Contents

PRESSURE VESSEL...................................................................................................... 1
Historical Background............................................................................................. 1
Definition................................................................................................................. 1
Deign Data.............................................................................................................. 2
Type Selection......................................................................................................... 2
Types of Pressure Vessels........................................................................................ 3
Open Vessels........................................................................................................ 3
Closed Vessels...................................................................................................... 3
Thin-walled........................................................................................................... 3
Thick-walled......................................................................................................... 3
Spherical:............................................................................................................. 3
Cylindrical:........................................................................................................... 3
Fired and Unfired.................................................................................................. 4
Horizontal or Vertical............................................................................................ 4
Classification of Pressure Vessels............................................................................4
The design of thin-walled vessels under internal pressure...................................4
Thick-walled pressure vessels manufacturing methods.......................................7
Major Loads............................................................................................................. 7
Design Loads........................................................................................................ 8
Design Temperature............................................................................................. 9
Wind Loads........................................................................................................... 9
Earthquake loads................................................................................................. 9
Stress Analysis...................................................................................................... 10
Membrane Stress Analysis................................................................................. 10
Stress Analysis of Pressure Vessels....................................................................11
Membrane Stress Analysis................................................................................. 11
Cylindrical Pressure Vessels...............................................................................12
Materials................................................................................................................ 12
Welded-Joint Efficiency and Construction Categories............................................12
Corrosion Allowance.............................................................................................. 12
Failures in Pressure Vessels................................................................................... 13
Categories of Failures............................................................................................ 13
Material.............................................................................................................. 13

Types of Failures.................................................................................................... 14
Elastic Deformation............................................................................................ 14
Brittle fracture.................................................................................................... 14
Stress rupture.................................................................................................... 14
Plastic instability................................................................................................ 14
High strain.......................................................................................................... 14
Stress corrosion.................................................................................................. 14
Corrosion fatigue................................................................................................ 14
Estimating Weights of Vessels & Vessel Components............................................14
Fabricated weight............................................................................................... 15
Shipping weight................................................................................................. 15
Erection weight.................................................................................................. 15
Empty weight..................................................................................................... 15
Operating weight............................................................................................... 15
Test weight......................................................................................................... 15
Support Structures................................................................................................ 15
Skirt Supports..................................................................................................... 15
Leg supports...................................................................................................... 15
Saddle Supports................................................................................................. 15
Ring Supports..................................................................................................... 15
Lug supports...................................................................................................... 15
Combination Supports........................................................................................ 15

1 PRESSURE VESSEL
The chemical engineer will not usually be called on to undertake the detailed mechanical design
of a pressure vessel. Vessel design is a specialized subject, and will be carried out by mechanical
engineers who are conversant with the current design codes and methods of stress analysis.
However, the chemical engineer will be responsible for developing and specifying the basic
design information for a particular vessel, and needs to have a general appreciation of pressure
vessel design to work effectively with the specialist designer. Most reactors, separation columns,
flash drums, heat exchangers, surge tanks, and other vessels in a chemical plant will need to be
designed as pressure vessels. Another reason why the process engineer must have an appreciation
of methods of fabrication, design codes, and other constraints on pressure vessel design is
because these constraints often dictate limits on the process conditions.

1.1 Historical Background

Large pressure vessels were invented during industrial revolution particularly in Great Britain, to
be used as boilers to make steam to drive steam engines. Design and testing standards came into
being after some fatal accidents resulting due to boiler explosions.

1.2 Definition
Pressure vessels are closed structures built to contain gases or liquids (fluids) at pressure much
different than the ambient pressure. According to a definition pressure vessels are containers
manufactured to operate at a pressure higher than 15 psi, whereas all those vessels, which
operate below or at the atmospheric pressure, are called storage tanks. Pressure vessels are
usually cylindrical in form however other types like the spherical or conical pressure vessels do
exist, other complicated shapes have been historically too tough to build and operate safely.
Theoretically spherical pressure vessels have twice the strength of cylindrical pressure vessels
but since the spherical shape is too expensive to construct so economically a cylindrical vessel is
preferred.
Although the design theory for pressure vessels might seem to be simple having to design a mere
cylinder, but the designing is not to be just restricted to a cylinder. Cylinder end closures called
the pressure heads, holes in the cylinder for inlet and outlet pipes and the welds involved make
the design a real sensitive one. Manholes are provided in pressure vessels to allow the entry of a
maintenance worker into the main body. Pressure vessel heads are usually hemi-spherical
shaped. This allows more pressure bearing capacity and strength as compared to flat shaped
heads. The reason is being able to cater for the stress concentrations in a better manner. Pressure

vessels are subjected to both external and internal pressures however the one that is higher in
magnitude and therefore more difficult to cater governs their design. Strength of Pressure Vessels
increases as mass decreases. Pressure vessels are held together against the stress created by gas
pressure due to the tensile forces in the walls of the vessel. The normal (tensile) stress is directly
proportional to the radius and pressure of the container whereas inversely proportional to the
thickness of the walls.

