Q.
Le potentiel V' global cr par le
y
Figure 13
En utilisant la relation d'analyse vectorielle div(ma ) = mdiva
dilectrique au point M s'crira donc :
V' =
1
4 0
P.grad
( )
+ a.gradm , on peut crire :
1
d
r
V' =
- 73 -
1
4 0
( )
div P
d
r
1
4 0
div r d
()
ou encore, en exprimant le second terme de cette relation l'aide du thorme d'Ostrogradsky :
V' =
1
4 0
( )
div P
d + 1
r
4 0
(S)
P.N
dS
r
N tant la normale la surface du dilectrique, extrieure celui-ci (voir Figure 11).

L'analyse formelle de l'expression de V' montre que celle-ci est en tout point semblable l'expression du
potentiel cr par une distribution de charge volumique ' et une distribution de charge surfacique ', qui s'crirait
alors :
V' =
'
1
4 0
r d + 4
( )
(S)
'
dS
r
condition de poser :
' = div P
et
' = P. N
Conclusion
Le champ et le potentiel lectrostatiques crs par un dilectrique polaris sont gaux ceux que produiraient
dans le vide (Figure 13) :
- une distribution de charges surfaciques ' = P . N , N tant la normale unitaire la surface (S) du
dilectrique (au point o rgne la polarisation P ), dirige vers l'extrieur du dilectrique.
- une distribution de charge volumique ' = div P
N
dS
Milieu
dilectrique
N
P
dS
'= P.N
P
d Q
vide
Q
d
'= div P
Figure 14
Remarques
i) Par convention, on affectera le symbole toutes les grandeurs relatives aux charges de polarisation
(, ) et leurs effets lectrostatiques (V, E ) pour les distinguer des charges libres (, ) pouvant tre
galement prsentes et crer un potentiel lectrostatique V et un champ E .
- 74 -
ii) On notera bien que dans le cas gnral, P est variable dans le milieu dilectrique et que par
consquent et dpendent du point considr sur la surface (S) ou dans le volume ().
iii) Les charges quivalentes de polarisation sont aussi quelquefois appeles charges lies, car elles
reprsentent des distributions de charges fixes locales non nulles dues une rpartition particulire des diples,
comme le montrent les deux exemples de la figure 14.
+ + +
++
+ - 0
- -- + +
+
+ + + - -+ + -+ - +-- +
+ - - 0 - + - + - +
- + -- - +
+
+
+ +
- + -+ -+
- =
+ 0- + - + 0
- + -+ - +
0
b) Exemple o div P 0
a) Exemple o div P = 0
Figure 15
L'apparition d'une charge de surface correspond au fait que les diples ont dans ce cas une orientation
prfrentielle par rapport la surface du dilectrique (voir exemple du dilectrique dans un condensateur).
L'apparition d'une charge de volume correspond au fait que la rpartition des diples est telle que,
localement, la densit de charge d'une polarit donne l'emporte sur l'autre. Ainsi, la rpartition rgulire de la figure
14a n'entrane l'apparition d'aucune concentration de charge de mme polarit. On peut par contre constater sur la
figure 14b que la rpartition particulire des diples entrane localement l'apparition d'une densit de charge
ngative importante.
III-5. Proprit des charges de polarisation.

Considrons un volume quelconque de matire () limit par une surface (S). La charge totale Q' de
polarisation sera :
Q' =
'd + ' dS
( )
(S)
ce qui s'crira :
Q' =
div P d
()
Daprs le thorme dOstrogradsky,
P.N dS
(S)
P.N
(S)
dS =
div P d
( )
- 75 -
D'o l'on tire : Q'=0
La somme totale des charges de polarisation est nulle, ce qui est logique, ces charges traduisant l'effet
lectrostatique d'un ensemble de diples.
IV PROPRIETES FONDAMENTALES DU CHAMP ELECTROSTATIQUE DANS LES

DIELECTRIQUES
Nous allons dans ce paragraphe tablir les proprits de circulation et de flux du champ lectrostatique
dans les milieux dilectriques.
IV-1. Champ lectrostatique total. Champ dpolarisant.

Sauf dans le cas de quelques substances prsentant une polarisation permanente, les dilectriques se
polarisent en prsence d'un champ extrieur, pouvant par exemple tre cr par une distribution de charges dites
libres (par opposition aux charges lies dues la polarisation). Ainsi, le potentiel total V en un point de l'espace est
la somme du potentiel V0 cr par les charges libres (de densits volumique et surfacique et en prsence du
dilectrique) et du potentiel V' cr par les charges de polarisation et quivalentes au dilectrique polaris.
Tout se passant comme si on tait dans le vide, on peut crire de faon formelle :
V0
V' =
et
1
4 0
V=
'
1
4 0
1
4 0
4 0
( )
r d +
( )
V = V0 + V ' =
soit
r d +
( )
1
4 0
1
4 0
( )
div P
d
r
dS
r
(S)
(S)
'
dS
r
'+
d +
r
1
4 0
1
4 0
(S)
(S)
'+
dS
r
+ P.N
dS
r
Le champ lectrostatique total est alors :
E = gradV = gradV0
gradV '
E = E 0 + E'
Remarques :
i) En toute rigueur, il faudrait prendre en compte le fait que l'introduction du dilectrique peut perturber
les charges libres et et modifier le champ primitif E 0 que crent ces charges libres dans le vide. Dans
lexpression du champ total E , il faudrait alors remplacer E 0 par le champ modifi.
- 76 -
ii) Le champ E ' cr par les charges de polarisation est en gnral de mme direction ou de direction
voisine de P , mais de sens contraire. On lui donne ainsi le nom de champ dpolarisant.
IV-2. Equations gnrales du champ lectrostatique dans les dilectriques quelconques.

Ainsi qu'il la t vu en cours d'lectrostatique du vide, les quations du champ lectrostatique sont celles
qui ont trait aux deux proprits de circulation et de flux de ce champ. La formulation de ces deux proprits peut
par ailleurs se faire sous trois formes diffrentes
- sous forme intgrale
- ou de deux faons sous forme locale : dans le cas d'un milieu continu ou la traverse d'une
surface de discontinuit.
IV-2-1. Proprit de circulation.

Le champ lectrostatique total E tant la somme des deux champs E 0 et E ' qui drivent d'un potentiel
scalaire, les proprits de circulation du champ restent les mmes que celles de celui cr par des charges libres dans
le vide, soit:
Forme intgrale :
La circulation de E le long d'une courbe ferme (C) est nulle soit
E.dl = 0
(C)
Formes locales :
- dans un milieu continu: rot E = 0
- la traverse d'une surface de discontinuit entre deux milieux (1) et (2), la composante tangentielle du champ
reste continue.
Cette relation se dmontre en considrant la
E2
n
M2
M1
circulation de champ E le long d'un contour

ferm ABCDA dont les cts AB et CD sont
E1
des infiniment petits du premier ordre, trac
de part et d'autre de la surface (S) de

sparation des deux milieux et passant par
deux points M1 et M2 infiniment voisins et
Figure 16
de part et d'autre de (S)
Si n est la normale (S), oriente de (1) vers (2), cette relation peut scrire :
n E 2 E1 = 0
(S)
ou
[E ] = [E ]
t1 (S)
t 2 (S)
- 77 -
IV-2-2. Proprit de flux.

La loi de Gauss doit s'crire en tenant compte de toutes les charges prsentes, aussi bien les charges libres
que les charges de polarisation. En nous rfrant aux rsultats de l'lectrostatique du vide, on aura donc :
div E =
+ '
0
div P
div 0 E + P =
soit
Ces relations s'expriment sous une forme beaucoup plus simple si l'on introduit le vecteur D appel
induction lectrique tel que :
D = 0 E + P
i) La proprit locale traduisant le thorme de Gauss s'crira alors div D =
ii) Equation de passage : Nous avions dmontr en lectrostatique du vide, que la composante normale du champ
lectrostatique subissait une discontinuit gale /0. Dans le cas d'une surface (S) sparant deux milieux
dilectriques (1) et (2), il faut ajouter, la densit de charges libres, les densits de charges de polarisation de
surface, soit, compte tenu des conventions de la figure 15 :
- pour le dilectrique 1 '1 = P1 .n
(S)
( )
()
- pour le dilectrique 2 '2 = P 2 . n = P 2 . n
(S)
(S)
La relation de discontinuit s'crira donc :
+ 1 '+ 2 '
n.E 2 E1 =
(S)
0
+ P 2 P1 .n
=
0
ou encore :
n. 0 E 2 + P 2 0 E1 + P1 =
(S)
A la surface de sparation de deux milieux dilectriques, on aura alors:
n. D 2 D1 =
(S)
ou
[D
n2
D n1 (S) =
iii) La formulation intgrale quivalente de la loi de Gauss s'crira :
(S)
D.dS
( )
d = Charges libres intrieure s (S)
- 78 -
Remarques :
i) Les proprits du flux de D sexpriment sous une forme tout fait analogue celles de E dans le vide
et ne font intervenir que les charges libres et .
ii) Si l'on voulait exprimer le thorme de Gauss en utilisant le champ lectrostatique, il serait ncessaire
de tenir compte de toutes les distributions de charges (charges libres et charges de polarisation). On aurait alors :
(S)
E.dS
1
0
( )
( + ' )d = Charges libres et des charges lies intrieure s (S)
on conoit donc lintrt de D , qui ne dpend que des charges libres, dans la dtermination de ltat lectrostatique
du milieu.
IV-3. Cas des dilectriques parfaits.

Les dilectriques parfaits sont des dilectriques :
- pour lesquels la polarisation est purement induite : ceci est toujours ralis dans le cas de la polarisation
lectronique. C'est une bonne approximation dans le cas des fluides molcules polaires. Par contre, les
dilectriques solides ions ou molcules polaires ne peuvent pas en gnral tre considrs comme des dilectriques
parfaits (voir VI).
- homognes et isotropes,
- pour lesquels la relation entre P et E est linaire et de la forme P = 0 E
est une constante sans dimension, positive, appele susceptibilit dilectrique

On a alors :
D = 0 E + P = 0 (1 + )E = 0 r E = E
r = 1+ est la permittivit dilectrique relative du milieu (sans dimension),
= 0r est la permittivit dilectrique absolue du milieu (sexprime en F.m-1).
- 79 -
V- RESUME. LOIS GENERALES DE LELECTROSTATIQUE DANS LES MILIEUX

DIELECTRIQUES.
V-1. Relations de milieu.
Dilectriques quelconques :
D = 0 E + P
Dilectriques parfaits :
P = 0 E
D = 0 (1 + )E = 0 r E = E
V-2. Proprits de flux et de circulation.

Proprit
Formulation intgrale
Formulation locale
Flux
D.dS
(S)
( )
E.dl = 0
Circulation
ou
n. D 2 D1 =
(S)
div D =
rot E = 0
ou
(C)
VA VB =
E.dl
Equation de passage
n E 2 E1 = 0
( S)
E = gradV
VI- EVALUATION DE LA PERMITTIVITE D'UN MATERIAU.

Nous avons vu au paragraphe IV que la connaissance des charges libres et (ou) des potentiels imposs
ainsi que de la (ou des) constante(s) dilectrique(s) du (ou des) matriau(x) constitutif(s) d'un systme permet de
dterminer l'tat lectrostatique en tout point de ce systme, en particulier le champ lectrostatique. Rappelons (voir
II-3-2), que ce champ est, dans le matriau, un champ macroscopique moyen. C'est lui qui intervient dans la
dfinition de la susceptibilit par la relation :
P = 0 E
En revanche, la dfinition de la polarisabilit d'une molcule fait intervenir (voir II) le champ effectif
local E l auquel est soumise une molcule.
Pourquoi E , champ macroscopique total, et E l seraient-ils diffrents ?

