Electromagnetic Energy Conversion Lecture Notes

ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION
Electromechanical System
The system with electrical port or ports on one side; and

mechanical port or ports on the other side in which its electrical
and mechanical parts interact to each other is defined as
electromechanical system.
Electrical port
Electromechanical
System
Mechanical Port
Electromechanical System
Rotation
Electromechanical
System
Motor
Generator
Translation
The electromechanical systems may make a rotational motion or

translational (linear) motion.
REFERENCES SIGNS
MOTOR, GENERATOR and TRANSFORMER
For a definite time, since the electrical and mechanical energies are
proportional to the electrical and mechanical powers the below expressions
can be defined;
Electrical power
pelc = v i
Mechanical power for the rotational motion
pmec = T w
Mechanical power for translational motion
pmec = F n
REFERENCES SIGNS
v i = electrical power at the electrical port, expressed in [Watt]
Tw = mechanical power at the mechanical port, expressed in [Watt]
v = the voltage at the electrical port, expressed in [V]
i = the current at the electrical port, expressed in [A]
T= mechanical torque at the mechanical port, expressed in [N-m]
w = angular velocity at the mechanical port, expressed in [rad/s]

n = velocity at the mechanical port, expressed in [m velocity at the mechanical port,
expressed in [rad/s] /s]
REFERENCES SIGNS
It is necessary to use the references signs in the electrical and mathematical
models of the electromechanical systems as in used electrical circuit and
system theory.
The plus sign +

The positive reference for the VOLTAGE
An arrow
which is directed from outside to the inside
the positive reference for the CURRENT
An arrow
which is directed from outside to the inside
positive reference for the SPEED or ANGULAR VELOCITY
the arrow
or like positive voltage reference the plus sign +
for the positive reference for the TORQUE
the
REFERENCES SIGNS
According these references sign,
when pelc = v i>0 or pmec= T w >0
the input power (In this case
electromechanical system takes the energy from the another external system)
When pelc = v i<0 or pmec= T w <0
the output power (in this case
electromechanical system is deliver the energy to the another external system)
In the rotational motion, the energy may be applied by way of the rotating of the shaft.
In the translational motion is provided by application of the force to the moveable part of the
system.

REFERENCES SIGNS
Generators are the electromechanical systems that are converting the mechanical
energy taken from mechanical ports into electrical energy by making a rotational
or translational motion
Generator
pmec = T w > 0 and Pelc = vi < 0

ielc.2
+vel2
w Te
ielc.1
+vel1
Electrical Energy
Electromechanical
System
Mechanical Energy
REFERENCES SIGNS
Motors are the electromechanical systems that are converting the electrical
energy taken from electrical ports into mechanical energy by making a
rotational or translational motion
Motor pelc = vi > 0 and pmec = T w < 0

ielc.2
Te
ielc.1
+vel1
Electrical Energy
Electromechanical
System
Mechanical Energy
REFERENCES SIGNS
Transformers are the electromagnetic system that are convert the electric
energy at one voltage and current level to electric energy at another
voltage and current level by making without any rotational or translational
motion
Transformer
+vel1
P1elc = v1i1 > 0 and P2elc =v2i2 < 0
ielc.1
ielc.2
+vel2
Electrmagnetic
System
Electrical Energy
Electrical Energy
MAGNETIC FIELDS
Magnetic fields are fundamental mechanism for electromechanical energy

conversion and electromagnetic energy conversion.
Motors, generators, transformers and the other electromechanical and

electromagnetic systems operate on the principle of the magnetic field.
A magnetic field is produced either by means of electric currents in coils of

wire or by means permanent magnets.
The area around a magnet or coil carrying electric current is called as

magnetic field, and it is in this area that the effects of the magnetic force.
10

MAGNETIC FIELDS
Magnetic field configuration for elementary geometries.

