Brakes

Necessity of a Braking System - In an automobile, if the pressure from accelerator pedal is removed, the
vehicle tends to slow up because of wind resistance, drag of engine and road friction. These forces, of course,
would stop the vehicle but in the present day traffic, this would be quite unpracticable and dangerous. The
braking system provides added friction to overcome motion and to slow up or to stop the vehicle.
Principle - Braking of a vehicle depends upon the static function that acts between tyres and road surface.
Brakes work on the following principle to stop the vehicle

The kinetic energy due to motion of the vehicle is dissipated in the form of heat energy due to friction
between moving parts (wheel or wheel drum) and stationary parts of vehicle (brake shoes).

The heat energy so generate4d due to application of brakes is dissipated into air.

Brakes operate most effectively when they are applied in a manner so that wheels do not lock
completely but continue to roll without slipping on the surface of road.

Functions of Brakes
1. It must slow a moving vehicle.
2. It must bring a vehicle to a stop.
3. It must hold a vehicle stationary when stopped.
4. It allows directional control during maximum braking.
In a moving vehicle, the friction between brake drum and brake shoes (having lining riveted to it) slows down
the rotation of wheel or stops the vehicle.
Requirements of a good Braking System
1. The brakes should stop the vehicle within a reasonable distance. The retardation shall be smooth and
free from jerk or shudder.
2. The braking system should be very reliable to promote highest degree of safety on the road.
3. The braking system should not be affected by water, heat, road grit or dust etc.
4. Pedal effort applied by the driver should not be more so as not to strain the driver.
5. Brake should work equally good in all weathers.
6. The wear and tear of the material of the brake lining should be minimum for its longer life.
7. Due to the rubbing action of brake shoes along with lining against drum, large amount of heat is
generated due to friction. The brake design system should be capable of dissipating this heat very
quickly.
8. All the components and levers of the braking system should be strong enough to take the mechanical
stresses and strains which are encountered during brake actuation.
9. No braking system can work at its best through worn out or incorrectly inflated tyres. Good, tyres are,
therefore, a prime essential for efficient braking.

Stopping distance for a vehicle - Assuming proper operation of the brakes on the vehicle, the minimum
stopping distance for a vehicle is determined by the effective coefficient of friction between the tires and the
road, and the driver's reaction time in a braking situation. The friction force of the road must do enough work on
the car to reduce its kinetic energy to zero. If the wheels of the car continue to turn while braking, then static
friction is operating, while if the wheels are locked and sliding over the road surface, the braking force is a
kinetic friction force only.

To reduce the kinetic energy to zero

1
Wfriction = -mgd= - mv0 2
2
so the stopping distance is

d=

v02
2g

Note that this implies a stopping distance independent of vehicle mass, and in this case, driver reaction time. It
also implies a quadrupling of stopping distance with a doubling of vehicle speed.
The stopping distance depends upon
1. Grip between the tyre and road surface.
2. Tyre tread condition.
3. Tyre inflation.
4. Nature of road surface.
What affects overall stopping distances?

How fast we are travelling

Whether we are on a level road, or a hill going up or down, and the steepness of that hill.

Weather, is it good and dry, or is it wet or icy

Tyres, are they good tyres and properly inflated, or worn or badly inflated

Brakes, are they working well, are they stopping you in a straight line.

Our ability as a driver, are we ill, tired, on medication, have drunk alcohol, are distracted, all of these
can affect your reactions when applying brakes.

Braking efficiency - The ability of the brakes to perform their function is popularly known as braking
efficiency. The action of applying the brakes sets up a force effective at the road surface, which acts in the
opposite direction to the motion of the vehicle and causes it to slow down or decelerate. This deceleration is
normally compared to a standard value (the acceleration due to gravity g) and reported as a percentage of "g".

Braking effort as a percentage of the weight of the vehicle. The weight includes an element of 140 kg for the
driver, fuel, tools, etc. Calculate the service brake percentage efficiency by dividing the total brake effort
achieved when the service brake is applied by the vehicle weight.
Total brake effort
100 = percentage efficiency
Vehicle weight
Braking Temperature - Brakes are devices that convert the energy of a moving vehicle into heat
whenever the brakes are applied. This heat must be absorbed and dissipated by the brake parts. Unless the
heat is carried away as fast as it is produced, brake part temperatures will rise. Since the heat generated by
brake applications usually is greater that the rate of heat dissipation, high brake temperatures result. Ordinarily,
the time interval between brake applications avoids a heat buildup. If, however, repeated panic stops are made,
temperatures become high enough to damage the brake linings, brake drums, brake fluid, and, in some extreme
cases, even tyres have been set on fire.
Factors that tend to increase brake temperatures include the following

Load on the vehicle

Operator abuse

Speed of the vehicle

Maladjustment of brakes

Incorrect installation of brake parts

Unbalanced braking

Braking Ratio - Braking ratio refers to the comparison of front-wheel to rear-wheel braking effort.
When a vehicle stops, its weight tends to transfer to the front wheels. The front tyres are pressed against
the road with greater force. The rear tyres lose some of their grip on the road. As a result, the front wheels do
more of the braking than the rear.
For this reason, many vehicles have disc brakes on the front and drum brakes on the rear. Disc brakes are
capable of producing more stopping effort than drum brakes. If drum brakes are used on the front and rear
wheels, the front shoe linings and drums typically have a larger surface area.
Typically, front-wheel brakes handle 60 to 70 percent of the braking power. Rear wheels handle 30 to 40
percent of the braking. Front-wheel drive vehicles, having even more weight on the front wheels, have even
a higher braking ratio at the front wheels.
Brake fade - Brake fade is a term used to describe the partial or total loss of braking power used in a vehicle
brake system. Brake fade occurs when the brake pad and the brake rotor no longer generate sufficient mutual
friction to stop the vehicle at its preferred rate of deceleration and can happen on motorcycles, cars and trucks.
Brake drums and rotors are forced to absorb a significant amount of heat during braking. Brake fade describes a
condition where heat is generated at a faster rate than they are capable of dissipating heat into the surrounding