1.3 Deign Data

Another reason why the process engineer must have an appreciation of methods of fabrication,
design codes, and other constraints on pressure vessel design is because these constraints often
dictate limits on the process conditions. Mechanical constraints can cause significant cost
thresholds in design, for example, when a costlier grade of alloy is required above a certain
temperature.
The basic data needed by the specialist designer will be:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
i)
j)

Vessel function.
Process materials and services.
Operating and design temperature and pressure.
Materials of construction.
Vessel dimensions and orientation.
Type of vessel heads to be used.
Openings and connections required.
Specification of heating and cooling jackets or coils.
Type of agitator.
Specification of internal fittings.

1.4 Type Selection

The first step in the design of any vessel is the selection of the type best suited for the particular
service in question. The primary factors influencing this choice are,
1.
2.
3.
4.

The operating temperature and pressure.

Function and location of the vessel.
Nature of fluid.
Necessary volume for storage or capacity for processing.

It is possible to indicate some generalities in the existing uses of the common types of vessels.
For storage of fluids at atmospheric pressure, cylindrical tanks with flat bottoms and conical
roofs commonly used. Spheres or spheroids are employed for pressure storage where the volume
required is large. For smaller volume under pressure, cylindrical tanks with formed heads are
more economical.

1.5 Types of Pressure Vessels

1.5.1

Open Vessels

Open vessels are commonly used as surge tanks between operations, as for batch operations
where materials be mixed and blended as setting tanks, decanters, chemical reactors, reservoirs
and so on. Obviously, this type of vessels is cheaper than covered or closed vessel of the same
capacity and construction. The decision as to whether or not open vessels may be used depends
up on the fluid to be handled and the operation.
1.5.2

Closed Vessels

Combustible fluids, fluids emitting toxic or obnoxious fumes and gases must be stored in closed
vessels. Dangerous chemicals, such as acid or caustic, are less hazardous if stored in closed
vessels. The combustible nature of petroleum and its products associates the use of closed vessels
and tanks throughout the petroleum and petrochemical industries. Tanks used for the storage of
crude oils and petroleum products.
1.5.3

Thin-walled

A pressure vessel is called thin-walled if the internal radius to thickness ratio is greater than 10.
Radius to thickness ratio is the defining parameter in this case. These vessels are commonly in
use mainly because stress is uniform throughout the wall thickness.
1.5.4

Thick-walled

A pressure vessel is called thick-walled if the internal radius to thickness ratio is less than 10.
Again radius to thickness ratio is the defining parameter. The stress in these vessels varies
from maximum value at the inside surface of the vessel to a minimum value at the outside
surface. These vessels have high strength and can withstand maximum stress.
1.5.5

Spherical:

These vessels are sphere shaped and are mainly used where space for accommodation is limited.
The maximum and minimum pressures in these vessels are equal.
1.5.6

Cylindrical

These vessels are cylindrical in shape with two closures called heads on the both extreme sides.
The radius is fixed and thickness of walls is subject to internal pressure. These vessels have an
axial symmetry.

1.5.7

Fired and Unfired

The difference between the fired and unfired pressure vessels is the fire. Fired pressure vessels
are those, which are fired electrically or by gas or fuel. All other types that do not involve a fire
and are used merely for storage purposes are called unfired pressure vessels.
1.5.8

Horizontal or Vertical

On the basis of axis or direction of installation the vessels may be classified as horizontal or
vertical pressure vessels.

1.6 Classification of Pressure Vessels

For the purposes of design and analysis, pressure vessels are subdivided into two classes
depending on the ratio of the wall thickness to vessel diameter: thin-walled vessels, with a
thickness ratio of less than 1:10, and thick-walled above this ratio.
1.6.1 The design of thin-walled vessels under internal pressure
1.6.1.1 Cylinders and Spherical Shells
The walls of thin vessels can be considered to be membranes, supporting loads without
significant bending or shear stresses, similar to the walls of a balloon. The analysis of the
membrane stresses induced in the wall by internal pressure gives a basis for determining the
minimum wall thickness required for vessel shells. The actual thickness required will also
depend on the stresses arising from the other loads to which the vessel is subjected. For a
cylindrical shell, the stresses in the walls can be determined from simple force balances, as the
wall stresses must balance the forces due to pressure. If we consider a horizontal section through
the vessel figure 1(a), then the force due to pressure on the cross-section is
Pi D2
F L=
(1)
4
Where
Pi = internal pressure.
D = mean diameter.
FL = force in longitudinal direction.
This force must be balanced by the longitudinal stress in the wall of the cylinder, which acts only
on the sectioned area of the wall
F L = L Dt (2)
Where

