Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Fu Xinian
Guo Daiheng
Liu Xujie
Pan Guxi
Qiao Yun
Sun Dazhang
Nancy S. Steinhardt
CONTENTS
Chronology xi
INTRODUCTION
//
Liu Xujie
2. T H E Q I N A N D H A N D Y N A S T I E S
^J-
Liu Xujie
3. T H E T H R E E K I N G D O M S , W E S T E R N A N D E A S T E R N J
A N D NORTHERN A N D SOUTHERN DYNASTIES
Fu Xinian
4. T H E S U I , T A N G , A N D F I V E D Y N A S T I E S
pi
Fu Xinian
5. T H E L I A O , S O N G , X I X I A , A N D J I N D Y N A S T I E S
Guo Daiheng
6. T H E Y U A N A N D M I N G D Y N A S T I E S
Pan Guxi
7. T H E Q I N G D Y N A S T Y
261
Sun Dai^hang
Select Bibliography j z f j
List of Contributors j j i
Acknowledgments jj2
Index j j j
199
61
CHRONOLOGY
ca.
2 0 7 0 1600 B . C . E .
ca.
160O-IO46 B.C.E.
1 0 4 6 - 2 2 1 B.C.E.
X I A DYN.A.STY
SHANG
ZHOU
DYNASTY
DYNASTY
Western Z h o u 1 0 4 6 7 7 0 B . C . E .
Eastern Z h o u 7 7 0 2 2 1 B . C . E .
Spring and Auttimn Period 7 7 0 - 4 7 6
Warring States Period 4 7 5 - 2 2 1 B . C . E .
221-207 B.C.E.
Q I N DYNASTY
206 B . C . E . - 2 2 0 C . E .
H A N DYNASTY
B.C.E.
Western H a n Dynast)' 2 0 6 B . C . E . - 9 C . E .
X i n Dynasty (Wang ]V[ang Interregnum) 9 - 2 3
Eastern Han Djmast}? 2 5 2 2 0
220-280
THREE
KINGDOMS
Wei
281-420
2 2 0 265
Shu
221-265
Wu
222-280
J I N DYNASTY*
Western Jin 2 8 1 3 1 6
Eastern Jin 3 1 7 - 4 2 0
Sixteen States
420 5 89
SOUTHERN
304439
DYNASTIES*
Liu Song 4 2 0 4 7 9
Southern Q i 4 7 9 - 5 0 2
Liang 5 0 2 - 5 5 7
Chen 5 5 7 - 5 8 9
386581
NORTHERN
DYNASTIES
N o r t h e r n Wei 3 8 6 - 5 3 4
Eastern Wei 5 3 4 - 5 5 0
Western Wei 5 3 5 - 5 5 7
Northern Q i 5 5 0 - 5 7 7
Northern Z h o u
581-618
SUI DYNASTY
618-907
TANG
907-979
FIVE DYNASTIES
902 979
TEN
557-581
DYNASTY
907-925
927951
902937
Southern Tang 9 3 7 - 9 7 8
Wu-Yue 9 0 7 - 9 7 8
Min 907946
Southern H a n 9 0 7 9 7 1
Northern Han 951979
947-1125
LIAO
960-1279
SONG
DYNASTY
DYNASTY
Northern Song
Southern Song
10381227
X IX I A ( W E S T E R N X I A )
I I I
J I N DYNASTY
51234
1271-1368
YUANDYNASTY
13 6 8 - 1 6 4 4
M I N G DYNASTY
1644-1911
QING DYNASTY
9601127
1127-1279
DYNASTY
frequcndy
Introduction
PART
Nancy S. Steinhardt
construction
during the war, and after the conflict most o f the scholars
became teachers and architects.
members,
decorative
jian^mshi
or jian^juf^lje,
ing
also
ans believe that a clear separation exists between pretwentieth-century and twentieth-century buildings. This
architecture
entry into the Chinese sphere and all that was associated
could drink mare's milk i n a felt tent, but to the one who
T920S
oned with.
valley could look very much like one along the Yangzi,
built enclosures
large part to dispel once and for all the m y t h that Chinese
Introduction
one
Introduction
Introduction
PART
II
Qiao Yun
Introduction
fifty-six
places on China's southeastern coast. Beginning i n the a bay, or " r o o m . " A house might consist o f one, two, three
umn and provides a firm base for the pieces called gong,
dou)
stjdes and practices to China. Over time, mosques and multiplied almost endlessly, allowing the column to supreligious buildings with Chinese styles appeared, but the port ever greater weight; at the same time they perlayout, r o o f style, and outer and inner decorations f o r m an integral function i n holding the entire building
technical achievement o f the modular system. B u t the Q i n g dynasties, bracket sets became smaller and lost
provided
bracket sets, reaching the peak o f development during the Tang-Song period. D u r i n g the Yuan, M n g , and
abundant
timber
resources, making w o o d
(770 476 B.C.E.), and it became well developed during the location and size o f doors and windows all could be made
Han
Introduction
refreshing environment.
quentiy found.
Ornamentation
Gardens
dampness, large eave overhangs protect against rain, lattices on wkidows and doors facilitate the mounting o f
space, high and low, near and far, wide and narrow, spare
Building Groups
, Traditional Chinese architecture, whether imperial palace
or c o m m o n residential house, usually means a group
scholars w r i t i n g this book explore this remarkable architectural legacy and h o w such accompUshed sldU and
buUdings, wooden
studs
formed a
trellis network
^'Qufu i n Shandong province, f o r instance, had ten courtyards located on the main axis,~and many more on b o t h
Introduction
painted w i t h water-flower patterns: hence the name :(aojing {^ao meaning algae, andjing a well).
Introduction
XUJIE
he soil o f C h i n a holds m y r i a d
f o u n d a t i o n s , remnants o f wooc
f r o m the Y e l l o w R i v e r valley t o I
they reveal evidence o f pillar f o
dess T e m p l e , a d d i n g t o o u r kno\^
most enduring and continuous a
tive that spans the d e v e l o p m e n t
w o r s h i p a n d w a r c o m e foreshadi
semisubterranean
XUJIE
i n n o v a t i o n a n d synthesis. A
f r o m the Y e l l o w River valley
they reveal evidence o f pillar
dess Temple, a d d i n g t o o u r k i
w o r s h i p and w a r c o m e f o r e s l
W e k n o w f r o m discoveries
p e r i o d , early peoples t h r o u g h
I n t i m e , clans a n d tribes i n
came t o b u i l d semisubterran(
D e t a i l s , figure i . i o (opposite) a n d figure 1,2 (above)
CHAPTER
XUJIE
fireplaces
Pleistocene
plex clan structures. A n d the residents o f these clan communities operated kilns, kept livestock in sheds, built
walls and moats for defense, worshiped at altars and i n
temples, and were buried i n groups o f graves.
Understanding the multiplicity o f these Neolithic cultures and peoples, and the different areas in which they
flourished, is no easy task, and i t remains the subject
o f ongoing, intensive archaeological excavations. What
these myriad sites so far reveal architecturally is a considerable diversit)' o f styles and structural forms that were
influenced by various materials and climates. Dwellings
ranged f r o m horizontally dug cave houses, vertical pit
caves, and semisubterranean cave dwellings to aboveground dwellings o f various shapes, houses elevated o n
stilts, and "big houses" located centrally i n some o f the
F i g u r e i . i . R e m a i n s o f a h o u s e f r o m tire M i d d l e N e o l i t h i c
p e r i o d , f o u n d i n D a h e village, Z h e n g z h o u , H e n a n p r o v i n c e
Neolithic villages. Such regional variations, and the differing times that they first appeared, offer early glimpses
o f China's architectural beginnings.
and with loess for walls. Vertical pit cave houses, for
example, were dug into the ground and opened into a sin-
Feir{i and the Mov(i, the early Chinese "built nests on high
Sites o f E a r l y C h i n e s e A r c h i t e c t u r e
Anyang
Sliijiahe
J i a n g z h a i 31
22
12
26
40
Leigudun/Suixian
Banpo
32
Liangzhu T O
T a n g q u a n g o u 27
Banshan
Linzi
Wangchenggang/Der
Caiwan
Chengziya 6
Luoyi/Luoyang
D a h e 24
Majiavao
Ivlore than a thousand Neolithic sites have been discovered so far, offering both a trove o f examples o f early
37
Fengchu
34
Fengxiang
Pingshan
Yin
19
22
Yongcheng
i6
S a n x i n g d u i 36
Zhengzhou
Shaqiu
Zhoul^oudian 3
Henriudu 9
1-longshan
Arclntuture
Yaoshan
Zhaoge
of Clmese
P i n g l i a n g t a i 15
21
17
30
Yanshi/Erlitou
Q u j i a l i n g 13
The Origins
Yangshao
11
Handan
developed
Panlongcheng
Y a n g c h e n g 25
38
Puyang
highly
35
33
22
Yan/Xiadu
G a o c h e n g 20
the most
Xibeigang
28
NiuheUang 2
E i i i t o u 26
F e n g / H a o (Chang'an)
Longslian 5
39
14
Shixianggou
Ashan
12
Map I .
18
23
24
26
F i g u r e i.z. T i m b e r b u i l d i n g m e m b e r s , circa
5 0 0 0 B.C.E., unearrired at H e m u d u , Z h e j i a n g
province
The middle reaches o f the Yangzi River show variations f r o m those i n the Yellow River area. A t Qujialing
F i g u r e i .4. R e c o n s t r u c t i o n d r a w i n g o f a h o u s e f r o m B a n p o site
fire-pit
tures and seem to have been created either for clan chief-
ClmieseArMtecUire
Arcloitecttii
ern pile was the largest, 8.8 meters i n diameter; 2.1 meters
F i g u r e 1.7. Remains o f G o d d e s s T e m p l e at N i u h e l i a n g , L i a o n i n g
province
ArMtectnre
building support.
over a
fifty-kilometer
construction.
tion
Chinese
elements
frame, earthen
heating,
that remained
floors
whitewashed
features
of
signs
and 1.9).
painted
on
surfaces,
Neolithic
and
pottery.
aprons
Finally,
the
Architecture
(for
F i g u r e 1.8. H a n d o f a goddess u n e a r t h e d at N i u h e l i a n g
Arcloitecture
above
advances also led to significant progress i n the use o f pottery tUes f o r roofs, bricks for paving floors, and even
bronze i n a few buUding parts.
20
ficial
The capitals Feng and Hao near Xi'an, and Luoyi near
cities within outer waUs. This makes sense, given that the
tion platforms.
Architecture
Arclntecture
Architecture
F i g u r e I . I 5. I d e a l i z e d p l a n o f W a n g c h e n g
Palaces
place where those streets join the outer cit)' wall, and
these burials, near the great haU, further suggests that the
w o o d f r o m weather.
Arclntecture
Arclntecture
right (west) are the Altars o f Soil and Grain. I n the front is
actively competed
f o r power. Buildings
and
parks
present-day
Figure 1.16. R e c o n s t r u c t i o n d r a w i n g o f a
paladal-st3'le architectural c o m p l e x at
F e n g c h u , Q i s h a n , Shaanxi p r o v i n c e ,
Western Z h o u p e r i o d
or
between the front gate and the principal hall and smaller
believed to have been conducted in the ancestral temterm ligong^ literally "detached palace." " A t the time o f ple and at the soil altar, respectively. The remains in the
K i n g Z h o u , " we are told, "the capital Y i n was enlarged soudiern sector o f X a o m n at Anyang and references to rit-
tions o f each space. The site was enclosed witir a wall, and
Arclntecture
Arclntecture
p l a t f o r m s o f t h e a p p r o a c h ramps, a n d b e y o n d t h e t o m b
c o f f i n s t h a t c o n t a i n e d s a c r i f i c i a l females w e r e a r r a n g e d i n
the w e s t e r n
filled
a sacrificial hall n o t a m o u n d w a s b u i l t o n t o p f o r
chamber.