air. For example, during a hard stop the temperature of drums or rotors may increase more than 100 degrees F in
just seconds. It may take 30 seconds to cool these components to the temperature prior to braking. During
repeated hard stops, overheating may occur and a loss of brake effectiveness or even failure may result.
Mechanical fade or delayed fade - occurs when the brake drum overheats and expands away from the brake
lining resulting in increased brake pedal travel. Rapidly pumping the pedal will help to keep linings in contact
with the drum.
Lining fade - affects both drum and disc brakes and occurs when the friction material overheats to the point
where the coefficient of friction drops off. When the coefficient of friction drops off, friction is reduced and the
brake assemblies ability to convert added heat is reduced.
Gas fade - Gas fade is very rare. During extreme overheating of the fade system the pads organic binding agent
can release a thin layer of hot gas. This causes the pad to hydroplane, reducing contact between the pad and the
metallic friction surface. Larger friction surfaces are more prone to trapping gas. To prevent, this slots can be
cut in the pads or rotors to help cool and route away the gases.
Green fade or early life brake fade - This is quite common and almost normal when new components are
fitted. It is merely a settling down of the components after install and can be gone in a few brake applications.
To minimise or avoid this effect it is wise to drive cautiously when new brakes are fitted and give ourself a little
extra braking distance for the bedding in period. This can be anywhere up to 500 miles urban use. Let the brake
pads seat to the rotors and then use the brakes positively on a quiet and safe road area to show them some heat
energy and this will be gone a lot quicker.
Some manufacturers now Surface scorch brake pads to avoid green fade. This process is called heat searing or
scorching of brake pads. The process removes surface organics or volatiles totally.
Blister Fade - New brake linings may contain volatile material from fabrication, which if not released by the
end of the burnish process, could cause high internal gas pressures upon rapid heating, as during a hard brake
application. In some situations, a near-surface blistering results in a rapid, brief loss of brake effectiveness.
Friction is lost because of excessive contact pressures at the blister sites and from the evolved gases.
Effectiveness is lost for a few seconds during a hard brake application, and then returns to near-normal.
Repetition of the hard brake application will not produce a second blister fade, because the volatile material has
been eliminated from the near-surface region.
Flash Fade - It is related to the blister and green fade, but occurs only at very high brake power levels, usually
at very high speeds. The rapid decomposition of near-surface organic constituents produces a gas-pressurelubricated braking surface. The brake lining friction may not be low, but the evolved gas pressurizes the friction
material to counteract the applied force. High surface area brakes and those with high organic contents are most
vulnerable. Prior brake usage at moderate to high brake lining soak temperatures reduces flash fade severity.
Contamination Fade - Water, oil or a combination of these on the surface of the brake lining or brake
drum/disk can generate an elasto hydrodynamic fluid film that effectively makes a bearing from a brake.

Different friction materials have different porosity, compliance and wear characteristics and thus may be quite
different in sensitivity to contamination. High surface area brakes, such as drum brakes are more prone to
contamination fade. However, even automotive disk brakes can exhibit such a fade, if saturated by either water
or oil/water. This effect is similar to that from oil/water films on the road surface, affecting tire friction.
Pad fade - can be caused by several factors. Friction materials are designed to work at an optimum temperature
when the coefficient of friction is the highest. When brakes are used too frequently, if the pad material is not
adequate for the temperature then the coefficient of friction can decrease. When the temperature is too high the
material can melt and cause the coefficient of friction to rapidly decrease to the point where the material will
melt and/or change its frictional characteristics and cause a lubrication effect. Some pad materials change
slowly at elevated temperatures while other materials react with a sudden and dangerous loss of friction. The
result is glazed brake pads and rotors.
Brake Fluid Fade - Fluid fade is caused by overheated brake fluid. The energy converted during braking
creates tremendous heat which must be handled by the rotors, calipers, brake pads and the brake fluid. When
fluid reaches a critical temperature, it boils. Regular brake fluids boil around 400F, the best ones are stable up
to 500F and higher. Whatever the rating, when brake fluid boils air bubbles are created. Fluid in a closed
system cannot be compressed. However, air can be compressed and when boiling brake fluid creates air
bubbles, the brake pedal and master cylinder travel is used up compressing the air and thus unable to
hydraulically move the pads against the brake rotor.
Weight transfer - Figure shows various forces acting at the time of application of brakes to a moving vehicle.
The inertia force acts at the centre of gravity of the vehicle, while the retarding force due to the application of
brakes acts at the road surface. These two form an overturning couple as shown. This overturning couple
increases the perpendicular force between the front wheels and the ground by an amount R while the
perpendicular force between the rear wheels and the ground is decreased by an equal amount. Some of the
vehicle weight is thus transferred from the rear to the front axle.

It is thus observed that in vehicles where either the distribution of weight over the two axles is equal, or the
front axle carries more weight, the braking effect has to be more at the front wheels for efficient braking. It is
seen that in general for achieving maximum efficiency, about 75 per cent of the total braking effect should be on
the front wheels. However, in such a case the trouble would arise while travelling over wet road, where high
braking effect at the front would cause skidding of front wheels, because of decrease of weight transfer. In
practice, therefore, about 60 per cent of the braking effort is applied on the front wheels.

Wheel skidding - The force of adhesion between the wheels and road depends upon the vehicle weight acting
on the wheel, the tyre inflation pressure, type of tyre tread pattern and the coefficient of friction between the
tyre and the road. The friction coefficient further depends upon the condition of the road surface. For example,
water, oil, mud, etc., on the road reduce the friction between the road and the tyre. If the braking force on the
wheel is less than the force of adhesion, the vehicle decelerates gradually till it stops. However, if the braking
force exceeds the force of adhesion at any wheel, the wheel will stop rotating and start slipping on the road, till
the vehicle kinetic energy is dissipated in the friction between the wheel and the road. Apart from resulting in
rapid tyre wear, this slipping or skidding of the wheels presents steering difficulties, which may result in an
accident.
It is, thus seen that apart from other factors, which remain same for a particular vehicle the force of adhesion
and hence the probability of skidding depends upon the component of the vehicle weight coming upon a wheel
at the time of braking, after taking into account the weight transfer. Thus the control of the wheel during braking
depends upon the component of vehicle weight supported by it and also upon the braking effort available at the
wheel.
Since the force of adhesion at the rear wheels decreases on account of weight transfer, they become critical
points to guard against locking during braking.
A relief valve is sometimes fixed on the rear brakes so that in case of sudden braking when the weight transfer
is more than that is provided for in the design, it relieves automatically the excess fluid pressure in the rear
lines, beyond the preset limit. It may be so arranged that this preset limit is automatically raised when the
vehicle is loaded more heavily. Similarly such a relief valve in the front brakes would limit the amount of
braking effort in case the road is wet and the amount of weight transfer is less than normal, thus avoiding
skidding of the wheels. Advances in electronics technology has made it possible to avoid skidding very
accurately.
Causes of Skidding and Loss of Traction
Conditions of the Road

Ice, snow or frost.

Wet road, particularly when the road surface has drops of oil and particles of rubber especially with the
first rain after a long dry spell.

Mud on the road, which can be found near farm entrances, outside building sites, and truck crossings.

Packed wet leaves, which occur in the fall.

Broken or uneven road surfaces and sand/gravel commonly found on curves.

Adverse camber on curves (when the road is banked the wrong way on a curve) or when the curve is flat
loss of traction can occur even if the road surface is dry, but especially when the surface is slippery.

Conditions of the Vehicle (mainly brakes and tires)

Brakes should be evenly adjusted so that on application of the brakes the vehicle slows down in a
straight line. If the brakes pull one way or the other, a skid can easily occur. Front wheels being out of
alignment also can cause a skid by pulling the vehicle one way or another when the brake are applied.

Tires should have good tread, and preferably the front and rear pairs should be well matched, and the tire
pressure should be correct. If there is a different pressure in one tire from that in the opposite one, the
effect can be similar to that of unevenly adjusted brakes because one tire will drag more than the other
tires.

