ELECTROKINETICS

Solne TADIER
solene.tadier@insa-lyon.fr
B. Pascal, 5th floor

IV.3 Classification of receivers

a) Polarized reversible apparatus (reversible)

2 cases (current : ---->)
I

I +

- generator
- accumulator discharges

- receiver
- accumulator charges itself

-current going out of

terminal (+)

- current going out of

terminal (-)
2

IV.3 Classification of receivers

b) Un-polarized receivers (real)

- ex: engine, electrolyzer
- are always receivers
- only a counter electromotive force
Ex: engines

- counter electromotive force: magnetic origin (induction)

- Non linear
c.e.m.f = f(I)
ex: e= f() with (rotation velocity) = f(I)
- If we prevent it from turning: e = 0 pure resistance

IV.4 Electromotive or counter-electromotive section?

I
B

VA - VB

Wm: work of the motive forces between A and B

Wm =

f m .dl = Q. Em .dl
> 0 (+ carriers)

Electromotive
field

2 cases: Wm > 0 or Wm < 0

4

IV.4 Electromotive or counter-electromotive section?

a) Electromotive section

I
A

Wm = Q.

r.I
r

VA - VB

E m . dl

e = Em .dl > 0

THEVENINs
representation

Wm > 0 (supplies the energy to carriers)

V (Volts)
r.I

Overall:
VA < VB VA - VB < 0
with VA - VB = rI e <0

B
5

IV.4 Electromotive or counter-electromotive section?

a) Electromotive section

I
A

r.I
r

VA - VB

VA - VB = rI e <0

THEVENINs
representation

Electromotive section rI < e

friction forces (Joules effect)

Potential drop (r.I)
Power loss (r.I2)
6

IV.4 Electromotive or counter-electromotive section?

b) Counter-electromotive section

I
A

e'

r.I
r

e'

VA - VB

Wm < 0

V (Volts)

Overall:

VA > VB VA - VB > 0

VA - VB = r.I + e'

THEVENINs
representation

e' = Em .dl < 0

r.I

B
7

Summary
A receiver:

A generator:

B
U = VA - V B

B
U = VB - V A

consumes electric energy

supplies energy to carriers

counter-electromotive force

electromotive force
Furnished power: P = U.I
Furnished energy: W = U.Q
8

Summary
2 cases: Receiver

Generator

e' = Em .dl < 0

V

e = Em .dl > 0

A
e

B
A

Counter-electromotive force (Volts)

Electromotive force (Volts)

Counter-electromotive force
(consumes electric energy)

Electromotive force
(supplies energy to carriers)
9

Summary (2)
Real generators:

Thevenins representation:
Association in series of :

e = E - rI

I -

perfect voltage source E

E =rI0
Real current generator

I0

icc

r I = I0 icc

pure resistance r very small

Nortons representation:
Association in parallel of :
perfect current source I0
pure resistance r very large
10

Summary (3)
Thevenins generators in series:

r1

E1

E2

Eeq

r2

req

Additivity of electromotive forces and resistances:

Eeq = E
k k

n
req = r
k=1 k
11

Summary (3)
Generator in series:

n
req = r
k=1 k

Eeq = E
k
k

MILLMANNs theorem

Generator in parallel:

E1
E2
En

r1
r2
rn

I
1
1
=
r eq
i ri
Eeq
req

=
i

Eeq

req

Ei
ri

12

Chapter 6
Conductors network
I Generalities - Definitions
Definitions:
- junction/node
intersection of at least 3 conductors
- branch
between 2 junctions

Node (N)

N1

N2

- mesh
closed contour constituted by several
branches of the circuit
13

I. Generalities - Definitions

repartition of the intensity I and the voltage U in the

different branches (and dipoles of the circuit)?