a) Bar magnet. b) Horseshoe magnet. c) Straight wire current I.
d) Air-cored solenoid. e) Iron-core solenoid f) Coil on composite magnetic
circuit
11
MAGNETIC FIELDS
The magnetic field is a vector field, and direction of the field at any
point is defined to be the direction assumed by the axis of a magnetic
dipole suspended at that point.
It is convenient to represent the direction of the field vector by lines of

force (also called flux lines) which are lines that at any point they
indicate the direction of the field. For a magnetic field these lines are
known to be continuous closed curves, that is, they have no terminal
points.
12
MAGNETIC FLUX
Magnetic flux is the amount of magnetic field (or number of lines of

force) produced by a magnetic source
The another definition of the flux is the integration of a field vector

quantity such as B over an area yields a quantity called flux.
Magnetic flux is given the symbol
The SI unit of flux is the weber, unit symbol [Wb].
f.
13

MAGNETIC FLUX
f= B
d A right-side of this equation is a surface integral of the
S
scaler product of magnetic induction and area taken over any surface
of bounded by the path or loop.
B
dA
dA
B represents the
d Ais a vector normal to the elementary area dA, and

magnitude anddirection of magnetic induction through the elementary area dA
Thus when B is perpendicular to the surface, from this equation,
f= B A
from which
B = f/A
14
MAGNETIC INDUCTION (Magnetic Flux Density)
The basic Magnetic field quantity is the magnetic induction (Magnetic flux density), which is
given the symbol B.
It is defined as the flux per unit area through an element normal to the direction of flux.
The SI unit of induction is the tesla; unit designation [T] or webers per square meters;
[W/m2].
15
ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION)
Oersted discovered that a current carrying conductor has a

magnetic field associated with it, and that the direction of the
magnetic induction is tangential to a circle centered on the
conductor and lying in a plane normal to its centre line.
This fact is illustrated in the below Fig., where the X on the cross
section of the conductor indicates that the current is flowing into
the plane of the diagram.
B
16

The relationship between the direction of i and that of B is expressed by the
right-hand rule, which says that if a right-hand screw is turned to give a motion in
the direction of the current, then the direction in which it is turned is that of B
If a closed loop of conductor lying in a plane carries a current, then a magnetic field
is induced which may be illustrated by lines of induction.
(1) Imagine a current-carrying conductor held in the right hand with the thumb
pointing in the direction of current flow; the fingers then point in the direction of the
magnetic field created by that current.
17
MAGNETIC FIELD INTENSITY

Magnetic flux may be produced in one of three ways:
By electric currents
By permanent magnets
By a changing electric field
The last of these is only of importance when the electric fields are changing very
rapidly. Such situations do not normally arise in electromagnetic energy
conversion devices and this effect may be neglected here.
In discussing the current and flux density production of magnetic fields by

means of electric currents, it is convenient to consider that a physical property
exits which is intermediate between current and flux density. This property is the
magnetic field intensity H.
18
MAGNETIC FIELD INTENSITY
The flux density B established at any point depends on the medium and on
the value of H at that point.
The relationship is given by
B=
where
meter
o r H
=H
o= permeabilty of free space in webers per meter-ampere or henry per
Its value is 4p *10-7 [Wb/(Amper-turn meter) or Henry per meter-H/m].
r= permeabilty of the medium in the system under consideration, typical

values of its range from 2000 to 80.000 for materials used in transformers and
rotating machines.
19

B-H Curves
For ferromagnetic materials, is not constant but varies with flux density
and there is no easy way to compute it. In reality, however,it isnt that you
are interested in: What you really want to know is,given B, what is H, and vice versa.
A set of curves,called B-H or magnetization curves,provides this

information. (These curves are obtained experimentally and are available in
handbooks. A separate curve is required for each material.)
The below Figure shows typical curves for cast iron, cast steel,and sheet steel.
20
B-H curves for selected materials.

21

B-H Curves
EXAMPLE 1: If B =1.4 T for sheet steel,what is H?