Actions of the Driver (misuse of the four main controls)

Steering wheel sudden steering action on a slippery surface.

Accelerator abrupt or sudden changes in the vehicles speed.

Brakes panic stops and applying your brakes too hard especially on hills, curves, or wet surfaces.

Clutch sudden engagement of the clutch when on a slippery surface.

Combinations skids are most often caused by excessive speed, coupled with too sharp a turn for the
vehicle or braking when turning, or "normal" speed coupled with ice or snow or gravel on the road, etc.

Classification of brakes
The brakes for automotive use may be classified according the following considerations
Purpose - From this point of view the brakes may be classified as the service or the primary and the parking or
the secondary brakes. The service brakes are the main brakes used for stopping the vehicle while in motion,
whereas the parking brakes are meant to hold the vehicle on a slope.
Location - The brakes may be located either at the transmission or at the wheels. The wheel brakes are
definitely better from heat dissipation point of view on account of two reasons. Firstly the location of
transmission brakes from this view point is very poor and secondly there is only one brake drum; whereas in
case of wheel brakes we may have four brake drums i.e. one on each wheel which increases the area available
for heat dissipation. Further as in case of transmission brakes the whole of the braking torque has to be
transmitted through the universal joints, propeller shaft, differential and the rear axle, suitable provision must be
made in their design and their sizes increased proportionally. However, if the brakes are located on the
transmission, the braking torque is equally divided automatically by the differential between the two wheels and
no special compensation is needed. Further because of the reduction at the differential, the transmission brakes
would be stronger than the brakes of similar capacity at the wheels. In case of automobiles, the wheel brakes are
used universally.
Construction - From construction point of view, two categories are the drum brakes and the disc brakes.
Mode of Operation - Mechanical brakes, Hydraulic brakes, Electric brakes, Vacuum brakes, air brakes.
Extra braking effort - When the weight of the vehicle is more, so that the driver cannot apply the brakes
comfortably without fatigue his effort is supplemented with some source of energy which makes the application

of brakes easier. If this outside help, which may be taken from the transmission of the vehicle itself, only partly
helps the driver, who also has to apply some effort, the brakes are called servo brakes or power-assisted brakes.
However, when practically none of the braking effort is applied by the driver, the brakes are termed power
brakes or power-operated brakes.
Method of Actuation - Foot brake (also called service brake) operated by foot pedal and Hand brake it is also
called parking brake operated by hand.
On the Basis of Action on Front or Rear Wheels - Front-wheel brakes and Rear-wheel brakes.
On the Basis of Method of Application of Braking Contact - Internally expanding brakes and Externally
contracting brakes.
Operation of drum brakes - A drum brake consists of a cast-iron drum containing a pair of semi-circular brake
shoes. The drum is attached to a wheel and revolves with it, so that the drum is slowed and halted, the wheel
slows and stops too. Friction to slow the drum is applied from inside by the shoes, which do not rotate but are
mounted on a stationary metal back-plate. Each shoe consists of a curved length of steel or light alloy cast
curving faced with a hard-wearing lining.

The drum type brake consists of two internal semicircular shoes, which are lined with friction material matching
to the internal rubbing face of the drum. The shoes are fitted on a back plate, also known as a torque plate,
between a pivot anchor or wedge type abutment at the lower shoe end and at the upper shoe top end by either a
cam or hydraulic piston type expander. In Fig. 28.9 the expander is simply represented by two opposing arrows
and

the

shoe

linings

by

two

small

segmental

blocks

in

the

mid

region

of

the

shoes.

During clockwise rotation of the drum, the upper tips of the shoes are pushed apart by the expander force, Fe,
and a normal inward reaction force, N, provided by the drum, resists any shoe expansion. Consequently the
drum slid over the shoe linings and a tangential frictional force is produced between each pair of rubbing
surfaces.
Return springs, stretched between the shoes, ensure that when the brake pedal is released the shoes are retracted
until the linings are clear of the drum.

When two shoes are hinged on the same pivot point, the braking system has one leading shoe and one trailing
shoe. An alternative arrangement is to hinge the shoes separately, at opposite points on the back-plate. Both then
act as leading shoes when the car is running forwards.
A leading shoe tends to be forced into closer contact by the frictional drag of the rotating drum a selfapplying action which increases the braking force on the wheel. A trailing shoe tends to be pushed away by the
drum, and so does considerably less work than a leading shoe.
Two leading shoe type brakes - In this type the ends of the two brake shoes are hinged separately, at opposite
points of the back plate. Two wheel cylinders are there at the other ends of the brake shoes. Each shoe is
operated by the piston in a wheel cylinder, which is located at the end opposite the hinge point of that shoe. This
arrangement gives rise to both shoes acting as leading shoes. As such during brake operation, both shoes exert
equal force on the wheel. If the rotation of the drum is reversed, the brake becomes the two trailing brake shoe.
A two leading arrangement gives an augmented response to pedal effort. This is because of the self applying
action of the leading shoes. This braking system is usually used on the front wheels of a vehicle where extra
weight is transferred during braking.

One leading and one trailing shoe type brakes - During braking, the leading shoe offers more braking torque
than the trailing shoe; therefore its efficiency is also higher. The lower side shoe is also dragging or trailing shoe
offers lesser braking torque and so is less efficient. The two leading shoe system is not suitable for the rear
wheels. This is because, when the vehicle runs backward, the leading shoes become trailing shoes and the
braking effort on the wheels gets reduced. With this reduced braking effort, it may not be possible to hold the
vehicle against running backwards on a slope, by applying the rear brakes. A leading trailing shoe brake is a
cheaper and better alternative for the rear wheels since it is equally effective whether the vehicle is going
forward or backward.

Disc Brakes
Fixed Disc brake - On the application of brakes, hydraulically actuated pistons move the friction pads into
contact with the disc, applying equal and opposite forces on the later. When the brakes are released, the rubber
sealing rings act as return springs and retract the pistons and the friction pads away from the disc. Special types
of disc brakes include the swinging caliper type and the sliding caliper type.

Advantages
1. Lighter than drum brakes.
2. Better cooling (since the braking surface is exposed directly to air).
3. Offer better resistance to fade.
4. Uniform pressure distribution (since disc brakes have no self-servo effect).
5. Brake pads can be easily replaced.
6. These brakes are self adjusting by design.
Disadvantages
1. Costlier than drum brakes.
2. For stopping the vehicle higher pedal pressure is required.
3. There is no servo action in these brakes.
4. It is difficult to install an adequate parking attachment.

The major drawback of a "mechanical brake system" is that it is very difficult to get simultaneous brake action
on all the four wheels. Also lengths of various rods and cables and this causes unequal braking action.
Floating Disc brakes
Sliding Caliper Disc brake - In case of sliding caliper type, figure b, the caliper adjusts itself automatically
by sliding when the brakes are applied. On braking, the fluid flows under pressure and pushes the pistons A and
B apart. The piston A presses the nearby friction pad against the disc, while piston B moves rightwards and
causes sliding in the caliper in this way presses upon the other pad against the disc.