Solution:
different theorems / laws
- for direct current
or in steady state
- for alternating current
14

II. Ohms law generalized to a branch

II.1 Simple case: we know the direction of I
Example
I A
V (Volts)

E3
R1

VA - VB = (V)

E2

R2

R3

E4

R4

V > 0: the dipole A-B is a receiver

V < 0: the dipole A-B is a generator

so :
15

II. Ohms law generalized to a branch

II.1 Simple case: we know the direction of I
Example
I A
V (Volts)

E3
R1

E2

R2

R3

E4

R4

VA VB

V A VB = I . Ri + Ei
i

I: A B

(+): receiver
(-): generator

16

II.2 General case: we do not know the direction of I

a) Setting of the problem
Most of the time, we have no clue about the real positive
direction of the intensity (= direction of the positive charges in
the circuit).
- algebraic formulation
- simple if there are only:
- reversible polarized apparatus
- resistors
- more complicated if there is also:
- real receiver
17

II.2 General case

b) Example of a simple case

* resistors + reversible polarized apparatus

branch AB: 2 possible directions for the current
I
A

R
R.I

E1
E1

E2
E2

VA - VB = R.I - E1 + E2
(Receiver convention)

I
B

R
R.I

E1
E1

E2
E2

VB - VA = R.I + E1 - E2
(Receiver convention)
VA - VB = -R.I - E1 + E2
(Generator convention)

II.2 General case

b) Example of a simple case

* resistors + reversible polarized apparatus

branch AB: 2 possible directions for the current
I
A

R
R.I

E1
E1

E2

I
B

E2

VA - VB = R.I - E1 + E2

R
R.I

E1
E1

E2
E2

VB - VA = R.I + E1 E2

* We randomly choose the direction of the intensity (here: A B)

V A VB = I . Ri Ei
(+) I: A B
(-) I: B A

(+): going out from terminal +

(-): going out from terminal -

II.2 General case

c) General case (with real receivers)

- For any direction of I: always receivers
equivalent to generators set in opposition

- method:
- we randomly choose the direction of the current (i)
- OHMs law is applied
- we check if the result is coherent:
- if yes: OK
- if not: we change the direction of i then we apply
once again Ohms law

20

III Kirchoffs laws

III.1 Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL)

(Kirchhoff's junction rule, Kirchhoff's first law, Kirchhoff's point rule)

* at one junction
conservation of charges: no creation, no loss of charges
The intensity arriving at any junction is equal to the intensity
which leaves that junction.
general formulation:
I1 N
I2

ik = 0

(+): arriving
(-): leaving

I4
I3

I1 +I3 = I2 +I4

21

III.2 Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL)

(Kirchhoff's second law, loop rule)

* for a closed circuit

E has a conservative circulation:


potential differences= 0
A

E. dl = 0

(VA-VB)+(VB-VC)+(VC-VD)+(VD-VA) = 0
UAB + UBC + UCD + UDA = 0

e1

R2

- e1 + UR1 + UR2 = 0

I
B

R1

C
22

III.2 Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL)

(Kirchhoff's second law, loop rule)

* for a closed circuit

E. dl = 0

E has a conservative circulation:

potential differences= 0

* application :
- we choose a direction for the circulation
- we choose algebraic intensities
- OHMs law is applied
+

E, r
R

E
+

rI
RI
R

Er.I R.I =0
E =I(r+R)
23

III.2 Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL)

(Kirchhoff's second law, loop rule)

* for a closed circuit

E. dl = 0

E has a conservative circulation:

potential differences= 0

2
2
EI = rI + RI

Principle of energy conservation

+

E, r
R

E
+

rI
RI
R

E =I(r+R)
24

III.2 Kirchhoffs voltage law

Pouillets law

Rk.ik = E
+
if direction of the current =
direction of the meshs route

+
if going out of the terminal +,
following the direction of the
meshs route

25

III.3 Applications of Kirchhoffs laws

Circuit:

n junctions
b branches

1. We choose a positive way for the current in each branch

2. Application to Kirchhoff's Current Law
n equations
(n-1) independent equations
3. Reduce number of unknowns: m
m =b-(n-1)

number of useful unknowns

4. Application to Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (loop rule)

m independent equations
26

III.3 Application of Kirchhoffs laws

e = 30V
1

e = 2V
1

repartition of the intensity I in each branch?