T h e other
t w o chambers
were
f r o m Eastern
Zhou
T h e t o m b s o f Z h o u royalt)? w e r e p r o b a b l y s i m i l a r t o
w h o w a s b u r i e d at t h e e n d o f t h e f o u r t h c e n t u r y B.C.E. i n
t h o s e o f t h e Shang. S o m e Z h o u f e u d a l l o r d s h a d t o m b s
w i t h a p p r o a c h r a m p s f r o m f o u r sides. B u t m o u n d s d o
bines ( f i g . 1. 18). A l t h o u g h o n l y h i s t o m b a n d t h a t o f o n e
t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t t o m b s o f t h e era is t h a t o f t h e M a r -
his t o m b
quis Y i o f Z e n g , o f t h e E a s t e r n
a n e x t r a o r d i n a r y a r t i f a c t was u n e a r t h e d :
Z h o u , u n c o v e r e d at
b r o n z e p l a t e k n o w n as t^oaoyu tu, o r p i c t u r e o f t h e o m e n
L e i g u d u n i n H u b e i i n 1978. T h e t o m b a t t r a c t e d i n t e r n a -
area ( f i g . 1.19). E n g r a v e d o n t h e n i n e t y - s i x b y f o r t y -
t i o n a l a t t e n t i o n because o f t h e e x t r a o r d i n a r y
bronze
e i g h t - c e n t i m e t e r p l a t e is a bird's-eye v i e w o f his p l a n n e d
n e c r o p o l i s , w i t h s o u t h s h o w n at t h e t o p as is c u s t o m a r y
w e i g h i n g a t o t a l o f 2,500 I d l o g r a m s . Y e t t h e t o m b is
i n early C h i n e s e m a p s . T h e n a m e s o f t h e i n t e n d e d o c c u -
equally s i g n i f i c a n t i n t h e h i s t o r y o f Chinese f u n e r a r y
( a n d distances b e t w e e n )
quis Y i is a n i r r e g u l a r l y shaped v e r t i c a l p i t t o m b , t h i r t e e n
w a l l s , t h e f r o n t gates, a n d t h e s m a l l b a c k halls. E q u a l l y
i m p r e s s i v e , a n i n s c r i p t i o n decrees t h a t a c o p y o f this
i n area. I t w a s d i v i d e d b y w o o d e n p l a n k s i n t o f o u r c h a m -
bers. T h e p r i n c i p a l c h a m b e r , o n t h e east, c o n t a i n e d t h e
t i o n s w o u l d k n o w h o w t o r e p l i c a t e t h e i r ancestral p l a n .
A l t h o u g h o t h e r m a p s are k n o w n f r o m t h e E a s t e r n Z h o u
space b e t w e e n t h e o u t e r c o f f i n a n d t h e c h a m b e r walls
p e r i o d , t h e b r o n z e plate f r o m t h e Z h o n g s h a n n e c r o p o l i s
was
i n w i t h c h a r c o a l , clay, a n d e a r t h t o seal i t as
c o m p l e t e l y as possible. A l s o i n t h e eastern c h a m b e r w e r e
m o r e , e x c a v a t i o n has c o n f i r m e d t h a t t h e f u n e r a r y t e m -
b u r i e d , as w e l l as t h e c o f f i n o f a s a c r i f i c i a l d o g . T h i r t e e n
c o n s t r u c t e d a b o v e t h e graves.
filled
each h a l l , t h e t w o e n c l o s i n g
t h a t c i n n a b a r s ) ' m b o l i z e d the r u l e r ; b l a c k , h i g h - r a n k i n g
o f f i c i a l s ; b l u e , o f f i c i a l s ; a n d y e l l o w , lesser o f f i c i a l s .
U n i t s o f m e a s u r e m e n t appear i n Z h o u w r i t i n g s , a n d
a predecessor o f the c o m p r e h e n s i v e s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n o f
i m p e r i a l b u i l d i n g that o c c u r r e d i n m e d i e v a l C h i n a . I n the
xunwhich,
u n l i k e g u i , h a d n o r e l a t i o n t o actual objects. I n d i v i d u a l
served d i f f e r e n t p u r p o s e s .
ancient bronze
K i l n sites a n d r e m n a n t s
of
and
o r mats.
b u i l d i n g s i l l u s t r a t e d i n this c h a p t e r r e f l e c t the o p i n i o n
a n d earth, w h i c h h a d l o n g b e e n p r i m a r y c o n s t r u c t i o n
a m o n g Chinese archaeologists a n d a r c h i t e c t u r a l h i s t o r i -
D y n a s t i e s : r o o f s w i t h f o u r slopes, a n d thus f o u r r o o f
c o m p o s e d o f v e r t i c a l c o l u m n s a n d h o r i z o n t a l beams.
ridges e m a n a t i n g f r o m the c e n t r a l o r m a i n r o o f r i d g e (a
A n d i n an i m p r o v e m e n t o f the m o r t i s e a n d t e n o n system,
w e r e used t o s u p p o r t r o o f s . E v i d e n c e o f these w o o d e n
c o f f i n s i n w h i c h he o r she c o u l d be b u r i e d . S u m p t u a r y
f u n d a m e n t a l shapes
five
floors.
b u i l d i n g f o u n d a t i o n s . M o s t o f t e n , t h i n layers o f e a r t h
c o f f i n f o r l o w e r - r a n k i n g o f f i c i a l s . S i m i l a r rules g o v e r n e d
w e r e r a m m e d t o g e t h e r w i t h pieces o f w o o d a n d r u b b l e i n
t h e m . T h e r e is s o m e evidence t h a t c e r t a i n b u i l d i n g s , per-
a l l o w e d t o be b u r i e d w i t h n i n e b r o n z e t r i p o d s , h i g h -
ranking
foundation platforms.
a m o n g a l m o s t a l l Z h o u graves f o u n d i n the C e n t r a l P l a i n
v a t i o n s o f t o m b s , h o w e v e r , s h o w t h a t these regulations
tiles w e r e used f o r
w e r e n o t s t r i c t i y e n f o r c e d . A p p a r e n t i y s o m e o f f i c i a l s re-
pipes, a n d as t h e railings a r o u n d w e l l s . B r o n z e
pits, w h i c h s o m e t i m e s w e r e l i n e d w i t h w o o d e n p l a n k s .
c e i v e d special p r i v i l e g e s a n d s o m e t i m e s the b u r i a l t r a d i -
w e r e also a d d e d t o b u i l d i n g s . T h e s e a d d i t i o n s i m p r o v e d
t h e s t r u c t u r a l q u a l i t y a n d h e l p e d b u i l d i n g s last. C h a r c o a l
and
designs
vary: f o r
example,
officials w i t h
seven,
officials w i t h
five,
and
and
D u r i n g the T h r e e D y n a s t i e s p e r i o d , p o t t e r y o r b r i c k
clay, used
flooring,
r o o f d e c o r a t i o n , drainage
as sealants d u r i n g the Z h o u
fittings
dynasty,
t h w a r t e d w a t e r damage a n d t o m b r o b b e r s .
Architectural Achievements
of the Three Dynasties
floating
i n clouds,
ical a n d f e r o c i o u s beasts, m o u n t a i n s
Shang
dynasty, r a m p s l e d u p t o t h e t o m b s o f Idngs b u t o n l y
F u j i a n , Jiangxi, H u n a n , a n d G u i z h o u , w o o d e n c o f f i n s w e r e
niques
p u t i n caves i n h i g h cliffs. A n d i n Y u n n a n , c o f f i n s w e r e
w o o d e n stmctares, the m a n u f a c t a r e a n d u t i l i z a t i o n o f n e w
b e f o r e m a j o r b u i l d i n g g o t u n d e r way, a l t h o u g h evidence f o r
s y m b o l s , so t h a t i f the t e x t u a l s p e c i f i c a t i o n s w e r e f o l -
f o r r a m m i n g earth,
the
biulding
of
complex
fication
o c c u p a n t was e x t r e m e l y i m p o r t a n t . T h e status o f an
was a p p a r e n t f r o m the e x t e r i o r o f a t o w n o r b u i l d i n g
of
China under
the
First Emperor,
Q i n Shi
C H A P T E R
X U J I E
f Chinese architecture took root during the Three Dynasties, it first flow-
ered when China was unified under the dynasties of Qin and Han. Qin Shi
Huangdi, the first emperor of a unified China, built enormous palaces
. and mausoleums, including his famed underground world populated with
terra-cotta warriors, horses, and chariots. He connected the defensive barriers along the northern border to make the Great Wall, built the Lingqu
canal, and created roads that made transit across China possible. Qin's
grand projects were matched architecturally by those of the far more longHved Han dynasty. The Han capital cities of Chang'an and Luoyang were
fiUed with many palaces (some used for governance and others for more
pleasurable pursuits), gardens, and parks. To the north, the Han expanded
and improved the Great WaU.
Through it all, the wooden structures that had slowly evolved over previous eras grew far more complex, sophisticated, and strong. The more stable
timber frames made it possible to build high wooden towers, which graduaUy replaced the high-platform buildings long associated with the Three
Dynasties period. Complementing these breakthroughs were advances in
brick making, masonry construction, and arches of various Idnds, as weU as
the first use of iron parts on a significant scale.
Details, figure 2.4 (opposite) and figure 2.1; (above)
The Qin
The Han
w e s t e r n edge o f Z h o u t e r r i t o r y , b y late i n t h e W a r r i n g
States p e r i o d ( 4 7 5 - 2 2 1 B . C . E . ) a series o f r e f o r m s h a d
b y t h e leader L i u B a n g , k n o w n as H a n e m p e r o r
dramatically increased
Gaozu
I n particular,
o u t e r w a l l t h a t e n c l o s e d an area o f 3 5 square I d l o m e t e r s
its i m p o r t a n c e .
a n d p o w e r o f t h e state), a n d G o n g s u n L o n g , a l a t e r
leader
pro-
p o s e d s w e e p i n g changes t h a t p r o p e l l e d t h e Q i n ' s r a p i d
n o r t h w a r d t h r o u g h H e n g G a t e t o the W e i R i v e r a n d t h e
rise t o p o w e r . A f t e r a l m o s t a c e n t u r y o f w a r f a r e , t h e
o t h e r eastward t h r o u g h X u a n p i n g G a t e i n the d i r e c t i o n
associated w i t h
221 B . C . E .
"the
Chinese
Sophists,"
Q i n S h i H u a n g d i , as he b e c a m e k n o w n ,
r u l e d a n e m p i r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y larger t h a n t h a t o f t h e
w i d e , f o r 5.5 I d l o m e t e r s , a l m o s t t h e e n t i r e n o r t h s o u t h
Z h o u dynasty.
f o r m e r states, c e n t r a l i z e d p o w e r a n d
the
n i n g n o r t h s o u t h a n d n i n e eastwest, i n t e r c o n n e c t i n g a
sup-
unified
Western H a n .
M o s t o f the space i n s i d e t h e H a n capital was t a k e n u p
b y five palace c o m p l e x e s : C h a n g l e g o n g , W e i y a n g g o n g ,
and
G u i g o n g , B e i g o n g , a n d M i n g g u a n g g o n g ( i n this c o n t e x t ,
currency,
B u t his excesses a n d
r w o m a r k e t s . C o m m o n e r s usually l i v e d o u t s i d e t h e c i t y
he d i e d , r e b e l l i o n spread t h r o u g h o u t C h i n a a n d l e d t o the
f a l l o f t h e Q i n i n 206 B . C . E .
the
n o r t h bank o f the W e i River, the city measured 6 Idlometers east t o w e s t b y 7.5 I d l o m e t e r s n o r t h t o s o u t h . B e cause t h e c i t y was d e s t r o y e d i n w a r s at t h e e n d o f t h e
Q i n e m p i r e , a n d because t h e c o u r s e o f t h e W e i R i v e r has
Map 2.
Qin and Han Sites
Anping 5
Kongwangshan/Lianyungang 8
Leitai/Wuwei 34
Panyu i6
Anqiu 6
Cangshan 9
Lishan/Lintong 23
Suiyang 12
Chang'an 24
Luoyang 2T
Suizhong i
Chengdu 29
Mahao 30
Tangguang 28
Dahuting 20
Mancheng 3
Wang 19
Dunhuang 33
Maocun 10
Wangdu 4
Guj'uan 35
Mawangdui 17
Weigu 26
Xian5'ang 25
t a l s u r v i v e s a n d n o t m u c h e x c a v a t i o n has o c c u r r e d t h e r e .