Le champ macroscopique total E est donn par E = E 0 + E ' o E ' est le champ cr par les diples
matriels. Pour calculer le champ cr par un diple en un point O de lespace, nous avons utilis le fait que le point
- 80 -
O est trs loign du diple (cest ce que lon appelle lapproximation dipolaire). Si le diple est trop proche de O
cette approximation nest plus valable et les calculs sont nettement plus compliqus.
Or dans le calcul de E ' tous les calculs
milieu
dilectrique
O
prcdents ont t faits dans cette approximation :

le champ macroscopique total E = E 0 + E ' est
donc un champ moyen (cest la valeur moyenne
du champ sur une longueur grande devant la
diples trop proches pour satisfaire

lapproximation diplaire
distance qui spare en moyenne deux moments

dipolaires du milieu). (voir remarque importante
Figure 17
paragraphe III.3 ).
Si lon veut maintenant calculer le vrai champ qui sexerce au niveau dun diple induit p (plac en un
point O du dilectrique), on doit particulirement faire attention la contribution des diples proches de O. Pour ces
diples, lapproximation dipolaire peut ne pas tre satisfaite en O (Figure 16).
Si le milieu dilectrique est trop dense (si les diples induits sont trs proches les uns des autres) E l E
Le calcul exact de E l ncessitera alors de tenir compte de la contribution de ces diples manifestement
trop proches du point considr pour que cette approximation soit valable.
Dans tous les cas, si n est le nombre de diples microscopiques de moment dipolaire p par unit de
volume, la polarisation du matriau sera :
P = n p = n 0 E l
Plusieurs cas se prsenteront donc pour l'valuation de E l et donc pour le calcul de la permittivit
dilectrique absolue ou relative du matriau.
i) Cas des gaz dilus

On peut considrer alors que le milieu est suffisamment dilu pour que le champ local E l soit gal au
champ macroscopique E .
On a donc :
P = n 0 E l = n 0 E
Soit :
= n
ou
= 0 (1 + n)
(1)
La constante peut inclure les diverses contributions e, a ou Or vues au paragraphe II.

Si M est la masse molaire du gaz et NA le nombre d'Avogadro, on a n =
volumique du gaz. En remplaant n dans la relation (1), il vient :
N A
, si est la masse
M
- 81 -
1 = r 1 = A
0
M
Dans tous les autres cas, il sera ncessaire de tenir compte du champ cr par les diples voisins du point
o l'on veut calculer le champ local.
ii) Cas des gaz denses, des liquides ou des cristaux molculaires molcules non polaires
Nous ne dtaillerons pas toutes les mthodes qui conduisent l'expression de E l et nous ne traiterons ici
que le cas des molcules non polaires.
La contribution au champ macroscopique E des diples proches du diple situ au point O, au niveau
(1)
duquel on veut calculer E l a t trop grossirement value. Appelons E s
cette contribution grossire au
champ E , due aux diples proches.

( 2)
Pour calculer E l , on va donc retrancher E la contribution grossire et la remplacer par le champ E s ,

calcul de manire plus prcise, cr par les diples proches au niveau de O. On a donc :
(1)
( 2)
El = E Es + Es
On va considrer que les diples proches de O sont ceux contenus dans une sphre centre sur O et de rayon R. Le
rayon R est choisi grand devant la distance moyenne qui spare deux diples, mais faible lchelle des variations
(1)
du champ macroscopique E et de la polarisation volumique P . La contribution grossire E s correspond donc

(1)
au champ cr, en son centre, par une sphre uniformment polarise. On montre (voir TD) que E s =
P
3 0
( 2)
Comment valuer le champ E s
cr par les diples proches de O ? Cest un calcul dlicat dans le cas gnral. Du
( 2)
fait de la symtrie sphrique, on se place dans le cas particulier dun champ nul : E s
El = E +
D'o la relation:
P
3 0
, ce qui conduit :
r 1
=n
r + 2
3
P=
= 0 . Donc
n 0
E
n
1
3
appele relation de Clausius-Mosotti qui, en faisant intervenir la masse
volumique du matriau, s'exprime sous la forme :
r 1 N A
=
r + 2
3M
Cette relation ne peut pas s'appliquer au cas de fluides molcules polaires pour lesquelles des modles
plus complexes de calcul du champ local sont ncessaires. Notons cependant que les cristaux molcules non
polaires ou les cristaux ioniques satisfont galement la loi de Clausius Mosotti.
iii) Autres cas

Le cas des fluides ou des cristaux molcules polaires ncessite des modles plus complexes.
- 82 -
Dans le cas des cristaux ferrolectriques, la polarisation permanente apparat spontanment au dessous
d'une temprature critique Tc appele temprature de Curie. Dans le cas de BaTiO3 ceci est par exemple d une
instabilit structurale entranant un dplacement relatif des ions Ba2+, Ti4+ et O2-, faisant passer cette temprature,
qui est de l'ordre de 120C, le cristal de la structure cubique (non ferrolectrique) la structure quadratique (Figure
17).
Il s'ensuit l'apparition d'un moment dipolaire permanent ayant la direction des dplacements. Trois
directions (les trois directions principales de la maille cubique) et donc 6 sens sont possibles pour un monocristal.
Dans un monocristal refroidi en dessous de Tc, apparatront des domaines ferrolectriques o P prendra l'une des
six orientations possibles. Dans un polycristal, on aura donc des domaines d'orientations trs diverses, l'orientation
cristalline des grains tant quelconque.
Dans un monocristal comme dans un polycristal, en l'absence de champ appliqu, la distribution des
orientations de P est compltement alatoire et, du point de vue macroscopique, le matriau parat compltement
dpolaris ( P macro = 0 macro).
Ba2+
z1
zTi
z2
O2-
z2
Ti4+
z2
z2
z1
Figure 18
Dplacements atomiques dans la maille de BaTiO3 lors de la transition cubique-quadratique
z1= -9.10-3nm, z2= -5.10-3nm, zTi= +5.10-3nm
P
Courbe de premire
polarisation
Pr
-Ec
E
Ec
-Pr
Cycle dhystrsis
Figure 19
Si l'on applique un champ lectrique cette structure, les domaines dont l'orientation de polarisation est
proche de celle du champ auront tendance se dvelopper aux dpens des domaines dont l'orientation est
- 83 -
antiparallle P , et une polarisation macroscopique du matriau apparatra (courbe de premire polarisation)

(Figure 18). Pour des valeurs leves du champ appliqu, on obtiendra une valeur limite de P (saturation)
correspondant l'orientation de tous les domaines dans le sens du champ. Si l'on fait alors dcrotre le champ, le
mouvement des parois de domaines n'tant pas compltement rversible, une polarisation rmanente P r subsistera
en l'absence de champ appliqu, polarisation que l'on ne pourra faire disparatre qu'en appliquant un champ
lectrique E c en sens oppos, appel champ coercitif. Entre deux variations extrmes + E m et - E m du champ
lectrique on obtiendra donc une variation de P reprsente par la figure 18 sous la forme d'un cycle d'hystrsis,
caractris par P r et E r .
Quelques exemples de permittivits dilectriques

Le tableau suivant donne les valeurs de la permittivit relative r de certaines substances gazeuses,
liquides ou solides.
Substance
Conditions
Air
Gaz, 0C, 1 atm
1,0006
HCl
Gaz, 0C, 1 atm
1,0046
Oxygne liquide
Liquide non polaire, -183C z
1,5
Benzne
Liquide non polaire, 18C
2,3
Eau trs pure
Liquide polaire, 18C
81
Actone
Liquide polaire, 0C
26
NaCl
Cristal ionique, 20C
5,9
Polythylne
Solide - Polymre, 20C
2,3
Polytetrafluorothylne
2,1
nylon 6-6
Porcelaine
Solide - Cramique, 20C
6-8
Paraffine
Solide organique 20C
2,1-2,5
Verre pyrex
Solide, 20C
SiO2
Solide
3,9
Titanate de baryum
Solide Cramique, (ferrolectrique) 20C
1500
(tflon)
118C
12000
Tableau 1
On notera que lair et HCl sous forme gazeuse ont une permittivit proche de 1 cest--dire de celle du vide.
On notera galement les trs fortes valeurs (variables dans de fortes proportions avec la temprature) de r dans le
cas de substances ferrolectriques telles que le titanate de baryum.
- 84 -
- 85 -
ENONCES
Aspects microscopiques
1 Polarisabilit isotrope
Latome dhydrogne possde une polarisabilit lectronique e = 8,4210-30 m3 (cette valeur sera calcule
en TD). Calculer son moment dipolaire induit p lorsquon applique un champ lectrique de 1 MV/m. Dterminer
alors la distance D entre le barycentre de la charge positive +e du noyau et celui du nuage lectronique de charge -e.
2- Exemple de polarisabilit anisotrope : cas de la molcule de CO2

La polarisation de la molcule de CO2 est anisotrope.
E0
Son moment dipolaire p nest pas colinaire au champ
p
x
appliqu E 0 . La polarisabilit e de cette molcule est

caractrise par deux valeurs ex et ey telles que px =
0exEx et py = 0eyEy o px, py, et Ex, Ey sont les

composantes de p et E 0 dans le repre (xOy). ex vaut
510-29 m3.
La constante ey est peu prs gale la moiti de cette valeur. On applique cette molcule un champ extrieur
E 0 de 3106 V.m-1, faisant un angle de 45 avec les axes (Ox) et (Oy).

- Calculer le module du moment dipolaire p de la molcule et donner son orientation par rapport aux axes Ox et Oy.
- Quelles sont les directions particulires du champ E 0 pour lesquelles p et E 0 sont colinaires?
3 - Vrai ou faux ?
Dans un milieu molcules polaires :
a) En labsence de champ lectrique appliqu, le moment dipolaire dune molcule est nulle.
b) En labsence de champ lectrique appliqu, la somme des moments dipolaires lmentaires par unit de volume
est non nulle.
c) En prsence dun champ lectrique appliqu, la norme de chaque moment dipolaire lmentaire est modifie.
d) En prsence dun champ lectrique appliqu, la somme des moments dipolaires lmentaires par unit de volume
est non nulle.
e) La polarisabilit dorientation Or dun milieu molcules polaires est proportionnelle la temprature.
4 La molcule de NH3 peut tre considre comme un diple form de deux charges +e et e spares par une
distance de 0,0375 nm.
- 86 -
a) Calculer son moment dipolaire.

b) Retrouver lexpression du potentiel cr par un diple. A quelle distance minimale cette molcule cre-t-elle un
potentiel de 1V ?
c) Retrouver lexpression du champ lectrostatique cr par un diple. Calculer le champ cr par la molcule de
NH3 une distance de 10 nm, pour les positions particulires =0 et = /2.Quelle est son sens ?
d) Cette molcule est place dans un champ E0 de 1kV.cm-1. Quelles sont les valeurs extrmes entre lesquelles varie
son nergie potentielle ? Ces deux extrma correspondent deux positions dquilibre. Vrifier, en faisant le schma
des forces appliques, le caractre de ces quilibres.
Aspects macroscopiques
5 Un milieu dilu parfait molcules non polaires contient N molcules par unit de volume. Sous laction dun
champ lectrique appliqu E 0 , chaque molcule acquiert un moment dipolaire p colinaire au champ appliqu.
Quelle est sa polarisation P ?
6 Dans un milieu dilu parfait contenant N molcules polaires par unit de volume, de moment dipolaire
permanent p 0 , quelle est la polarisation P du milieu lorsquon applique un champ lectrique intense E 0 la
temprature de 0K.
7 - Un barreau cylindrique de longueur L et de rayon R est polaris uniformment. Il possde un moment dipolaire
p . Calculer la norme P de sa polarisation P .
Charges de polarisation et proprits du champ lectrostatique dans les milieux.
8 Vrai ou faux ?
Dans un milieu dilectrique quelconque :
a) En tout point dun dilectrique, = div P
b) En tout point de la surface dun dilectrique, = P.N , N tant la normale la surface au point considr,
dirige vers lintrieur du dilectrique
c) Linduction lectrique D est dfinie par : D = 0 E + P
e)
D.dS =
( )
(S)
g) div E =
( + ')d
f)
d) rot E = 0
+ '
( )
0
E.dS =
(S)
h) div D =
A la traverse dune surface charge sparant deux milieux :
+ '
i) n. E 2 E1 =
(S)
0

j) n. D 2 D1 =
(S) 0

- 87 -
k) n D 2 D1 = 0
( S)

l) n E 2 E1 = 0
( S)

9 Remplir, sans consulter votre cours, le tableau suivant concernant les proprits du champ et de linduction
lectrostatiques dans un milieu dilectrique quelconque.
Proprit
Formulation intgrale
Formulation locale
Equation de passage
Flux
Circulation
10 Vrai ou faux ?
Dans un milieu dilectrique parfait :
a) P = E
b)
c) r = 1-
d) = r (1+)
e)c
D = 0 r E = E
D = r E
f) r a la mme unit que
11 Une distribution linique infinie de charge de densit linique uniforme est place
a) dans le vide
b) dans un milieu dilectrique parfait de permittivit relative r.
Calculer E et D en tout point de lespace dans chaque cas. Quelle remarque pouvez-vous faire ?
12 - Dilectrique parfait non charg.