Solution
Enter below Figure on the axis at B=1.4 T, continue across until
you encounter the curve for sheet steel,then read the corresponding value for H as
indicated in Figure : H=1000 At/m.
FIGURE: For sheet steel, H=1000 At/m when B=1.4 T.
22

Amperes Circutial Law
In a vacuum (and, to a very close approximation, in air) the relationship between

B and H is a simple one, expressed by
B= oH
Vectors B and H are collinear in free space and either may be employed to
express the magnitude of a magnetic field in vacuum.
Magnetic field intensity is related to the current producing it by Amperes

Circutial Law. This law, may be expressed by the equation
H dl= N i = J ds
S
The expression on the left-hand side of this equation is a line integral round the
closed loop. The expression on the right-hand side of this equation is a surface
integral over any surface bounded by the closed loop.
23
MAGNETOMOTVE FORCE
J is the current density, expressed in amperes per square meter at any point
in the conductors, so that the surface integral signifies several integration
carried out over separate conductor cross section.
The quantity (F = N i) denotes the ampere-turns enclosed by the assumed

closed path and is the source of magnetic flux which is the electric current
flowing in the N-turn winding.
This quantity F is also known as the magnetomotive force and frequently

abbreviated mmf. This relationship is useful in the study of electromagnetic
devices.
If the circuit consists of different sections, each of which has uniform cross
section, this equation becomes
F = N i = Hk lk
24
Amperes Circutial Law
This equation is analogous to Kirchhoffs voltage law for the summation of

voltages (electromotive forces) around a closed path.
The different parts of a magnetic circuit are in series if the flux passing through
each part is the same. This is the identical criterion to that for the series electric
circuit.
F k = N i = Hk lk is the mmf drop across the k'th element of that loop.

This is directly analogous to Kirchoff's voltage law for electric circuits consisting
of voltage sources and resistors
V = Rkik
where V is the source voltage driving current around a loop and Rkik is the
voltage drop across the k'th resistive element of that loop.
25
RELUCTANCE
Similarly, the analogy to Kirchoff's current law

in = 0
which says that the sum of currents into a node in an electric

circuit equals zero is
fn = 0 which states that the sum of the flux into a node in a magnetic
circuit is zero.
We are already aware that F is the driving mmf which creates the flux f
penetrating the specified cross - sectional area A.
This flux is limited in value by what is called the reluctance of the magnetic
circuit, which is defined as
R =l/A
F=fR
The inverse of the reluctance is known as permeance oh the magnetic circuit

P=1/R
26
EXAMPLE2
Elemantery magnetic
circuit
The core is assumed to be composed of magnetic material whose permeability is much

greater than that of the surrounding air ( >0).
The core is of uniform cross section and is excited by a winding of N turns carrying a
current of i amperes.
This winding produces a magnetic field in the core, as shown in the figure. The magnetic
field can be visualized in terms of flux lines which form closed loops interlinked with the
winding.
Because of the high permeability of the magnetic core, an exact solution would show
that the magnetic flux is confined almost entirely to the core, the field lines follow the path
defined by the core, and the flux density is essentially uniform over a cross section
because the cross-sectional area is uniform.
27

EXAMPLE2
When the Amperes law is applied, the net magnetic flux entering or leaving a
closed surface (equal to the surface integral of B over that closed surface) is
zero.
This is equivalent to saying that all the flux which enters the surface enclosing a
volume must leave that volume over some other portion of that surface because
magnetic flux lines form closed loops.
These facts can be used to justify the assumption that the magnetic flux density
is uniform across the cross and Amperes Circutial Law may be written as
fc = Bc Ac
where fc = flux in core,

Bc = flux density in core
Ac = cross-sectional area of core
From the relationship between the mmf acting on a magnetic circuit and the
magnetic field intensity in that circuit is.
Ni = Hclc
where Hc is average magnitude of H in the core.
28

EXAMPLE2
The direction of Hc in the core can be found from the right-hand rule, which can be stated in two equivalent
ways.
(1) Imagine a current-carrying conductor held in the right hand with the thumb
pointing in the direction of current flow; the fingers then point in the direction of the
magnetic field created by that current.
2) Equivalently, if the coil in the Fig. is grasped in the right hand with the fingers pointing in
the direction of the current, the thumb will point in the direction of the magnetic fields.
29

EXAMPLE3
Transformers are wound on closed cores like the Fig. below

However, energy conversion devices which incorporate a moving
element must have air gaps in their magnetic circuits.
A magnetic circuit with an air gap
30