27

III.3 Application of Kirchhoffs laws

- 4 junctions: A, B, C and D

e = 30V


1

- 6 branches 6 currents:
AB, AD, DB, DC, AC, CB

k

A

j-i

D
j

e = 2V

k-j+i
1

k-j

Application of the method:

(6 - 4) + 1 = 3 independent algebraic currents: i, j, k

3 necessary equations
we choose 3 independent meshes with 3 intensity directions

III.3 Application of Kirchhoffs laws

1. We choose a positive way for the current in each branch

2. Application to Kirchhoff's Current Law
3. Reduce number of unknowns: 3
4. Application to Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (loop rule)

3 independent equations

29

III.3 Application of Kirchhoffs laws

- Each real receiver is

replaced with a
generator in opposition
with the real intensity:
we have to determine
the direction of i

e = 30V


1


k

A

j-i

(a)
1

D
j

e = 2V

k-j+i

- We apply the Kirchhoff's

Voltage Law to 3 different
meshes

(c)

(b)

i

3

(a)

1.k + 3.j + 1.(j - i) - 30 = 0

(b)

1.k + 1.(k - j) + 3.(k - j + i) - 30 = 0

(c)

3.(k - j + i) -1.(j - i) + 2 + 1.i = 0

k-j

III.3 Application of Kirchhoffs laws

(a)
(b)
(c)

1.k + 3.j + 1.(j - i) = + 30

1.k + 1.(k - j) + 3.(k - j + i) = + 30
3.(k - j + i) - 1.(j - i) + 1.i = - 2

system of equations:

-i
3.i
5.i

+
-

4.j
4.j
4.j

+
+
+

k
5.k
3.k

= 30
= 30
= -2

(1)
(2)
(3)

(1) + (2) ==> 2.i + 6.k = 60

(1) + (3) ==> 4.i + 4.k = 28 ==> 8.i = -36
Thus i < 0, which is impossible (problem with receiver)!
31

III.3 Application of Kirchhoffs laws

we change the direction of i

we change the generator
replacing the receiver
(in the other direction)
we write again
the equations (i) ->(-i)

e = 30V


1


k

j-i

(a)
1

(c)

resolution

(b)

i

3

i=3A
j=4A
k = 11 A

e = 2V

k-j+i

new system of equations

We find

D
j

OK!

k-j

IV. General theorems

IV.1 Superposition principle
The total intensity / voltage produced in one branch of the
network by several sources acting simultaneously
is equal to
the sum of the intensities / voltages delivered in the branch by
each source separately.

Method:
1. turn successively all the sources except one into passive
sources
2. determine the intensity / voltage delivered by the only
source remaining
3. sum up all these intensities / voltages

33

IV.1 Superposition principle

To turn a source into a passive source = turn it off

- For a perfect voltage source, to bypass it:

34

IV.1 Superposition principle

To turn a source into a passive source = turn it off

- For a perfect voltage source, to bypass it:
- For a perfect current source, to replace it with an open circuit:

I0

IV.1 Superposition principle

Example:

E1

r1

E2

r2
R

r1

E1

I1

r2
R

r1

+
I2

r2

E2

Calculation of I?

Calculation of I1 and I2 then I = I1+ I2
36

IV.1 Superposition principle

R3

R5

e1

R2

i0

R4

e2
-

R1

R6

We have to consider successively the source e1 only,
the source i0 only and the source e2 only,
then superpose (add) the results.
37

IV.2 Kennellys theorem

Transformation delta Y
IB

IB

IBC
VB VC

VA - VB
RC
IAB
IA

rB

U
AB

RA
rA
RB

ICA

VC - VA

IC

IA

U
BC

rC
IC

U
CA

Demonstration:
- Calculation of tensions UAB, UBC, UCA and of intensities IA, IB
and IC in both cases
- Identification

38

IV.2 Kennellys theorem

a) Calculation in the delta configuration:

B
RC

RA

- Kirchhoff's Current Law at point A:

A

IA + ICA = IAB

IA = IAB - ICA

(1)

IA

IAB
A

RB

ICA

- Kirchhoff's Current Law at point B:

IB + IAB = IBC

IB = IBC - IAB

(2)

IAB

IB
B

IBC
39

IV.2 Kennellys theorem

a) Calculation in the delta configuration:

B
RC

RA

- Kirchhoff's Current Law at point A:

IA = IAB - ICA

(1)

RB

- Kirchhoff's Current Law at point B:

IB = IBC - IAB

(2)

- Ohms law in branch AC:

UCA = VC - VA = RB.ICA
- Ohms law in branch AB:

UAB = VA - VB = IAB.RC

(1 - 3 - 4)

U AB U CA
IA =

RC
RB

(3)

(4)

(5)

40

IV.2 Kennellys theorem

(1 - 3 - 4)
likewise:

U AB U CA
IA =

RC
RB
U BC U AB
IB =

RA
RC

(5)
(6)

B
RC

RA

RB

Kirchhoff's Voltage Law

UAB + UBC + UCA = UAA = 0
(5, 6, 7)