Swinging caliper disc brake - In this

type the two shoes are located on each

side of the disc. When the driver depresses the brake pedal, the fluid under pressure is sent from the master
cylinder through the connecting tube into the caliper unit behind the pistons as shown in figure a below. The
shoes are now forced against the disc by the hydraulic pressure. The shoes in effect grip the disc. The friction
between the pads and the revolving disc then provides the braking action. The following sketch shows a
sectional view of the swinging caliper disc brake.

Drum brakes versus Disc brakes

Sl. No.
1
2
3

Description

Drum brakes

Disc brakes

Life of friction material.

Reasonable (15,000 kms)

Reasonable (200000 kms)

Visibility of wear from outside.

Not possible

Can be seen at a glance.

Heat dissipation.

Inferior.

Better.

Replacement of friction material.

Troublesome and time

consuming.

Easier and rapid.

5
6

Weight.

Bulky.

Lighter (by 25%).

Cooling.

Very slow.

Efficient due to exposure to

atmosphere.

Wear and dirt collection.

Accumulates.

Self cleaning.

Braking effect.

Generally inconsistent.

Consistent.

Temperature effect.

Drum expands, tends to

separate out from linings.

Unaffected.

10

Self energizing action.

Exists.

Absent.

11

Brake pedal effort.

Higher

Proportional to retardation.

Some pressure always exists.

12

Behavior of hydraulic system in

released state.

No hydraulic pressure on
piston.

13

Resistance to fade.

Fair.

Excellent.

Force needed to apply brakes.

Comparatively less.

More, since brakes are not self

energizing.

15

Nature of wear

Non uniform.

Uniform.

16

Shape of lining

Curved

Straight.

14

Hydraulically Operated Braking System - The system is so designed that even when the brakes are in the
released position, a small pressure of about 50 kPa is maintained in the pipe lines to ensure that the cups of the
wheel cylinder are kept expanded. This prevents the air from entering the wheel cylinders when the brakes are
released. Besides this pressure also serves the following purposes

It keeps the free travel of the pedal minimum by opposing the brake shoe retraction springs.

During bleeding, it does not allow the fluid pumped into the line tore turn, thus quickly purging air from
the system.

Master cylinder - When the brake pedal is pressed piston of the master cylinder moves forward to force the
liquid under pressure into the system. The relief port is sealed out of the system. The liquid pressure is
conducted to the wheel cylinders, where it forces the wheel cylinder pistons outwards. These pistons force the
brakes shoes out against the brake drums and 'the brakes are applied.
As soon as the brake pedal is released, the return spring quickly forces the master cylinder piston back against
the piston stop. Since the fluid in the lines returns rather slowly, a vacuum tends to form in the cylinder in front
of the piston. This causes the primary cup to collapse/deflect to allow the liquid to flow from the reservoir
through the filler port past the piston to fill the vacuum.
When the pedal is in "off position", the liquid may flow from the reservoir through the relief port in the master
cylinder, supply lines, and wheel cylinders to make up for any fluid that maybe lost or to compensate for
shrinkage cooling of the liquid. In this way, a complete column of liquid is always maintained between the
master cylinder piston and wheel cylinder pistons.
A master cylinder can have four basic functions
It develops pressure, causing the wheel cylinder pistons to move toward the rotors or drums.
After all the shoes or pads produce sufficient friction, it helps equalize the pressure required for braking.
It keeps the system full of fluid as the brake linings wear.
It can maintain a slight pressure to keep contaminants (air and water) from entering the system.

Tandem master cylinder - Some large cars and commercial vehicles have split hydraulic system with two
separate cylinders and reservoirs in the master cylinder. The tandem master cylinder was devised to avoid the
possibility of all the brakes of a vehicle being put out of action by a fracture in the pipe line leading to one brake
cylinder. There are two pistons in the master cylinder, in line with each other. There are two compression
springs, one between the two pistons and the other between a piston and master cylinder cover. These two
springs keep the pistons apart. There are two oil inlets and two oil outlets, one pair to each reservoir. During
operation if the line A fails, the piston A bottoms against the end of the cylinder while the piston B continues to
develop pressure in the line B and thus applies brakes to one set of wheels. If the line B fails, the piston B
comes up against the piston A by compressing the spring between them and thereby builds up pressure in the
line A. piston B is connected through linkages to the brake pedal. The piston A is floating in the cylinder, being
held in position by two springs.

Wheel cylinder - A wheel cylinder consists of a cylinder, two pistons, two rubber cups and a spring. The fluid
presses against pistons. The pistons move outward in the cylinder. When the pistons come closer, the liquid is
forced into the master cylinder. The spring between the two pistons holds the rubber cups in position.

Advantages of hydraulic system

1. Equal braking effort to all the four wheels (since fluid exerts equal pressure everywhere in the circuit).
2. The system is simple in construction.
3. Less rate of wear (due to absence of joints compared to mechanical brakes).

4. The system is mostly self-lubricating.

5. Increased braking effort.
6. High mechanical advantage.
7. Flexibility in brake lines.
8. The hydraulic brakes can also provide differential braking action between the front and rear brakes by
using the wheel cylinder of different size for the front and rear wheels.
Disadvantages
1. Even slight leakage of air into the braking system makes it useless.
2. The brake shoes are liable to get ruined if the brake fluid leaks out.
3.

This system is suitable only for applying brakes intermittently. For parking purpose separate mechanical
linkage has to be employed.

Vacuum Brake - In this system, the operation of brakes utilizes the power of partial vacuum existing in the
inlet manifold of a running engine. This vacuum, via the vacuum reservoir, is applied on one side of a large
piston whose other side is exposed to the atmospheric pressure. Since atmospheric pressure is 1.0332 kgf/cm 2
(100 kPa) and the partial vacuum is less than this pressure, therefore difference in the pressure on two sides of
the piston causes it to move within a cylinder. This movement of the piston through a suitable mechanism can
be used to apply the brakes. An air breather port is provided in the cylinder through which the atmospheric air
escapes out when the air brakes are released.
It is not much popular as an independent unit i.e. as a purely vacuum unit. It is therefore being used in the
combination of other types of brakes. The vacuum unit can be used with a mechanical and with a hydraulic
braking system by interposing suitably between the brake pedal and the linkage. Now a days, the vacuum
units are almost universally adopted on power brakes.

Electric brakes - The electric brakes are similar to the drum brakes on automobile. The basic difference is that
automotive brakes are actuated by hydraulic pressure while your electric brakes are actuated by an
electromagnet. With all of the brake components connected into the system, the brake will operate as follows;

When the electrical current is fed into the system by the controller, it flows through the electromagnets in the
brakes. The high capacity electromagnets are energized and are attracted to the rotating armature surface of the
drums which moves the actuating levers in the direction that the drums are turning. The resulting force causes
the actuating cam block at the shoe end of the lever to push the primary shoe out against the inside surface of
the brake drum. The force generated by the primary shoe acting through the adjuster moves the secondary shoe
out into contact with the brake drum.
Increasing the current flow to the electromagnet causes the magnet to grip the armature surface of the brake
drum more firmly. This results in increasing the pressure against the shoes and brake drums until the desired
stop is accomplished.