EXAMPLE3
When the air-gap length g is much smaller than the dimensions of the
adjacent core faces, the magnetic flux f will follow the path defined by
the core and the air gap and the techniques of magnetic-circuit
analysis can be used.
If the air-gap length becomes excessively large, the flux will be

observed to "leak out" of the sides of the air gap and the techniques of
magnetic-circuit analysis will no longer be strictly applicable.
Thus, provided the air-gap length g is sufficiently small, the

configuration of this magnetic core can be analyzed as a magnetic
circuit with two series components: a magnetic core of permeability ,
cross-sectional area Ac, and mean length lc, and an air gap of
permeability 0, cross-sectional area Ag, and length g.
31

EXAMPLE3
In the core the flux density can be assumed uniform; thus
and in the air gap
Application of Amperes law to this magnetic circuit yields
F = Hclc + Hglg
and using the linear B-H relationship (B=H) give
32

EXAMPLE3
The terms that multiply the flux in this equation are known as the
reluctance R of the core and air gap, respectively,
and thus
These equations are analogous to the relationships between the
current and voltage in an electric circuit. This analogy is illustrated in
the below
33
The analogy of the magnetic circuit with the electric circuit
ELECTRIC CASE
MAGNETIC CASE
Voltage = V
Amper turns F = Ni
Current = i = V / R
Flux = f = F / R
Resistance = R = r l / A
Reluctance = R = l / ( A)
Electric field intensity = e
Magnetic field intensity = H
Voltage drop V= R i
Magnetic voltage drop = f R
Current density = J = i/A
Flux density = B = f / A = H
34
Magnetic Units Conversion Table
35
EXAMPLE 4 The core of the below Figure has a 0.008-m gap cut as shown in the
Figure. Determine how much the current must increase to maintain the original core
flux in example 1. Neglect fringing.
36
Electromagnetic Force
Electromechanical energy conversion depends on two basic electromagnetic

principles; electromagnetic induction and electromagnetic force.
According BioSavart studies, If a current carrying conductor is placed in a
magnetic field, then a force is exerted on the conductor.
The force on the current-carrying conductor is given by the relation
F = i ( l B)
the force on the current-conductor in a magnetic field

depends on :
the flux density of the field, B teslas,
the strength of the current, i amperes,
the length of the conductor, l meters
the direction of the field and current.
The SI unit of the force is the Newton; unit designation N.
dl
F
37
Since the angle between the conductor and field are the force is given by the relation
F = i l B sin
If B is uniform over a length of a conductor l and perpendicular to it, then this
equation becomes simply F = i l B
dl
38
The direction of the force can be determined by means of the mixed product of .
F = i ( l B)
But in practice, it can be determined by using Flemings left-hand rule (often called
motor rule):
Let the thumb, first finger and second finger of the left hand be extended such
that they are all right-angles to each other . If the first finger points in the direction of the
magnetic field, the second finger points in the direction of the current, then the thumb will
point in the direction of the conductor.
Summarizing;
First Finger
Second Finger
Thumb Finger
Field
Current
Force
39
Faradays Law - Induced Electromotive Force
In 1820 Oersted ebserved that a compass needle is deflected by a current-carrying

conductor.
In 1831 Faraday discovered the principle of induced electromotive force (emf) on
which design and operation of generators, motors, and transformers are based.
Faradays discover is called Faradays Law.
Faraday shows that if a conductor with the proper orientation moves through in a
magnetic field, or not moves but the flux passing through is changed, then an
electromagnetic force is induced in the conductor.
This induced electromagnetic force is called also as induced voltage. The symbol for
emf is e, and the SI unit of emf is the volt; unit designation V.
40
If a loop a conductor moves in a magnetic field and if the magnetic flux passing
through the loop is changed, then induced voltage will be function of time and
motion.
According Faraday law, if the total flux linking in the translational motion then the
expression for the induced voltage may be written as mathematically
e=
where
= (t , x)
d (t , x) (t , x) dt dx
=
( )
dt
t
dt x dt
is the dependent variable which defines the motion.
From this relation it is shown that the induced voltage has two component;
first one is the transformer voltage due to the rate of change of the magnetic flux
linking,
second one is the motion voltage due to the velocity .
41
In the rotational motion
is used instead of the
in the above expressions;
= (t , )
e=
d (t , ) (t , ) dt d
=
( )
dt
t
dt t dt
42
On the other hand another expression of the motion voltage is given by
e = B ( l X v )
Where
B
the flux density, is measured in teslas,
l
the length of conductor in the magnetic field, is measured in meters,
v
the conductor velocity, is measured in meters per second.
and if the conductor moves at an angle
If B is uniform over a length of a conductor l and perpendicular to it, then this equation
becomes simply
to the magnetic field equation becomes simply
e=Blv sin
e= B l v
43
Flemings Right-hand rule (often called the generator rule) which