(7)

RB .RC
R A .RC
U AB =
.I A
.I B
R A + RB + RC
R A + RB + RC

(same calculation steps to determine UCB and UCA )

41

IV.2 Kennellys theorem

b) Calculation in the Y configuration:

- Kirchhoff's Current Law at point O:

rb
ra

IA + IB + IC = 0

- OHMs law:
UAB = VA - VB = VA - VO + VO VB =
with identification:

rA.IA -

rc

rB.IB

Kennelly's Delta-Star Transformation

Reminder: in the delta configuration we found

RB .RC
R A .RC
U AB =
.I A
.I B
R A + RB + RC
R A + RB + RC
42

IV.2 Kennellys theorem

b) Calculation in the Y configuration:

- Kirchhoff's Current Law at point O:

rb
ra

IA + IB + IC = 0

UAB = VA - VB = VA - VO + VO VB =

rA.IA -

rB.IB

Kennelly's Delta-Star Transformation

rA =

- OHMs law:

with identification:

rc

R B .RC
R A + R B + RC

R A .RC
rB =
R A + R B + RC
R A .R B
rC =
R A + R B + RC

43

IV.2 Kennellys theorem

B

B
RC

rb

RA

ra
A

RB

R B .RC
rA =
R A + R B + RC
R A .RC
rB =
R A + R B + RC
rC =

R A .R B
R A + R B + RC

rc
C

Resistance of each conductor in the Y

configuration:
product of the adjacent pair of resistances
ending at the same vertex
over the sum of the resistances
44

IV.2 Kennellys theorem

B

B
RAB

rb

RBC

ra
A

RAC

GAB =
GBC

rc
C

GA .GB
GA + GB + GC

GB .GC
=
GA + GB + GC

GBC =

GB .GC
GA + GB + GC

G = conductance = 1/R
45

IV.3 Dipole equivalent to a network seen from 2

points: Thevenins and Nortons theorems

Eth

Thevenin
model

I .A

A
.

RN

UAB

Rth
.

io

Norton
model
.

Passive dipole
VA - VB = 0

if

I=0

ex: resistance

Active dipole
VA - VB 0

if

I=0

ex:

I
A

R
r

B
46

IV.3 Thevenins and Nortons theorems

a) THEVENINs theorem
All active and linear dipoles (located between any points A and
B) may be replaced by an equivalent Thevenins source of
e.m.f. ETh and internal resistance RTh.
I

Linear
ACTIVE
dipole

external
circuit

B
ETh is the potential difference between points A and B in open
circuit.
RTh is the equivalent resistance of the dipole once all the
sources have been turned into passive sources.
47

IV.3 Thevenins and Nortons theorems

Demonstration
Thevenins
model

* Open circuit: I = 0
I=0
Linear
ACTIVE
dipole

I=0 A
ETh
RTh

UAB

ETh

B
UAB = ETh
* RTh?
I

Linear
ACTIVE
dipole

external
circuit

48

IV.3 Thevenins and Nortons theorems

* RTh?
I

Linear
ACTIVE
dipole

External circuit
the resulting intensity is I

B
Step 1: a switch is inserted and opened
I=0

A
R

Linear
ACTIVE
dipole

I=0
UAB = ETh

B
49

IV.3 Thevenins and Nortons theorems

Step 2: a perfect voltage source is inserted

I=0
Linear
ACTIVE
dipole

A
ETh

I=0
UAB = ETh (left handed side)
and UAB

= ETh + Uswitch+ UR

(right handed side)

Uswitch = 0
Step 3: the switch is closed
I=0
Linear
ACTIVE
dipole

A
ETh

Uswitch = 0
I=0
50

IV.3 Thevenins and Nortons theorems

Step 4: superposition principle

I=0
Linear
ACTIVE
dipole

A
ETh

B
A

I1
Linear
PASSIVE
dipole

ETh

B
RAB: equivalent
resistance of the dipole
once passive

I2

Linear
ACTIVE
dipole

B
I = 0 = I1 + I2
I1 = - I2 = - ETh / (RAB + R)

51

IV.3 Thevenins and Nortons theorems

Step 5: identification

ILAD

I
R

Linear
ACTIVE
dipole

ETh
RTh

ILAD = ETh / (RAB + R)