Montrer que, dans un dilectrique parfait ne contenant pas de charges libres en volume ( = 0), la densit
volumique de charges de polarisation est galement nulle. Pour cela, on exprimera dabord en fonction de
div D .
13 Une surface charge, place dans un milieu dilectrique parfait de permittivit relative r = 4, porte une densit
superficielle de charge = 1nC.m-2. Dcrire compltement les discontinuits du champ et de linduction
lectrostatique la traverse de cette surface charge.
14
(S)
2
2
Montrer qu'au passage dune surface (S) non charge ( = 0)
E1
E2
sparant deux milieux parfaits de permittivit absolue 1 et 2,

les lignes de champ subissent une rfraction telle que
1/tan1= 2/tan2
- 88 -
15 - Facteur de dpolarisation d'une lame dilectrique

Dans un milieu dilectrique parfait uniformment polaris, on peut crire le champ macroscopique E
rgnant dans le matriau soumis un champ appliqu extrieur E 0 sous la forme :
E = E 0 + E' = E 0 N P
Le champ E ' = N P est appel champ dpolarisant. Il est cr par les diples lmentaires et soppose au
champ appliqu. Le facteur N est appel facteur de dpolarisation.
On considre une lame dilectrique infinie suivant Ox et Oy, de permittivit , place dans le vide et
soumise un champ lectrique uniforme E 0 . On suppose que le champ extrieur E 0 nest pas perturb par la lame.
1) Calculer le facteur de dpolarisation Nz de la lame lorsque
E0 est suivant Oz.
2) Calculer le facteur de dpolarisation Nx (ou Ny) de la lame lorsque E 0 est suivant Ox (ou Oy).
Pour cela, exprimer dabord P en fonction de E , puis tablir la relation entre E et E 0 en fonction de N.
Dterminer ensuite lautre relation entre E et E 0 impose par les relations de passage la surface de la lame. En
dduire le facteur de dpolarisation N.
- 89 -
SOLUTIONS EXERCICES DE NIVEAU 1
1 - p = 0e E
soit p = 7,4410-35 C.m
D = p/e =4,6510-16 m =4,610-7 nm
2 - px = 0exEx = 0exE0 cos45

py = 0eyEy = (0exE0 sin45)/2
p 2 = p x2 + p y2
soit
p = 0 ex E 0
5
=1,0710-33 C.m
8
tan = py/px = 0,5 soit = 26.6 angle entre p et laxe Ox.
E 0 et p sont colinaires si E 0 est suivant Ox ou Oy.
3 - a) faux b) faux c) faux d) vrai e) faux

4 a) p = e.d = 6.10-30 C.m
b) Voir cours.
r=
c) Voir cours.
E =0 =108kV.m1; E = /2 =54kV.m1 E
d)
4 0V
=232nm
W = p . E = p E cos , si est langle entre p et E
Wmax= + pE = + 6. 10-25 Joules ( = ) ;

Wmin= - pE = - 6. 10-25 Joules ( = 0)
= 0 correspond donc une position
dquilibre stable et = une position

dquilibre instable, comme on peut le
vrifier en faisant le schma des forces
appliques.
5 P = Np
- 90 -
6 P = N p0
7 -P =
p
R 2 L
8 a) faux b) faux c) vrai d) vrai e) faux f) vrai

g) faux h) faux
i) vrai
j) faux k) faux l) vrai
9 Voir cours
10 a) faux b) faux c) faux d) faux e) vrai f) faux
11 Ltude des symtries et invariances montre que le champ est radial :
E = E(r) u r .
On applique le thorme de Gauss un cylindre ferm daxe confondu avec la distribution de charge, de hauteur h et
de rayon r.
a)
dans le vide :
E .dS = E
(r) 2 r h
( Cylindre )
h
0
soit E =
1
1
u r et D = 0 E =
ur
2
r
2 0 r
b) Dans un milieu dilectrique parfait de permittivit relative r
D.dS = D
(r) 2 r h
= h soit soit D =
( Cylindre )
1
D
1
u r et E =
=
ur
2 r
0 r 2 0 r r
On constate que D est identique dans les 2 cas. D ne dpend que de la distribution des charges et non
pas des proprits dilectriques du milieu.
12 = - div P = - div( D 0 E )
Dans un milieu parfait D = E donc = -div( D 0 D /) = - (1-0/) div D
Or div D = = 0 dans un milieu non charg. Donc = 0.
13
Dn2 Dn1 = = 1 nC.m-2
E n 2 E n1 =
= 28,2 V.m 1
0 r
Et2 = Et1 soit
14
0 r En2 0 r En1 =
Dt 2
D
= t1
0 r 0 r
do
Dt2 = Dt1
Continuit de la composante tangentielle de E : E1 sin1 = E2 sin2
Composante normale de D : Dn2 Dn1 = = 0
soit D1 cos1 = D2 cos2
(1)
- 91 -
1E1 cos1 = 2E2 cos2 (2)
do
daprs (1) et (2) :
1
2
=
tan 1 tan 2
1) D = E = 0 E + P soit
15
P = ( 0) E
= E 0 + E ' = E 0 N z P = E 0 N z ( 0) E
E 0 = E [1 + Nz( - 0)]
Soit
(1)
Dautre part, on a continuit de D qui est normal la surface du dilectrique non charg do 0 E 0 = E ,
soit :
E 0 = ( / 0) E
(1) et (2) donnent : /0 = 1 + Nz ( 0)
(2)
soit
Nz =
1
0
2) E = E 0 + E ' = E 0 Nx P = E 0 Nx( 0) E
Soit
E 0 = E [1 + Nx(- 0)]
(3)
Dautre part, on a continuit de la composante tangentielle de E do :
E0 = E
(3) et (4) donnent 1 = 1 + Nx ( 0)
(4)
soit
Nx = 0
- 92 -
Conductors in electrostatic equilibrium in a vacuum
-93-
CHAPTER IV
CONDUCTORS IN ELECTROSTATIC EQUILIBRIUM IN A
VACUUM
A GENERAL PROPERTIES
I- DEFINITION OF A CONDUCTOR
IIPROPERTIES
EQUILIBRIUM
OF
CONDUCTORS
IN
ELECTROSTATIC
III- CONSEQUENCES AND APPLICATIONS

III-1 Electrification by Contact
III-2 Faraday Cage
IV- COULOMBS THEOREM.
V- ELECTROSTATIC PRESSURE.
VI- ELECTRICITY DISTRIBUTION ON CONDUCTORS
B- ELECTROSTATIC EQUILIBRIUM OF A SET OF

CONDUCTORS
I- ELECTROSTATIC INFLUENCE.
I-1 Experimental Study.
I-2 Total Influence.
I-2-1 Faradays Theorem.
I-2-2 Electrification of a conductor through the use of an
electrostatic generator.
II- THEORETICAL STUDY OF AN ELECTROSTATIC EQUILIBRIUM.
III- APPLICATIONS.
III-1 Case of a single conductor. Capacitance.
III-2 Electrostatic screens.
-94-
-95-
CHAPTER IV
A CONDUCTORS IN ELECTROSTATICS
I- DEFINITION OF A CONDUCTOR.
In electricity, materials are classed depending on their greater or lesser
electric conductivity, this conductivity being characteristic of the mobility of the
charge carriers: electrons or ions.
In an insulator, the electric charges cannot move (mobility or conductivity
is null); they therefore keep the charge given to them for a very long time.
For conductors, charges are very mobile, and if they are not isolated very
well, they do not conserve the charge given to them. In reality, things are not as
simple and we find between these two categories an entire range of materials going
from a mediocre conductor to bad insulator semi-conductors (essential elements
in electronics) (see chapter V).
Electrostatic definition of a conductor: a conductor is a body (solid or liquid)
which contains free charge carriers; that is, electrified particles likely to move in a
body under the action of even very weak electrostatic forces. These charge carriers
are, in case of metals, free electrons, in the case of electrolytes, positive and
negative ions.
Electrostatic equilibrium: We only consider here conductors isolated from one
another placed in a vacuum. When a charge is given to these conductors, a
transitional regime appears during which these charges assemble into place. This
regime is more or less long depending on whether the conductivity is larger or
smaller, but on our scale, this time is very short (10-6 s is considered to be a long
transitional regime). In electrostatics we always place ourselves after the
transitional regime, that is, when the stationary regime is established: the charges
are in equilibrium on the conductors, and do not move anymore from their
positions. That is electrostatic equilibrium.
Note : Actually, on the atomic scale (microscopic), each charge carrier is animated
with random movement (due to thermal excitation), but on our scale
(macroscopic), this excitation is not noticeable as it leads to an average
displacement of zero (statistical average).
IIPROPERTIES
EQUILIBRIUM.
OF
CONDUCTORS
-96-
IN
ELECTROSTATIC
These properties rest on the following premise (checked experimentally): the

properties of the electrostatic field studied in a vacuum extend to the conductors
material.
Property 1: the electrostatic field is nil at every point interior to an electrified
conductor in electrostatic equilibrium.
Indeed, if it was not like this, the interior charges (free electrons for
example) would be submitted to electric forces which would displace them; in
other words, electrostatic equilibrium would be impossible to attain.
Property 2: the volume of an electrified conductor in electrostatic equilibrium is
an equipotential volume.
Indeed, we have E = gradV = 0 at every point of the conductor, meaning
V
V
V
=
=
=0
which leads to: V = cste
x
y
z
E
M
Figure 1
Figure 2
Note : The surface of a conductor is an equipotential surface, so the field lines (on
the outside on the conductor) are normal to the surface, therefore the electrostatic
field is normal to the surface of a conductor in electrostatic equilibrium (Figure 1).
Moreover, since the potential cannot present an extremum, a field line cannot come
back to the conductor from which it comes.
Property 3: the electric charge of an electrified conductor in electrostatic
equilibrium can only be on the surface.
If there were a volume distribution of electricity, an element of volume d
surrounding a point M interior to the conductor (Figure 2) would have a charge
d.
-97-
Let d be the restricting surface of this element; the electrostatic flux leaving
d
.
across d would be, according to Gauss theorem
0
Because the electrostatic field is nil at every point of d, = 0. The volume
charge is therefore nil inside the conductor; this means that, from the macroscopic
point of view, every volume element inside the conductor, possesses as many
positive charges as negative charges. The charge of a conductor only appears
2
therefore at its surface. will be noted as this surface charge (in C/m ).
The total charge of the conductor is therefore Q= dS . varies in general
(S)
from one point to another on the surface.
III- CONSEQUENCES AND APPLICATIONS.

III-1. Electrification by contact.
Let (A) be an electrified conductor and (B) a neutral conductor. If we place
(A) and (B) in contact, they form one sole conductor and the charge originally
carried by (A) distributes itself over the two surfaces of (A) and (B). When (B) is
separated from (A), it takes away an electric charge of the same sign as the charge
of (A); the charge of (A) having gotten smaller.
Important Consequence: discharge of a conductor by being grounded. If we

link a charged conductor to the earth, by a conducting wire, the electric charges
brought by this conductor are going to distribute themselves over a very large
surface (ground + conductor) and its electrification becomes practically nil. This
constitutes a means to discharge a conductor.
Note: the ground isolated in space is, from the electrostatic point of view, a
spherical conductor globally neutral. Its potential is therefore nil and, to link a
conductor to the ground, amounts to fix its potential to 0. We will take therefore
from now on the potential of the ground as the reference potential:
Vground = 0
III-2. Faraday Cage.