states:
Let the thumb, first finger and second finger of the right hand be extended such
that they are all at right angles to each other (as shown in Figure ).
If the first finger points in the direction of the magnetic field, the thumb points in the
direction of motion of the conductor relative to the magnetic field, then the second
finger will point in the direction of the induced e.m.f.
Summarizing;
First Finger
Second Finger
Thumb Finger
Field
E.m.f.
Motion
44
TRANSFORMERS
Transformers are the electromagnetic system that are convert the

electric energy at one voltage and current level to electric energy at
another voltage and current level by making without any rotational or
translational motion
The principle of transformer action is based on the work of Michael

Faraday (1791-1867) whose discoveries in electromagnetic induction
showed that, given two magnetically coupled coils, a changing current
in one coil will induce an electromotive force in the other coil.
Such electromagnetically induced emfs are called transformer voltages,

and coils specifically arranged for such purposes are called
transformers.
45
TRANSFORMERS
Essentially, a transformer consists of two or more windings coupled by

mutual magnetic flux.
It is conventional to think of the "input" to the transformer as the primary

and the "output" as the secondary.
46
TRANSFORMERS
However, in many applications, power can flow either way and the concept
of primary and secondary windings can become confusing. An alternate
terminology, which refers to the windings as "high-voltage" and "lowvoltage," is often used and eliminates this confusion.
The high-voltage coils are wound with a greater number of turns of smaller
cross-section conductor than the low voltage coils.
47
TRANSFORMERS
Transformers are very versatile.

They are manufactured in he wide power bands afew watts-MVA, afewV-kV,
and wide size afew cm-m.
They are used
In electric power generation and distribution systems
to raise or lower voltage in AC
supply electric power to users at safe/suitable voltage
to provide reduced-voltage starting of AC motors
In electronic, communication and control systems
to isolate one electric circuit from another;
to superimpose an alternating voltage on a DC circuit;
to provide low voltage for solid-state control, for battery charging, door
bells, etc
Transfer signals.
48
TRANSFORMERS
49
The two basic types of transformer construction used for power and distribution
applications are
shell type
both coils wound
on the same leg.
Three leg laminated core with the windings
wrapped around the center leg
core type
primary and secondary
coils wound on different
legs
Simple rectangular laminated piece of steel with the

transformer windings wraped around tw eside of the
rectangular
50
TRANSFORMERS
The wider spacing between primary and secondary in the core-type transformer
gives it an advantage in high-voltage applications.
The shell type, however, has the advantage of less leakage flux.
Transformer core material is made of cold-rolled. high-permeability silicon steel

laminations, and each lamination is insulated with a varnish or oxide coating to
reduce eddy currents.
The coils are wound with insulated aluminum conductor or insulated copper
conductor, depending on design considerations.
51
51
TRANSFORMERS
Transformers in electric power generation and distribution systems
Cooling is provided by air convection. forced air. insulating liquids. or gas;
Transformers are cllassified to the type of cooling employed

- Ventilated dry-type transformers
- Gas-filled Dry-type Transformers
- Liquid-immersed Transformers
Ventilated dry-type transformers are cooled by natural air convection.

