Chng 6 Tnh cht in-in mi

nh lut Ohm

 Ohm's Law:

V=IR

voltage drop (volts = J/C)

resistance (Ohms)
current (amps = C/s)
C = Coulomb

Resistivity, :
-- a material property that is independent of sample size and
geometry

RA

Conductivity,

surface area
of current flow

current flow
path length

Which will have the greater resistance?

2

R1

2D

2
8

D 2 D2

2

R1
R2

2
2
8
2D D

2

Analogous to flow of water in a pipe

Resistance depends on sample
geometry and
size.

Further definitions
J=E

<= another way to state Ohms law

J current density

current
I

surface area A

like a flux

E electric field potential = V/

J = (V/ )
Electron flux

conductivity

voltage gradient

CONDUCTIVITY: COMPARISON
Room temperature values (Ohm-m)-1 = ( m)-1= S m-1
METALS
CERAMICS
conductors
-10
Silver
6.8 x 10 7
Soda-lime glass 10 -10-11
Copper
6.0 x 10 7
Concrete
10 -9
Iron
1.0 x 10 7
Aluminum oxide <10-13

SEMICONDUCTORS
POLYMERS
Polystyrene
Silicon
4 x 10 -4
Polyethylene
Germanium 2 x 10 0
GaAs
10 -6
semiconductors

-14

<10
10 -15-10-17

insulators 8

EXAMPLE:
What is the minimum diameter (D) of the wire so that V < 1.5 V?
(=6.07 x 107 (Ohm-m)-1)
100 m

I = 2.5 A

Cu wire -

100 m

D 2
4
Solve to get

< 1.5 V

A I

2.5 A
6.07 x 107 (Ohm-m)-1

D > 1.87 mm

10

Energy levels of an isolated atom

11

12

13

ELECTRON ENERGY BAND STRUCTURES

14

BAND STRUCTURE REPRESENTATION

15

16

2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning is a trademark used herein under license.

Metals

Insulators

Semiconductors
17

CONDUCTION & ELECTRON TRANSPORT

Metals (Conductors):

partly
filled
band

filled
band

filled states

- partially filled band

- empty band that
overlaps filled band

filled states

-- for metals empty energy states are adjacent to filled states.

-- thermal energy
Partially filled band
Overlapping bands
excites electrons
Energy
Energy
into empty higher
empty
energy states.
band
empty
-- two types of band
GAP
band
structures for metals
filled
band

filled
band
18

 Insulators:

Semiconductors:

-- wide band gap (> 4 eV)

-- narrow band gap (< 4 eV)
-- few electrons excited
-- more electrons excited
across band gap
across band gap
empty
Energy
Energy
empty
conduction
conduction
band
band

filled
valence
band
filled
band

GAP
filled states

filled states

GAP

filled
valence
band
filled
band
19

The Fermi energy is the maximum energy occupied by

an electron at 0K.
Fermi function

where, E is the electron energy, Ef is the Fermi energy, and T

is the absolute temperature. Its physical meaning is that: f(E)
is the probability of occupancy for an electron energy
state at energy E by an electron. That is, the probability
that this state is occupied by an electron is f(E), and the
20
probability that it is vacant is 1 - f(E).

21

22

CHARGE CARRIERS IN INSULATORS AND SEMICONDUCTORS

Two types of electronic charge
carriers:

Free Electron
negative charge
in conduction band
Hole
positive charge
in valence band

Move at different speeds - drift velocities

23

INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS
Pure material semiconductors: e.g., silicon &
germanium
Group IVA materials
Compound semiconductors
III-V compounds
Ex: GaAs & InSb
II-VI compounds
Ex: CdS & ZnTe
The wider the electronegativity difference between
the elements the wider the energy gap.

24

INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTION IN TERMS OF

ELECTRON AND HOLE MIGRATION
Concept of electrons and holes:
valence
electron

electron
hole
pair creation

Si atom

+ -

no applied
electric field

electron
hole
pair migration

applied
electric field

+
applied
electric field

Electrical Conductivity given by:

# holes/m3

n e e p e h
# electrons/m3

electron mobility

hole mobility

25

NUMBER OF CHARGE CARRIERS

Intrinsic Conductivity
n e e p e h

for intrinsic semiconductor n = p = ni

= ni|e|(e + h)

Ex: GaAs

106 ( m)1
ni

e e h (1.6x1019 C)(0.85 0.45 m2 /V s)

For GaAs
For Si

ni = 4.8 x 1024 m-3

ni = 1.3 x 1016 m-3

26
26

INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS:
CONDUCTIVITY VS T
Data for Pure Silicon:
-- increases with T
-- opposite to metals

ni e e h
E gap / kT

ni e
material
Si
Ge
GaP
CdS

band gap (eV)