RAB: equivalent resistance of the
dipole once passive

I = ETh / (RTH + R)
RAB = RTh

ETh is the potential difference between points A and B in open

circuit.
RTh is the equivalent resistance of the dipole once all the
sources have been turned into passive sources.
52

IV.3 Thevenins and Nortons theorems

Any active dipole (black box) containing only voltage sources,

current sources, and resistors is equivalent, for the rest of the
circuit, to a Thvenin equivalent generator whose
* Electromotive force is the open circuit voltage between A and B
* Internal resistance is the resistance of the dipole once passive

53

IV.3 Thevenins and Nortons theorems

b) NORTONs theorem (current source)

ILAD

Linear
ACTIVE
dipole

I
ETh
RTh

B
RTh: equivalent resistance of
the dipole once passive

I
I0

RTh

54

IV.3 Thevenins and Nortons theorems

A
I0
RTh

I0
I0 is the shortcircuit intensity

55

IV.3 Thevenins and Nortons theorems

NORTONs theorem:
R

Linear
ACTIVE
dipole

ILAD

I0

RTh

Any active dipole (black box) containing only voltage sources,

current sources, and resistors is equivalent, for the rest of the
circuit, to a Norton equivalent generator whose
is equivalent to the association in parallel of
* perfect source of current has an intensity I0 = the intensity that
would be obtained by short-circuiting A and B
* internal resistance is the resistance of the dipole become once
passive
56

IV.4 Summary: use of several theorems

R3

R5

* Thevenins
theorem

e1
Nortons

theorem

R2

+
i0

R4

e2

+
* Superposition
principle

* Millmanns theorem
* Kennellys R
theorem
1

R6

* Association of Thevenins generator in series / association of

Nortons generator in parallel
* Equivalence between voltage and current sources
* Kirchhoffs and Ohms laws
m =b-(n-1)
of the has
intensity
in each branch?
to be used only repartition
when the circuit
beenI simplified
using the
previous theorems

57

Chapter 7
Circuits in alternative current
I. Introduction
So far

- direct current: I constant t

- dipoles: generators, receivers (resistors)

Moreover: presence of a current I creation of magnetic field

Various phenomena electromagnetic induction phenomenon
self-induction: induction
phenomenon created in a
closed circuit caused by
changes in the circuit itself
u = L. di / dt
L: coefficient of self induction = self-inductance (Henry)

58

I.1- Definitions
Alternating current
(opposite to direct current)
= intensity varies between
two values: -Imax, Imax
An electric circuit is said to be in permanent sinusoidal regime
when the external excitations (current or voltage sources) are
sinusoidal functions
* of similar pulsation = 2f
* supposed to be established from the time t =-
* and create in the circuit only currents and voltages of
same shape

u (t ) = U m cos(t + u )
2
i (t ) = I m cos(
t + i )
T

59

I.1. Definitions

60

I.1. Definitions

Periodic function: a function whose value is always the same

when a defined period T is added to its independent variable.
T: period (s)

x = f (t ) = f (t + T ) = f (t + nT )

f: frequency (Hz)

f = 1/ T

Maximum amplitude
(Um)

u(t) = U m cos( t + u )
61

I.2 The quasi-steady state assumption

* The field E, the potential V, (): all physical quantities depend
on time

d
div j +
=0
dt

j = E

D
E=

div D =

Charge conservation Ohms law Perfect dielectrics Gauss theorem

(local form)
(local form)
(local form)

d
+
=0

dt

(t) = 0 e-(/)t

= / 10-17 s

All variations happening on longer time scales may be

62
considered as series of equilibrium states.

I.2. Quasi-steady state assumption

All variations happening on longer time scales may be

considered as series of equilibrium states.

* Assumption OK for low and medium frequencies including
50 60 Hz

= 0

div j = 0

ik = 0

* Consequences:
- laws demonstrated for direct current are still verified:
Kirchhoffs current law (junction rule), Kirchhoff's voltage Law
(loop rule), Millman, Thevenin,

63

I.2. Quasi-steady state assumption

* Between the 2 terminals of a resistance:

i (t)
u(t) = R . i(t)

R
* Between the 2 terminals of a capacitor:
i (t)

u(t) = u0 + 1/C i(t)dt

* Between the 2 terminals of a a self-induction coil:

i (t)
u(t) = L . di(t)/dt
u(t)

L: self-inductance
(Henry)