Let us consider (Figure 3), an electrified conductor presenting a cavity (a
hollow conductor) which does not enclose any charges. In such a cavity, the
potential can only be constant. If it was not like this, it would present at least one
extremum at a point P0. The flux of the electrostatic field through a surface ()
-98-
surrounding this point would therefore not be nil, which is contrary to Gausss
theorem (there are no charges inside the cavity). V is therefore constant and E nil
inside the cavity.
It follows that E being nil also inside the conductor, the surface of the
cavity is not electrified (continuity equations).
Thus, the electrification of the hollow conductor is identical to that of the full one
which would have the same external surface.
()
P0 .
These
properties
of
hollow
conductors are preserved with a good
approximation in the case where the
conductor is slightly open. In particular, a
closed conductor whose surface is a simple
wire mesh acts as a hollow conductor
limited by a surface without gaps. The
approximation is all the better the finer the
mesh. Therefore, if a Faraday cage is
charged, the field is nil inside.
Figure 3
IV-COULOMBS THEOREM.
It gives the expression of the electrostatic field in the immediate
neighbourhood of the surface of the conductor in electrostatic equilibrium.
At a point M of the surface of a
conductor (Figure 4) the surface charge is
E
()
M1
and the electrostatic field is E , normal to the
surface of the conductor. This field is created
M
dS1
by all the charges present in the region (those
of the conductor and those belonging to other
dS
charged bodies).
n
We consider a point M1 infinitely close to M,
Figure 4
situated on the normal at M at the surface of
the conductor and outside. Let dS be an elementary surface surrounding the point
M on the conductor. Because M1 is infinitely close to M, the field at M1 is E .n
being the unit vector of the normal oriented outside the conductor, we can write :
E =E n.
(T)
-99-
We define a closed surface constituted by a portion of a field tube (T) resting on

the outline of dS, a straight section of this tube passing through M1 (dS1) and a any
surface () traced out in the material of the conductor and resting on the outline of
dS.
We calculate the flux of the electrostatic field leaving this closed surface:
- The flux leaving through (T) is nil because E is tangent to (T),
- The flux leaving through () is nil because E is nil inside the conductor.
Therefore,
= E .dS1 = E .n dS1 E .n dS
According to Gauss Theorem :
dS
=
, meaning that E .n = E = , hence:
0
0
E= n
0
This result constitutes Coulombs Theorem
Note: The theorem can be deduced more simply from the boundary relations, the
surface of the conductor constituting a discontinuity.
V. ELECTROSTATIC PRESSURE.
For this concept, it is necessary to calculate
the forces under which the electric charges of an
dS
electrified conductor are submitted.
Me
We consider around a point M a surface element dS
M
of charge dq = dS. This charge is placed in an
Mi
electrostatic field that we will refer to as E1 . This
field is not the field E calculated by Coulombs
Figure 5
theorem, because in the expression of E , the effect
of the charge dq is taken into account. E1 is the field created by all the charges
other than the charge dq carried by the element dS. Moreover, let E 2 therefore be
the field created by the charge dq carried by dS.
At the point Me infinitely close to M outside the conductor:
E = E1 + E2 = n .
0
At the point Mi infinitely close to M inside the conductor the field is nil :
E1 has conserved (to the second order) the same value as at Me, E2 has the same
magnitude as at Me but has the opposite direction (the field created by a disc)
E = E1 E2 = 0
-100-
Hence:
E1 =
E
=
n
2 2 0
The force that acts on the element dS is therefore:
df = dq E = dS
n
20
Or otherwise represented:
df =
2
20
dS
Because 2 is positive, df is carried by the normal to the surface, and is

still directed to outside the conductor. By analogy to pressure, it is possible to
define an electrostatic pressure p by asserting that df = p dS , or written otherwise:
p=
2
2 0
The force of electrostatic pressure seems applied to charges; actually, this

force is transmitted to the conductor itself thanks to interactions between the free
electrons and the positive ions of the crystalline network. This force is however
very weak (a few hundredths of the weight in the case of the strongest fields).
VI- ELECTRICITY DISTRIBUTION ON CONDUCTORS.

It is possible to measure the surface charge density on the conductors (we
use to this end an electrometer and a probe). Thus, it is possible to verify that the
electricity is always accumulated in the regions of the conductor where the
curvature is the greatest.
This is illustrated by a few examples for the conductors of simple
geometric shape (Figure 6); in each case, the value of the density is represented
in raising at every point the normal at the conductors surface, giving this normal a
length proportional to .
i) isolated sphere in space : we note that the density is the same at every
point (logical result due to spherical symmetry).
ii) ellipsoid of revolution : the density is the strongest at the extremities of
the semi-major axis.
iii) disc : the density is almost constant and weak in the neighborhood of
the centre, it increases sharply towards the edges (the edge effect).
iv) peak : at the tip of the sharp point, the curvature is enormous, and the
surface charge density is extremely large. The field E = 0 is therefore very
-101-
intense in the neighborhood of the point. This is what we call the point effect, a
phenomenon that is very important in electrostatics.
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
Figure 6
Application of the point effect : discharge through the points

Experiments show that a charged conductor, whose surface presents sharp points,
discharges rapidly when it is placed in air. Indeed, the electrostatic field being very
intense in the neighborhood of the point, strongly ionizes the air that is, it divides
the gaseous molecules into positive and negative ions. Thus, if the sharp point is
negatively charged, the negative ions are repelled while the positive ions are
attracted and neutralize the sharp point (discharge the point). This phenomenon
causes for that matter a gaseous movement called electric wind.
From this phenomenon results the following consequences:
To conserve charges on a conductor, it is necessary to avoid points (use of
polished spherical conductors of large radius to obtain very high potentials
(several million volts) corresponding to very high electrifications).
To avoid the electrification of planes through friction on layers of air
(detrimental for radio receptions), we fix to the plane a conducting wire that is
several meters long.
To pass the charges from a charged conductor to another, we supply one of
them with points that we call combs (see electrostatic generators)
Corona effect of high voltage lines: a conducting wire of small radius carried to
a strong potential ionizes the surrounding air. In the transport of the electric
energy under high voltage, this can result in large losses of energy; these losses
are reduced by taking hollow wires of larger diameter.
The invention of the lightening rod is the most spectacular application of the
point effect.
-102-
B-ELECTROSTATIC EQUILIBRIUM OF A SET OF

CONDUCTORS
I-ELECTROSTATIC INFLUENCE.
I-1. Experimental Study.
We have a conductor (A) (here a cylinder
having two half spheres at each end) placed on an
insulating support (Figure 7); it will constitute the
influenced conductor. Another body (B) (here
spherical) will be either an insulator or a
conductor, according to what is needed; it is
charged positively for example.
(A)
Metallic
conductor
Figure 7
First part of the experiment:

+ + + +
+
+
++
(A)
+ + +
(B)
+
+
Neutral line
Figure 8
+
+
(B) is insulating, (A) is initially

neutral (Figure 8). We approach (B) to
(A) without bringing them in contact. We
note that (A) charges: in the regions
closest to (B) negative charges
accumulate, while the regions most
distant charge negatively; on the whole
however, the total charge of (A) stays nil.
We say that (A) was charged by
influence.
Interpretation: the charges of (B) create at every point in space an electrostatic

field; the field created inside (A) acts on the free electrons of (A). Under the action
of this field, the electrons will come onto the surface of (A) the closest to (B) (the
free electrons of (A) are attracted by the positive charges of (B)). The regions of
(A) the most distant to (B) lose negative charges and therefore appear positively
charged. The distribution of the charges on the conductor (A) is done so that the
total field created by all the charges (of (A) and of (B)) is nil inside (A) since this
is the condition of electrostatic equilibrium.
-103-
Second part of the experiment:
+
+
+
+ + + +
(A)
+ + + +
+
+
+
+
+
(B)
+
+
Figure 9
(B) is now a conducting sphere that has been positively charged far from
(A) ; its charge is therefore uniform. (A) is initially neutral (Figure 9). When we
approach (B) to (A) without contact, (A) charges like in the first part of the
experiment, but the charge of (B) does not stay uniform; indeed, the positive
charges of (B) are attracted by the negative charges of the right part of (A) and
since (B) is a conductor, these charges move. If we bring (B) very close to (A), the
right part of (B) can even charge negatively. On the figure we have also showed
what the field lines would look like.
Third part of the experiment:

The conductor (A) is linked to
+
the ground (Figure 10). When we
+
approach (B) to (A) without contact, (A)
(A) + (B)
charges negatively. This is explained by

+
+
+
the fact that the charges of (B) attract the
+
negative charges of (A) all the while
Figure 10
repelling (to the ground) the positive
charges.
In reality, it is a contribution of electrons coming from the ground to the conductor
(A). In this case, there is thus really charge of the conductor (A) by influence.
+
Note : In the two first parts of the experiment, (A) stayed globally neutral, but its
potential changed (see below) while in the third part of the experiment, the
potential of (A) is constant (equal to 0 here) but its the charge that changes; the
negative charge of (A) is bigger, the closer (B) is to (A).
I-2. Total Influence.
When an influenced conductor (A) completely surrounds the body
influencing (B) it is said that there is a total influence.
-104-
I-2-1. Faraday Theorem
(A)
(B)
()
Figure 11
Let Q B and ( Q A ) int be the charges of (B)

and of the interior face of (A) (Figure 11). Lets
consider a closed surface () traced in the mass of
the conductor (A). Since the electrostatic field is nil
in the mass of the conductor, the flux leaving () is
nil; therefore, according to Gauss Theorem:
q int = Q B + ( Q A ) int
( ) = 0 =
0
0
Thus:
Q A int = Q B
Note : This result is true when (A) is initially neutral, isolated and as well if there
are other charges outside of (A).
I-2-2. Electrification of a conductor with the use of an electrostatic generator
An electrostatic generator (or source) is a device
possessing two terminals (or poles) and which
G
maintains between its two terminals a constant
V
difference of potential (Figure 12). One of the terminals
is noted + (positive terminal), the other (negative
Figure 12
terminal).
In practice, there is no difference between an electrostatic generator and a
continuous current generator (DC generator, storage cell, etc); simply, in the case
of an electrostatic generator, the voltage between the terminals is a lot higher (up to
1 to 2 million volts) and the yielded intensities are always very weak. These
electrostatic generators are derived from the Van de Graaff generator (with some
improvements).
i) Case of a single conductor. (spherical for instance):

We link the + pole of the
generator to the conductor and the pole to
+
+
+
the ground (we thus fix the potential to 0)
+
+
V
(Figure 13). The conductor is therefore

+
G
imposed to the positive potential V, and to
+
+
+
V
create this potential an input of positive
charges is needed (in reality the generator
Figure 13
removes electrons from the conductor
which in consequence appears positively
charged).
-105-
The total charge of the conductor is linked to its geometric shape as it will
be seen later. The transfer of charges through the generator is not instantaneous:
the charges place themselves progressively on the conductor (transitional regime)
but the time of the charge is always very short on our scale (10-12 to 10-5 s). If we
link the - pole of the generator to the conductor and the + pole to the ground, we
will negatively charge the conductor.
ii) Case of several conductors :

The charges distribute on the different conductors in order to bring them to
the potentials imposed by the sources. There is obviously an electrostatic influence
between the various conductors. If the conductors are not linked to any source
(isolated), the total charge stays constant.
+
+
+
+
+
V1
+
V1
+
-
V2
-
V2
Figure 14
II- THEORETICAL STUDY OF ELECTROSTATIC EQUILIBRIUM.

We consider a system of n conductors placed in a vacuum A1, . . ., Ai, . . ., An. We
place ourselves in the most generally encountered case.
This system has a limited extension (there are no conductors at infinity)
which allows one to define an absolute potential.