L = longitudinal stress.
t = wall thickness.
Equating equation (1) and (2)
L=

Pi D
(3)
4t

Similarly, if we consider a vertical section in an infinite cylinder (Figure 1(b)), the force due to
pressure on a vertical section of length L is
FV =Pi DL(4)
Where,
Fv = force in horizontal direction
L = length
This force is balanced by the circumferential or hoop stress in the wall of the cylinder, which acts
only on the sectioned area of the cylinder
2<

FV = h
Where

h = hoop stress
Equating equation (4) and (5)
h=

PI D
(6)
2t

The minimum wall thickness that is required to contain the internal pressure can be determined
using Equations (3) and (6)
If Di is internal diameter and t the minimum thickness required, the mean diameter will be (D i +
t); substituting this for D in Equation (6) gives
t=

Pi (D i+t )
2S

where S is the maximum allowable stress and Pi the internal pressure. Rearranging gives
t=

Pi Di
(7)
2 SP i

If we allow for the welded joint efficiency, E, this becomes

t=

P i Di
(8)
2 SEPi

The equation specified by ASME

t=

Pi D i
(9)
2 SE1.2 Pi

Similarly, for longitudinal stress the code specifies

t=

Pi D i
(10)
4 SE+0.8 Pi

If these equations are rearranged and used to calculate the maximum allowable working pressure
(MAWP) for a vessel of a given thickness, then the maximum allowable working pressure is the
lower value predicted by the two equations.
For a spherical shell the code specifies
t=

Pi D i
(11)
4 SE0.4 Pi

Thick-Walled Pressure Vessels

In a thick-walled vessel subjected to internal pressure, both circumferential and radial stresses
are maximum on the inside surface. However, failure of the shell does not begin at the bore but
in fibers along the outside surface of the shell. Although the fibers on the inside surface do reach
yield first they are incapable of failing because they are restricted by the outer portions of the
shell. Above the elastic-breakdown pressure the region of plastic flow or overstrain moves
radially outward and causes the circumferential stress to reduce at the inner layers and to
increase at the outer layers. Thus, the maximum hoop stress is reached first at the outside of the
cylinder and eventual failure begins there.
1.6.2 Thick-walled pressure vessels manufacturing methods
1.6.2.1 Monobloc
Solid vessel walls.
1.6.2.2 Multilayer
Begins with a core about 1/2in. thick and successive layers are applied. Each layer is vented
(except the core) and welded individually with no overlapping welds.
1.6.2.3 Multiwall
Begins with a core about 1% in. to 2 in. thick. Outer layers about the same thickness are
successively shrunk fit over the core. This creates compressive stress in the core, which is
relaxed during pressurization. The process of compressing layers is called autofrettage.

1.6.2.4 Multilayer Autofirettage

Begins with a core about 1/2in. thick. Bands or forged rings are slipped outside. and then the
core is expanded hydraulically. The core is stressed into plastic range but below ultimate
strength. The outer rings are maintained at a margin below yield strength. The elastic
deformation residual in the outer bands induces compressive stress in the core, which is relaxed
during pressurization.
1.6.2.5 Wire wrapped vessels
Begin with inner core of thickness less than required for pressure. Core is wrapped with steel
cables in tension until the desired autofrettage is achieved.
1.6.2.6 Coil wrapped vessels
Begin with a core that is subsequently wrapped or coiled with a thin steel sheet until the desired
thickness is obtained. Only two longitudinal welds are used, one attaching the sheet to the core
and the final closure weld. Vessels 5 to 6ft in diameter for pressures up to 5,000psi have been
made in this manner.

1.7 Major Loads

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
1.7.1

Design pressure: including any significant static head of liquid

Maximum weight of the vessel and contents under operating conditions
Maximum weight of the vessel and contents under the hydraulic test conditions.
Wind loads.
Earthquake (seismic) loads.
Loads supported by, or reacting on, the vessel.
Design Loads.
Design Loads

Design loads are the loads due to the weight of vessel itself and any part permanently connected
with vessel. Depending on the overall state, a vessel can have three different weights important
enough to be considered in design.
Erection (empty) dead load of vessel
It is weight of vessel without any external insulation, fireproofing, operating content, or any
external insulation, fire proofing, operating content or any external structure attachment and
piping. Basically, it is weight of stripped vessel as hoisted on the job site. In some small-diameter
column the removable internals(tray) are shop installed, and they have to be included in the
erection weight. Each such case has to be investigated separately.
Operating dead load of vessel