B u t pieces o f t h e n o r t h , w e s t , a n d s o u t h w a l l s e n c l o s i n g
Gui
Palace
North
Palace
b e e n a b o u t 900 m e t e r s east t o w e s t a n d 5 80 m e t e r s n o r t h
to south. T h e
h a v e b e e n l o c a t e d ; so h a v e five w o r k s h o p s w e s t o f t h e
m a i n palace area a n d o n e t o its east. P o t t e r y w o r k s h o p s
Jianzhang
Palace
Weiyang Palace
b e l i e v e d t o h a v e b e e n u s e d b y the l o c a l p o p u l a t i o n w e r e
Hanzhong 27
Mayinggang i ;
Hefei 13
Nanjing 14
Xuzhou 11
Helinge'er 36
Nanyang 19
Ya'an 31
Jiangling 18
Niya 32
Yi'nan 7
Jieshi 2
f o u n d a b o u t 4 k i l o m e t e r s w e s t o f the palace, as w e r e
Sanmenxia 22
A f t e r the d e a t h o f the p o w e r f u l H a n W u d i , c o r m p t i o n
p o w e r was u s u r p e d b y W a n g M a n g , a f a m i l y m e m b e r o f
m i l l e n n i u m B . C . E . o r even e a r l i e r W a n , J i a n g l i n g , N a n -
called t h e W a n g M a n g i n t e r r e g n u m .
times. O n e e x c e p t i o n is a H a n c i t y i n N a n y a n g county,
a n d i n 23 C E . , t h e H a n c o u r t was r e s t o r e d . T h e n e w
i t a l eastward t o L u o y a n g . T h e p e r i o d f r o m 23 C E . t o t h e
a n d wells has
T h e s c a t t e r i n g o f t o w n s a n d cities d u r i n g the H a n
o w n d e f e n s e system. E n t e r mtbao,
f o r t i f i e d structures w h e r e m a n y p e o p l e l i v e d i n t h e m a n -
palaces t h a t h a d existed f r o m Q i n t i m e s w e r e r e b u i l t o r
also k n o w n as
ivubi:
first
m o a t s , a n d h i g h t u r r e t s at t h e c o r n e r s o f the walls a n d i n
a n t r y n o r the f o r m e r H a n n o b i l i t y accepted W a n g M a n g ,
H a n , o r L a t e r H a n , dynasty.
Nangong
(South Palace)
first
o n l y a b o u t t h i r t e e n k i l o m e t e r s a r o u n d at its o u t e r w a l l
A n p i n g c o u n t ) ' , H e b e i , a n d i n elaborate p o t t e r y m o d e l s
a n d i t h a d t w o s i g n i f i c a n t features n o t p r e s e n t i n t h e
first
for
tombs
unearthed
at M a y i n g g a n g i n
Guangzhou,
Sui)'ang E a s t V i l l a g e i n H e n a n , a n d L e i t a i i n W u w e i
q u a d r i l a t e r a l , a l m o s t r e c t a n g u l a r ( f i g . 2.2). A l t h o u g h l i k e
helped
s o u t h o f t h e city. D u r i n g t h e l o n g r e i g n o f E m p e r o r W u d i
o f c o u r t y a r d - s t ) ' l e residences. S o m e h a d a d j o i n i n g f a r m -
s o u t h a n d the M a n g M o u n t a i n s i n the n o r t h ) , t h e e n d
l a n d , pens f o r d o m e s t i c a t e d animals, a n d p o n d s . M o s t
h a d t w o palace areas, n o r t h a n d s o u t h . E a c h
emperor
c o u r t y a r d w e r e t h e m a i n halls as w e l l as s u b s i d i a r y b u i l d -
and
c h o s e o n e as his p r i m a r y o f f i c i a l a n d r e s i d e n t i a l c o m p l e x ,
ings, s u c h as k i t c h e n s , l a v a t o r i e s , a n d pigsties. T h e b a c k
r e g u l a r l y l a i d - o u t streets. O n e r e a s o n f o r t h i s d e p a r t u r e
b u t t h e t w o w e r e j o i n e d b y a c o v e r e d w a l k w a y so t h a t he
c o u l d pass secretiy b e t w e e n t h e m .
a n d S h a n g l i n P a r k w e r e b u t t o the west.
T h e plan o f H a n Chang'an d i d n o t f o l l o w the pres c r i p t i o n o f t h e Rituals
of Zhou:
t h a t is, t h e r e was n o s y m -
m e t r i c a l s c h e m e w i t h a palace area i n t h e c e n t e r
is t h a t t h e n e w palaces, W e i y a n g a n d C h a n g l e , w e r e b u i l t
b e f o r e t h e c o m p l e t i o n o f the s o u t h e r n w a l l
(Changle
s t o o d o n t h e r u i n s o f a Q i n palace). G e o g r a p h y
also
e a s t - w e s t a n d five n o r t h - s o u t h . A s i n C h a n g ' a n ,
o f t h e W e i R i v e r . B u t a l t h o u g h palaces m a y n o t h a v e
at the s o u t h ( w h o s e r u i n s are n o w b e n e a t h
b e e n at t h e g e o g r a p h i c center o f H a n C h a n g ' a n , t h e y
While
w e r e a v i t a l p a r t o f t h e city. N o later C h i n e s e c a p i t a l
o f t h e c i t y w e r e j o i n e d b y a b o u l e v a r d 2.8 k i l o m e t e r s
age o f t h e w a l l e d p a r t o f t h e c i t y d e v o t e d t o f h e m .
U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h i s spectacular c i t y is n o t w e l l p r e s e r v e d .
L u o y a n g , a n d e x c a v a t i o n has s h o w n t h e m t o have b e e n
i n the c a p i t a l , w h i c h l e d t o a l m o s t t o t a l d e s t r u c t i o n o f
t h e c i t y a n d a b a n d o n m e n t o f t h e site.
the L u o
cities were b e i n g t r a n s f o r m e d , the
tremendous
I n response t o the u n p r e c e d e n t e d e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p -
m e n t d u r i n g the W e s t e r n a n d E a s t e r n H a n dynasties, m a n y
37
residences,
a n d storehouses. S o m e h a d a d d i t i o n a l waU f o r t i f i c a t i o n s
a n d b e a c o n t o w e r s . T h e b o r d e r t o w n s w e r e the a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a n d m i l i t a r y centers, a n d garrisons, o f t h e i r regions.
n u m e r o u s examples o f t w o - s t o r y a n d t h r e e - s t o r y t o w e r s .
I n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t p a l a t i a l a r c h i t e c t a r e o f t h e Q i n comes
from
lar t o b o r d e r t o w n s b u t a d m i n i s t r a t i v e l y o n e r a n k l o w e r .
Square o r rectangular i n p l a n a n d r a n g i n g f r o m a b o u t 5 o
f o u n d a t i o n s w e r e d i s c o v e r e d i n X i a n y a n g . T h e largest
a n d m o s t m a g n i f i c e n t , a n d a f a i r l y c o m p l e t e o n e , is
pounded
earth
or
stone.
Often
the
both
excavated
evidence
and
Uterary
records.
a d d i t i o n a l waU
Palace i , a t w o - l e v e l b u U d i n g c o m p l e x w i t h the u p p e r
a n d spikes m a d e the p e r i m e t e r e v e n m o r e i m p e n e t r a b l e .
(fig. 2.6). T h i s u p p e r - l e v e l , L - s h a p e d c o m p l e x e x t e n d e d
T h e b e a c o n t o w e r s , the f o u r t h c o m p o n e n t , w e r e h i g h
t o w e r s o n p l a t f o r m s w h e r e l o o k o u t guards c o u l d w a r n o f
an e n e m y attack w i t h s m o k e signals. T h e t o w e r s w e r e
residence. A d d i t i o n a l r o o m s w h o s e p u r p o s e s
the guards. T h e
fifth
are stiU
and moats.
W h e n e v e r possible, the waU p a r t o f the G r e a t WaU
T h e l o w e r l e v e l j o i n e d t h e u p p e r l e v e l o n the n o r t h
a n d s o u t h . T o the s o u t h , a d j o i n i n g t h e e n c l o s i n g c o r r i d o r ,
side o f t h e u p p e r l e v e l m i g h t h a v e b e e n residences f o r
parts
and
arranged i n a c h e c k e r b o a r d p a t t e r n o n the g r o u n d , t h e n
used
Chinese
tamarisk a n d
reeds, b u n d l e d
w e s t sides o f t h e palace c o m p l e x .
39
Figure 2.6. Reconstruction drawing of Palace i in the Qin capital Xianyang, near Chang'an, Shaanxi province
yet b e e n f o u n d , b u t a n o t h e r palace c o m p l e x , n u m b e r 3,
W i t h i n t w o h u n d r e d li, o r o n e h u n d r e d k U o m e t e r s , o f
has b e e n u n e a r t h e d s o u t h o f Palace i . A l t h o u g h n e a r l y
X i a n y a n g w e r e 270 p a l a t i a l a n d o f f i c i a l s t r u c t u r e s , aU
d e s t r o y e d , traces o f w a l l p a i n t i n g s have b e e n d i s c o v e r e d
i n t e r c o n n e c t e d v i a c o v e r e d ways (fudao)
c o v e r e d arcade. D e l i c a t e r e n d e r i n g s o f
horses
i n i m i t a t i o n o f the o n e he h a d a c q u i r e d n o r t h o f X i a n -
w h i t e , a n d o t h e r c o l o r s f u r t h e r i l l u s t r a t e t h e daily l i f e o f
b a c k part, a p o u n d e d - e a r t h
f o u n d a t i o n perhaps 7 o r 8
y a n g . " T h e d i s c o v e r y at X i a n y a n g o f c e r a m i c r o o f tUes
Chinese r o y a l t y at this t i m e .
seems t o c o n f i r m this c l a i m .
figures,
T h e X i a n y a n g palaces w e r e n o t spacious e n o u g h f o r
the a m b i t i o u s F i r s t E m p e r o r a n d the m a n y a c t i v i t i e s o f
not
but
T h e t r a v e U n g palace f a r t h e s t f r o m t h e c a p i t a l is i n
perhaps
J i e s h i o n t h e s h o r e o f t h e B o h a i Sea. Sites o f Q i n a n d
are p o u n d e d - e a r t h f o u n d a t i o n s , h o U o w b r i c k tUes, r o o f
(Records o f t h e H i s t o r i a n ) describes
I f b u i l d i n g p l a t f o r m s o f 8 meters o r m o r e w e r e standard i n
tUes, pieces o f c e r a m i c b r i c k w i t h p a t t e r n s
m a r k i n g s d i s t i n c t i v e o f t h e p e r i o d , a n d w a t c h t o w e r s at
t o w e s t b y 112 m e t e r s n o r t h t o s o u t h . T e n t h o u s a n d p e o -
H e i s h a n t o u ( f i g . 2.8).
b i o g r a p h y i n Shi ji
so
The
similar t o
palaces
those p r o v i d e d i n Shi ji
featured ornate
and
v a r i e d tiles
a n i m a l s , leaves, a n d w h o r l s . A t least o n e
floor
s o u t h . A c c o r d i n g t o Giian^jongji
p i r e is
filled
with
E q u a l l y i m p r e s s i v e was
been
t r e m e n d o u s . B u t the u n d e r t a k i n g fits t h e i m a g e o f t h e
w i t h X i a n y a n g . T h i s was i n i m i t a t i o n o f a h e a v e n l y c o r r i -
F i r s t E m p e r o r , d o c u m e n t e d i n later texts a n d m e m o r i a l -
d o r d e s c r i b e d i n Shiji
t h a t leads f r o m the H e a v e n l y A p e x
Guan^^oongji
Star.
w e a l t h , a n d quest f o r m o n u m e n t s t o his i m p o r t a n c e .
h u n d r e d hu [ a b o u t 400 meters] n o r t h t o s o u t h . T e n t h o u -
Qin
sand m e n c o u l d b e e n t e r t a i n e d t h e r e . " T h e Q i n p e r i o d is
t h e earliest i n C h i n a so f a r f o r w h i c h w r i t t e n texts a n d
e m b a r k e d o n f r e q u e n t i n s p e c t i o n t o u r s o f his e m p i r e , a n d
other
all
te had
the l o w e r s t o r y o f E p a n g Palace t o t h e m o u n t a i n s t o t h e
(Record o f G u a n z h o n g
or
and
40
a n d p a v e d pas-
dynast)', especiaUy
a f t e r the
First E m p e r o r
had
(48 32 B . C . E . ) a n d s u b s e q u e n d y a h o m e f o r t h e empress
i n g the z h i , w h i c h p r o b a b l y were p e r f o r m e d o n 1
g r o u n d i n f o r e s t e d areas, o f f e r i n g s w e r e m a d e t o the 1
H a l l a n d M i n g g u a n g ( B r i g h t Radiance) H a U . A n elevated
passageway, p r e s u m a b l y a b o v e t h e Z h i c h e n g G a t e t h o r -
b y t h e c o l o r s w h i t e , azure, )'eUow, a n d r e d . S a c r i f i c e
records
o u g h f a r e , c o n n e c t e d i t t o Weiy^anggong. I n a d d i t i o n t o
t r a l t e m p l e o f t h e i m p e r i a l capital.
a n d e x c a v a t i o n . T h e C h a n g l e Palace c o m p l e x
was b e g u n i n 202 B . C . E . , t h e
fifth
year o f t h e r e i g n o f
former Qin
A f t e r u n i f i c a t i o n , Q i n e m p e r o r S h i H u a n g d i tr;
f o r m e d X i n Palace, l o c a t e d i n W e i n a n , i n t o J i T e m p i
t h e W e s t e r n H a n dynasty, C h a n g l e g o n g t o o k t w o years t o
s t r u c t i o n . M o s t o f t h e d e t a c h e d palaces a n d o t h e r recre-
r i t u a l s t r u c t u r e f o r c e r e m o n i a l o f f e r i n g s t o the heavi
ters n o r t h t o s o u t h , a n d o c c u p i e d o n e - s i x t h o f t h e t o t a l
b y Q i n e m p e r o r s o r w e r e r e b u i l t o n f o r m e r Q i n sites.