The conductors are linked to generators, which imposes their potential.
The conductor
is maintained at the potential
carries the charge
distributed with the surface density
(A1)
(An)
V1
dSi
ri
Vi
(Ai)
Figure 15
Vn
A1
V1
Q1
1
...
...
...
...
Ai
Vi
Qi
i
...
...
...
...
An
Vn
Qn
n
The potential (absolute) at any

point M is due to all the charges, i.e:
dS
VM = i i
(1)
i (Si ) 4 0 ri
In particular, if M is inside one of the
conductors, for example (Aj), Vj will be
found as value for the potential.
-106-
In reality, since we impose Vi, I is not known and it is therefore not

possible to apply formula (1). The theoretical problem of electrostatic equilibrium
arises in the following way:
The studied system does not have any volume charge, therefore it satisfies at every
point the Laplace equation :
V = 0
If we work in Cartesian coordinates, this signifies that V satisfies the partial
differential equation:
2V
2V
2V
+
+
=0
x 2
y 2
z 2
Supposing that it can be integrated, we will include constants that will be
determined from values taken by V on the conductors (imposed values by the
sources) and at an infinite distance (0); these are the limit conditions. The solution
therefore provides V at every point in the vacuum between the conductors. We can
then deduce the electrostatic field at every point by E = gradV , then the charge
densities (the i) from Coulombs theorem and finally by integration we will
obtain the Qi (as a function of Vi). The problem of electrostatic equilibrium is
therefore solved.
In practice, we know how to solve analytically the Laplace equation in a small
number of cases. When we need to know the distribution of the potential in an
electrostatic system (for example the electrostatic lenses used in certain particle
accelerators), we solve the Laplace equation through digital methods (computer).
Example: electrostatic equilibrium of a system of three conductors; topography of

the electrostatic field.
+
+
+
-
+ +
Figure 16
-107-
III- APPLICATIONS.
III-1. Case of a single conductor. Capacitance.
We consider a conductor [C] alone in space (in practice, far from any other
conductor) brought to the potential V0.(Figure 17).
The Laplace equation (supposing that we can
solve it), will give the potential V at all points.
Knowing V we will deduce from it the

(C)
V0
electrostatic field by E = gradV , then on
the conductor by Coulombs theorem and
finally Q0 by integration.
Figure 17
If we bring the conductor to another potential
V1 = V0, the Laplace equation being linear,
the potential at every point will be multiplied by . The field at every point will be
multiplied by as well (since gradient is a linear operator). will therefore be
multiplied by as well as the charge of the conductor which will have a value of
Q1 = Q0.
Q0
There is proportionality between the potential to which we bring the conductor and
the charge that it acquires.
Q = CV
The coefficient of proportionality C is called the capacitance of an isolated
conductor in space.
It is linked to the geometric shape of the conductor, but not to its nature,
neither to its electric state.
Unit: in the SI system, the unit of capacitance is the farad (F).

Example: Spherical conductor.
The sphere has as a radius R, it is carried to the absolute potential V; it
acquires a charge Q which distributes uniformly on its surface (spherical
symmetry). This charge provides a constant potential V to the sphere in its entire
volume; we can therefore calculate the potential at the center of the sphere O.
1
dS
Q
V=
=
4 0 (S) R
4 0 R
From which we take:
Q
C = = 4 0 R
V
Application: capacitance of Earth: with R = 6400 km, we obtain C = 700 F
-108-
III-2. Electrostatic screens.

We call an electrostatic screen a conducting enclosure (hollow conductor)
maintained at a constant potential. The conductors placed inside are labeled Ai,
those placed outside are labeled Bi (Figure 18).
To determine the potential at

every point inside the enclosure we
solve V = 0 with the limit conditions
V = VE on the interior surface of the
Ai
Aj
enclosure, which signifies that the
VE
conductors outside of the enclosure do
not influence the electric state on the
Bj
inside. Similarly, to determine the
Figure 18
potential at every point outside the
enclosure we solve V = 0, the limit
conditions being V = VE on the outside
surface of the enclosure and V = 0 at infinity; the conductors inside the enclosure
do not influence the exterior electric state.
The enclosure therefore plays the role of an electrostatic screen. In practice, we
link the screen to the ground; that is, we impose VE = 0.
It is not necessary that the conductor forming the screen be continuous; we obtain
the same result with a Faraday cage; that is, a wire mesh, not too loose.
Bi
.
Applications:
The protection of electrostatic measurement devices, (electrometers).
The protection of electronics in radio, television, etc.
The protection of certain houses against lightening.
-109-
IIN
NF
FR
RE
EN
NC
CH
H IIN
NF
FR
RE
EN
NC
CH
H IIN
NF
FR
RE
EN
NC
CH
H IIN
NF
FR
RE
EN
NC
CH
H
NONCS
1 Proprits des conducteurs en quilibre. Vrai ou faux ?

a) un conducteur en quilibre ne porte pas de charge superficielle.
b) un conducteur en quilibre reli la masse ne porte pas de charge superficielle.
c) un conducteur en quilibre ne porte pas de charge volumique.
d) un conducteur en quilibre est quipotentiel.
e) le potentiel dun conducteur en quilibre ne dpend toujours que de sa propre
charge.
f) Le champ au voisinage de la surface dun conducteur en quilibre ne dpend que
de la densit locale de charge superficielle.
g) Entre deux conducteurs en quilibre, les lignes de champ joignent toujours deux
zones portant des densits de charge superficielle de signe oppos.
h) Si Q est la charge porte par la surface externe dun conducteur creux en
quilibre dont la cavit ne contient aucune charge, la charge port par sa face
interne est Q.
2 Phnomnes dinfluence. Vrai ou faux ?
a) Si lon approche un conducteur (B) charg dun conducteur (A) initialement
isol, la charge de (A) va varier.
b) Si lon approche un conducteur (B) charg dun conducteur (A) initialement
isol, le potentiel de (A) va varier.
c) Si lon approche un conducteur (B) charg dun conducteur (A) reli au sol, la
charge de (A) va varier.
3 Phnomnes dinfluence . Vrai ou faux ?

(A)
(C)
Soit un tat dquilibre constitu par
VA
trois conducteurs(A), (B), (C) en
prsence les uns des autres. On appelle
VC
QA, QB ,QC et VA, VB, VC leurs charges
et potentiels respectifs (VA>VB>VC>0)
VB
(B)
A) Etat initial
a) QA est >0.
-110-
b) A est positive en tout point de la surface de (A).

c) C est ngative en tout point de la surface de (C).
B) On relie (A) et (B) par un fil conducteur.

a) Le potentiel de (A) et de (B) devient gal (VA + VB)/2.
b) Les charges superficielles de (A) et (B) ne changent pas.
c) QA+QB change.
d) Ni la charge ni le potentiel de (C) ne changent.
e) La charge de (C) ne change pas mais son potentiel change.
f) La charge et le potentiel de (C) changent.
4 a) Calculer le champ lectrostatique au voisinage dune surface conductrice
portant une charge superficielle de 1nC par cm2 .
b) Quappelle-t-on pression lectrostatique ?
c) Quelle est, dans le cas tudi, la force lectrostatique sexerant sur une surface
de 1 cm2 ?
d) Dans quel sens est-elle dirige ?
5 Deux sphres de rayon R1 et R2 portent la mme charge Q. Quel est le rapport
des champs lectrostatiques au voisinage de leur surface ?
-111-
SOLUTIONS
1 a) faux ; b) faux car il nest pas dit que ce conducteur est seul dans lespace.
Sil est en prsence dautres conducteurs ports des potentiels non nuls sa charge
peut tre diffrente de 0 ; c) vrai ; d) vrai ; e) faux : le potentiel dpend de toutes
les charges en prsence ; f) vrai (thorme de Coulomb) ; g) vrai (lments
correspondants) ; h) faux (Qint=0)
2 a) faux (la charge dun conducteur isol reste constante) ; b) vrai ; c) vrai :
linfluence varie.
3 A : a) vrai ; b) vrai car le conducteur (A) est le conducteur au potentiel le plus
lev : toutes les lignes de champ partent de (A) ; c) faux : comme il ny a pas
influence totale entre les conducteurs, il existe des lignes de champ pouvant partir
de(C) vers la masse (potentiel 0).
B : a) faux ; b) faux ; c) faux ; d) faux ; e) vrai ; f) faux.
4 a) 1,13.103 kV.m-1 ;
b) Voir cours ;
c) 5,65.10-4 N. ;
d) Voir cours
R
E
5 1 = 2
E 2 R1
-112-
Electrostatic energy of a set of conductors
-113-
CHAPTER V
ELECTROSTATIC ENERGY OF A SET OF CONDUCTORS
A STORAGE OF THE ELECTROSTATIC ENERGY OF
CAPACITORS
I- CONDENSATION OF ELECTRICITY.
II- DEFINITIONS CONCERNING CAPACITORS.
II-1 Charge of a capacitor.
II-2 Capacitance of a capacitor.
III- CALCULATIONS OF CAPACITANCES.
III-1 Spherical Capacitor.
III-2 Plane Capacitor.
III-3 Association of Capacitors.
III-3-1 Capacitors in series.
III-3-2 Capacitors in parallel.
IV- CASE OF CAPACITORS WITH DIELECTRICS
V- ELECTROSTATIC ENERGY OF A SYSTEM OF CONDUCTORS
CHARGED IN A VACUUM.
VI- ELECTROSTATIC ENERGY STORED BY A CAPACITOR.
V-1 Calculation of the energy stored.
V-2 Reversible charge and irreversible charge.
VII GENERAL ENERGY BALANCE BETWEEN TWO STATES
B- ENERGY AND ELECTROSTATIC FORCES

I- ENERGY BALANCE.
I-1 Displacement with constant charges.
I-2 Displacement at constant potentials.
II- EXAMPLE.
Force on the plates of a plane capacitor
-114-
-115-
CHAPTER V
ELECTROSTATIC ENERGY OF A SET OF CONDUCTORS
A-STORAGE OF THE ELECTROSTATIC ENERGY OF

CAPACITORS
I- CONDENSATION OF ELECTRICITY.
We consider a conductor (A)
+
isolated in space carried to the
+
+
potential V0 > 0, its charge is
(A) +
(B)
therefore q0 > 0 (Figure 1). Lets

+
+
V0 +
approach another conductor (B) to (A)
linked to the ground. By influence,
the surface of (B) opposite to (A)
Figure 1
charges negatively. Reciprocally (B)
influences (A) which provokes the
appearance of new positive charges
on (A).
The presence of (B) provokes therefore a growth in the initial charge of (A).
This phenomenon carries the name of condensation of electricity.
(A)s charge can be considerably increased if B completely surrounds
(A); that is, if there is a total influence. We are going to show this with an
example:
(A)
-QA
qA
(A)
RA
Figure 2
(B)
QA
RB
-116-
The conductor (A) (Figure 2) is a sphere of radius RA ; it is first isolated

in space and brought to the potential V, it therefore takes the charge
qA
1
dS
q A = 4 0 R A V. ( V = V(O) =
=
)
4 0 (S) R A 4 0R A
We surround (A) by a hollow spherical conductor (B), of the same

center, linked to the ground. The interior cavity of (B) has as a radius RB. The
external surface of (B) is not charged as the potential is nil on (B) and is as such
also at infinity. The potential is therefore nil everywhere outside since it cannot
display an extremum. The field is therefore nil everywhere outside the conductor
and, according to Coulombs theorem, the surface charge density on (B) is nil.
If QA is the charge of conductor (A), the charge of the interior cavity of
(B) is -QA (total influence). The potential V of the conductor (A) (imposed by
the source) is due to all the charges of the system; we calculate it at the center of
spheres.
QA
QA
Q R B R A
V=
= A
4 0 R A 4 0 R B 4 0 R A R B
QA
RB
1
Or written otherwise:
=
=
R
q A R B R A
1 A
RB
Thus, QA > qA and if we choose RA being very close to RB we can even
considerably increase qA.
Example: If RB = 10 cm and RA = 9.5 cm; qA is multiplied by 20.
Such an operation (two conductors, of which one totally influences the other, the
internal face of one being very close to the external face of the other) permits a
large storage of charges. We call this a capacitor.
II- DEFINITIONS CONCERNING CAPACITORS.