It is weight of the in-place completed vessel in full operation. It is weight of the vessel plus
internal or external insulation, fireproofing, all internals with operating liquid, section of process
piping supported by the vessel, all structural equipment required for the vessel servicing and
inspection (platform, ladders, permanent trolleys etc.) and the other process equipment (heat
exchangers) attached to the vessel.
Shop dead load of vessel
It consists of vessel consists only of the weight of vessel consists only of weight of the vessel
shell, after all welding is finished, filled with test liquid.
Design Pressure
Design pressure is the pressure used to determine the minimum required thickness of each
vessel shell component, and denotes the difference between the internal and the external
pressures (usually the design and the atmospheric pressure. A vessel must be designed to
withstand the maximum pressure to which it is likely to be subjected in operation. For vessels
under internal pressure, the design pressure (sometimes called maximum allowable working
pressure or MAWP) is taken as the pressure at which the relief device is set. This will normally
be 5 to 10% above the normal working pressure, to avoid spurious operation of the relief valve
during minor process upsets.
When deciding the design pressure, the hydrostatic pressure in the base of the column should be
added to the operating pressure, if significant. Vessels subject to external pressure should be
designed to resist the maximum differential pressure that is likely to occur in service. Vessels
likely to be subjected to vacuum should be designed for a full negative pressure of 1 bar, unless
fitted with an effective, and reliable, vacuum breaker. It includes a suitable margin above the
operating pressure (0 percent of operating pressure or 10 psi minimum) plus any static head of
the operating liquid. Minimum design pressure for a code non-vacuum vessel is 15 psi. For
smaller design pressures the code stamping is not required.
1.7.2

Design Temperature

The strength of metals decreases with increasing temperature so the maximum allowable stress
will depend on the material temperature. The maximum design temperature at which the
maximum allowable stress is evaluated should be taken as the maximum working temperature of
the material, with due allowance for any uncertainty involved in predicting vessel wall
temperatures. Pressure vessels constructed in such a manner that, a sudden change of section
producing a notch effect is present, are usually not recommended for low temperature range
operations. The reason is that, they may create a state of stress such that the material will be
incapable of relaxing high-localized stresses by plastic deformation, therefore, the materials used
for low temperature operations are tested for notch ductility.

1.7.3

Wind Loads

It is described as turbulent flow of air sweeping over the earth surface with variable velocity, in
gusts rather in a steady flow. The wind can also be assumed to possess a certain mean velocity on
which local three-dimensional turbulent fluctuation are superimposed. The direction of flow is
usually horizontal; however, it may possess a vertical component when passing over a surface
obstacle. The wind velocity V is affected by the earth surface friction and increase with height
above the ground to some maximum velocity at a certain gradient level above which the wind
velocity remains constant.
1.7.4

Earthquake loads

The principal factors in damage to structure are the intensity and the earthquake motion. The
Forces and stresses in structure during an earthquake are transient, dynamic in nature and
complex. To simplify the design procedure, the vertical component of the earthquake motion is
usually neglected on assumption that the ordinary structure possesses enough excess strength in
vertical direction to earthquake resistant.
The horizontal earthquake forces acting on vessel are reduced to the equivalent static forces.
Earth-quake resistant design is large empirical, based on seismic load. The fundamental
requirement set forth in building codes is that the structure in seismic risk zones must be
designed to withstand a certain minimum horizontal shear force applied at the base of vessel in
any direction. Having assigned a minimum value to the base shear based on the past experience,
the problem which arise is how to resolve this shear into equivalent static force throughout the
height of the vessel in order to determine the shear and the bending moment in the structure at
different elevation as well as overturning moment at the base.
For design purpose, it is sufficient and conservative to assume that the vessel is fixed at the top
of its foundation; no provision is usually made for any effects of the soil-structure interaction.

1.8 Stress Analysis

Stress analysis is the determination of the relationship between external forces applied to a vessel
and the corresponding stress. The starting place for stress analysis is to determine all the design
conditions for a given problem and then determine all the related external forces. We must then
relate these external forces to the vessel parts which must resist them to find the corresponding
stresses. By isolating the causes (loadings), the effects (stress) can be more accurately
determined.
The designer must also be keenly aware of the types of loads and how they relate to the vessel as
a whole. Are the effects long or short term? Do they apply to a localized portion of the vessel or
are they uniform throughout? How these stresses are interpreted and combined, what

significance they have to the overall safety of the vessel, and what allowable stresses are applied
will be determined by three things:
1) The strength/failure theory utilized.
2) The types and categories of loadings.
3) The hazard the stress represents to the vessel.