Emperor
Gaozu,
on
the
ruins
of
the
area o f t h e W e s t e r n H a n capital. R e c o r d s s h o w t h a t t h e
w e s t e r n gates w e r e f r a m e d b y t o w e r s . I t also h a d a f r o n t
u n d e r g r o u n d passageway b u i l t t o c o n n e c t the t e m p l (
d e a t h , his s o n a n d successor m r n e d t h a t s t r u c t u r e i
i n k e e p i n g w i t h t h e i d e a l l a y o u t p r o p o s e d i n t h e Rituals
of
Zhou.
In
198 B . C . E . ,
the
c o u r t was
m o v e d west
to
A c c o r d i n g t o Uterary sources, m o r e t h a n t w o t h o u s a n d
o f the
Idnds o f p l a n t i n g s w e r e b r o u g h t t o ShangUn)aian f r o m aU
W e s t e r n H a n dynasty, a n d C h a n g l e g o n g b e c a m e t h e resi-
T h e H a n a d d e d t o t h e rituals a n d beUefs t h a t t h e (
dence o f t h e empress d o w a g e r .
h a d estabUshed. T h e y buUt a g r o u p o f r i t u a l s t r u c t i
i n t h e s o u t h e r n s u b u r b s o f each o f t h e i r capitals. I
t h e i m p e r i a l f a m U y c o u l d h u n t w i l d animals.
G a o z u , f o u n d e r o f t h e dynast)', a d d e d h i m s e l f as B l
W e i y a n g Palace, m a k i n g i t t h e p o l i t i c a l center
T h e W e i y a n g Palace c o m p l e x , w h i c h o c c u p i e d o n e -
w e s t a n d 2.15 I d l o m e t e r s n o r t h t o s o u t h . A l t h o u g h s l i g h d y
t h e i m m o r t a l s . H a n texts, s u c h as Shiji
huangtu
T h e f o u n d a t i o n s o f L u o y a n g ' s palace c o m p l e x e s a n d
(an U l u s t r a t e d d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e three i m p e r i a l d i s t r i c t s
o f o t h e r s t r u c t u r e s i n s i d e t h e c i t y waUs have n o t b e e n
g r a n d . L i k e t h e Changle Palace c o m p l e x , W e i y a n g g o n g
e x c a v a t e d . B u t texts i n f o r m us t h a t t h e n o r t h e r n palace
e a r t h , m o u n t a i n s a n d r i v e r s , t h e sun a n d m o o n , t h e si
towers
at least t w o o f t h e m . A t Wei^'anggong
seventy m e t e r s , h i g h e r t h a n any s t r u c t u r e i n t h e c a p i t a l ,
t h a n t h e s o u t h e r n one. T h e H a n e m p e r o r s
m a n y o f t h e v a r i o u s sacrifices.
a n d was w h e r e t h e e m p e r o r c o u l d m a k e c o n t a c t w i t h t h e
D u r i n g liis reign, H a n W u d i m r n e d t o i n t e r m e d i a
a n d a b o u t o n e h u n d r e d residential s t r u c m r e s .
Among
s p i r i t w o r l d . O n t o p o f S h e n m i n g t a i , t h e s e c o n d , was a
t h e m was a c e n t r a l l y l o c a t e d p o u n d e d - e a r t h f o u n d a t i o n
b r o n z e statue o f a n i m m o r t a l h o l d i n g a plate t o c a t c h d e w
c a p i t a l , L u o y a n g ' s a r c h i t e c t u r e was p r i m a r U y i m p e r i a l , a l -
flanking
high.
a n d Sanfu
qimiao
had resi-
R u l e r t o t h e f o u r deities w o r s h i p e d b y t h e Q i n . A n d a
t h o u g h h i g h - r a n k i n g o f f i c i a l s w e r e a l l o w e d t o have resi-
B e l i e v e d t o have b e e n t h e f r o n t h a l l o f t h e c o m p l e x , i t was
o f palace c o m p l e x e s 2 a n d 3 are n o r t h a n d n o r t h w e s t o f
ernment
o f f i c e s w e r e i n t h e southeast. L u o y a n g h a d
t h e f r o n t hall. J u d g i n g f r o m o b j e c t s excavated at t h e t w o
early i n t h e W e s t e r n H a n p e r i o d . D u r i n g t h e r e i g n o f
E m p e r o r W u d i , h o w e v e r , t h e site was e x p a n d e d . H i s t o r i -
S o u t h Palace i n s i d e t h e c i t ) ' w a U s , a h o r s e m a r k e t o u t s i d e
of
been
o f f i c e s f o r h o l d i n g c o u r t . O f p a r t i c u l a r interest have b e e n
p l y as s o u t h m a r k e t .
e n d a r y e m p e r o r s a n d t o his o w n f a t h e r i n Chang'an. U n
t u n n e l s d i s c o v e r e d u n d e r n e a t h palace c o m p l e x 2. M a d e
e n t y ) . W h e n c o m p l e t e , i t was a huge d e t a c h e d
palace
w i t h walls o f m u d a n d e a r t h t h a t w e r e s u p p o r t e d b y
c o m p l e x w i t h m a n y n a t u r a l scenic s p o t s h U l s , dense
w o o d e n piQars a n d t h e n w h i t e w a s h e d , a n d w i t h
floors
m e n t . T h e r e t h e e m p e r o r c o u l d w a t c h fish s w i m i n t h e
t e n d e r i n a n a n i m a l fight, a n d appreciate b e a u t i f u l
imperial concubines
a n d Palace 3 m a y have
m a i n t a i n e d untU the e n d o f t h e W e s t e r n H a n d y n a
W h e n W a n g M a n g seized the t h r o n e , he a d o p t e d a " n
t e m p l e s)'stem." I t s remains m a y be the eleven r e c t a n g i
flowers
w e r e p r i m a r i l y d e v o t e d t o h e a v e n a n d t h e i m p e r i a l ances-
P a r k was K u n m i n g L a k e , w h i c h i n f o r m e r t i m e s h a d
B.C.E.,
i d e n t i f i e d i n b o t h H a n capitals. A c c o r d i n g t o Shiji,
d u r i n g t h e r e i g n o f H a n e m p e r o r W u d i , i t was a residence
w e r e m a n y h i g h b u d d i n g s as w e U as stone sculptures o f
Q i n p e r f o r m e d sacrifices k n o w n as ^Ipi, w h i c h f o U o w e d
huge
sea
creatures
and
legendary
Chinese
heroes.
the
structures
known
as
Mingtang
and
Biyo
( 4 8 - 3 2 B . C . E . ) a n d s u b s e q u e n d y a h o m e f o r t h e empress
i n g the z h i , w h i c h p r o b a b l y w e r e p e r f o r m e d o n
g r o u n d i n f o r e s t e d areas, o f f e r i n g s w e r e m a d e t o the f o u r
high
i h o w n i n the p l a n o f H a n C h a n g ' a n i n
H a U a n d M i n g g u a n g ( B r i g h t Radiance) H a U . A n elevated
passageway, p r e s u m a b l y a b o v e t h e Z h i c h e n g G a t e t h o r -
a t i o n . T h e C h a n g l e Palace c o m p l e x
B.C.E., the
t r a l t e m p l e o f the i m p e r i a l capital.
fifth
year o f t h e r e i g n o f
deities, each f r o m a d i f f e r e n t d i r e c t i o n a n d
represented
former Qin
A f t e r u n i f i c a t i o n , Q i n e m p e r o r Shi H u a n g d i trans-
i n g l e g o n g . T h e first f o r m a l palace o f
f o r m e d X i n Palace, l o c a t e d i n W e i n a n , i n t o J i T e m p l e , a
ynasty, C h a n g l e g o n g t o o k t w o years t o
s t r u c t i o n . A l o s t o f t h e d e t a c h e d palaces a n d o t h e r recre-
r i t u a l s t r u c t u r e f o r c e r e m o n i a l o f f e r i n g s t o the heavens.
d l o m e t e r s east t o w e s t a n d 2.4 I d l o m e -
1, a n d o c c u p i e d o n e - s i x t h o f t h e t o t a l
b y Q i n e m p e r o r s o r w e r e r e b u i l t o n f o r m e r Q i n sites.
on
the
ruins
o f the
t e m p l e used f o r sacrifices t o h i m . F u r r h e r m o r e , he h a d a n
n H a n capital. R e c o r d s s h o w t h a t t h e
; f r a m e d b y t o w e r s . I t also h a d a f r o n t
; events a n d a b a c k h a l l f o r residences,
; i d e a l l a y o u t p r o p o s e d i n t h e Rituals
of
t h k d s o f the w a y t h r o u g h the r e i g n o f H a n W u d i . T h e c o m -
.E.,
to
A c c o r d i n g t o Uterary sources, m o r e t h a n t \ v o t h o u s a n d
k i n d s o f p l a n t i n g s w e r e b r o u g h t t o ShangUn)'uan f r o m aU
o v e r t h e e m p i r e {yuan
ess d o w a g e r .
h a d estabUshed. T h e y b u i l t a g r o u p o f r i t u a l s t r u c t u r e s
'alace c o m p l e x , w h i c h o c c u p i e d o n e -
t h e i m p e r i a l f a m U y c o u l d h u n t w i l d animals.
G a o z u , f o u n d e r o f t h e d)'nasty, a d d e d h i m s e l f as B l a c k
the
c o u r t was
m o v e d west
a n d Sanfu
neters n o r t h t o s o u t h . A l t h o u g h sHghtiy
t h e i m m o r t a l s . H a n texts, s u c h as Shiji
huangtu
R u l e r t o t h e f o u r deities w o r s h i p e d b y t h e Q i n . A n d a f u U
(an i l l u s t r a t e d d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e three i m p e r i a l d i s t r i c t s
o f o t h e r s t r u c t u r e s i n s i d e t h e c i t y waUs have n o t b e e n
ihangle Palace c o m p l e x , W e i y a n g g o n g
o f t h e H a n c a p i t a l coUated i n t h e late e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y ) ,
e x c a v a t e d . B u t texts i n f o r m us t h a t t h e n o r t h e r n palace
e a r t h , m o u n t a i n s a n d r i v e r s , t h e s u n a n d m o o n , t h e stars
; least t w o o f t h e m . A t W e i y a n g g o n g
sevent)' m e t e r s , h i g h e r t h a n any s t r u c t u r e i n t h e c a p i t a l ,
m a n y o f the v a r i o u s sacrifices.
u n d r e d residential structures.