64

II. Sinusoidal current circuits

II.1 Why this kind of current?
* Current delivered by electricity suppliers (e.g. EDF)

* Because
any periodic signal = sinusoidal currents f and amplitudes
(cf 2nd year: Fourier series)
65

II. 2 Generalities on sinusoidal quantities

Sinusoidal function: any periodic function of period T
expressed with a sine or cosine.
T: period (s)

x = f (t ) = f (t + T ) = f (t + nT )

f: frequency (Hz)

f = 1/ T

Maximum amplitude
(Um)

Shift due to initial phase

(u)

u(t) = U m cos( t + u )

When u 0, the entire waveform appears to be shifted in time

66
by the amount / s.

II. 2 Generalities on sinusoidal quantities

* t + angle called instant phase of x(t)
* mean value of a sinusoid: zero

1T
x = x(t ) dt
T0
T

* root mean square value: Xrms=XM/2

xrms

1 2
=
x (t )dt

T 0

Maximum amplitude
(Um)

Shift due to initial phase

(u)

u(t) = U m cos( t + u )

Purpose: comparison between two tensions (Ue / Us) or

67
between the voltage and the intensity.

II.2. Sinusoidal quantities

u (t ) = U m cos(t + u )
i (t ) = I m cos(

2
t + i )
T

Phase difference between the two signals: ui

Phase difference between U and I :

u i

u i > 0

Tension is said to be in advance compared to i

u i < 0

Intensity is said to be in advance compared to u

68

II. 3 - Representation of a sinusoidal quantity

a) Fresnel representation or vectorial representation
Let, in a plane, a vector OM of
magnitude Xm turning in the
direct direction with a constant
angular velocity .

Xm

t +

Mo t = 0

At t=0, this vector forms an

angle with x-axis.
At time t, this vector forms an angle +t with x-axis.
Projections of OM on the axes:

x(t ) = X m cos(t + )
y (t ) = X m sin(t + )
When rotating, point M gives the evolutions of sinusoidal functions

69

II.3. Representation of a sinusoidal quantity

b) Complex representation
Algebraic translation of Fresnel vectorial representation
Let's consider an xy-plane as a complex plane:
Im
Xm


O t +

x = X m cos( t + ) = Re (X)
y = X m sin( t + ) = I m (X)
Re

70

II.3. Representation of a sinusoidal quantity

x(t) = X m cos( t + x )
Complex function associated:

X = x + jy
!
# X m = X = magnitude of X = x 2 + y 2
"
#
$ = argument of X(t = 0)

Cartesian form:

X(t) = X m cos( t + ) + jX m sin( t + )

Eulerian form:

X ( t ) = Xme j(t+ ) = Xrms 2e j(t+ )

The real part represents the studied function:

i(t) = Re [ i ] = Im cos (t + i)

current

u(t) = Re [ u ]= Um cos (t + u)

tension

71

III. Complex impedances of passive dipoles

III. 1 Basic elements of sinusoidal mode networks

Resistance

To the resistance terminals: sinusoidal difference of potential

Ohms law applied to instantaneous values of the current and voltage

u (t ) = U m cos(t + u )
i (t ) = I m cos(t + i )
u(t ) = VA VB = Ri(t )

U m cos(t + u ) = RI m cos(t + i )
72

Ohms law:

j u

U U m e
Z= =
I I m e ji

Ratio between complex magnitudes is time independent.

(same pulsation)
Complex admittance:

1
I
j
Y= =Ye =
Z
U

73

Ohms law:

j u

U U m e
Z= =
I I m e ji

Resistance

z = R ( )
Fresnels representation:

=
u
i
U = RI

i = Im cos (t)
u = R Im cos (t)
Intensity through a pure resistance R is in phase with the
tension.
74

Capacitor

q(t)=CU(t)
C

i
uc

u (t ) = U m cos(t + u )

at t : q
at t + dt : q q + dq
dq d(Cu) C.du
current : i =
=
=
dt
dt
dt

i(t ) = I m cos(t + i )

i (t ) = U m C sin(t + u ) = U m C cos(t + u +

I m = CU m and i = u +

du (t )
Instantaneous energy accumulated by capacitor: p(t ) = u (t )i (t ) = Cu(t )
dt
2
t
1 2
1 q (t )
W = p (t )dt = Cu (t ) =
75
2
2 C
o

Ohms law:

j u

U U m e
Z= =
I I m e ji

Capacitor

j
1
z=
=
C jC
Fresnels representation

i
uc

- /2

Im

uc = Im / C
Intensity through a capacitor is in advance compared to the
76
tension.