1.8.1 Membrane Stress Analysis

Pressure vessels commonly have the form of spheres, cylinders, cones, ellipsoids, tori, or
composites of these. When the thickness is small in comparison with other &dimensions (Rm >
10), vessels are referred to as membranes and the associated stresses resulting from the contained
pressure are called membrane stresses. These membrane stresses are average tension or
compression stresses. They are assumed to be uniform across the vessel wall and act tangentially
to its surface. The membrane or wall is assumed to offer no resistance to bending. When the wall
offers resistance to bending, bending stresses occur in addition to membrane stresses.
In a vessel of complicated shape subjected to internal pressure, the simple membrane-stress
concepts do not suffice to give an adequate idea of the true stress situation. The types of heads
closing the vessel, effects of supports, variations in thickness and cross section, nozzles, external
attachments, and overall bending due to weight, wind, and seismic activity all cause varying
stress distributions in the vessel. Deviations from a true membrane shape set up bending in the
vessel wall and cause the direct loading to vary from point to point. The direct loading is diverted
from the more flexible to the more rigid portions of the vessel. This effect is called stress
redistribution.
In any pressure vessel subjected to internal or external pressure, stresses are set up in the shell
wall. In addition, there may be bending and shear stresses. The radial stress is a direct stress,
which is a result of the pressure acting directly on the wall, and causes a compressive stress equal
to the pressure. In thin-walled vessels this stress is so small compared to the other principal
stresses that it is generally ignored. Thus, we assume for purposes of analysis that the state of
stress is biaxial. This greatly simplifies the method of combining stresses in comparison to
triaxial stress states. For thick-walled vessels (Rm< 10), the radial stress cannot be ignored and
formulas are quite different from those used in finding membrane stresses in thin shells.

1.9 Maximum Allowable Stress (Nominal Design Strength)

For design purposes, it is necessary to decide a value for the maximum allowable stress (nominal
design strength) that can be accepted in the material of construction. This is determined by
applying a suitable safety factor to the maximum stress that the material could be expected to
withstand without failure under standard test conditions. The safety factor allows for any
uncertainty in the design methods, the loading, the quality of the materials, and the
workmanship.

Maximum allowable stress= roughly 35%(min tensile strength)

Maximum allowable stress= roughly 66%(min yield strength)

1.9.1 Stress Analysis of Pressure Vessels

Stress analysis is an engineering discipline that determines the relationship between externally
applied forces and their effects in form of stress generated within the material and structural
member. For any stress analysis, a usually approach is made that component or part being
analyzed must be safe economical and design point of view. In the analysis of vessel, it is not
considered to build a mathematical model with providing step by step approach to the design of
ASME codes but just to determine or calculate governing stress being produced with in vessel
and its attachment, supports and respective parts. The starting place for stress analysis is to
determine all the design conditions for a given part and the type of loading to find the
corresponding stresses produced in vessel. The designer must be aware of type of loadings and
time period and area of vessel that is under loading and their effects on safety of vessels. So, in
short, the significance and interpretation of stresses in combined or individual way may be
determined by two factors:
a) Utilization of stress failure theory.
b) Categories and types of Loadings.

1.9.2 Membrane Stress Analysis

Pressure vessels can be categorized in the form of spheres, cylinders ellipsoids and on the basis
of membrane thickness they may be thick or thin depending upon thickness to diameter ratio and
usually if (R/T >10) then vessels are referred as thin pressure vessels and vice versa and member
thickness is assumed to be uniform through entire length. Now here we are considering we are
considering very basic shape of pressure vessels that is being subjected to internal pressure and
neglecting the types of heads, closing the vessel, effects of supports, variations in thickness and
cross section, nozzles, external attachments, and overall bending due to weight, wind and vessel.
Here two types of geometries of thin walled pressures will be considered for stress calculations.
a) Cylindrical pressure vessel.
b) Spherical Pressure Vessel.
1.9.3

Cylindrical Pressure Vessels

Thin wall pressure vessels are very less affected by bending stresses and cylindrical pressure
vessels are less efficient because of varying pressure stresses in different directions and because
of attachment of additional reinforcements on closing end caps however, these vessels are
convenient to fabricate and transport.
Assumptions for Cylindrical pressure vessels

Wall assumed to be very thin as compared to other dimensions

Stress distribution must be uniform along entire length
Geometry and loading must be cylindrically symmetric
Internal Pressure denoted by p is uniform and everywhere positive and is above than
atmospheric pressure.
Features that may affect symmetric assumptions may be ignored like closing ends.

1.10 Materials
Pressure vessels are constructed from plain carbon steels, low and high alloy steels, other alloys,
clad plate, and reinforced plastics. Selection of a suitable material must take into account the
suitability of the material for fabrication (particularly welding) as well as the compatibility of the
material with the process environment

1.11 Welded-Joint Efficiency and Construction Categories

The strength of a welded joint will depend on the type of joint and the quality of the welding.

Longitudinal or spiral welds in the main shell, necks or nozzles, or circumferential welds
connecting hemispherical heads to the main shell, necks or nozzles.
Circumferential welds in the main shell, necks or nozzles or connecting a formed head
other than hemispherical.
Welds connecting flanges, tube sheets or flat heads to the main shell, a former head, neck
or nozzle.
Welds connecting communicating chambers or nozzles to the main shell, to heads or to
necks.