II-1. Capacitors Charge.
A1
A2
V2
V1
Figure 3
Let a capacitor be constituted by 2

conductors A1 and A2; A2 completely
surrounding A1 (Figure 3). The surface of the
conductor A1 is called the internal plate, the
internal surface of the conductor A2 is called
the external plate. The plate A1 is brought to
the potential V1, its charge is Q1. The
conductor A2 is brought to the potential V2,
its charge Q2 distributes between the internal
plate which carries the charge Q1 (total
-117-
influence) and the external surface; this charge on the external surface is not
interesting: it is always a lot smaller than Q1 and can even be nil if the conductor
A2 is linked to the ground, which is often the case.
We will note U = V1 - V2 the potential difference between the plates; the charge
of the internal plate is noted as Q and is called the charge of the capacitor.
II-2. Capacitors Capacitance

The theoretical developments leading to the definition of the capacitance
of a capacitor rest on the linearity of the Laplace equation; they lead to the
following result which has for that matter an intuitive nature: there is
proportionality between the charge of a capacitor and the potential difference
between its plates.
Q=CU ou Q=C(V1 V 2 )
The coefficient C is called the capacitance of a capacitor.
C depends on the geometric shape and the relative position of the plates
but not on their nature. Lets keep in mind the unit of capacitance: the farad.
III CALCULATION OF CAPACITANCES
This calculation is possible for certain capacitors of simple geometric shape.
III-1 Spherical capacitor
A2
A1
()
V2
V1
Figure 4
Used little in practice (except in

certain types of electrometers), it is
interesting on the theoretical point of
view. The plates are two concentric
spheres of the same center O and of radii
R1 and R2. The shape of the external
surface has no importance.
Q is the charge of the internal
plate (uniformly distributed due to
spherical symmetry). We calculate, as a
function of Q, the potential difference
V1 V2 between the plates. We first
calculate the electrostatic field.
At M, such that OM = r (R1 < r < R2), the field E is radial and it has the
same norm on the entire surface (), the sphere of center O and of radius r. We
apply Gauss theorem at () :
Q
Q
=4r 2 E =
or : E=
0
4 0 r 2
So :
A2
-118-
Q
E.dr =
40
V1 V2 =
Q 1 1
Q R 2 R 1
=
4 0 R 1 R 2 4 0 R 1 R 2
E .dl =
A1
R 2 dr
V1 V2 =
A1
A2
R1
r2
Hence:
C=
R R
Q
= 4 0 1 2
V1 V2
R 2 R 1
III-2. Plane Capacitor.

This
consists
of
two
conductors presenting two opposite
V1
O
planar faces which are parallel to each
e other, constituting the capacitors
E
plates. Theoretically, the plates are
supposed to be of infinite dimension
V2
in order for the conditions of total
x
influence to be respected.
In practice, we limit ourselves
Figure 5
to two portions of opposite surfaces of
which the dimensions are large compared with the distance e which separates
them. The plates have the same surface S.
Each axis perpendicular to the plates is an axis of symmetry (obviously
in the infinite model). The field, carried by this axis, is therefore orthogonal to
the plates.
Several methods permit the determination of C. We choose here to use
the Laplace equation which is written taking symmetry into account:
d 2V
dV
dV
= k ( E=
is constant) V = k x + k
2
dx
dx
dx
With the boundary conditions :
=0
V1 = k
V2 = k e + k = k e + V1
V V
V V
k = 2 1 , therefore : E = 1 2
e
e
- Coulombs theorem gives the charge density 1 on the upper plate:
V V
1 = 0 E = 0 1 2 .
e
S
- 1 is constant so Q = 1 S is the charge of the upper plate: Q = 0 (V1 V2 )
e
-119-
From which we get :

C=
0S
e
Notes:
i) This formula is only one approach to the reality ; actually, the plates not being
infinite, the field is no longer uniform towards the edges (edge effect) which has
as a consequence to lead to values of C lower than the theoretical value. The
smaller the distance e compared to the dimensions of the plates the better the
formula gives an account of reality.
ii) The previous relation permits to rapidly find the dimension of the constant 0
(Farad.m-1)
iii) The capacitors used in the industry (electronics, electrical engineering) have
a shape of plane capacitors; we are able to multiply by 100 the capacitance
(therefore the charge stored) by replacing the vacuum between the plates by an
insulator (capacitor with a dielectric, see chapter V).
III-3. Association of Capacitors
This deals with the association of capacitors discharged beforehand.
III-3-1. Capacitors in Series.
The notations are specified on figure 6. We apply to the terminals of the
grouping the potential difference U; q1 being the charge of the left plate of the
capacitor (C1), the charge q1 develops by influence on the right plate.
Since the plates surrounded right of (C1) and left of (C2) have stayed
isolated, their total charge is nil, therefore the left plate of the capacitor (C2)
carries the charge q1; the right plate of (C2) carries therefore q1.
q
q
U1 = 1 ; U 2 = 1
C1
C2
q
q
q
1 1
1
(C1)
(C2 )
U= 1 + 1 = 1
= +
C1 C 2 C
C C1 C 2
U1
U2
C is the equivalent capacitance of the
U
grouping; a capacitor of capacitance C
permits the storage of the same charge q1 as
Figure 6
the grouping when the same potential
difference U is applied.
The result generalizes to any number of capacitors:
1
1
=
C i Ci
q1
-q1
q1
-q1
U = U1 + U2
and
-120-
III-3-2 Capacitors in Parallel.

The potential difference U applied
q1
(C1)
between the plates is the same for all the
capacitors.
q
q
q +q
q
U= 1 = 2 = 1 2 =
q2
C1 C 2 C1 +C 2 C1 +C 2
(C2)
The equivalent capacitor is the one which
stores the total charge q when the potential
U
difference U is applied ; that is, the capacitor for
q
which U = .
Figure 7
C
Therefore, the equivalent capacitor has for capacitance C = C1 + C2.
The result generalizes to any number of capacitors :
C= C i
i
IV- CAS DES CONDENSATEURS A DIELECTRIQUE

IV- 1. Introduction
Considrons un condensateur plan vide de surface S et de distance interarmatures d. Lorsque lon charge ce condensateur sous une diffrence de
potentiel U0 (Figure 8a), la charge Q qui apparat sur les armatures donne
naissance un champ lectrique
E0 =
U0
d
Q = C0 U0 = 0
E0
uniforme. E0 et Q sont donns par :
S
U0
d
et
o C0 est la capacit du condensateur vide.
-Q
-Q
U0
E0
Pyrex
E < E0
U<V
+Q
+Q
U0
a)
b)
Figure 8
-121-
Aprs avoir dbranch la source de f.e.m. U0, introduisons entre les

armatures une lame isolante d'paisseur de mme paisseur d (Figure 8b), du
verre pyrex par exemple. On constate alors que la diffrence de potentiel entre
les plaques prend une valeur U infrieure U0. Le champ lectrique entre les
plaques qui a maintenant pour valeur U/d a donc diminu. La charge Q nayant
pas t modifie puisque les armatures du condensateur ont t isoles
lectriquement, ceci revient dire galement que la capacit du condensateur est
passe de C0 = Q/ U0 C = Q/U et a augment. On observe donc que, en
prsence du dilectrique, le champ entre les armatures ne dpend plus seulement
des charges portes par celles-ci. Cette manifestation est lie au phnomne de
polarisation vu au chapitre III.
IV-2. Calcul des charges de Polarisation.

Ce qui a t dit sur le phnomne de polarisation induite peut permettre
d'interprter ce qui se passe lorsque nous introduisons la lame de dilectrique,
suppose molcules non polaires, entre les armatures du condensateur plan.
Sous l'influence du champ E 0 cr entre les armatures par les charges +Q et -Q,
les molcules vont se polariser et former des diples lmentaires comme
indiqu sur la figure 9
-Q
+
-Q
E
+
-
+
P
+Q
Figure 9
+
+
- -
+
+
-
+Q
Le matriau va alors acqurir une polarisation P . Les diples ainsi crs
vont gnrer leur propre champ qui va s'ajouter au champ initial E 0 pour donner
le champ effectif existant E . On remarquera que, compte tenu de l'orientation des
diples apparaissant sous l'action du champ appliqu E 0 , le champ cr par les
diples sera de sens oppos E 0 . Le champ E tant uniforme, la polarisation P
sera uniforme dans tout le dilectrique, les diples ayant tous la mme
orientation (Figure 9). Sur les deux faces du dilectrique en regard des armatures
-122-
mtalliques du condensateur, tous les diples prsentent une charge de mme

polarit (positive en regard de l'armature portant la charge -Q, ngative en
regard de l'armature portant la charge +Q), alors qu'au voisinage des faces
latrales, la charge moyenne est nulle, les diples tant parallles ces faces.
L'intrieur du dilectrique, (reprsent en gris sur la figure 9), contient un
nombre gal de charges positives et ngatives, rparties rgulirement.
En reprenant le formalisme tabli au chapitre III, il est possible de calculer les
charges de polarisation.
- Comme P est uniforme, div P = 0 soit = - div P = 0. Nous retrouvons,
comme nous lavions suppos, que le volume du dilectrique peut tre considr
comme un volume neutre non charg.
N1
Les densits surfaciques de charges de

polarisation quivalentes la surface du
dilectrique sont donnes par (Figure 10) :
-Q
1 = P
2 = - P
+Q
N2
Figure 10
'1 =
P.N1
= +P
sur la face suprieure
'2 = P.N 2 = -P
sur la face infrieure,
Ce rsultat est galement conforme ce que
nous avions prvu, soit une charge 1
positive en regard de larmature charge
ngativement par Q et une charge 2
ngative en regard de larmature charge
positivement par +Q.
IV-3. Calcul de la capacit du condensateur plan rempli de dilectrique.

Pour calculer la capacit du condensateur plan rempli de dilectrique, nous
allons utiliser les expressions des lois gnrales de llectrostatique des milieux
dilectriques. Du calcul de la circulation du champ lectrostatique entre les
E=
V1 V2
e
armatures, il vient :
La relation entre linduction et le champ dans un dilectrique parfait permet
dcrire D=E
- Le thorme de Gauss permet de calculer la densit de charges 1 sur
larmature suprieure :
1 = D = E =
V1 V2
e
- 1 est constant donc Q = 1 S est la charge de larmature suprieure :
Q=
S
(V1 V2 )
e
C=
-123-
e = C si C0 est la capacit du condensateur en l'absence

D'o l'on tire :
r 0
de dilectrique
L'utilisation de matriaux dilectriques permet donc d'augmenter notablement
la capacit d'un condensateur.
V-ELECTROSTATIC ENERGY OF A SYSTEM OF CONDUCTORS

CHARGED IN A VACUUM
We consider n conductors :
A1 . . . Ai . . . An
maintained to the potentials
V1 . . . Vi . . . Vn
carrying the charges :
Q1 . . . Qi . . . Qn
having the surface charge densities
1 . . . i . . . n
We start from the neutral state (Qi = 0 i) and we suppose that an
operator charges in a reversible way the conductors through bringing charges
from infinity. The system is reconstructed by passing through an infinity of
intermediate steps.
Due to the linearity of the Laplace equation governing the electrostatic
equilibrium of a system of conductors, the state characterized by the following
charges:
q2 = x Q2
qn = x Qn
0x1
q1 = x Q1
for which the surface charge densities are :
1 = x 1
q2 = x 2
n = x n
is an equilibrium state for which the respective potentials are :
v1 = x V1
v2 = x V2
vn = x Vn
If x characterizes an intermediate state, x + dx characterizes an infinitely close
equilibrium state. To pass from the state x, to the state x + dx, all that is
necessary is that an operator brings from infinity and simultaneously on the
conductors the infinitely small charges:
dq1 = Q1 dx dq2 = Q2 dx
dqn = Qn dx
The elementary work carried out by this operator is :
dT= v1 dq1 + v 2 dq 2 +L+ v n dq n = x V1 Q1 dx + x V2 Q 2 dx +L+ x Vn Q n dx
dT= x V1 Q1 dx + x V2 Q 2 dx +L+ x Vn Q n dx = ( Q i Vi )xdx

i
The total work to charge the system of conductors therefore has the value of :
1
T= ( Qi Vi )0xdx= 1 Qi Vi
2 i
i
and therefore the electrostatic energy of the system is :
-124-
W=
1
Q i Vi
2 i
Particular case of a single conductor

1
So : W = Q V and as Q = C V, it can be written :
2
1
1
1 Q2
W = Q V = CV 2 =
2
2
2C
VI. ELECTROSTATIC ENERGY STORED BY A CAPACITOR