Advantages
1. Simple in design and installation.
2. Simplified operating linkage (only one cable for each drum).
3. Less time-lag between the pressing of brake pedal and application of brakes at the wheels.
4. Much better control over the braking effort.
5. Absence of grab.
6. No adjustment required during its lining life.
7. For trailer brakes, this type offers much simplified connections; simply one cable has to be carried to the
trailer side.
Electric brakes are not very popular, as service brakes. These are commonly used on trailers.
Air Brake System - An air operated brake system or pneumatic brake system is employed predominantly in
medium and heavy duty trucks because of the following advantages.
1. The pressure of the pre-compressed air allows practically any force required for braking to be developed
with a very small effort applied by the driver to the brake pedal.
2. The compressed air can also be used to inflate the tires, drive the windshield wiper, actuate steering gear
booster, open and close doors of busses etc.
3. An air operated brake is the most dependable and convenient device for braking full trailers and semi
trailers.
The simplest air brake system consists of an air compressor, a brake valve, series of brake chambers at the
wheels, un-loader valve, a pressure gauge and a safety valve and air reservoir. These are all connected by tubes

The figure above shows the layout of an air brake system for a bus or a truck. The operation is as follows:
The air compressor operated by the engine forces air at a pressure of 9-10 kgf/cm 2, through the water and oil
separator to the air separator to the air reservoir. The air pressure in the reservoir is indicated by a pressure
gauge. The reservoir contains enough compressed air for several braking operations.

From the reservoir the air is supplied to the brake valve. As long as the brake pedal is not depressed, brake
valves prevent the passage of air to brake chambers and there is no braking effect. When the brake pedal is
released, the supply of compressed air is cut off from the brake chambers and they are connected to the
atmosphere. The pressure in the chambers drops, the brake shoes are returned to their initial position and wheels
run free. The brake valve is equipped with a servomechanism which ensures that the braking force on the shoes
is proportional to the force applied to the pedal.
Air filters are used in the air pressure system to prevent particles of foreign matter from entering the operating
system airlines or equipment. These are mounted on the chassis and have a drain plug to allow the condensate to
be easily removed. The function of the air reservoir is to store the compressed air so that there will always be an
ample supply available for immediate use in brake operation. It provides storage of sufficient compressed air to
permit several brake applications even after the engine has stopped and just restarted. It also provides a place
where the air, heated during compression may cool, and oil and water vapors condense.
Engine Exhaust brake - It is an auxiliary brake and should be used under the following circumstances

In traffic situations demanding slowing down over a long stretch of road.

While travelling on long downhill gradient.

The exhaust brake serves the following purposes.

Improves the life and efficiency of the service brakes.

Increases the life of the service brake linings and drums.
Reduces overheating of service brakes.

This type of brake is used on Tata vehicles as an auxiliary brake and is meant for use while travelling on a
lengthy downhill gradient and in heavy traffic when it becomes necessary to slow down continuously over a
large distance. The main components of this brake are the pressure regulator (common with the service brakes
operated by compressed air), a foot control valve for actuating the exhaust brake, and an air cylinder wherein
the compressed air operates the linkage to actuate the butterfly valve in the exhaust manifold and also the
linkage to actuate the control lever of the governor.

This brake is operated by depressing a foot control valve located between the clutch and brake pedals and
keeping it depressed as long it is required to apply the engine brake. By a linkage attached to exhaust brake air
cylinder, the throttle valve at the exhaust manifold is closed; at the same time accelerator lever comes to stop
position and the accelerator pedal is locked thus cutting off the fuel. This brake is very effective below vehicle
speed of 40 kmph. However, it must be remembered that it cannot stop the vehicle like a service brake. The
exhaust operation has now been coupled with a service brakes, the engine exhaust brake also gets operated
automatically. The major advantages derived from the improved designs are

Optimum fuel economy.

Reduce maintenance time and cost.
Increased safety and better control of vehicle.
Improved life of brake liners, brake drums and tyres.

Fail safe brake - In an unlikely event of sudden loss of air pressure due to failure of a unit in the brake system,
a safety system has been developed for Viking the Cornet model, as a precautionary measure. It is called the fail
safe brake system and has the following essential features
1. In case of failure in the air pressure system, the vehicle will automatically come to a stop due to the
application of the spring brakes on the rear wheels.
2. It can be used for both hand brake and parking purpose and as such the mechanical hand brake assembly
is eliminated.
3. It will not be possible for the driver to move the vehicle away unless sufficient air pressure (4 bar
minimum) is built up in the system.
The movement of the vehicle takes place only when adequate pressure is built up in the air reservoir. When the
air pressure in the system is inadequate, the spring brakes are applied. As soon as the air pressure starts building
up with the engine compressor running this pressure is communicated to the spring brake chamber. When the
air pressure exceeds the hold off pressure of the spring brake Chamber, the springs are held off and the brakes
are released. During the service brake operation the main spring in the spring brake chamber is held out of
action by air .pressure and does not affect the operation of the service brake.
When the hand brake is applied by operating handle to "ON" position, the air supply to the spring brake
chamber is cut-off and the air pressure in the chamber is released to the atmosphere through the hand brake
valve.

As the air exhausts, the main spring forces the push rod out and applies the brake. When the hand brake is
released, air supply is restored to the spring brake and the brake is released as the spring is held off by the air
pressure. Under emergency condition when the system air pressure drops below the spring brake hold off
pressure, the spring will exert force and apply the brakes. In case the brake valve fails, the hand control valve
has to be operated to apply the spring brakes.

Hand Brake or parking brake - Hand brakes or the parking brakes operate independently of the foot brakes.
These are used for parking on slopes and during emergency and are also called secondary brakes. Most cars use
mechanical cable to actuate these. Some cars with four-wheel disc brakes have a separate drum brake integrated
into the hub of the rear wheels. This drum brake is only for the secondary brake system and is actuated only by
the cable; it has no hydraulics. Hand brake is generally located on the side of the driver's seat.

To apply the brakes, ratchet has to be released first. This is done by pressing the ratchet release handle, which
causes the pawl to move up, is engaging the ratchet. Then the brake lever is pulled up, which further pulls the
cable which operates the rear brakes mechanically through a linkage operating on the piston of the rear wheel
cylinder, which is in two halves. The ratchet release handle, which had been pressed so far, is released now, so
that the pawl moves down with the spring action and engages with the ratchet thus keeping the brakes applied.
Anti-lock Brake Systems (ABS)
Purpose - Anti-lock brake systems (ABS) - generally also referred to as anti-lock systems (ALS) - are designed
to prevent the vehicle wheels from locking as a result of the service brake being applied with too much force,
especially on slippery road surfaces. The idea is to maintain cornering forces on braked wheels to ensure that
the vehicle or vehicle combination retains its driving stability and manoeuvrability as far as physically possible.
The available power transmission or grip between tyres and carriageway should also be utilised as far as
possible to minimise the braking distance and maximise vehicle deceleration.