1.12 Corrosion Allowance

The 'corrosion allowance' is the additional thickness of metal added to allow for material
lost by corrosion and erosion, or scaling.
The allowance should be based on experience with the material of construction under
similar service conditions to those for the proposed design. For carbon and low-alloy
steels, where severe corrosion is not expected, a minimum allowance of 2.0 mm should
be used; where more severe conditions are anticipated, this should be increased to 4.0
mm.
In general, corrosion allowances will range from 1.5-5mm. Corrosion allowances for heat
transfer equipment are smaller, because wall thickness has an important effect on heat
transfer

Corrosion and erosion will lead to eventual thinning of walls, which compromises
mechanical integrity. Corrosion allowance is constructing the vessels with thicker walls
to allow for the thinning. the Peters, Timmerhaus, and West suggest 0.25 to 0.38mm
annually or 3mm for 10 years.

1.13 Failures in Pressure Vessels

Vessel failures can be grouped into four major categories, which describe why a vessel failure
occurs. Failures can also be grouped into types of failures, which describe how the failure occurs.
Each failure has a why and how to its history. It may have failed through corrosion fatigue
because the wrong material was selected! The designer must be as familiar with categories and
types of failure as with categories and types of stress and loadings. Ultimately, they are all
related

1.14 Categories of Failures

1.14.1 Material
Improper selection of material; defects in material.
1.14.2 Design
Incorrect design data; inaccurate or incorrect design methods; inadequate shop testing.
1.14.3 Fabrication
Poor quality control; improper or insufficient fabrication procedures including welding; heat
treatment or forming methods.
1.14.4 Service
Change of service condition by the user; inexperienced operations or maintenance personnel;
upset conditions. Some types of service which require special attention both for selection of
material, design details, and fabrication methods are as follows

Lethal
Fatigue (cyclic)
Brittle (low temperature)
High temperature
High shock or vibration
Vessel contents

1.15 Types of Failures

1.15.1 Elastic Deformation
Elastic instability or elastic buckling, vessel geometry, and stiffness as well as properties of
materials are protection against buckling.
1.15.2 Brittle fracture
Can occur at low or intermediate temperatures. Brittle fractures have occurred in vessels made of
low carbon steel in the 4050F range during hydro test where minor flaws exist.
1.15.3 Stress rupture
Creep deformation as a result of fatigue or cyclic loading, i.e., progressive fracture. Creep is a
time-dependent phenomenon, whereas fatigue is a cycle-dependent phenomenon.
1.15.4 Plastic instability
Incremental collapse; incremental collapse is cyclic strain accumulation or cumulative cyclic
deformation. Cumulative damage leads to instability of vessel by plastic deformation.
1.15.5 High strain
Low cycle fatigue is strain-governed and occurs mainly in lower-strength high-ductile materials.
1.15.6 Stress corrosion
It is well known that chlorides cause stress corrosion cracking in stainless steels; likewise,
caustic service can cause stress corrosion cracking in carbon steels. Material selection is critical
in these services.
1.15.7 Corrosion fatigue
Occurs when corrosive and fatigue effects occur simultaneously. Corrosion can reduce fatigue
life by pitting the surface and propagating cracks. Material selection and fatigue properties are
the major considerations.

1.16 Estimating Weights of Vessels & Vessel Components

Estimating of weights of vessels is an important aspect of vessel engineering. In the conceptual
phase of projects, weights are estimated in order to determine costs and budgets for equipment,
foundations, erection, and transportation. Estimated weights also help to get more accurate bids
from suppliers. Accurate weights are necessary for the design of the vessel itself to determine
forces and moments. There are a number of different types of weights that are calculated. Each
weight is used for different purposes.
1.16.1 Fabricated weight
Total weight as fabricated in the shop.
1.16.2 Shipping weight
Fabrication weight plus any weight added for shipping purposes, such as shipping saddles.

1.16.3 Erection weight

Fabrication weight plus any weight installed for the erection of the equipment, such as any
insulation, fireproofing, piping, ladders, platforms.
1.16.4 Empty weight
The overall weight of the vessel sitting on the foundation, fully dressed, waiting for operating
liquid.
1.16.5 Operating weight
Empty weight plus any operating liquid weight.
1.16.6 Test weight
This weight can be either shop or field test weight, that is, the vessel full of water.