Among
s p i r i t w o r l d . O n t o p o f S h e n m i n g t a i , t h e s e c o n d , was a
lUy l o c a t e d p o u n d e d - e a r t h f o u n d a t i o n
b r o n z e statue o f a n i m m o r t a l h o l d i n g a plate t o c a t c h d e w
c a p i t a l , L u o y a n g ' s a r c h i t e c t u r e was p r i m a r i l y i m p e r i a l , a l -
t h o u g h h i g h - r a n l d n g o f f i c i a l s w e r e a l l o w e d t o have resi-
high,
h a d resi-
een t h e f r o n t h a l l o f t h e c o m p l e x , i t was
L o n g s h o u p l a i n ( f i g . 2.9). T h e remains
:es 2 a n d 3 are n o r t h a n d n o r t h w e s t o f
u n d e r t h e Q i n d)'nast)', a n d c o n t i n u e d t o be used as s u c h
e r n m e n t o f f i c e s w e r e i n t h e southeast. L u o y a n g h a d
g i n g f r o m objects excavated at t h e t w o
early i n t h e W e s t e r n H a n p e r i o d . D u r i n g t h e r e i g n o f
o u g h t t o have b e e n t h e r e s i d e n t i a l space
E m p e r o r W u d i , h o w e v e r , t h e site was e x p a n d e d . H i s t o r i -
S o u t h Palace i n s i d e t h e c i t y waUs, a h o r s e m a r k e t o u t s i d e
ubines a n d Palace
been
t h e c i t y waUs t o t h e east, a n d a t h i r d m a r k e t , k n o w n s i m -
\ c o u r t . O f p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t have b e e n
p l y as s o u t h m a r k e t .
d u n d e r n e a t h palace c o m p l e x 2. A l a d e
enty). W h e n c o m p l e t e , i t was a h u g e d e t a c h e d
c o m p l e x w i t h m a n y n a t u r a l scenic s p o t s h U l s , dense
floors
lese m a y have b e e n t h e s o r t o f u n d e r -
m e n t . T h e r e t h e e m p e r o r c o u l d w a t c h fish s w i m i n t h e
y s f o r i m p e r i a l escape d e s c r i b e d i n texts
y s t e m o f t h e later E a s t e r n H a n dynasty,
t e n d e r i n an a n i m a l fight, a n d appreciate b e a u t i f u l
i t i y w e s t o f W e i y a n g Palace was t h e G u i
a n d e x o t i c trees. T h e largest b o d y o f w a t e r i n S h a n g l i n
ts f o u n d a t i o n was rectangular, a p p r o x i -
Park was K u n m i n g L a k e , w h i c h i n f o r m e r t i m e s h a d
^00 merers. C o n s t r u c t e d i n l o i
B.C.E.,
if H a n e m p e r o r W u d i , i t was a residence
w e r e m a n y h i g h b u i l d i n g s as w e l l as stone sculptures o f
ice d u r i n g t h e r e i g n o f E m p e r o r Y u a n d i
huge
nasties
3 m a y have
sea
creatures
and
legendary
Chinese
palace
flowers
heroes.
w e r e p r i m a r i l y d e v o t e d t o h e a v e n a n d t h e i m p e r i a l ances-
i d e n t i f i e d i n b o t h H a n capitals. A c c o r d i n g t o Shiji,
the
Q i n p e r f o r m e d sacrifices k n o w n as ^hi, w h i c h f o U o w e d
rituals established a b o u t f o u r h u n d r e d years earUer. D u r -
i n the
structures
known
as
Afingtang and
Biyong,
the shaft and the upper section are carved with rehef sculp-
eaves, and cave tiles, as well as the bracket set and brace
There are many references to such gate towers i n Chinese Hterature. The southern entry to Q i n Shi Huangdi's
palace reportedly was framed by gate towers. A n d such
the shaft and the upper section are carved with reHef sculp-
eaves, and eave tUes, as weU as the bracket set and brace
Dynastie.
55
either side, and the central area, flat on top, was high
bly were elevated high o f f the ground (in spite o f the use
Areas f o r commerce and business had their o w n architectural needs. Details about marketplaces i n Q i n times
are vague, but by the time Chang'an was the capital o f the
o f the city and three i n the east, and Luoyang had three
either side, and the central area, flat o n top, was high
Han
and then insert beams into the holes. The beams were
bly were elevated high o f f the ground (in spite o f the use
o f the x.e.rvi\yongdao f o r them i n texts), extended long dis- fastened i n place w i t h i r o n chains or wooden railings
tances to connect aU the palaces, and were roofed and fixed on the outer side o f the roadway. Plank roads o f
msties
by torrential rains.
Achievements of Qin
and Han Architecture
peror himself
true curved Unes that added a new contour to architecture o f the Eastern Han.
CHAPTER
X I N I A N
\ rom the third to the sixth centuries C.E., China experienced almost constant
warfare. StUl, the artistry and techniques used to create Chinese architecture
continued to develop, hieled in part by technological innovation. Wooden
buildings gradually replaced structures made of earth and wood; multistory
buildings of wood, brick, stone, or some combination appeared in large numbers on the Chinese landscape; and rock-carved architecture reached unprecedented levels of sophistication. The simpler, starker, yet dignified
structures of the Han thus began to evolve into the more fluid, vigorous,
multipurpose buildings and decorations that were to flourish in Tang China.
Archaeology remains a key means of understanding and interpreting what
we know about Chinese architecture during the four centuries after the fall
of Han. Just a few buildings survive. The most intact aboveground are several pagodas one of which, at the Songyue Monastery, may have been unusual or even unique for its time. We do know, however, that the period was
one of acculturation, as Chinese leaders sought to unify their land after major conflicts and as cultural influences from beyond China's borders were
blended into the religious, social, and architectural landscape. The principles
Architecture
:ast as early as the Zhou dynast}?, and
d with shamanistic practices and a
ity During the Han dynasty, Daoist
structed, though none so ancient has
d of the Han dynasty, Daoist schools
n codified into a sort of religious sysas also introduced to China during
e Western Han dynast)?. Han IVIingdi
t envoys as far west as India and welof the Buddhist monks Kasyapa1 China as Zhufalan) and Gobharana
dies
ing the death of the Iiistorical Buddha Salcyamuni; Buddliist disciples; as well as animals. At least some of these
images were carved during the Later Han dynast)?, making Ivlount Kongwang one of the earliest Chinese sites, if
not the earliest, with rock-carved Buddhist imagery
Ivlahao, Sichuan province, is a Later Han site with
Buddhist imagery carved in a cave or cave-tomb. The
site has fewer images than jVIount Kongwang, but in
contrast to the Jiangsu site, where many carvings are visible from the cliffs, the Sichuan site has images carved
inside the caves. Both types of carvings, inside and outside, were derivative of Indian Buddhist cave architecture. Although Chinese artists continued both traditions
for a long time, the carving of interior cave worship
spaces eventually became the more popular.
Gardens
The private gardens of the Han nobit)? and wealthy merchants featured highly sophisticated landscape architecture. The Rabbit Garden of Prince Liangxiao of the Western Han, also known as East Garden, was one of the most
famous. According to Han sini (Standard history of the
Han), die garden was more than 300 li (150 Idlometers)
square with a great pond, palatial halls, and covered wa)?s
that joined the garden's architecture with that of the
detached palace Pingtai more than 30 li away. Prince Liangxiao's own residence was northeast of the city of Sui)?ang.
Liu Xin's (d. 23 C E . ) Xijing :^aji (IVIiscelianeous notes on the
Western Capital) tells us that inside Rabbit Garden were
some one hundred "spirit mountains" composed of
extraordinary stones, cliffs, and grottoes. There was
also Yan Pond in which were Crane Isle and Wild
Duck Islet. Palaces and towers were interconnected,
all of them extending several tens of H. Exotic plantings, rare trees, and unusual creatures of the land, sea,
and air filled his park. Day and night the prince and his
guests went boating and fishing there. Besides palaces,
towers, and other structures, the park was filled with
many kinds of birds and beasts, as well as natural and
perhaps man-made scener)?.
.r
roughly north and south of each other. There were exte- models have been discovered in tombs near Chengdu,
rior and interior doors, each 1.25 meters wide. The north Sichuan province. Like all picmres in brick, these depictions
room had a small fireplace, whereas a larger, U-shaped are especially important because the tombs from which
fireplace was located in the south room. The larger heat they come belonged not to emperors, or the highestsource suggests that this was the main residential room.
ranking nobilit)?, but to Han China's upper middle class.
From models, we know that the Xinjiang house was Most of the Sichuan houses are two-chambered, with
only one of many possible Han house plans. Various st)des the principal room on the west and another on the east.
of buildings were constructed: square, I-shaped, corridor- A few, however, are more unusual. In one courtyard-style
enclosed, L-shaped, and north-and-south adjoining. Houses residence shown in a relief sculpture, the entrance is locould have one or two rooms, multiple stories, and one or cated on the west side ofthe south wall (fig. 2.14). Somemore court)?ards around which rooms were arranged. Three one passing through the gate would first enter a front
varieties of post and lintel constmction are believed to have courtyard where animals were kept; to the east is a threebeen budt: column and tiebeam (with a flat side facade be- bay structure of column-and-tiebeam construction with a
neath the roof eaves); column, beam, and stmt, with gabled flat facade and overhanging eaves in front and back. Inroof; and raised on stilts. Roofs could have one, two, or four side, two seated figures talk while eating. The Uvo eastern
sloping eaves projecting from the main roof ridge at the top courtyards show, in the north, a multistory tower, perof the building (figs. 2.12 and 2.13).
haps the artist's attempt to depict a structure that was
Hundreds of examples of relief sculpture and pottery actuaUy attached to and projected be)?ond the courtyard
47
funerary rites in the Han dynast)? have been known for cenmries, because the information is preser^?ed in historical
and rimal texts. Excavation of the sites has shown as weH
that no two Western Han tombs were identical, although it
seems that in general the Han royal mausoleums had
square-shaped mounds enclosed by four-sided waUs. Nor
do any of the tomb remains foUow exacfly the spaces prescribed for rimals in front of the mmulus. AU of the Western Han mausoleums were burned or pillaged when the
d)?nast)? feU, and Httie has been recovered from any of them.
53
12
32
18
43
26
25 27
34
23 22 2 4
42
31
the waUs o f the palace cities and outer cit)' waUs, and
the rise and faU o f rulers and dynasties during the period.
35
20
19
35
21
30
36
14
17
16
Studio)
11
29
44
-.o
28
15
1 145
38
10
46
46
2
fare associated with the faU o f the Han, the rise and faU
towns, and spirit paths were not buUt f r o m the late third
2. Commander-in-Chief Gate
36. ChanceUerv
37. Secretariat
14
chambers
Gate
dowager; they now were used for the daily affairs o f the
chambers o f most were dug into the hUl about ten meters
each had flanking haUs Uke the Taiji HaU complex, and
and Jiafu HaU (#30), behind the alley that led out o f die
16. Secretariat
waUs and vaulted ceiUngs about ten meters high and six
Carriages
15. Chanceller)'
under
the rule o f the Northern Wei did not change much com-
2 3. Shiqian HaU
The Three Kingdoms, Western and Eastern Jin, and Nortljern and Soiitloern
ynasties
10
12
72
13
42. ArmorV
18
19
12
23
become simpler than i n earUer eras. The more frugal burials were a direct result o f a monetary strain that plagued aU
33
30
34
40
37
Funerary Architecture
Tlje Time Kingdoms, Western and Eastern Jin, and Northern and Southern
13
33
12
32
18
26
25^7
34
. ]
23 2 2 2 4
31
I
35
20
19
21
16
17
23
24
25
26,
29
44
37
I
1 I28
15
1
9
45
10
46
27
28,
29,
30, Scholarly Counselors Department
51' Empress Dowager Palace
32- Visitors Department (Bureau)
33- Flowery Forest Garden
34. Department of Eternal Blessings
(Department for Provision of the Aged)
Imperial
Archives (library)
35'
36. ChanceUery
37- Secretariat
38. Chamberlain for the Palace Garrison
39' Subordinate Secretariat
40. Right Guard
41. Subordinate ChanceUery
42. Armory
45- Imperial Granaries
44. Left Granaries
fifth
timber-framed. Entries to palace complexes and individual halls had two- or three-story towers above them, aU
the waUs o f the palace cities and outer cit)' waUs, and
everv imperial city had arsenals, constant reminders o f
the rise and faU o f rulers and dynasties during the period.
35
Funerary Architecture
30
33
fare associated with the faU o f the Han, the rise and faU
23
?^2
18
13
17
12J
15
towns, and spirit paths were not buUt f r o m the late third
16
14
11
10
Figure 3.8. Plan o f the Luoyang palace cit)' o f the Northern Wei
chambers
dowager; they now were used for the daUy affairs o f the
(#23) and
chambers o f most were dug into the hiU about ten meters
and Jiafu HaU (#30), behind the aUey that led out o f the
waUs and vaulted ceiHngs about ten meters high and six
which were reached through two stone doors. I n accordance with texts describing funerary practices o f the
19
23
^^2
27
24
31^
36
Tiie Time Kingdoms, Western and Eastern Jin, and Northern and Soutijern Dynasties
73
(fig. 3.9). The tianlu, also winged and with a long tongue
The Three Kingdoms, Western and Eastern Jin, and Northern and Soutijern Dynasties
Tije Time Kingdoms, Western and Eastern Jin, and Nortljern and Soutijern Dynasties
just three years before the transfer o f the Northern Wei cap-
same area, and funerary temples have been known for cen-
. n , y \ n-tx..
nel that led direcdy into the burial chamber, a passage almost
the south. The total interior length was 17.6 meters, mak-
ern Wei rule have been excavated i n the Datong area, all
huang and dated to the Western Jin and Sixteen States era,
text Admonifio/n
tianlu),
have been built during the Later Liang (386 399) or the determined which tribes created the tombs discussed
Tlme Kingdoms, Western and Eastern Jin, and Nortitern and Soutijern Dynasties
Tije TIjree Kingdoms, Western and Eastern Jin, and Nortljern and Soutijern Dynasties
77
here, in which the rise between the walls and the flat celling top is achieved i n step fashion rather than a smooth
curve, originated in Eastern Han construction.