VI-1. Calculations of the Stored Energy
A1
A2
V2
V1
Let us consider two conductors (A1)

and (A2) carried respectively to the potentials
V1 and V2 forming a capacitor (Figure 8).
The interior conductor carries a charge Q.
The conductor (A2) carries on its interior
surface a charge Q2int = -Q and on its exterior
surface a charge Q2ext.
The global
electrostatic energy of the two conductors is:
1
W = (QV1 + V2 (Q 2 ext Q)) .
2
Figure 8
If we call V=V1-V2 the potential difference between the two plates, we
can write:
1
W ' = (QV + Q 2 ext V2 )
2
If we link the interior plate to the exterior plate, then V1=V2 and V=0. We
notice therefore that the charges of (A1) and of the interior face of (A2)
neutralize and that the charge Q2ext stays uncharged. The electrostatic energy of
1
the set of the two conductors is therefore: W ' ' = Q 2 ext V2 .
2
We will call electrostatic energy stored by the conductor, the quantity of
energy that can be recovered in an external circuit when we link its plates; that
is, the quantity:
1
W = W ' W" = QV
2
and by substituting the capacitance C of the capacitor, we can write :
-125-
1
1
1 Q2
2
W = QV = CV =
2
2
2C
VI-2. Reversible and irreversible charge

Referring to paragraph IV, the electrostatic energy stored by the
conductor corresponds to the work carried out by an operator to pass the
conductor from the uncharged state [q = 0 ; u = 0] to a final state [q = Q ; u = V]
in a reversible way.
Let us consider therefore a capacitor of which the plates (A1) and (A2) of
a capacitor (C) are respectively linked with the aid of a conducting wire to the +
and terminals of a generator imposing a voltage U>0 such that U = V+ - V,
which we assume constant. The capacitor is initially discharged and the switch
(K) open, (Figure 9).
(+Q
(+
((A 1 )
((A 2 )
((C)
(+
(V
(-
(-Q
((A 1 )
((A 2 )
((C)
(V
((K)
(((K)
iuytrvbb
iuytrvbb
Figure 9
Figure 10
We close (K) (Figure 10), electrons transit from (A1) to (A2) through the
generator. Once the electrostatic equilibrium is attained, the potentials of (A1)
and (A2) will be V1 = V+ and V2 = V-, such that V1 V2 = V and the charges of
the opposite faces will be: Q = C V on (A1) and : Q = - C V on (A2).
The generator displaces from its pole, to its + pole the quantity of electricity Q
and had to provide the electric energy :
Ws = Q V
But the final electrostatic energy of the capacitor is only:
W=
1
QV
2
Only half of the energy provided by the generator was stored in the capacitor,
the rest was consumed under the form of Joule effect in the conductors,
including the spark shooting out between the contacts of the switch when they
are close enough.
-126-
VII GENERAL ENERGY BALANCE BETWEEN TWO STATES

Let us consider from a general point of view a system of conductors
linked to a set of n sources (Si) at the potential Vi passing from one electrostatic
equilibrium (I) to an electrostatic equilibrium state (II). It is supposed that this
transformation is executed, either by modifying the links of the conductors with
the sources, or by modifying the position of the conductors through an exterior
operator.
Let :
- WI be the electrostatic energy of the system in state I,
- WII be the electrostatic energy of the system in state II,
- Wop be the mechanical work provided by the exterior operator to the system
at the time of going through from state I to state II.
- WS =
qi Vi , be the electrostatic energy provided by the sources at the time
i =1
of going from state I to state II, qi being the quantity of charge (algebraic)
having crossed the source Si in the direction of increasing potential during the
transformation.
- WJ be the energy dissipated by Joule effect during this transformation.
The principal of conservation of energy allows us to write that the total
energy provided to the system (by the sources and by the exterior operator) is
necessarily equal to the sum of the variation of the electrostatic energy of the
system and of the energy dissipated by Joule effect. Written otherwise:
WS + Wop = (WII WI) + WJ
Note : In the preceding equality, only WJ is always positive. The sign of the
other terms depends on the nature of the transformation.
B-ELECTROSTATIC ENERGY AND FORCES

We have seen in chapter III that it was possible to calculate, with the
help of the notion of electrostatic pressure, the forces acting over charged
conductors. We give here a method of the determination of these forces, from
the energy balance that we can complete through the method known as virtual
works, considering an elementary transformation of the system.
-127-
I- ENERGY BALANCE.
We consider a system of n charged conductors and among them the
conductor (Ai) on which the electrostatic forces (pressure stress), whose
resultant is Fi , are acting.
We consider a fictive displacement of the conductor in the direction of
the force of an infinitely small quantity (we let it evolve spontaneously in the
direction where it is solicited). The energy balance consists in writing the
conservation of energy. It is necessary to distinguish two cases :
- the different conductors are isolated : the displacement is carried out with
constant charges (but the potentials vary).
- the displacement takes place while maintaining the links with the sources :
displacement with constant potentials (but the charges vary) ; the electric energy
provided by the sources therefore gets involved in the energy balance.
I-1. Displacement with constant charges.

For this, all that is necessary to do, after
Aj
Ai
the establishment of equilibrium, is to cut the
links with the sources ; the charge of the different
conductors is therefore fixed.
In the
dl
Fi
Figure 11
displacement dl , the force Fi does the work :
dT= Fi .dl=Fi .dl ,

and the electrostatic energy of the system varies
by dWQ. The system being isolated :
dT+ dWQ = 0
From where we get:

Fi =
dWQ
dl
-128-
I-2. Displacement with Constant Potentials

We
maintain
the
Aj
Ai
communication with the sources ;
the charges of the various
Vj
conductors vary.
There is
therefore a transfer of charges
Vi
dl
across the different generators
and the system is no longer
Fi
isolated; the sources provide
energy.
Figure 12
If we do not take precautions, a part of this energy will be dissipated in
the wire by Joule effect. In order to not have to worry about this, we assume
that the displacement is reversible.
In the displacement dl :
- The force Fi does the work dT = Fi .dl = Fi .dl ,
- the electrostatic potential energy of the system varies by dWV,
- the sources provide an energy dWS.
We use an external operator to do the displacement; it therefore
provides a work dT'=dT . The variation of electrostatic energy of the system
is the sum of the energy provided by the sources and of the work from the
operator:
dWV =dT'+dWS
dT=dWS dWV
The sources at the potentials V1, . . ., Vi, . . ., Vn provide respectively to
each of the conductors whose potentials are constant, the charges dQ1, . . ., dQi, .
. ., dQn. Thus, the source linked with the conductor (Ai) draws from the ground
(at 0 potential) a charge dQi that it transfers onto (Ai) (at the potential Vi)
providing an energy (dWS ) i = Vi dQi . In total, the sources therefore provide :
dWS = Vi dQi
i
As the potentials are constant :

1
WV = Qi Vi
i 2
dWS =2dWV
and
From which we get :
Fi = +
1
dWV = Vi dQi
i 2
dT= +dWV
dWV
dl
-129-
II- EXAMPLE : calculation of the force acting on the plates of a plane

capacitor.
i) With the help of the electrostatic pressure.
A potential difference V is
applied between the plates.
The
x
capacitance of the capacitor given by
Q
S
C = 0 , the charge of the upper plate
F
e
e
ux
S
O
has a value of : Q = 0 V and the
-Q
e
0 V
surface density is : =
.
Figure 13
e
The forces of electrostatic pressure acting on each element of the upper
plate all are in the opposite direction of (Ox), the same goes therefore for their
resultant F.
2
2
dF =
dS u x F =
S ux
200
20
Which leads to one of the following formulations:
Q2
0 S 2
F = 2 V ux =
ux
2e
2 0 S
ii) With the help of the energy variation with constant charges.
We express WQ for a value of x of the inter-plate distance
1 Q2 1 Q2 x
WQ =
=
2 C 2 0S
Expressed otherwise :
dWQ
Q2
F=(
) x =e =
dx
2 0 S
The result is the same, the sign indicating that the force has a negative
algebraic component according to the x axis and is therefore an attractive force.
iii) With the help of the energy variation at constant potential
We express WV :
S
1
WV = CV 2 = 0 V 2
2
2x
Expressed otherwise :
-130-
dWV
0 SV 2
F=+(
) x =e =
dx
2e 2
We notice that the determination of the electrostatic forces through the
indirect means of the electrostatic energy of the system can lead to calculations
that are a lot quicker than the integration of the elementary electrostatic pressure
forces.
-131-
-132-
LEVEL I EXERCISES
STATEMENTS
1 a) Calculate the capacitance of a metallic sphere which radius is 1cm.

b) We encircle this metallic sphere with a hollow sphere of radius 1,02 cm.
Calculate the capacitance of the capacitor formed with these two conductors.
Conclusion ?
2 A capacitor of capacitance 15F initially uncharged is plugged on a
continuous voltage source of 10V.
a) What is its charge ?
b) What is the electrostatic energy stored by the capacitor?
c) What is the energy provided by the source? Conclusion?
3 What are all the values of equivalent capacitances that we could obtain with
three capacitors of respective capacitances C1=5F, C2=15F, C3 =20F ?
4 Demonstrate again, without the help of the lecture notes, the relations
F . dl = dWQ = + dWV . What relations would be obtained for a mobile system
in rotation about an axis () ?
-133-
SOLUTIONS
1 a) 1,11 pF ; b) 112 pF ; the capacitance is multiplied by the ratio
R
R
(increase of the field at the surface of the conductors )
2 a) Q = 1,5.10-4 C.
b) 7,5.10-4J.
c) 15.10-4J. : energy loss due to Joule effect (irreversible charge).
3 5 cases :
- C1, C2, C3 in series : Ceq = 3,16 F.
- C1 in series with C2 and C3 in parallel : Ceq = 4,375 F.
- C2 in series with C1 and C3 in parallel : Ceq = 8,57 F.
- C3 in series with C2 and C1 in parallel : Ceq = 10 F.
- C1, C2, C3 in parallel : Ceq = 40 F.
4 See lecture ; The moment () of the electrostatic forces at the axis of rotation
W
W
() will be expressed as =
= +
, being the angle of rotation
Q
V
about the axis.
-134-
135 SCAN First

June 16 2011
Test time : 3h
Physics Final Exam

Indicative notation: 1st part: 7.5 pts, 2nd part: 7.5 pts, 3rd part: 5 pts.
No documents allowed. Use of not-programmable calculator is permissible.
1st part:
Electrostatic interaction between dipoles, adhesive power of the "gecko"
Geckos are lizards that can run rapidly up walls and even
upside down on polished glass (Figure 1). How can they do
that? Geckos have millions of microscopic hairs on the
bottom of their feet that function as an adhesive.
This adhesive power is of electrostatic origin (so-called
"Van der Waals' interactions) and we will develop a simple
model to estimate this attachment force.
Figure 1 : gecko in equilibrium
Recall that:
- the field created by a dipole may be written as E dipole =
2 p cos( )
p sin( )
ur +
u in
3
4 0 r
4 0 r 3
cylindrical coordinates ( p being the magnitude of the dipole moment p ),

- for a dipole, of dipole moment p , placed in an external field E , the potential energy is :
pot = p E ,
- as a general principle, the electrostatic interaction force F is related to a potential energy E p with
( A)
1 ( A)
( A)
ur +
u +
u z in cylindrical coordinates.
r
r
z
- A permanent dipole creates itself an electrostatic field that will act on an atom or a non polar
molecule to transform it into a dipole called induced dipole.
the relation F = grad(E p ) , with grad ( A) =
Preliminary question
Consider a permanent dipole consisted of two charges ( + q , q ), separated by the distance l ,
constant. This dipole is aligned with a non-uniform electrostatic field
( E (r ) decreasing with r ), Figure 2.
E (r ) = E (r ) ur
Qualitatively explain the action of the field E (r ) on the dipole by analyzing the sum of the forces.
-q +q
E(r)
O
ur
Figure 2 : dipole placed in a filed E (r )
page 1/6
136 A. Microscopic approach