Why ABS? Although today commercial vehicle brakes are designed to a very high technical standard, braking
on slippery roads often results in potentially dangerous situations. During full or even partial braking on a
slippery road it may no longer be possible to fully transfer the braking force onto the road due to the low
coefficient of friction (friction coefficient (k)) between the tyres and the carriageway. The braking force is
excessive and the wheels lock up. Locked wheels no longer provide any grip on the road and are almost
incapable of transferring any cornering forces (steering and tracking forces). This often has dangerous
consequences
The vehicle becomes unsteerable.
The vehicle breaks away in spite of counter steering, and starts to swerve.
The braking distance is significantly increased.
Tractor-trailer combinations or semitrailer trains may break away or jack knife.
Limits of ABS - Although ABS is an effective safety device, it can not suspend the limits defined by driving
physics. Even a vehicle fitted with ABS will become uncontrollable if driven too fast around a corner. So ABS
is not a licence for a maladjusted style of driving or failure to observe the correct safety distance.
Anti-lock Brake Systems (ABS) operate as follows - The fixed sensor connected to the axle continuously
picks up the rotary movement of the wheel by means of the pole wheel. The electrical pulses generated within
the sensor are transmitted to the electronic control unit (ECU) which uses them to compute the wheel speed. At
the same time, the ECU uses a certain mode to determine a reference speed that is close to the vehicle speed,
which is not actually measured. From all of this information the ECU continuously computes the wheel
acceleration (+b) or wheel deceleration (-b) and brake slip values. When certain slip values are exceeded, the
solenoid control valve is actuated. This causes the pressure in the brake cylinder to be limited or reduced,
thereby keeping the wheel within its optimum slip range. When imminent locking is detected, the antilock
system reacts by lessening the hydraulic pressure in the brake cylinders which disengages the brakes and
prevents the wheels from locking. The master cylinder controls the hydraulic pressure in the braking cylinder.
The hydraulic system connects the master cylinder to the brake cylinder. The hydraulic fluid must pass through
a valve and a chamber to get to the brake cylinder. When the brakes are engaged under normal use (the antilock
braking system is not engaged), the valve is open, and the pressure in the chamber is the same as the pressure in
the master cylinder.
When the sensor detects imminent locking, the control valve moves. The control valve determines the pressure
in the cavity in front of the actuator by controlling what (the pump or the reservoir) is connected to the actuator.
The greater pressure in front of the actuator causes it to slide back. This closes the valve between the master
cylinder and the chamber. The shaft which connects the actuator to the valve has a variable cross-sectional area.
As the actuator slides back, the amount of volume the hydraulic fluid can occupy in the chamber increases.
This decreases the pressure of the hydraulic fluid and disengages the brakes which prevents locking.

Since locking is no longer imminent, the control valve returns to its original position. The cavity in front of the
actuator is now in communication with the reservoir and not the pump, so the pressure lessens and the springloaded actuator returns to its original location. This opens the valve connecting the master cylinder to the
braking cylinder, and normal operation of the brakes commences. A typical antilock braking system can operate
at up to 15 times a second in order to prevent the wheels from locking.

Advantages
1. It can be used for reducing the stopping distance.
2. It enables to steer while the brakes are firmly applied.
3. It allows braking firmly on surfaces with different level of grips.
4. It can review and adjust the drivers driving.
5. Prevents vehicle combinations from jack knifing.
6. Reduces tyre wear.
Disadvantages
1. Drivers may take more risks when driving with vehicles fitted with ABS.
2. In exceptional circumstances, some drivers have the skill to stop the vehicle in a shorter distance than
achieved by an ABS equipped vehicle.

3. People who are inexperienced in using ABS may respond inappropriately when they activate the system.
Brake drums - Two important requirements of the brake drum are that
i.

it should provide a surface having good anti-wear qualities.

ii.

it should allow the optimum rate of heat transfer. Heat is generated during each brake application and it
must be dissipated to the atmosphere immediately, because the next brake application would again
produce more heat. Thus the drum should have the heat capacity, as high as possible, which makes the
drum heavier. Any excess heating of the brakes would cause the drum to expand resulting in loss of
effective pedal travel, and also fading of brake lining.

iii.

it should have sufficient strength but minimum weight.

iv.

it should be able to be accommodated within the wheel space available.

A cast iron drum is having a number of circumferential fins to increase strength besides improving heat transfer.
Its internal surface is machined and it satisfies most of the above requirements and is also cheap. But it is quite
heavy, which increases the unsprung weight in the vehicle. However, the increased weight and the improved
performance of cars after World War II have presented new problems to the braking engineer.
Brake shoes - The brake shoes are made of T-section and are curved to match the inside curvature of the drum.
The expander end of the shoe is called the 'toe' and the anchor end is termed the 'heel'. The ends may be flat,
curved or have a semi-circular groove to locate the expander or anchor. They are made of cast iron or steel.
Aluminium shoes have also been tried because of their good thermal conductivity, but their use has been very
limited probably due to low values of strength and stiffness of aluminium. The modern vehicles employ pressed
steel brake shoes.
Brake linings - The brake lining are high friction material beings used rub again the rotating brake drums and
to stop them will the brake are applied for on efficient braking and longer lifer they are expect to have high
standard of quality they are required to full fill various requirement such as given below
1. It should have high coefficient of friction with minimum fading. In other words, the coefficient of friction
should remain constant with change in temperature.
2. It should have low wear rate.
3. It should have high heat resistance.
4. It should have high heat dissipation capacity.
5. It should have adequate mechanical strength.
6. It should not be affected by moisture and oil.
Types of brake liners - Solid-woven type and the Moulded type.
Solid-woven type - The asbestos-base non-metallic linings have in general an average coefficient of friction of
0.4 upto around 260 C and fade is not serious upto to 300C. Their maximum temperature resistance is around
350C. A further improvement is the zinc wire inclusion. Zinc serves to conduct some heat away from the

working surface and so reduces slightly the maximum temperature reached by the particular brake mechanism.
Zinc-wire linings have also better anti-fade characteristics and resistance to wear than the non-metallic type.
Moulded type - This type is moulded directly from the "mix", which contains asbestos fibres, together with
resin powders and fillers. The average coefficient of friction with this type of linings is 0.4 and temperature
resistance varies from 400 to 450C. They have good anti-fade and anti-wear characteristics.
Attachment of brake linings - There are two methods
1.