Buddhist Architecture
Tlie Three Kingdoms, Western and Eastern Jin, and Nortijern and Sou tlx rn Dynasties
Tlie Time Kingdoms, Western and Eastern Jin, and Nortljern and Soutiiern Dynasties
79
the Wei K i n g d o m .
and Wu) began i n China. Later the period was the subject
Jin Wudi.
building traditions.
and Nortlmn
and Sontljern
Dynasties
the Wei K i n g d o m .
and Wu) began i n China. Later the period was the subject
Jin Wudi.
)ns.
Map 3.
Three Kingdoms, Western and
Eastern Jin, and Northern and
Southern Dynasties Sites
^ C . E . I n particular, leaders o f the Yellow period between H a n and Tang, refers to the six powers,
on spread a popular religion that appealed
and Nortliern
and Soutljern
Dynasties
Shouyang 9
Barxia 21
Jiayuguan 32
Binglingsi 28
Jingzhou 20
Songshan 17
Cixian 11
Jiuquan 31
Tai)ruan 8
Danyang 21
Liangshan 4
Tianlongshan 7
Datong 6
Liangzhou 29
Wuwei 30
Dengxian 19
Licheng 13
Xiangtangshan 10
Dingxing 2
Longmen 18
Xinchang 24
D o n g f u 21
Luoyang
X i n l i n 21
Dunhuang 34
Maijishan 2;
X i z h o u 21
Foyemiaowan 3 3
Mangshan 15
Ye 12
Gongxian 16
Meng 14
Yecheng 21
Gushan 26
Mogao 34
Yicihui/Dingxing 2
Guyuan 27
Nanlangya 21
Yonggu 3
Huqiao 23
Nitang 21
Yuecheng 21
Ji'an I
Qijiawan 34
Yungang 5
Jian5'e/Jiankang/Nanjing 21
Shitoucheng 21
Zhenjiang 22
i;
30
15
(535-557)-
were
walls o f the Wei city were kept the same as those o f East-
Subsequentiy
those
two dynasties
5
-I I-
27
7-L
fication o f China.
23
32
39
12
22
17
13
28
29
18
31
18
24
14
16,
20
26
25
/10
^9
^8
\
19
33
36
38
38
34
35
37
38
38
38
main palace compound (fig. 3.2). This single-palace s)'stem was not an innovation specifically o f the Wei K i n g -
Capital Cities
32. Chamberlain f o r
14. W a r m Chamber
26. A u t u m n Storehouse
3 5. Minister o f Agricu
36. Censoi"-in-Chicf C
seen i n its predecessor cit)', Ye. First was the long axial
Coachman
Office
33. Counselor-in-Cl-iie
34. Imperial Sacrifices
were seven gates i n the outer wall: three i n the south, two
i n the north, and one each east and west. A major thor-
IniangchengliteraU)',
the rest.
beyond the former northern wall (fig. 3.2, #19 and #20).
Sui in 589.
The altar o f soil was on the western side o f the city, and
Dynasties
and Northern
and Southern
and South
30
15
W e i capital, t h i r d c e n t u r ) ' C . E .
were
(ubsequendy those
two dynasties
lina.
first
18
27
23
39
22
29
^11
^10
20
26
25
\
^8
19
38
34
33
36
38
35
37
.11
Coachman
26. A u t u m n Storehouse
36. Censor-in-Chief O f f i c e
seen i n its predecessor cit)'. Ye. First was the long axial
^1
11
6. Stable Gate
38
38
38
13
12
32
17
24
tem was not an innovation specificaUy o f the Wei K i n g dom, whose leaders had ruled f r o m the single-palace
18
ties
31
14
huangchengUteraUy,
palace site. The rest o f the cit)' was divided into wards. The
beyond the former northern waU (fig. 3.2, #19 and #20).
Sui i n 589.
The altar o f soU was o n the western side o f the city, and
and Nortlmn
and Southern
Dynasties
65
19
46
21
13
6|
29
25
30
31
14
15
u\
15a
11
44
16 17
13
12
16a
21
20
29
26
23 28
~1~^9""8~~7~
19 18
28
22
27
43
42
47
h7 22
"15
14 16
31
2 3 4
flanked by government offices and military barracks. Residences were primarily i n the southern part o f the cit}'. As
1
32
26
25
24
38
Gate
Eastern Han
25. Site o f Luminous Hall o f
Eastern H a n
35
and Southern
3 5. State Gate
i n 448)
2 5. Yarn Market
26. N o r t h Market
49. Tide D i t c h
5 2. N e w Hostel
(Jinyongcheng)
20. Litde Luoyang
(added i n 448)
33
52
w h o considered themselves successors o f the unified ChiFigure 3.2. Plan of Luoyang under the Wei and the Western Jin
37
K36
Dynasties
46
25
23
28
6
30
31
29
30
26
23 28
49
0 ^ 9 ~ 8 7 24
19
18
21
11
4*
15a
16,7
16a
13
14
12
43
"15
16
31
42
2 3 4
48
32
26
51
Jit Ford)
2 2. A r m o r y
sunlight Gate
I Prosperity Gate
Eastern H a n
25. Site o f Luminous H a l l o f
Bright Gate
ight Gate
i Boundless Gate
35
Eastern H a n
26. Site o f Imperial Obsen'atory
ng Spring Gate
33
50
)(36
52
w h o considered themselves successors o f the unified Chir'lan of Luoyang under tlie Wei and the Western Jin
37
38
25
o f Eastern H a n
ern suburbs where imperial sacrifices to heaven were performed (fig. 3.3, #36 and #34, respectively). The number
Gate
iance Gate
1 Sunlit Gate
y (Northern Palace
iHan)
ng's Residence
Utar to the G o d o f
i n 448)
ioil o f Western J i n
Ancestral Temple
(added i n 448)
serial Ancestral
2 5. Yarn Market
)f Western Jin
26. N o r t h Market
uth Palace o f
49. Tide D i t c h
52. N e w Hostel
[an
;e
ZaUed Cit)'
heng)
yang
and Southern
Dynasties
lished. Cao Cao and his forces had their power base i n
races, fig. 3.1, #27, #28, and #29) and west o f the palaces,
is the part o f the cit)' that some compare to the three small
fl33!
57
60
35
^ 34
|
10
1
37
63
58
(fig. 3.2, #19 and #20, and fig. 3.4, #32 and #33), and
29 23
24
28 25
13 27 26
62
31
12 1
30
41
22 15
16
17 19
18
20
21
2
3_
(3n the east were the residence o f the king o f Wei and
46
56
49
55
50 47
54
51
53
52
and Jin.
palace city (beyond #8) through the rest o f the cit)' to the
67
64
1. N o r t h Ford Gate
2. Manifest Sunlight Gate
3. Peace and Prosperit;' Gate
9. Gate o f Great X i a
bers (qin)." The main haU, where the grandest pubUc cer-
I ; . O f f i c e o f L e f t Guard
16. O f f i c e o f Minister o f Education
17. Imperial Supervisory o f Academic
Learning
18. Court o f the Imperial Clan
Taiji HaU (fig. 3.5, #11). Flanking Taiji HaU were East
turies o f disunion.
HaU and West HaU (#18 and #19), where the emperor
and Nortlmn
and Southern
Dynasties
48
along n o r t h - s o u t h
Palace Architecture
66 44 45
43
^8
38
61
14
25 Nine-Rank Offices
26 Altar o f Soil and Grain
27 H u t o n g Monastery
28 Station o f Issuing Imperial Notices
5 3. A d i n i r i n g J ustice Ward
31. A r m o r y
52. Golden-WaUed Cit>'
5 5. Rejoining V i r m e Ward
3 5-Litde Luoyang
34- Flowery Forest Garden
5 8. Longevit)' M o u n d Ward
59. N o r d i Canal
60. G u (Grain) Ri\-er
Liason Office
4 ' Big market o f Luo)'ang
4^ SmaU market o f Luoyang
43 Imperial Observatory Site o f Eastern H a n
44 Circular M o a t Site o f Eastern Han
4 5 National Academy Site o f Eastern H a n
46 Sitong Market
47 White Elephant Ward
48 L i o n Ward
64. Y i River
6 5. L u o River
66. Site o f Luminous HaU o f Easte
67. Burial m o u n d
lished. Cao Cao and his forces had their power base in
races, fig. 3.1, #27, #28, and #29) and west o f the palaces,
is the part o f the cit)' that some compare to the three small
(fig. 3.2, #19 and #20, and fig. 3.4, #32 and #33), and
63
61
58
62
41
42
46
56
49
55
50 47
54
51
53
52
65
48
67
along n o r t h - s o u t h
66 44 45
43
64
I . N o r t l i Ford Gate
27. H u t o n g Monastery
30. Censoratc
31. A r m o r y
32. Golden-WaUedCit)-
; 8. Longevit)' M o u n d Ward
59. N o r t h Canal
m e l Street.
chitecture
62. Seven-//Bridge
15. O f f i c e o f L e f t Guard
6 3. Changfen Bridge
64. Y i River
bers (qin)." The main haU, where the grandest public cer-
Liason O f f i c e
6;. L u o River
67. Burial m o u n d
Taiji HaU (fig. 3.5, #11). Flanking Taiji HaU were East
nion.
HaU and West HaU (#18 and #19), where the emperor
48. L i o n Ward
and Soutirern
Dynasties
Learning
17
16
13
12
19
18
5
1 2
Figure 3.6. Drawing of a wall painting from Maijishan Cave 127, Gansu province
1. Lateral Gate
3. Lateral Gate
4. Commander-in-Chief Gate
the government, the court (fig. 3.7, #29), and, also on the
Lodge
9. Grand Secretariat
I D . HaU o f State
flourished,
men (#4).
to either side, Taiji East and Taiji West haUs (#20 and
plex (fig. 3.5, #12 and #13). Unlike at Ye, the important
halls were not o f equal size, but they did stand i n a row.
and Southern
Dynasties
and South
17
^Lsc&rxd
10
-
Figure 3.6. Drawing of a wall painting from Maijishan Cave 127, Gansu province
Chief Gate
Gate
jate
the government, the court (fig. 3.7, #29), and, also o n the
jate
Lodge
Gate
at
HaU
flourished,
Hall o f State {chaotang^ #10) and i n f r o n t chanceUery (menxiasheng #36), imperial Ubrary (#35), and
o f the Grand Secretariat {shangshusheng^ Yongfusheng, the Department o f Eternal Blessings (#34).
to either side, Taiji East and Taiji West haUs (#20 and
the places where the emperor held court and Uved were
Again, Taiji HaU and the east and west flanldng haUs
and Southern
Dynasties
Both front facades and reUef sculpture inside Buddhist caves at Yungang, on the outskirts of the capital
Datong, and at Maijishan, offer a gUmpse of wooden
Buddhist architecture of the Northern Wei (figs. 3.15,
3.16, 3.17, and 3.18). Sculptural reUef in Caves 12 and 39
are fine examples. These show fuUy developed timberframe structures, elevated on platforms, approached by
stairs, and divided into bays by columns. Although we
have no proof that columns of Buddhist haUs were
elaborated with imagery as they appear in the cave
sculpture, the simple bracket sets consisting of blocks
and arms only in the direction of the building facade,
the inverted V-shaped struts bet\veen these bracket
sets that together supported the weight of roof eaves,
the two sets of roof rafters, the ceramic tile ends that
decorated the rafters, and the curving ornaments that
were named "owls' taUs" by Chinese builders are beUeved to resemble actual structures.