1.17 Support Structures

There are various methods that are used in the support structures of pressure vessels, as outlined
below.
1.17.1 Skirt Supports

Cylindrical
Conical
Pedestal
Shear ring

1.17.2 Leg supports

Braced
a. Cross braced (pinned and unpinned)
b. Sway braced
Unbraced
Stub columns
1.17.3

Combination Supports
Lugs and legs
Rings and legs
Skirt and legs
Skirt and ring girder

1.17.4 Skirt Supports

One of the most common methods of supporting vertical pressure vessels is by means of a rolled
cylindrical or conical shell called a skirt. The skirt can be either lap-, fillet-, or butt-welded
directly to the vessel. This method of support is attractive from the designers standpoint because
it minimizes the local stresses at the point of attachment, and the direct load is uniformly
distributed over the entire circumference. The use of conical skirts is more expensive from a
fabrication standpoint, and unnecessary for most design situations. The critical line in the skirt
support is the weld attaching the vessel to the skirt. This weld, in addition to transmitting the

overall weight and overturning moments, must also resist the thermal and bending stresses due to
the temperature drop in the skirt. The thinner the skirt, the better it is able to adjust to
temperature variations. A hot box design is used for elevated temperatures to minimize
discontinuity stresses at the juncture by maintaining a uniform temperature in the region. In
addition, skirts for elevated temperature design will normally be insulated inside and outside for
several feet below the point of attachment
The governing conditions for determining the thickness of the skirt are as follows

Vessel erection
Imposed loads from anchor chairs
Skirt openings
Weight + overturning moment.

1.17.5 Leg Supports

A wide variety of vessels, bins, tanks, and hoppers may be supported on legs. The designs can
vary from small vessels supported on 3 or 4 legs, to very large vessels and spheres up to 80 feet
in diameter, supported on 16 or 20 legs. Sometimes the legs are also called columns or posts.
Almost any number of legs can be used, but the most common variations are 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 16, or
20. Legs should be equally spaced around the circumference. Leg supports may be braced or
unbraced. Braced legs are those which are reinforced with either cross-bracing or sway bracing.
Sway braces are the diagonal members which transfer the horizontal loads, but unlike cross
braces, they operate in tension only. The diagonal members in a sway-braced system are called
tie rods, which transfer the load to each adjacent panel. Turnbuckles may be used for adjustments
of the tie rods.
Legs may be made out of pipe, channels, angles, rectangular tubing, or structural sections such
as beams or columns. Legs may be welded directly to the vessel shell or head or may be bolted
or welded to clips which are directly attached to the shell.
Whereas skirt-supported vessels are more common in refinery service, leg-supported vessels are
more common in the chemical industry. This may be due in part to the ventilation benefits and
the toxicity of the stored or processed chemicals. Legs should not be used to support vessels in
high-vibration, shock, or cyclic service due to the high localized stresses at the attachments.
1.17.6 Saddle Supports
Usually, horizontal pressure vessels and tanks are supported on two vertical cradles called
saddles. The use of more than two saddles is unnecessary and should be avoided. Using more
than two saddles is normally a stress-related issue, which can be solved in a more conventional
manner. The reason for not using more than two saddles is that it creates an indeterminate
structure, both theoretically and practically. With two saddles, there is a high tolerance for soil
settlement with no change in shell stresses or loading. Even where soil settlement is not an issue,

it is difficult to ensure that the load is uniformly distributed. Obviously there are ways to
accomplish this, but the additional expense is often unwarranted. Vessels 40-50 ft. in diameter
and 150ft long have been supported on two saddles
Saddles may be steel or concrete. They may be bolted, welded, or loose. For the loose type, some
form of liner should be used between the vessel and the saddle, Th`1e typical loose saddle is the
concrete type. Usually one end of the vessel is anchored and the other end sliding. The sliding
end may have bronze, oiled, or Teflon slide plates to reduce the friction caused by the thermal
expansion or contraction of the vessel.
1.17.7 Lugs and Ring Supports
Lugs offer one of the least expensive and most direct ways of supporting pressure vessels. They
can readily absorb &ametra1 expansion by sliding over greased or bronzed plates, are easily
attached to the vessel by minimum amounts of welding, and are easily leveled in the field. Two
or four lug systems are normally used; however, more may be used if the situation warrants it.
There is a wide variety of types of lugs, and each one will cause different stress distributions in
the shell.
1.17.8 Ring Supports
In reality, ring supports are used when the local stresses at the lugs become excessively high. As
can be seen from the previous list, the option to go to complete, 360-degree stiffening rings
would, in most cases, be the most expensive option. Typically, vessels supported by rings or lugs
are contained within a structure rather than supported at grade and as such would be subject to
the seismic movement of which they are a part. Vessels supported on rings should only be
considered for lower or intermediate temperatures, say below 400 or 500 degrees.

1.18 Design Problem 1

Estimate the thickness required for the component parts of the vessel shown in the diagram. The
vessel is to operate at a pressure of 14 bar (absolute) and temperature of 260 C. The material of
construction will be plain carbon steel. Welds will be fully radiographed. A corrosion allowance
of 2 mm should be used.
Solution
Design pressure, take as 10% above operating gauge pressure
= (14 - 1) 1.1
= 14.3 bar
= 1.43 N/mm2

Design temperature 260 C (500 F).