By riveting

2. By using synthetic resin adhesives

The advantages of synthetic resin adhesives over the riveting procedure are many:
1. The absence of riveting hole means greater effective rubbing area and hence greater efficiency.
2. Better contact of lining with the shoe and therefore better heat dissipation.
3. Absence of rivets means freedom from scoring action.
4. Increased life of lining, because it may be worn almost to the shoe and effective thickness of material is
not restricted by the rivet heads.
5. Cost of bonding liners to shoe can be as much as 20 per cent less than riveting.
The brake linings for cars and light vehicles are usually attached to the shoes with adhesives, while in case of
commercial vehicles, riveting method is still preferred.
Procedure
Preparing the surface - The binding surface of the brake shoe is roughened by shot blasting. Then the liner
surface is roughened by sanding. After roughening, both liner and shoe are degreased in a solvent vapour-bath,
the solvent most commonly used being trichloroethylene.
Adhesive application - After repairing the surface, the adhesive (containing solvents) is applied on both liner
and shoe, after which the solvents are dried off. Evaporation of the solvent must take place before the liner and
shoe are brought together. This is accelerated by placing the coated parts in a suitably ventilated oven at about
80C.
Curing - After the solvents have evaporated, the parts are kept dry for a few hours and then clamped together
and heated under pressure to effect the curing of the adhesive. This is done in an oven at temperature 145E C to
200E C, the lengths of time required being in inverse relation to the temperature. At 150C the time required is
30 minutes while at 180C, it is only 4 minutes.
Cooling - After curing is complete, assembly is removed from the oven and is allowed to cool before pressure is
released. Any extra adhesive is then removed and the bond strength is then tested.
Brake Effectiveness - The following factors contribute to the effectiveness of the brakes
1. Amount of pressure applied to the shoe brakes.
2. Area of brake linings.
3. Radius of brake drum.
4. Radius of car wheel.

5. Coefficient of friction of braking surfaces.

6. Coefficient of friction between tyre and road surface.
Factors controlling the stop of an Automobile
1. Speed and load - Lesser the speed and lesser the load, the less energy shall be absorbed to stop the vehicle as
the brakes convert energy of motion into heat.
The higher the speed and more the load, the more energy shall be absorbed for stopping a vehicle.
2. Road surface - The coefficient of friction between the road and tyre is affected by the nature of road. If the
road is slippery, the vehicle shall stop at a greater distance than if the road is dry.
3. Tyre tread - A good tyre tread has good holding ability. It provides a greater coefficient of friction than a
smooth tyre.
4. Gradient - When a vehicle is going up a gradient or hill, the gravitational force assists in stopping the
movement of the vehicle. If the vehicle is going down a gradient or hill, the force of gravity tends to keep the
vehicle moving and hence a greater braking force is required to overcome its movement.
5. Number of wheels braking - For getting maximum braking effort, all the wheels should be equipped with
brakes. If any of the wheels is not equipped with brakes the time and distances of stopping the vehicle shall
increase.
6. Coefficient of friction of braking surfaces - The ability to hold a moving wheel is controlled by the
coefficient of friction between the brake lining and brake drum. If the linkages are glazed with oil or grease they
will tend the brake drums to slip as the coefficient of friction is lowered down.
7. Braking force of engine - The engine is also used as a brake when going down a hill. The braking effect of
the engine is more in lower gear speed than in direct drive.
8. Pressure applied through energization - More the self-energizing ability of the brake shoe, better the
braking effect.
9. Weight transfer - On application of brakes, there is a natural transfer of weight from the rear wheels to the
front wheels caused by the tendency of the mass to continue in its forward motion. The greater the deceleration,
the greater is the load or weight transfer from rear to front wheels. During the stop, the weight holding the rear
wheels to the road is lessened while the weight on the front wheel is increased by exactly the same amount. It is
due to this fact that brakes are designed so that applied effort is greater on front wheels than on the rear.
Methods for Bleeding of brakes
Manual bleeding - The term "bleeding the brakes" refers to the process in which a small valve is opened at the
caliper (or wheel cylinder) to allow controlled amounts of brake fluid to escape the system. We bleed the brakes
to release air that sometimes becomes trapped within the lines. However, for the sake of simplicity we use the
term "air" to describe both air and fluid vapor.

Bleeding process
1. Begin at the corner furthest from the driver and proceed in order toward the driver. (Right rear, left rear,
right front, left front.) While the actual sequence is not critical to the bleed performance it is easy to
remember the sequence as the farthest to the closest. This will also allow the system to be bled in such a
way as to minimize the amount of potential cross-contamination between the new and old fluid.
2. Locate the bleeder screw at the rear of the caliper body (or drum brake wheel cylinder.) Remove the
rubber cap from the bleeder screw and dont lose it!
3. Place the box-end wrench over the bleeder screw. An offset wrench works best since it allows the most
room for movement.
4. Place one end of the clear plastic hose over the nipple of the bleeder screw.
5. Place the other end of the hose into the disposable bottle.
6. Place the bottle for waste fluid on top of the caliper body or drum assembly. Hold the bottle with one
hand and grasp the wrench with the other hand.
7. Instruct the assistant to "apply." The assistant should pump the brake pedal three times, hold the pedal
down firmly, and respond with "applied." Instruct the assistant not to release the brakes until told to do
so.
8. Loosen the bleeder screw with a brief turn to release fluid into the waste line. The screw only needs to
be open for one second or less. (The brake pedal will "fall" to the floor as the bleeder screw is opened.
Instruct the assistant in advance not to release the brakes until instructed to do so.)
9. Close the bleeder screw by tightening it gently. Note that one does not need to pull on the wrench with
ridiculous force. Usually just a quick tug will do.
10. Instruct the assistant to "release" the brakes. Note: do not release the brake pedal while the bleeder screw
is open, as this will suck air back into the system!
11. The assistant should respond with "released."
12. Inspect the fluid within the waste line for air bubbles.
13. Continue the bleeding process (steps 11 through 16) until air bubbles are no longer present. Be sure to
check the brake fluid level in the reservoir after bleeding each wheel! Add fluid as necessary to keep the
level at the maximum marking. (Typically, one repeats this process 5-10 times per wheel when doing a
standard bleed.)

14. Move systematically toward the driver right rear, left rear, right front, left front repeating the
bleeding process at each corner. Be sure to keep a watchful eye on the brake fluid reservior! Keep it full!
15. When all four corners have been bled, spray the bleeder screw (and any other parts that were moistened
with spilled or dripped brake fluid) with brake cleaner and wipe dry with a clean rag. (Leaving the area
clean and dry will make it easier to spot leaks through visual inspection later!) Try to avoid spraying the
brake cleaner directly on any parts made of rubber or plastic, as the cleaner can make these parts brittle
after repeated exposure.
16. Test the brake pedal for a firm feel. (Bleeding the brakes will not necessarily cure a "soft" or "mushy"
pedal since pad taper and compliance elsewhere within the system can contribute to a soft pedal. But
the pedal should not be any worse than it was prior to the bleeding procedure!)
17. Be sure to inspect the bleeder screws and other fittings for signs of leakage. Correct as necessary.
18. Properly dispose of the used waste fluid as you would dispose of used motor oil. Important: used brake
fluid should never be poured back into the master cylinder reservoir!
Pressure bleeding - This requires special equipment to force brake fluid through the system. Pressure bleeding
is a method commonly used because it has two advantages over manual bleeding. It is faster because the master
cylinder does not need to be refilled several times, and it can be done by one person.