Major Monasteries of
Northern Wei Luoyang
Figure 3.17. Decoration above door lintel showing bracket sets,
r o o f rafters, and r o o f ridge decoration, Cave 12, Yungang
Figure 3.18. Drawing o f the front facade o f Maijishan Cave 4,
Gansu province
83
rior sides. The next ring of columns was aligned with the
columns that were not on the corners, to create seven
bays. The two rows of columns created an outer ambulatory, a feature that appears in later Chinese pagodas made
of eidier dmber-frame or bnck. The floor of the ambulatory was made of wood and could be reached via a ramp
(mandao) leachng to the center from each of the three
gates on the sides of the pagoda. Four pillars on pedestals
were placed at the center of the pagoda, their locations
along the Hnes defined by the centers of the ramp
approaches and entries behind them. The space between
the pillars, however, was soUd, made of sun-dried mud
84
The Three Kingdoms, Western and Eastern Jin, and Nortljern and Soutljern Dynasties
there are those that kept their private gardens. The abundance of these urban monasteries, in aU of their various
forms, greatiy contributed to the rapid popularization of
Buddhism, especially in China's cities.
MeanwhUe, in the south, a similar transformation to a
predominandy Buddhist state was under way. In 471,
Emperor Ming of Liu Song converted an imperial residence into Xianggong Monastery. In 5 07, Emperor Wu of
Liang but Guangzhai on the site of a former residence.
Buddhism peaked in north and south China at the same
time, with the Northern Wei in the north and the Dang in
the south. By the end of the Nordiern Wei, i ,3 67 Buddhist
buUding complexes stood in Luoyang, and 13,727 were
spread across thek empire. In Jiankang under Liang riUe,
nearly 500 monasteries stood in the capital, and the number of Buddhist estabUshments in the empire is recorded as
2,846. In bofli north and south, architecmral forms from
regions west of China, direcdy from India or by way of development in Central Asia, had to be further transformed
into stmcmres that the Chinese could buUd with native
materials and that they felt could be accommodated on
thek akeady architecturaUy defined landscapes.
The Sinicization of
Buddhist Architecture
Three fundamental stages describe the adoption and
adaptation of Indian worship forms and spaces by the
Chinese. First was the construction of a buUding to house
the reUcs of the Buddha (the pagoda). Second was the addition of a Buddhist worship space separate from the
pagoda. This brought about the concept of the Chinese
monastery, the origins of wlUch are traceable to India.
Third was the replacement of the pagoda with the Buddha
haU as the focus of worship. The first two phases were
accomphshed during the Northern and Southern dynasties, and by the time several more centuries had passed the
Buddha haU reigned supreme in Chinese monastery space.
The three fundamental architectural forms of early
Indian Buddhism are sttipa, vihara, and caitya. Each presented a concept foreign to Chinese architecture. Nevertheless, aU three found places in the Chinese building
system before reunification in 5 89.
Smpa to pagoda is the best studied of the architectural
transformations. The original smpa was an earthen reUc
mound with an egg-shaped dome beneath which the reUcs
of the historical Buddha Sakj^amuni are said to have been
buried. Variations on this form came to be made in stone
with a high finial during the early cenmries of Indian Bud-
The Three Kingdoms, Western and Eastern Jin, and Northern and Southern Dynasties
Tlie Three Kingdoms, Western and Eastern Jin, and Nortliern and Southern Dynasties
The Three Kingdoms, Western and Eastern Jin, and Nortljern and Southern Dynasties
The Three Kngdoms, Western and Eastern Jin, and Northern and Southern Dynasties
CHAPTER
XINIAN
^^'~W^^^^% he thrmng economy and international culture of the Sui and especially the
Tang dynasty stimulated a period of tremendous architectural creativity.
These two dynasties form the earliest period from which an outstanding
.J^^
Map 4.
Sui, Tang, and Five Dynasties Sites
Chang'an/Daxing 24
Chaoyi 21
Chengdu 25
Dali 26
Dengfeng 14
Fangshan i
Fuzhou 13
Gaocheng/Jiaohe 27
Hami 28
Hangzhou 11
Jiangning 9
Licheng 6
Linj'ou 22
I.ongquan/Ruicheng 19
Luoj'ang 15
Mangshan 16
Nanjing 8
Pingshun 4
Pingyao 17
Pvong\'ang 29
Qianling 23
Suzhou 10
Wutai 3
Xiyanchuan/Quj'ang 2
Yangzhou 7
Yongji 20
Yuezhou/Shaoxing 12
Yuncheng 18
Zhao 5
Linde Hall
Daming Palace
West Inner Garden
Imperial City
Xingqing
Palace
"^0
West
Marl<et
Yong'an
Ditch
East
Market
Qingming
Ditch
Luoyang
The eastern Sui capital at Luoyang was founded by
Wendi's son Yangdi in 605. Its nearly square outer wall
measured 7.3 Idlometers on the east, 7.3 Idlometers on
the south, 6.1 kilometers on the north, and 6.8 kilometers
on the south, with a perimeter of 27.5 Idlometers. The
Luo River ran right through the city from southwest to
northeast, dividing it into districts Imown as "north of
Luo" and "south of Luo."
In spite of original intentions to replicate the plan of
Sui Daxing and construct a bilaterally symmetrical cit)',
the topography northeast of the Luo River proved somewhat restrictive, so the palace and imperial cities were constructed farther northwest within the scheme (fig. 4.2).
Another incentive for the location of the palaces was
Yique, about ten kilometers south and west of the palace
cit)', where water flowed between two mountains.
Although the spot was scenic, construction of wallenclosed wards in that area was impossible. Instead, the
cit)' wards were east, south, and southeast of the palace
and governmental areas. Still, Luo)'ang followed the
imperial plan initiated by the Sui in the separation of the
palace and imperial cities, the location of Taoguang Park
north of the palace cit)', and the width of Red Oriole
Road approaching the imperial and palace cities. In addition, Hke Chang'an and many of its post-Han predecessors, the gates of the palace-, imperial-, and outer-cit)'
waHs were aHgned, as were three bridges that spanned the
Luo River south of the imperial cit)' and north of the
outer-city wards. One of the bridges, Tianjinqiao, was
a pontoon bridge. Because of the number of necessary
TIM Sui, Tang and Five Dynasties
Yuanbi City
Xieclieng
Ditch
Yaoyi City
Chan
River
Hanjia
Granary
Palace City
Shangyang
East City
Cao Ditch
imperial City
Luo Rivet
Yun
Ditch
Fen
Ditch
Tongjin
Ditch
Figure 4.3. Plan of tiie cit)' of Yangzhou during the Tang dynast)-
for Yangzhou, one of several flourishing commercial centers in southeastern China, had strict northsouth and
east-west streets defining the residential wards of the
populace, the cit)' ruler's residential sectors, the government administrative spaces in tlie north, and the moat
that surrounded the cit)' waUs (fig. 4.3). As the cit)'
evolved, however, the functions (and architecture) of
some wards spiUed over into other areas, weakening the
absolute divisions of the original scheme and encouraging a far more fluid and dynamic cit)' environment than
that suggested by the neatly defined cHvisions.
Thus the cit)' plan was one of the fundamentally Tang by the third Tang emperor, Gaozong, adjacent to
Chinese images that was imitated beyond China's borders Chang'an but northeast of the outer city in former parkwhen rulers in Japan and on the Korean peninsula sought land, and Tang emperor Xuanzong built the Xingqing
models for their own imperial governmental systems.
palace complex inside the Longqing ward in 714. AloreIn early eighth-century Japan, for example, the estab- over, both dynasties had detached palaces. Sui detached
lishment of the Nara period coincided with the founding palaces included Jiangdugong, Renshougong, and Fenof the Heij capital according to the Sui-Tang model. )'anggong, whereas Cuiwengong, Jiuchenggong, ShangThat city, today at Nara, and another, the late-eighth- yanggong, and Hebeigong were buUt under Tang rule.
century capital of the Heian period, today at Kyoto, are Due to superior record-keeping and excavation, detailed
the best known. But in fact six capitals were built in Japan and reliable information exists about the plans and about
between the mid seventh and the late eighth century, and many of the structures in the palaces of both d)masties.
all of them owed their designs to Sui-Tang China. In
The southern entrance to Taijigong, Daxinggong of the
addition to the Heij and Heian capitals, biult in 710 and Sui, was the terminus of Red Oriole Road of the Tang cap794, respectively, the Fujiwara capital, today at Asuka, ital. I t was one of three parts into which the Tang palace
and the Naniwa capital, today at Osaka, were constructed cit)', 2.8 Idlometers east to west by 1.5 Idlometers north to
in the second half of the seventh century; and the Kurd south, was divided. East of Taijigong was the palace of the
and Nagaoka capitals were founded between the con- crown prince, Imown as the Eastern Palace. It measured
struction of the Heij and Heian capitals. Excavation 833 meters east to west. West of Taijigong were storage
suggests that, especially in the Asul<;a region, imitation of areas for goods that supported the needs of palace life, livChinese models in the design of cities and architecture ing quarters for the women, and a few official bureaus.
may have predated the seventh century.
This area measured 703 meters across at its widest point.
On the Korean peninsula, excavation has confirmed
The central sector of Taijigong was the imperial court,
that architecture and buiiding complexes at the capital of known as Danei, the imperial palace or "great inner"
the Kogur3ai kingdom at today's Pyongyang (427-668) (fig. 4.4). It was 1.3 kilometers wide and covered an area
followed Sui-Tang patterns. So did the upper, central, and of 1.9 square Idlometers. Danei was itself divided into
eastern of the five capitals of the Bohai (Parhae) kingdom, three parts: the court, residential area, and gardens. These
which date from the second half of the eighth century were the most important spaces in the Tang imperial s)'suntil no later than the faU of the kingdom in 926.
tem. The court, s)'mbol of state power, was the location
The influence of Tang urbanism was felt in the farthest
reaches of the empire. Although the commanderies and
garrisons of Tang China's western regions (today in eastern
and central Xinjiang Uyghur autonomous region) were
constmcted with local materials and mosfly by builders
who had only heard of the great cities of Tang, these structures also bore die stamp of Sui-Tang. Inside die mud-earth
walls of Gaochang and Jiaohe, for instance, rulers' spaces
were separate from diose of die rest of the population, and
the layout of streets in parts of die cities was orthogonal.
Palatial Architecture
Within a year after the founding of the Uvo Sui capitals, a
palace cit)' was completed at each. The palace complex at
Daxing was named Daxinggong; that at Luoyang was
called Ziweigong. Although the names were changed, to
Taijigong and Taichugong, respectively, both sites continued to be used after the establishment of the Tang
dynasty. In addition, the Tang built two new palace complexes at Chang'an. In 662, Daminggong was constructed
The Sui, Tang, and Five Dynasties
idential areas of Danei. This was the main eastwest thoroughfare across the palace cit)'. The residential
area consisted of two main palace complexes. In the
southern one, Liang)'idian, the first Tang emperors held
court every other da)', foUowing the Zhou custom. To the
east and west were the palace complexes of Wanchun HaU
and Qianqiu Hall. Like Liangyi HaU, each was enclosed by
a covered arcade that created a court)'ard in front of it.
Behind the second cross street in the palace ciVf was the
residential area of the empress and concubines, its
entrance flanked by RUiua Gate on the east and Yuehua
Gate on the west. No official was permitted to enter here.
The main hall, Ganludian, was similar in plan to the
Liang)'idian complex in front of it, and was bounded on
either side, east and west, by Slienlong HaU and Am-en
HaU. Each haU was in its own court)'ard defined by covered arcades. Each of the main residential haUs was part of
a two-part structure: the frcmt haU or buUdings for pubUc
situations, and the back strucmres for private ones. The
bipartite arrangement of each complex, in which the main
front buUding was larger than die stmcmre direcdy behind
it, was carried throughout the central, eastern, and western
sectors of Taijigong. In addition, aU buUdings were
arranged in accordance with the cardinal cUtections, in an
ultimate extension of the concept of orthogonal planning
implemented in the outer cit)'.
Beyond Rihua and Yuehua gates were more palatial
haUs and offices of lesser importance in the imperial
bureaucracy than those adjacent to the Taijidian complex.
Only in the gardens of Taijigong were the symmetry
and organization broken. There, too, halls and pavilions
were fronted by court)'ards or enclosed by covered
arcades, but the buUdings were fit into spaces defined by
ponds and waterways. At the center of the back wall was
Xuanwu Gate, in Une with every main haU and gate of
Chang'an itself Xuanwu Gate provided imperial access
to the private parkland next to the capital city outer waU.
Since premodern times, each reconstructor of the
Tang palace cit)' has had to rely on his best judgment for
such detaUs as the number of entries to a gate, because
original texts are not explicit. Today the palace cit)' of
Chang'an is buried beneath the cit)' of Xi'an.