The principal application for this type of transformer is in schools, hospitals. and
shopping areas,
Gas-filled Dry-type Transformers

Gas-filled dry-type transformers are cooled with nitrogen or other dielectric gases. such
as fluorocarbon C2F6 and sulfurhexafloride SF6
These transformers can be installed indoors, outdoors, or in underground enviroiments
Liquid-immersed transformers have hermetically scaled tanks filled with insulating

liquid to provide both Insulation and cooling.
Forced cooling with pumps or fans is also provided on larger power transformers.
52
52
TRANSFORMERS
Distribution transformer (cutaway view) of the type used by electric utilities to
distribute power to residential and commercial users
The tank is filled with oil to improve insulation and to remove heat from the
core and windings.
53
TRANSFORMERS
The two basic types of transformer construction used for Transformers used in
the electronics and telecomminication systems
Transformers fall into two broad categories,iron-core and air-core.
Iron core transformers are generally used for low frequency applications such as
audio- and power-frequency applications.
Iron, however, has considerable power loss due to hysteresis and eddy
currents at high frequencies, and is thus not useful as a core material above
about 50 kHz.
For high-frequency applications (such as in radio circuits), air-core and ferritecore types are used.
Ferrite (a magnetic material made from powdered iron oxide) Greatly increases
coupling between coils (compared with air) while maintaining low losses
54
Transformer schematic symbols used in the electronics and telecomminication

systems
Iron-core transformers of the type used in electronic

equipment.
55
TRANSFORMERS
The principle of transformer action is explained with the aid of below figure, which
shows coil 1 connected to a batterv through a switch and coil 2 connected to a
resistor.
Closing the switch causes a clockwise (CW) build
up of flux in the iron core, generating a voltage in
each coil that is proportional to the number of
turns in the coil and the rate of change of flux
through the respective coils.
In accordance with Lenz's law, the voltage
generated in each coil will be induced in a
direction to oppose the action that caused it.
Thus. the induced emf in coil 1 must be opposite
in direction to the battery voltage.
This
opposing voltage shown as e1 in the Figure is
called a counter-emf (cemf).
Assuming no leakage, the same flux (called the mutual flux) exists in both coils. Thus, the
induced volages
d
d
e
=
N
2
e1 = N1
N1 = turns in coil1 N2 = turns in coil 2
2
dt
dt
When f mutual reaches steady state, df /dt = 0. the induced emfs = 0, and i2 = 0.
56
TRANSFORMERS WITH SINUSOIDAL VOLTAGES

The primary connected to a sinusoidal source and the secondary connected to a
switch and a resistor load.
Assumptions:
- the permeability of the core is
constant over the range of
transformer operation. and thus the
reluctance of the core is constant;
- there is no leakage flux, hence the
same flux links both primary and
secondary windings
The variation of the flux will be sinusoidal
= max sini = max sin2pft
The voltages induced in the primary and secondary windings by the sinusoidal
variation of flux in the respective coil windows, expressed in terms of rms
values are,
E1 = 4.44N1f max
E 2 = 4.44N 2 f max
E1 N1
=
E2 N2
Thus, assuming no leakage flux, the ratio of induced voltage equal the ratio of turns.
57
TRANSFORMERS
IDEAL TRANSFORMER
The first model which will be drived for the transformer

the ideal
transformer under the assumptions that
The electric fields effect produced by the windings are negligible,
All magnetic flux is confined to the ferromagnetic core (i.e leakage flux is
assumed negligible),
The relative permeability of the core material is so high that negligible
mmf is requried to establish the flux in the core,
The core losses are negligible.
58
TRANSFORMERS
IDEAL TRANSFORMER
Under the above assumptions, when a time-varying voltage vl is impressed on
the primary terminals, a core flux must be established such that the counter emf
el equals the impressed voltage. Thus
The core flux also links the secondary and produces an induced emf e2, and an equal
secondary terminal voltage v2, given by
59
TRANSFORMERS
IDEAL TRANSFORMER
Thus an ideal transformer transforms voltages in the direct ratio of the turns in its
windings.
Now let a load be connected to the secondary. A current i2 an
Now let a load be connected to the secondary. A current i2 and an mmf
N2i2 are then present in the secondary.
Since the core permeability is assumed very large and since the impressed
primary voltage sets the core flux as specfied by Eq.
the core flux is unchanged by the presence of a load on the secondary, and hence
the net exciting mmf acting on the core (equal to Nlil + N2i2) will not change
and hence will remain negligible. Thus
60
TRANSFORMERS
IDEAL TRANSFORMER
Thus,
Nlil = - N2i2 il = - N2i2/ Nl
The current ratio is therefore the inverse of the turns ratio.
vlil = v2i2
that is
nstantaneous power = nstantaneous power

input
output
61
TRANSFORMERS
IDEAL TRANSFORMER
An additional property of the ideal transformer can be seen by considering the case of a sinusoidal applied voltage and an impedance load.
Phasor symbolism can be used. The circuit is
the dot- marked terminals of the

transformer correspond to the similarly
marked terminals in this Fig.
The dot markings indicate terminals of corresponding polarity;