We will develop the calculations for the interaction energy and the interaction force between a
permanent dipole and an induced dipole in an atom or a molecule (configuration of Figure 3).
Permanent
dipole
atom/molecule
u
p1
ur
Figure 3: permanent dipole and atom/molecule developing an induced dipole
p1 is the permanent dipole moment and p2 is the induced dipole moment in the atom / molecule.
The induced dipole moment p2 is proportional to the electrostatic field: p2 = 0 E (with the
polarizability).
The data are: p1 (magnitude of p1 ), r, , 0 , ur , u .
A.1) Give the expression of p2 in the configuration represented in Figure 3 ( = 0 ).
A.2) Give the expression of the potential energy pot associated with the dipole p2 .
A.3) Deduce the electrostatic force F exerted on the induced dipole.
Comment on this result.
B. Macroscopic approach: calculation of the interaction force between two plane surfaces
The electrostatic interaction between two dipoles (Van der Waals interaction) gives a potential
C
energy written: pot = 6 , where C is a constant and d is the distance between the two dipoles.
d
We consider the interaction of two media denoted (1) and (2), infinite in the x and y directions,
semi-infinite in the z direction, their x-y plane being opposite (Figure 4). D is the distance between
the plane surfaces of these two media (1) and (2). We will calculate the total potential energy of
interaction by superposition (summation) of individual contributions. The calculation of the total
potential energy between these two surfaces may be carried out with the equation:
E p = pot 1 2 d 1d 2 with: pot : interaction potential energy between two individual dipoles
coming from the media (1) and (2), 1 and 2 : volume densities of dipoles in the media (1) and
(2); d 1 and d 2 : elementary volumes of (1) and (2). This calculation will be conducted in two
stages.
(2)
(2)
r+dr
D
uz
(1)
uy
ux
Figure 4 : two semi-infinite media (1) and (2)
Figure 5 : calculation of the interaction between

a dipole (represented by the black dot) and the
upper semi-infinite medium (intermediate step)
page 2/6
137 B.1)
In a first step, we propose to calculate the potential energy of interaction between a dipole of
medium (1) and the semi-infinite medium (2) (Figure 5). z is the distance between the
dipole and the lower surface of the semi-infinite medium (2).
Noticing that this potential energy of interaction can be written: E p1 = pot 2 d 2 with
d 2 = 2 r 2 (1 cos( )) dr : volume element between the two spherical caps of half-apex
angle and of radii r and r + dr (result obtained from the solid angle); determine E p1 by
B.2)
integration in terms of z , C , 2 ( z < r < ).

From the previous result, we can calculate the total energy of interaction between the media
(1) and (2) from the relation E p = E p1 1d 1 with d 1 = S1 dz , S1 being the surface of
medium (1) opposite to medium (2).
Determine, by integration, the total energy of interaction per unit area, denoted E p , s in
terms of D, C , 1 , 2 ( D < z < ).
B.3)
The total energy of interaction per unit area E p , s may also be written: E p , s =
A
.
12 D 2
From the previous question, give the expression of the constant A in terms of C , 1 , 2 .
C. Understanding the adhesive power of the gecko.

In the case of two perfectly plane surfaces, the Van der Waals interactions give a total potential
H
energy per unit area, denoted E p , s , which can be written as E p , s =
where H is the
12 z 2
Hamecker constant (homogeneous to an energy) and z the distance between the two plane surfaces.
We will take for numerical applications: H = 10-20 J, z = D = 5.10-10 m (as in Figure 4).
C.1)
C.2)
C.3)
C.4)
From the E p , s expression, deduce the attraction force per unit area (denoted Fs ) between
two flat surfaces as a function of H and z .
Assuming a 100g gecko adheres to a flat horizontal surface, upside down (Figure 1),
calculate the theoretical minimum area required to maintain its balance under the Van der
Waals interaction force.
Considering that the gecko's fingers contain a total of 10 million hairs and that each hair
contains a thousand sub-hairs, considered as cylindrical of radius 0.1 m, calculate the
maximum grip area that the gecko may use to hang on the horizontal surface. Comment.
Repeat the numerical application of question C.2 considering an 80 Kg human. Comment.
page 3/6
138 2nd part:
Touchpad
A touchpad is a pointing device featuring a tactile sensor, a specialized surface that can translate the
motion and position of a user's fingers to a relative position on screen. They are a common feature
of laptop computers and also used as a substitute for a computer mouse where desk space is scarce.
This system consists of a network of sensors, sensitive to pressure. Each sensor is actually a
capacitor, the user's finger being an electrode (at potential 0). Depending on the distance (fingertouchpad), the capacitance of each sensor varies. Thus, the electronic signals recovered by the
sensors network enable to determine the position of the finger on the touchpad.
Each individual sensor may be modeled as a
capacitor formed by the lower electrode and the
finger, with a potential difference U. A thin
insulating layer (dielectric) enables to
electrically isolate the finger.
finger
(U)
insulator
Lower
electrode
Figure 1
To simplify the calculations, we will assume that:
- the lower electrode is circular with radius a;
- the finger is a conductor shaped as a spherical cap of radius R and center ;
- side effects are negligible.
Given the geometry of the problem, a cylindrical coordinates system may be used.
A) First, we assume that there is no protective
dielectric layer at the surface of the touchpad.
The end of the finger and the lower electrode
form a capacitor as shown schematically in
Figure 2: one of the plates is flat and the other
one is concave.
Given the shape of the capacitor, its capacitance
C is a priori difficult to calculate. Nevertheless,
assuming that the field lines are all vertical and
neglecting the side effects we will be able to
calculate C by integration. If we consider a
point M on the finger, an elementary surface
around M and an opposite elementary surface
on the lower electrode, then these two surfaces
separated by a distance z form an elementary
capacitor that can be considered as a parallel
plate capacitor of elementary capacitance dC.
Electrode
formed by
the finger
Towards center
Lower
electrode
Figure 2
A.1) M is a point of the spherical electrode, identified by its cylindrical coordinates (r, z).
Recall: a circle with center (x0, y0) and radius R in (x, y) coordinates has the equation:
(x x 0 )2 + (y y0 )2 = R 2
Give the quadratic equation linking z, r, R and zmin.
Assuming, from now on, that r <<R, give an approximate expression for z as a function of r,
R and zmin.
A.2) Using the previous question result and standing at point P, give an approximate expression of
2R as a function of a, zmin and zmax and show that:
r2
z 2 (z max z min ) + z min
a
page 4/6
139 A.3) Without proof, give the expression of the elementary capacitance dC, clearly explaining how
to express the surface of the capacitor.
A.4) Deduce, by integration, the expression of the total capacitance C of the capacitor in question,
as a function of 0, a, zmin and zmax.
Note: in the integral

r2
y = 2 (z max z min ) + z min
a
calculus,
you
may
use
the
following
change
of
variable:
B) Now, we must take into account the protective dielectric layer. The new scheme of the capacitor
formed by the finger becomes that of Figure 3.
Towards center
Electrode
formed by the
finger
dC
dC
Lower
electrode
Figure 4
Figure 3
U is the potential difference between the two electrodes. E0 is the field in the air and E the field in
the dielectric.
The dielectric material is supposed to be perfect (of absolute permittivity ) and free of real charges.
B.1) From the circulation of the field, find the expression of the new elementary capacitance dC' as
a function of dS, e, z, 0 and (Figure 4).
B.2) Find again this the expression from the judicious combination of two capacitors.
B.3) Deduce the expression of the total capacitance C' of the capacitor with the dielectric. For the
integral calculus, you may use the change of variable of question A.4 and propose a new one.
page 5/6
140 3rd part:
Proximity sensor
When you want to measure precisely the distance between a piece of metal (K) and the head of a
machine tool that comes close, a capacitive proximity sensor is installed on the machine tool. This
kind of sensor is able to detect the presence of nearby objects without any physical contact and can
be described as follows: a cylindrical conductor connected to point A being surrounded by a coaxial
cylinder connected to point B. These two parts form a capacitor of fixed capacitance CAB.
a) Overview
b) Cross section view
c) Wiring diagram
A
A
CAB
CAK
CBK
Sensor
When the sensor approaches K, two pairs of metal parts appear (A-K and B-K). For each of these
pairs, whose parts are separated by air, a capacitor is formed whose capacitance can be considered a
parasitic capacitance. (A parasitic capacitance is an unavoidable and usually unwanted capacitance
that exists between the parts of an electronic component or circuit simply because of their proximity
to each other.)
We call CAK the capacitance of the pair A-K and CBK the capacitance of the pair B-K.
1) Show that the wiring diagram c) is equivalent to the cross section b).
2) Determine the expression of the equivalent capacitance Ce of this circuit.
3) Provide the adequate connections for which it is possible to eliminate the additional capacitor
CBK. What is now the expression of the equivalent capacitance previously established?
R2
To measure the CAK capacitance, the sensor is integrated into a branch of a Sauty bridge, consisting
of two resistors, two capacitors, a sinusoidal voltage generator
P
e(t)=E.cos(t), of angular frequency , connected to the
2
terminals of the PM diagonal.
v(t) = V0cos(t+) is the output voltage collected across the
e
Q
N
QN diagonal.
v
R1 and R2 are two variable resistors, (C0) is a capacitor of
C
0
known capacitance C0 and (Ce) is the previous equivalent
capacitor of unknown capacitance Ce.
M
4) Give the expression of VN-VM and VQ-VM based on quantities indicated in the circuit above and
deduce that of v.
5) When the bridge is in the equilibrium v = 0, deduce the expression of Ce as a function of, C0, R2
and R1.
6) The transfer function H(j) of the circuit is defined by the ratio of the complex amplitude of v
(associated with the output voltage) over the complex amplitude of e (associated with the input
voltage).
Calculate the magnitude of H(j). Discuss the value of the phase shift between output and input,
based on the values of the resistances and the capacitances of the circuit.
page 6/6

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Dpartement Premier Cycle

Chapter I: Introduction, Coulombs law

Chapter II: The electrostatic field in vacuum

Chapter III: The electrostatic field in dielectric media

Chapter IV: Conductors in electrostatic equilibrium in a vacuum

Chapter V: Electrostatic energy of a set of conductors

Final exam 2011

Introduction. Coulombs law

Introduction. Coulombs law

Introduction. Coulombs law

Introduction. Coulombs law

3) The third type of interaction is the strong nuclear interaction. It is

Introduction. Coulombs law

Introduction. Coulombs law

4) The fourth interaction is the weak nuclear interaction which is

Introduction. Coulombs law

the establishment a unified theory of these two interactions called electroweak

Introduction. Coulombs law

science (mechanics of systems, electrotechnics, mechanics of vibrations,

II- ELECTRIFICATION. ELECTRIC CHARGE.

Introduction. Coulombs law

II-2. Electrification of bodies.

Introduction. Coulombs law

Introduction. Coulombs law

M considered around which the infinitesimal volume element d is defined. The

III-2. Surface density, linear charge density, point charge.

If we consider that the thickness is sufficiently small for us to consider

expressed in coulombs per meter squared (C.m ).

Introduction. Coulombs law

Finally, when the charge occupies a region of space whose three

IV- INTERACTION BETWEEN CHARGES. COULOMBS LAW.

Introduction. Coulombs law

IV-2. Coulombs Law (electrostatic forces between point charges).

The force (attractive or repulsive) F that a point charge exerts on another is

Introduction. Coulombs law

introducing the unit vector u carried by A1A2 and directed from A1 to A2 ; k is a

Note: we sometimes set A1 A 2 = r u = r and we write:

Expression of Coulombs formula in the SI system: we could in principle fix k =

We will also see that a constant 0, the vacuum permeability, is introduced

Coulombs formula is finally written in the SI system:

Introduction. Coulombs law

Introduction. Coulombs law

8 Mme question que 7 mais avec deux charges, lune de +1 C et lautre de

Introduction. Coulombs law

8 Force dattraction porte par la droite joignant les deux charges.

Introduction. Coulombs law

The electrostatic field in a vacuum

The electrostatic field in a vacuum

B ELECTROSTATIC ENERGY OF A DISTRIBUTION OF

The electrostatic field in a vacuum

THE ELECTROSTATIC FIELD IN A VACUUM

I-1. Definition for a distribution of point charges

It results from this definition that:

The electrostatic field in a vacuum

We will therefore admit that

The electrostatic field vector at M is therefore written F = q0 E with :

Dimension and unit:

The total electrostatic field created by the charged volume () at point M

The electrostatic field in a vacuum

Concerning the linear density distributions , we will write likewise :

The electrostatic field in a vacuum

I-3. Topography of the electrostatic field.

Field line equation

- Properties of field lines