The palace cit)' of the Tang capital at Luo)'ang (Ziweigong of Sui times, and alternately known as Luoyanggong in the Tang) stood in the northeastern area of the SuiTang capital. Measuring 2,080 meters east to west
by 1,052 meters north to south, Taichugong, Uke its
Chang'an counterpart, was divided into three parts. Danei,
the central area, locus of the imperial court, was 1,030
meters wide. The Eastern Palace was on the east, and west
19
15
17
18
16^
13
14
12
10
11
Figure 4.4. Plan of Taijigong, tlie palace cit)' in the Tang capital,
Chang'an
1. Taijimen (Great Ultimate Gate)
2. Chengtianmen (Continuing
Heaven's Mandate Gate)
3. Taijidian (Great Ultimate HaU)
4. Chancellery
5. Office of Historiography
of Literature
7. Secretariat
8. Palace Visitors Bureau
9. Baclc Gate of Taijigong
10. Liangyidian (Heaven and
Earth HaU)
was "west cit)'," each 340 meters wide. Beyond each were
narrow waUed-in regions, 190 and 180 meters in width.
Taichugong's Danei was divided into front and back
sectors: the front was the location of the imperial court
and the back was where the royalty lived. The approach
to its main haU was Yingtian Gate, on top of which was
a two-story gate tower. A watchtower was positioned
on either side. Although of the same form, Yingtian
Gate was larger than Chengtian Gate, its counterpart at
Chang'an. Direcdy behind Yingtian Gate was Qian)'angdian, the largest haU in Luoyang. I t spanned thirteen bays
across the front and soared fifty meters in height. A covered arcade with a gate on each side surrounded it.
Between Yingtian Gate and Qianyang HaU, on the same
axial Une, was Qian)'ang Gate. Streets ran east and west
Tije Sui, Tang and Five Dynasties
()<)
100
Daminggong
Daminggong, or the Palace of Great Light, was situated
northeast of the palace city of Chang'an, outside its outer
waU. Excavation done since the 1950s has revealed that
its outer waU had a rare trapezoidal shape, 1,135 meters
east to west along its north side and 1,370 meters along
its south wall, which also formed part of the north waU of
Chang'an. Measuring 2,256 meters along its straight western side, the Daming palace complex was 3.11 square
kUometers (fig. 4.5). Daminggong can be seen as a fourpart complex. Southernmost, just beyond the entry to the
complex across a waterway, lay a square 500 meters on a
side. A t the north end of the square, rising 15 meters
from ground level, was the first and main haU, Han)aiandian. I n some ways, Hanyuandian was equivalent to
Chengtian Gate of the Taiji palace complex: there the
grand imperial rites were performed and a pavilion stood
in front of it on either side. The first interior wall of
Daminggong continued east and west of Hanyuandian.
Three hundred meters behind Hangman HaU was
Xuanzheng HaU, from whose two sides extended the second interior waU of the complex. Enclosed by a covered
arcade, Xuanzhengdian was more than three hundred
meters wide. Beyond its arcade were offices of the central
government: the chanceUery and Office of Historiography
on the east, and the secretariat and Department of Palace
Administration to the west. Xuanzhengdian was where the
emperor held court on the first and fifteenth days of each
lunar month. Between die two main haUs was the central
administrative area of the Tang court. Behind Xuanzheng
HaU was Ziehen Gate, and beyond it Ziehen HaU. This was
where the emperor held court every other day. I t was the
equivalent of Dangyidian, the main imperial residential haU
of Taijigong. Due east of Ziehen HaU were haUs for
bathing and steam baths, and due west were Yanying and
Hanxiang haUs. The emperor went to these when he was
not holding court.
The third cross street of Daminggong was north of the
Zichendian complex. Beyond it were the sleeping quarters
of the empress and imperial concubines. The main sleeping chamber, Penglai HaU, was due north of Ziehen HaU,
and HanUang HaU was direcdy behind it. More minor haUs
were arranged along northsouth Unes east and west of
the two main sleeping chambers. Farther north was Taiye
Pond, with an islet known as Mount Penglai rising from it.
HaUs were buUt on aU sides. Two large budding complexes,
Lindedian and Taifudian, were built on the west. The
Linde HaU complex, excavated more than thirt)' years ago.
was for banquets and less formal receptions than those caUed Dragon TaU Way. Above the foundation mound was
held in the haUs of the first two courtyards of Daming- a double-layer platform, the upper section of wlUch was
gong. TaUiedian and Qingsidian were smaUer complexes caUed bi and the lower section jie, both Chinese words for
where the Tang emperors went for entertainment and staUs. A n exquisitely carved stone balustrade enclosed the
recreation. North were two Daoist temple complexes, approach and foundation on aU sides.
Dajiaoguan, also known as the Temple of Emperor
The haU itself stood on the upper section of the platXuanyuan (Laozi), and Sanqingdian. (Daoist architecmre form (fig. 4.7). Fifty-eight meters across the front, the
was common in the Tang palace complexes because the eleven-by-four-bay haU was further enclosed by a onereUgion was poptdar among Tang rulers.) And beyond the bay-wide veranda on aU sides. It projected a simple
Daoist structures was the north waU of Daminggong, hipped roof, the tj'pe reserved for China's most emiwhose central gate was Xuanwumen. The entire area north nent structures. At Hanyuan HaU, covered arcades
of Penglaigong and HanUanggong can be thought of as the stretched eleven bay-lengths across the front and back
garden area of the palace complex.
sides and four bay-lengths in depth. Arcades whose roofs
The most extensive excavation at Daminggong so far curved upward joined the side arcades at ninety-degree
has taken place at the sites of several of the haU complexes. angles, leacUng to triple-bodied paviUons in front of the
Hanyuan HaU was raised on a high mound, more than ten haU. The approaches to the pavilions, sometimes caUed
meters aboveground at its front (fig. 4.6). Approached flying corridors, resembled the curve of a rainbow, a comfrom the south by way of a brick ramp, this ascent was mon form in Tang architecmre. Triple-bocUed paviUons,
loi
with those closest to the hall having the broadest dimensions and those farthest, the shortest, were also constructed frequendy in the Tang period. Those on the east
at the Hanyuan complex were named Xiangluange; on
the west were Qifengge. Each strucmre was elevated on
its own tall foundation platform, and the group was
raised on a marble platform the same height as that of
Hanyuan Hall. From east to west the entire area of the
complex was about two hundred meters.
least ntne bays across the front, placed so that the piUars
defining the bays as weU as the arcades formed single
Unes. I t is beUeved that the middle haU had two stories
and the front and back haUs were single-story structures.
The total east-west span was 58.2 meters and the depth
was 86 meters. As can be seen in the reconstruction
drawing, aU three haUs are believed to have had eminent
yet simple hipped roofs.
103
04
Sui emperor Wendi ordered Yuwen Kai to build Renshougong between 593 and 595. The palace was
destroyed when the Sui fell in 617, but in 631, Tang
emperor Taizu commanded that it be reconstructed,
again as a detached palace, and work was completed the
following year. Taizong made five trips there and his successor, Gaozong, visited eight times, once changing its
name and then changing it back again. Excavation has
shown that the Sui and Tang palace complexes were different. At least two of the architectural complexes
believed to be from the Sui period had the U-shaped
combination of "flying corridor" and covered arcade
constructed at Tang Daminggong. One was a gate tower
that joined a wall and bridge around the complex; the
other was the main hall complex, Renshoudian.
One well-recorded and studied monument from the
city of Luoyang is beHeved to have been buHt in Tang
palatial style: the Alingtang (a ritual buding sometimes
caUed a HaU of Light) constructed by concubine-turnedempress Wu Zetian. She usurped the throne from her
husband, the emperor Gaozong, foUowing his death
in 683, and her bloody path toward legitimate rule of
the Tang empire included the execution of numerous
i o5
than other wooden architecture o f the time. Their tremendous height and complicated ceilings represented
the greatest achievements i n timber-frame architecture o f
the Tang period, and the technolog}? used to create them
influenced all later wooden constmction i n China. Moreover, the sk)dine o f the Chinese city was forever altered.
N o w buildings soared above its outer walls.
Tombs
Unification and the economic prosperitjr o f the long, stable rule o f the Tang are reflected i n tomb construction.
Tombs o f the seventh through ninth centuries were larger
and more extravagantly designed than those o f the previFigure 4.11. Reconstruction drawing of the Mingtang (Hall of
Light) in Luoyang, eastern Tang capital
Generally speaking, the inner wall was square and its four
officials (fig. 4.12). Several kilometers southwest o f the to the burial chambers begins about halfway up the
107
Three excellent examples o f imperial funerary architecture survive f r o i n the first half o f the tenth century. T w o
tomb and his son's are built into natural rock with moun-
o f Han)aaandian, were
painted
on
the
two at the tomb o f his son. The walls are made o f brick-
back chamber where Wang and his wife are buried, and
east and west side niches joining the main chamber (fig.
A huge red lacquer door ornamented w i t h bronze provides entry to the tomb. Each chamber is three steps
lower than the one i n f r o n t o f it. Although Wang Jian's
Buddhist Architecture
tomb was robbed (probably within ten years o f his burial), archaeological treasures remain. I n the center o f the
111
place there.
monasteries.
o f buildings
discussed later.
and haU, one behind the other, were the focus, courtyards
113
te
IT 4
115
27. Crossbeam
28. Side brace connecting crossbeam with
purHn
29. Inverted V-shaped brace
30. Ridge purlin
aUies before falling to the Song i n 979. Yet the haU also has
help support the large and heavy eaves; and the lattice ceil-
Other features that bespeak its high rank are the huge and
117
only k n o w n example o f architecture o f the Later Jin kingd o m (936-947). The haU was buUt i n 940, two years after
the founding o f the monastery. (The suffix
i n the
Pagodas
first decades o f Song rule. I t is also the earliest wooden
during the
18
flourish
presence
o f three
cantilevers a
feature
that
four bays deep (15.9 by 14.7 meters), and had four inte-
AU major bridge projects in the Tang dynasty were initiated and controUed by the state. There were eleven of
them, including pontoon bridges, stone bridges, and
wooden bridges supported by piers. The largest bridge in
Tang China was Pujin Pontoon Bridge in Yongji, southBridge technology also made several significant ern Shanxi province. About three hundred meters long, it
advances during the periods of Sui and Tang. The most spanned the Yellow River all the way to Chaoyi prefecextraordinary bridge of the day was Anji Bridge, which ture in Shaanxi. Originally the bridge was composed of
spanned the Nanjiao River in Zhao count)'. Hebei. Yu- several hundred boats Unked by bamboo cables, but the
wen Kai, the same man who designed both the Grand cables could not withstand floods and freezing and so
Canal and the Renshou Palace complex, came up with were replaced by iron chains in 724 during the reign of
the segmented-arch, open-spandrel bridge design that in Tang emperor Xuanzong. In addition, four iron oxen and
China was first implemented at Anji Bridge. The bridge's two iron piers were cast on each end of the bridge to act
12
iH
iiliBiWiHiiMM'TO
iMrpfnTi'"
'
constmcted in the second half of the eighth century. Architraves that joined the four central ptQars provided a square
wooden frame on top of which were placed eight posts
connected to eight exterior pillars under the eaves. Eight
diagonal beams, also supported by the eight columns and
bracket sets above them, emerged from the center. Part of
their weight was borne by posts. Above the wooden strucmre an octagonal, pyramidal roof was supported. Octagonal plans were also prevalent in brick and stone pagoda
arclUtecture. I f octagonal stmcmres had specific symboUsm
in Tang China, it so far has not been explained.
Octagonal buUdings, again a feamre that has pre-SuiTang sources, were also buUt during diis period. A n octagonal pavilion foundadon has been uncovered at a Tang
palace site Ui Luoyang. Framed by eight peripheral columns
and supported by another four interior columns spaced at
the midpoints of four sides of the exterior ring, this haU follows the stmcmre of the octagonal haU at the Buddhist
monastery Eizan-ji in Nara prefecmre, Japan, which was
moved into their own precincts south of the main Buddha ball courtyard. Built in the middle of the eighth century, the Tdai-ji occupied an area 0.8 by 1 kilometer due
east of the outer cit)' of the Heij capital. The huge size
of its main Buddha hall eleven bays (88 meters) across
the front when first constructed corresponded to that
of Qian)'uan HaU in the palace cit)' of Sui-Tang Luoyang.
(The haU found there today is a reconstruction buUt on a
smaUer scale.) SimUar plan la)'outs of Chinese monasteries are represented in wall paintings in Buddhist caves.
OccasionaUy Japanese buildings bear a dUect likeness to
a particular form of Chinese construction. Japanese Buddhist liaUs constructed under the cUrection of the monk
Kkai, who smdied in Chang'an at the beginning of the
ninth centur)', are good examples. Another is the Heij