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cement columns, rammed aggregate piers, vibroreplacement stone columns, and compaction grouting give
the engineer the opportunity to tailor a foundation
solution for a particular site condition.
Very similar to massive excavation replaced with
engineered fill, rammed aggregate pier (RAP)
construction is a technology based on the same principles:
remove a soft weak soil then improve its stiffness, its
strength, and its ability to manage foundation loads. RAP
construction can be considered a discrete excavation and
replacement with rammed aggregate (engineered fill).
Helpful insights of RAP ground improvement can be
gained by understanding the design and construction
process; presented next is a brief description of the RAP
construction technique and conventional footing design.
A.
INTRODUCTION
Engineers have several foundation systems to choose
from for different site and loading conditions. When it
comes to soft and/or weak soil sites in California,
engineers are limited to a handful of alternatives. The
tried and true driven concrete pile and cast-in-drilledhole concrete pier are becoming more expensive to build
and local constructability requirements have forced
engineers to consider and design alternative foundation
systems. Various ground improvement techniques such
as massive excavation replaced with engineered fill, soil
B.
C.
147
ENGINEERED FILL
OVER WEAK SOILS
Compacted
Engineered Fill
Weak Soils or
Uncontrolled Fill
Medium stiff
to stiff soils
or better
Bearing
Pressure
= qc
Bearing
Pressure
= q fill
Weak Soils or
Uncontrolled Fill
Medium stiff
to stiff soils
or better
148
su
N
3
6
9
12
16
25
>25
(ksf)
0.50
1.25
1.75
2.30
3.00
4.50
5.00
kg & qc
Sands
kg &qc
Silt and Clay
kg & qc
Peat
P
P
RIGID FOOTING
SETTLEMENT s
UNIMPROVED
SOIL
Km = 10 pci
RIGID PLATE
SETTLEMENT s
RAMMED
AGGREGATE
PIER (RAP)
SOFT SOIL
SPRING
SOFT SOIL
SPRING
Km = X pci
Km = X pci
Kg = 200 pci
SETTLEMENT
RIGID BASE
Ultimate Capacities
Upper
Zone
RAP
element
2B
Lower
Zone
149
45
Thickness
(t)
New Fill
Soft, compressible
soils
d
spacing (s)
RAP
element
"competent"
soils
Soft, compressible
soils
d
spacing (s)
RAP
element
"competent"
soils
PERFORMANCE
RAP construction provides the engineer with increased
confidence in the performance of the foundation system,
both for static loads and dynamic loads. Well defined
stiffness of RAP construction and settlement performance
are the main reasons for this increased confidence.
Well defined stiffness of RAP construction is proven by:
1. Full scale load tests at every job site.
2. Regularity and simplicity of construction. The
RAP rock bucket holds the volume of two 12
inch rammed lifts, ensuring thin rammed lifts for
every element installed.
3. A large boring at every RAP element confirms to
the Geotechnical Engineer that the site is
represented by the soil investigation borings.
0 .0 0
Defined Stiffness
15
20
25
0 .0 1
30
35
40
0 .1 0
0 .0 9 in c h e s
0 .1 7 (1 0 0 % d e s ig n
s tre s s )
0 .2 0
Average RAP Deflection (inches)
10
0 .1 9 (1 1 7 % d e s ig n
s tre s s )
0 .2 8
0 .3 1
0 .3 0
0 .3 7
0 .3 5 (1 5 0 % d e s ig n
s tre s s )
0 .3 1
0 .3 5
0 .4 0
0 .4 2
0 .5 0
0 .5 0
0 .5 2
0 .5 3
0 .5 3 a t 1 8 0 k ip s
0 .6 0
0 .7 0
2 4 h o u r lo a d te s t a t 1 0 0 % d e s ig n
s tre s s = 1 8 ,6 4 9 p s f o r 9 2 k ip s .
M e a s u re d 0 .0 3 in c h e s a fte r 2 4 h o u rs .
0 .8 0
0 .9 0
1 .0 0
150
Uplift Performance
140
Structural Properties
Minimum Yield Ultimate Tensile
75 KSI
100 KSI
(517 Mpa)
(698.4 Mpa)
Typical Elongation in 8" bar
7%-9%
200%
100
167%
80
133%
60
100%
40
67%
20
33%
0
0.00
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.90
1.00
151
D+L=398 kips
M4A and M1B
D+L=138 kips M1
D+L=398 kips
M2A and M5B
D+L=421 kips M3
D+L=357 kips M5
Apr-02
Feb-02
Dec-01
Nov-01
Sep-01
Jul-01
D+L=710 kips M4
Jun-01
Apr-01
shear wall
D+L=510 kips M8
D+L=379 kips M6
shear wall
-0.5
Settlement
(inches)
D+L=210 kips M9
-1
Apr-02
Feb-02
Dec-01
Oct-01
Aug-01
Jun-01
Apr-01
Feb-01
Dec-00
Oct-00
Sep-00
Jul-00
May-00
Mar-00
Jan-00
Nov-99
Sep-99
Jul-99
May-99
Mar-99
Jan-99
Time (month-year)
Nov-98
0.0
Live loads
introduced
After 3 mos. of
Live load
-1.5
1st floor
concrete pour
Settlement
(inches)
-0.5
6th floor
concrete pour
Garage opens
Feb 2, 2000
1 year of service
(full live load)
Jan 25, 2001
-1.0
2 years of service
(full live load)
Feb 15, 2002
-1.5
CONSTRUCTABILITY
The repeatable performance exhibited by RAP elements is
the direct result of simple construction technologies and
quality control. The use of common crushed aggregates
available at local rock quarries helps maintain the quality
of constructed RAP elements. And the use of specially
designed structural steel anchors from Williams Form
Engineering ensures the repeatable performance of RAP
uplift elements.
From a contractors perspective, building conventional
shallow foundations over improved soil is far easier than
constructing pile caps or pier caps and grade beams. In
some cases where massive excavation replaced with
engineered fill is recommended, but the bottom of the
excavation is below or near the water table, using RAP
construction can preclude a stringent dewatering system.
Because of the improvement in adjacent unimproved soils
and uncontrolled fill, RAP elements do not always need to
go to a competent deep soil layer, which reduces
construction difficulties. This feature makes the system
152
Green Construction
RAP elements can be enhanced by the addition of or
substitution with recycled concrete and recycled
aggregate. In 2003, DPR Construction Inc. completed
construction of their regional office in Sacramento and
received the silver medal award for Green and Sustainable
construction from the US Green Building Council in the
153
REFERENCES
Caskey, J.M. (2001). Uplift Capacity of Rammed
Aggregate Pier Soil Reinforcing Elements. Masters
Thesis. University of Memphis. December 2001.
Farrell Design-Build Companies, Inc. (January 1999).
Block 224 Parking Garage Geopier Design and
Construction Recommendations, Sacramento, CA.
Farrell Design-Build Companies, Inc.
Corporate Headquarters - Geopier
Submittal, Dublin, CA.
(June 2000).
Design-Build
154