The voltages Vl and V2 are in phase.
Note again that the polarity of il is defined as into the dotted terminal and
the polarity of i2 is defined as out of the dotted terminal.
62
TRANSFORMERS
IDEAL TRANSFORMER
Next investigate the impendance transformation properties of the ideal transformer.
In phasor form, V1= N1V2/
N2
Il = N2I2/ Nl
and
V2= N2V1/ N1 can be expressed as
and
I2 = N1I1/ N2
From these equations
V1/I1=(N1/N2)2(V2/I2)
63
TRANSFORMERS
IDEAL TRANSFORMER
Noting that the load impedance Z2 is related to the secondary voltages and currents
Z 2 = V2/I2
Z2 is the complex impedance of the load.
Consequently, as far as its effect is concerned, an impedance Z2 in the secondary
circuit can be replaced by an equivalent impedance Z1 in the primary circuit, provided
that
Z1=(N1/N2)2 Z2
64
TRANSFORMERS
IDEAL TRANSFORMER
Thus the circuit
Can be replaced
65
TRANSFORMERS
IDEAL TRANSFORMER
Transferring an impedance from one side of a transformer to the other in this

fashion is called referring the impedance to the other side; impedances transform
as the square of the turns ratio.
To summarize, in an ideal transformer, voltages are transformed in the direct ratio

of turns, currents in the inverse ratio, and impedances in the direct ratio squared;
power and voltamperes are unchanged.
66
TRANSFORMERS
IDEAL TRANSFORMER
Example 1
The equivalent circuit in the below Fig.shows an ideal transformer with an impedance
R2 + j X2 =1 + j4 Ohm connected in series with the secondary. The turns ratio N1/N2
= 5:1. (a) Draw an equivalent circuit with the series impedance referred to the
primary side. (b) For a primary voltage of 120 V rms and a short connected across
the terminals A-B, calculate the primary current and the current flowing in the short.
67
TRANSFORMERS
IDEAL TRANSFORMER
The new equivalent
a) The secondary impedance is referred to the primary by the turns ratio squared.
Thus
R2 + jX2 =(N1/N2)2 (R2 + jX2) = 25+ j 100 Ohm
68
TRANSFORMERS
IDEAL TRANSFORMER
Example 2
The equivalent circuit of Fig.a shows an ideal transformer with an impedance R2 + j
X2 = 1 + j4 Ohm connected in series with the secondary. The turns ratio N1/N2
= 5:1. (a) Draw an equivalent circuit with the series impedance referred to the
primary side. (b) For a primary voltage of 120 V rms and a short connected
across the terminals A-B, calculate the primary current and the current flowing in
the short.
69
TRANSFORMERS
IDEAL TRANSFORMER
Solution
a. The new equivalent is shown in Fig.b. The secondary impedance is referred

to the primary by the turns ratio squared. Thus
b. From Eq. Z1=(N1/N2)2 Z2 a short at terminals A-B will appear as a short at the
primary of the ideal transformer in Fig.b. since the zero voltage of the short is
reflected by the turns ratio N1/N2 to the primary. Hence the primary current will
be given by
corresponding to a magnitude of 1.16 Arms. From Il = N2I2/ Nl , the secondary current will
equal N1/N2 = 5 times that of the current in the primary. Thus the current in the short
70
TRANSFORMERS
IDEAL TRANSFORMER
b. From Z1=(N1/N2)2 Z2, a short at terminals A-B will appear as a short at the primary
of the ideal transformer in Fig.b since the zero voltage of the short is reflected by the
turns ratio N1/N2 to the primary.
Hence the primary current will be given by
I1 = V1 / (R'2 + jX'2) = (120 / (25 + jl00)= 0.28 + j 1.13 Arms