Ohms law:

j u

U U m e
Z= =
I I m e ji

Induction coil

i (t)

z = jL
uL = L Im
Fresnels representation

+/2

Im

Intensity through a coil L is late compared to the tension.

77

III. 2 Association of passive elements

Tension between the terminals of all the impedances Zk:

U = IZk
k

Example:

Association in series: z = zk
z1 = R1 + jX1 and

z2 = R2 + jX2

Equivalent impedance: z = R + jX

z = (R1 + R2) + j ( X1 + X2)

78

III.2. Association of passive elements

Association in parallel:
Z1

i(t ) = ik (t )

U = Zk Ik

Ze

Z2

U
I =
k Zk

U
I=
Z

Equivalent impedance:

1
1
=
Z
k Zk

Y = Y k
k

Admittance

79

III.2. Association of passive elements

General case:

z = R + j.X

u U m .e j (t )
i= =
= I m .e j (t )
z
R + jX
Im =

Real part

Imaginary part (L, C)

X
tan( ) =
R

Um
R2 + X 2

Example: Equivalent impedance z of a RLC series circuit

R

1 / C

80

IV General theorems (cf. direct current)

Kirchhoff's Current Law (junction):
ik = 0
Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (mesh):

U = ZI E

Millmanns theorem:
sources (ei, zi) in //
equivalent source:

U = 0
zk ik = ek
1
1
=
ze k zk
ee
ek
=
ze k zk

81

IV. General theorems

Thevenins theorem:
B

Active
network

u
A

Passive
network

eg
zs

ze
u = z e .i =
.e g
ze + zs
Nortons Theorem :

Active
network

i0

ze

B
82

V. Power in sinusoidal state

- Permanent state (direct current): P = U.I = constant
- Quasi-steady state:

p(t) = u(t).i(t)

V.1 Instantaneous power p(t)

Sinusoidal state

u(t) = Um.cos (t)

i(t) = Im.cos (t - )

Power consumed in an impedance crossed by a current i with a

potential difference u to its terminal:

p(t) = u(t).i(t) = Um.Im.cos(t).cos(t-)

83

V. Power in sinusoidal state

p(t) = Um.Im.cos(t).cos(t-)

As cos(a).cos(b) = (cos (a+b) + cos (a-b)) / 2

p=

Um. Im
(cos() + cos(2 t ))
2

Um
Im
but (root mean square values) U =
and I =
2
2
p = U.I.cos()+U.I.cos(2 t ))
cos = power factor

p2

p1

p1

UI
t

UI.cos
t
T/2

(as 2t)

84

V. Power in sinusoidal state

(Receiver convention)

Thus, finally p = p1 +p2:

pabsorbed

T/2

UI.cos

t
t
t
generator receiver

85

V.2 Absorbed energy and active power

* Absorbed energy during dt: dW = u(t).i(t).dt
* Absorbed energy during length of time ( << T): W
- Let k be an integer:
Time interval:

k .T
=
2
kT
2

k .T
W =
u.i.dt =
.U .I . cos
t
2
Mean power : P = U .I . cos
t+

P = active power

cos = power factor

S = U.I = apparent power

86

V. Power in sinusoidal state

(Receiver convention)

Sign of active power:

* Active power is absorbed by circuit if cos > 0 the circuit

acts as a receiver
* Active power is furnished by circuit if cos < 0 the circuit
acts as a generator
p1 + p2
pabsorbed

T/2
UI.cos
t
t
t
generator receiver

87

V. Power in sinusoidal state

V.3 Absorbed power by an impedance

P = UI cos

cos = Re(Z) / IZI

IZI

Im(Z)

Re(Z)
and U = IZI. I
==> P = U I (Re(Z)/IZI) = (IZI. I). I. (Re(Z)/IZI) = Re(Z). I2
V.4 Optimum characteristics of a circuit?
How to provide enough power while decreasing costs
and losses due to Joules effect?
88

Test program
Exam 13/06/2013 p.m.
* electrostatics: everything (lectures + exercises, including
the cylindrical capacitor)
* electrokinetics: everything (lectures + exercises, including
all TP-TD)

Good luck J
89