1. Fill the pressure bleeder with the specified type of fluid. Then charge the bleeder with 25-30 psi of
compressed air according to the equipment instructions.
2. Clean the top of the master cylinder, remove the reservoir cover, and fill the reservoir about half full
with fresh brake fluid.
3. Install the adapter on the reservoir and connect the fluid supply hose from the pressure bleeder to the
adapter.
4. If required, install the correct override tool on the metering valve.
5. Open the fluid supply valve on the pressure bleeder to let pressurized fluid flow to the reservoir. Check
the adapter and all hose connections for leaks and tighten if necessary.
6. Using a clean shop cloth, wipe dirt away from the bleeder screw on the first wheel brake to be bled.
7. Fit the plastic hose over the top of the bleeder screw and submerge the other end in the container of fresh
brake fluid.
8. Loosen the bleeder screw one-half to one turn and observe air bubbles flowing from the hose into the
fluid container.

9. Tighten the bleeder screw when clean fluid without any air bubbles flows into the container.
10. Repeat steps 6 through 9 at the next wheel in the bleeding sequence. Continue until the last brake in the
sequence is bled. Repeat the bleeding sequence as necessary until the brake pedal is consistently firm.
11. Remove the metering valve override tool.
12. Close the fluid upply valve on the pressure bleeder.
13. Wrap the end of the fluid hose at the master cylinder adapter with a clean cloth and disconnect the hose
from the adapter.
14. Remove the adapter from the master cylinder and be sure the reservoir is filled to the correct level.
Install the reservoir cover or cap.
Vacuum bleeding - This is an alternative to pressure bleeding and is preferred by some technicians. As is
pressure bleeding, vacuum bleeding is a one-person operation. Depending on the type of equipment, however,
the master cylinder might require refilling during the bleeding operation. Two basic types of vacuum bleeding
equipment are available: the hand operated vacuum pump and the system operated by compressed air. A handoperated vacuum pump holds a small cup that contains fresh brake fluid, and a length of plastic tubing connects
the pump to the bleeder screw.

1. Check the fluid level in the master cylinder reservoir. Recheck the fluid level after bleeding each wheel
brake and refill as necessary. Make sure that the reservoir cover or cap is installed securely during
bleeding.
2. Install the small fluid container on the vacuum pump according to the equipment instructions. Be sure
all connections are tight so that the pump cannot draw air past the fluid container.
3. Fill the small container about half full of fresh brake fluid. Be sure the short hose inside the container is
submerged in fluid so that air cannot flow back into the brake system.
4. Using a clean shop cloth, wipe dirt away from the bleeder screw on the first wheel in the recommended
sequence.
5. Fit the plastic hose from the vacuum pump over the top of the bleeder screw and operate the pump
handle ten to fifteen times to create a vacuum in the container.
6. Using a bleeder screw wrench, loosen the bleeder screw one-half to three-quarters turn. Observe fluid
with air bubbles flowing into the fluid container on the pump.
7. After evacuating about I inch of fluid into the container, tighten the bleeder screw.

8. Repeat steps 5 through 7 until no more air flows into the brake fluid container. Remove old fluid from
the pump container as necessary during the bleeding procedure.
9. Check the fluid level in the master cylinder and add fluid if necessary. Then proceed to the next wheel in
the bleeding sequence. Repeat the bleeding sequence as necessary until the brake pedal is consistently
firm. Check the fluid level a final time and install the reservoir cover or cap.
Brake Testers - The brake testers are of the following two types
Static brake tester - One type of static tester has four tread plates and registering columns. To make the tests,
the car is driven onto the tread plates at a specified speed and the brakes are applied hard. The stopping force at
each wheel is registered on the four columns. If the readings are too low, or are unequal, brake service is
needed.

Dynamic brake tester - The dynamic brake tester has rollers in the floor. The two wheels for which brakes are
to be tested are placed on the rollers. If these wheels are drive wheels, the wheels are spun at the specified speed
by the vehicle engine. For non driving wheels, the rollers and wheels are spun by an electric motor. Then
throttle is released or the electric motor is turned off and brakes are applied. The braking force at wheel registers
on meters. This shows if the brake performs normally or if they need service.

Brake fluid - Brake fluid is specifically designed to be compatible with its environment of high heat, high
pressure and moving parts. Standards for brake fluid have been established by the Society of Automotive
Engineers (SAE) and the Department of Transportation (DOT).
The hydraulic brake fluid should possess the following characteristics
1. Should be non-compressible.
2. Must remain fluid at low temperature.
3. Should not rust corrode or rust metallic parts in the brake system.
4. Mix satisfactorily with other makes of hydraulic fluids.
5. Must be chemically stable.

6. Should not soften the rubber parts used in the hydraulic brake system.
7. Must act as a lubricant to the moving parts inside the system.
8. Must retain all its characteristics for a maximum long period.
Brake Fluid Types - Polyglycol is clear to amber in color and is the most common brake fluid used in the
industry. It is a solvent and will immediately begin to dissolve paint. Flush the area with water if brake fluid is
spilled on paint. One of the negative characteristics of polyglycol is that it is hygroscopic, that is, it has a
propensity to attract water. Moisture in the hydraulic circuit reduces the boiling point of the fluid and causes it
to vaporize. In addition, moisture causes metal parts to corrode resulting in leakage and/or frozen wheel
cylinder pistons. Extra caution should be taken with containers of brake fluid because it absorbs moisture from
the air when the container is opened. Do not leave the container uncapped and close it tightly.
Silicone is purple in color. It is not hygroscopic and therefore has virtually no rust and corrosion problems. It
has a high boiling point and can be used in higher heat applications. It will not harm paint when it comes in
contact with it. Silicone has a greater affinity for air than polyglycol. Because the air remains suspended in the
fluid it is more difficult to bleed air from the hydraulic system.
DOT 3 Polyglycol - blends with DOT 4: DOT 4 Polyglycol - blends with DOT 3
DOT 5 Silicone - Silicone DOT 5 fluid does not absorb water.
This purple fluid has a very high boiling point, is noncorrosive to hydraulic system components, and does not
damage paint like ordinary fluid does. The boiling point is important because heat generated by braking can be
transmitted into the hydraulic system. If the temperature rises too high, the fluid can boil and form a vapor in
the brake lines. The stopping power of the system then will be reduced. As a result, the brake pedal can go to the
floor and the vehicle will not stop. DOT 5 fluid also has some other characteristics that are not so beneficial.
Silicone fluid compresses slightly under pressure, which can cause a slightly spongy brake pedal feel. Silicone
fluid also attracts and retains air more than polyglycol fluid does, which makes brake bleeding harder; it tends
to outgas slightly just below its boiling point, and it tends to aerate from prolonged vibration. DOT 5 fluid has
other problems with seal wear and water accumulation and separation in the system. All of these factors mean
that DOT 5 silicone fluid should never be used in an ABS.