corresponding to a magnitude of 1.16 Arms. From Il = N2I2/ Nl , the secondary current
will equal N1/N2 = 5 times that of the current in the primary. Thus the current in the
short will have a magnitude of 5(1.16) = 5.8 A rms
71
TRANSFORMERS
IDEAL TRANSFORMER
Example 3.
A generator rated at 480V, 60 Hz is connected a transmission line with an impedance
of 0.18+j0.24 Ohm. At the end of the transmission line there is a load of 4+j3 Ohm.
a) If the power system is exactly as described above in Figure (a), what will the
voltage at the load be? What will the transmission line losses be?
b) Suppose a 1:10 step-up transformer is placed at the generator end of the
transmission line and a 10:1 step-down transformer is placed at the load end of the
line (Figure (b)). What will the load voltage be now? What will the transmission line
losses be now?
72
TRANSFORMERS
IDEAL TRANSFORMER
Solution
a) Fig.a shows the power system without transformers. Here IG=Iline=Iload . The
line current in this system is given by
73
TRANSFORMERS
IDEAL TRANSFORMER
Therefore the load voltage is
And the line losses are
74
TRANSFORMERS
IDEAL TRANSFORMER
b) Fig.b shows the power system with transformer. To analyze this
75
TRANSFORMERS
IDEAL TRANSFORMER
This equivalent system is
76
TRANSFORMERS
IDEAL TRANSFORMER
The total empedance at the transmission line level (Zline+Zload is now reflected to the
sources voltage level;
The resulting equivalent circuit is
77
TRANSFORMERS
IDEAL TRANSFORMER
The generator current is
78
TRANSFORMERS
IDEAL TRANSFORMER
The line losses are given by
79

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Electromagnetic Energy Conversion Lecture Notes

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ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION

The system with electrical port or ports on one side; and

ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION

The electromechanical systems may make a rotational motion or

ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION

Mechanical power for the rotational motion

Mechanical power for translational motion

ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION

v i = electrical power at the electrical port, expressed in [Watt]

Tw = mechanical power at the mechanical port, expressed in [Watt]

v = the voltage at the electrical port, expressed in [V]

i = the current at the electrical port, expressed in [A]

T= mechanical torque at the mechanical port, expressed in [N-m]

w = angular velocity at the mechanical port, expressed in [rad/s]

ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION

The plus sign +

ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION

when pelc = v i>0 or pmec= T w >0

the input power (In this case

When pelc = v i<0 or pmec= T w <0

the output power (in this case

electromechanical system is deliver the energy to the another external system)

ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION

pmec = T w > 0 and Pelc = vi < 0

ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION

Motor pelc = vi > 0 and pmec = T w < 0

ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION

P1elc = v1i1 > 0 and P2elc =v2i2 < 0

ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION

Magnetic fields are fundamental mechanism for electromechanical energy

Motors, generators, transformers and the other electromechanical and

A magnetic field is produced either by means of electric currents in coils of

The area around a magnet or coil carrying electric current is called as

ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION

Magnetic field configuration for elementary geometries.

ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION

It is convenient to represent the direction of the field vector by lines of

ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION

Magnetic flux is the amount of magnetic field (or number of lines of

The another definition of the flux is the integration of a field vector

Magnetic flux is given the symbol

The SI unit of flux is the weber, unit symbol [Wb].

ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION

d Ais a vector normal to the elementary area dA, and

ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION

MAGNETIC INDUCTION (Magnetic Flux Density)

ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION)

MAGNETIC INDUCTION (Magnetic Flux Density)

Oersted discovered that a current carrying conductor has a

ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION

ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION

MAGNETIC FIELD INTENSITY

In discussing the current and flux density production of magnetic fields by

ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION

MAGNETIC FIELD INTENSITY

The relationship is given by

o= permeabilty of free space in webers per meter-ampere or henry per

Its value is 4p *10-7 [Wb/(Amper-turn meter) or Henry per meter-H/m].

r= permeabilty of the medium in the system under consideration, typical

ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION

A set of curves,called B-H or magnetization curves,provides this

B-H curves for selected materials.

ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION

EXAMPLE 1: If B =1.4 T for sheet steel,what is H?