From Table, maximum allowable stress = 12.9 103 psi = 88.9 N/mm2.
Cylindrical Section
=1.43 1.5 103/ (2891) -(1.21.43)
= 12.2mm
add corrosion allowance
12.2 +2 = 14.2 mm
say 15mm plate or 9/16-inch plate
Domed Head
Try a standard dished head (tori sphere):
crown radius = RC = Di = 1.5 m
knuckle radius = 6% RC = 0.09 m
A head of this size would be formed by pressing: no joints, so E = 1.
t=

0.885 1.43 1.5 103

=21,4 mm
( 89 1 )(0.1 0.43)

Try a standard ellipsoidal head, ratio major: minor axes = 2:1;

t=

1.43 1.5 10
=12.199 mm
(2 89 1 )( 0.2 1.43)

So an ellipsoidal head would probably be the most economical. Take the thickness as being the
same as the thickness of the wall, 15 mm or 9/16 inch.
Flat Head
Use a full-face gasket C = 0.25.
De = bolt circle diameter, take as approximately 1.7 m.
t=1.7 103

0.25 1.43
=107.7 mm
89 1

Add corrosion allowance and round-off to 111 mm (43/8 inch).

This shows the inefficiency of a flat cover. It would be better to use a flanged domed head.

1.19 Design Problem 2

Make a preliminary estimate of the plate thickness required for the distillation column specified
below:

Design pressure, take as 10% above operating pressure

= (10 1) 1.1 = 9.9 bar, say 10 bar
= 1.0 N/mm2
Minimum thickness required for pressure loading
3

t=

1 210
=7.4 mm
(2 135 1 )( 1.2 1 )

A much thicker wall will be needed at the column base to withstand the wind and dead-weight
loads.
As a first trial, divide the column into five sections (courses), with the thickness increasing by 2
mm per section. Try 10, 12, 14, 16, 18 mm.
Dead Weight of Vessel
Though Equation only applies strictly to vessels with uniform thickness, it can be used to get a
rough
W v =240C W Dm ( H V +0.8 Dm ) t
estimate of the weight of this vessel by using the average thickness in the equation, 14 mm.
Take Cw = 1.15, vessel with plates
Dm = 2 + 14 103 = 2.014 m
Hv = 50 m
t = 14 mm
Wv = 240 1.15 2.014 (50 + 0.8 2.014) 14
= 401643 N
= 402 kN
Weight of plates
plate area = /4 22 = 3.14 m2
weight of a plate including liquid on it 1.2 3.14 = 3.8 kN
100 plates = 100 3.8 = 380 kN
Weight of insulation
mineral wool density = 130 kg/m3
approximate volume of insulation = 2 50 75 10 3
= 23.6 m3
weight = 23.6 130 9.81 = 30,049 N
double this to allow for fittings, etc. = 60 kN
Total weight
Shell
Plates & contents
Insulation
Sum

402
380
60
842 kN

Note that the weight of the contents of the column would be substantially greater if the column
was flooded or entirely filled with liquid. This is the case during hydraulic testing, which should
be examined as a different loading scenario
Wind Loading
Take dynamic wind pressure as 1280 N/m2, corresponding to 160 kph (100 mph).
Mean diameter, including insulation = 2 + 2 (14 + 75) 103
= 2.18 m
Loading (per linear meter) W = 1280 2.18 = 2790 N/m (14.38)
Bending moment at bottom tangent line:
M X=

2790
502=3,487,500 Nm
2

Analysis of Stresses
At bottom, tangent line:
Pressure Stresses
3

1.0 2 10
N
L=
=27.8
2
4 18
mm
3

h=

1.0 2 10
N
=55.6
2
2 18
mm

Dead Weight Stress

w =

WV
842 103
=
( Di +t ) t ( 200+18 ) 18

7.4 N /mm

Bending Stress
D O=2000+ 2 18=2036 mm

I b=

( 20364 20004 ) =5.81 1010 mm 4

64
3

b =

3,487,500 10
10
5.8110

+18 )
( 2000
2

61.11 N /mm

The resultant longitudinal stress is

z= L + w b
w is compressivetherefore neative .
z (upwind ) =27.87.4 +61.1=+81.5 N /mm2
z ( downwind ) =27.87.461.1=40.7 N /mm2
As there is no torsional shear stress, the principal stresses will be z and h. The radial
stress is negligible,

(Pi/2) = 0.5 N/mm2.

The greatest difference between the principal stresses will be on the downwind side

( 55.6(40.7 ) )=96.5 N /mm2

Check Elastic Stability (Buckling)
Critical buckling stress:
c =210 4

18
( 2036
)=176.8 mmN

The maximum compressive stress will occur when the vessel is not under pressure = 7.4 + 61.1 =
68.5, well below the critical buckling stress.
So the design is satisfactory. The designer could reduce the plate thickness and recalculate.