1.11
0.67
2.25
2.40

Selected values from Table 18.3,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

27

 Intrinsic

semiconductor - A semiconductor in
which properties are controlled by the
element or compound that makes the
semiconductor and not by dopants or
impurities.
Extrinsic semiconductor - A semiconductor
prepared by adding dopants, which determine
the number and type of charge carriers.
Doping - Deliberate addition of controlled
amounts of other elements to increase the
number of charge carriers in a semiconductor.
28

Extrinsic semiconductor
(doped with an electron donor)

Without thermal
excitation

With thermal
excitation

29

30

2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning is a trademark used herein under license.

Energy bands

Intrinsic
semiconductor

Extrinsic semiconductor
(doped with an electron
donor)
31

Extrinsic semiconductor
(doped with an electron acceptor)

Without thermal
excitation

With thermal
excitation

32

2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning is a trademark used herein under license.

33

Energy bands

Intrinsic
semiconductor

Extrinsic semiconductor
(doped with an electron
acceptor)
34

35

Defect semiconductor
(excess semiconductor Zn1+xO)

Zn+

ion serves as an electron donor.

36

Energy bands of Zn1+xO

37

Defect semiconductor
(deficit semiconductor Ni1-xO)

Ni3+ ion serves as an electron acceptor.

38

Energy bands of Ni1-xO

39

40

2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning is a trademark used herein under license.

41

Temperature Effect - When the temperature of a

metal increases, thermal energy causes the
atoms to vibrate

Effect of Atomic Level Defects - Imperfections in

crystal structures scatter electrons, reducing
the mobility and conductivity of the metal
42

43

Change of resistivity with temperature

for a metal

where = temperature coefficient of

electrical resistivity
44

45

46

2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning is a trademark used herein under license.

=qn
For a metal, decreases with increasing
temperature because decreases with
increasing temperature.
For a semiconductor, increases with
increasing temperature because n and/or
p increases with increasing temperature.
47

For a semiconductor

ne

E g /2kT

where Eg = energy band gap between conduction and

valence bands,
k = Boltzmann's constant,
and T = temperature in K.

The factor of 2 in the exponent is because the

excitation of an electron across Eg produces an
intrinsic conduction electron and an intrinsic hole. 48

Taking natural logarithms,

oe

E g /2kT

ln ln o

Eg
2kT

Changing the natural logarithms to

logarithms of base 10,

log log o

Eg
(2.3)2kT

.
49

Conductivity of an ionic solid

= q n C + q n A = q n ( C + A) ,
where

n = number of Schottky defects

per unit volume
C = mobility of cations,
A = mobility of anions.
50

An n-type semiconductor
n ni ne ,
where n = total concentration of conduction
electrons,
ni = concentration of intrinsic conduction
electrons,
ne = concentration of extrinsic conduction
electrons.
51

D D e ,

n e = ND + ,
-Eg / 2 kT

ni e

-E D /kT

ne e

ni < < n e
p pi .

.
.
52

No extrinsic holes, thus

p pi .
However
,

pi = ni
Thus,

p = ni

53

n ne
p0 .
= qn n + qp p .
qn n
54

A p-type semiconductor
p = pi + pe

where p = total concentration of

conduction holes
pi = concentration of intrinsic holes,
pe = concentration of extrinsic holes.
55

A+e A

+
AA +h ,
pe = N A

-Eg / 2 kT

pi e

/kT
E
A
.
pe e
56

pi < < pe
n ni .

n = pi

p pe
n 0

= qn n + qp p . qn p

57

THE MASS-ACTION LAW

Product of n and p is a constant
for a particular semiconductor
at a particular temperature

58

Intrinsic semiconductor

n n i pi p .
np

2
ni

n i 1.510 cm
10

for Si

n i 2.5 10 cm for Ge .
13

This equation applies

whether the semiconductor
is doped or not.

59

Consider an n-type semiconductor.

n n e N D

N D N D

(Donor exhaustion)

n ND .

p=

2
ni

2
ni

ND
60

Consider an p-type semiconductor.

p p e N A
N A - N A (Donor exhaustion)

p NA .
n=

2
ni

2
ni

NA
61

Conducting polymers
THE NOBEL PRIZE IN CHEMISTRY, 2000:
CONDUCTIVE POLYMERS
Professor Alan J. Heeger at the University of
California at Santa Barbara, USA
Professor Alan G. MacDiarmid at the University
of Pennsylvania, USA and
Professor Hideki Shirakawa at the University of
Tsukuba, Japan

rewarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for 2000 for

the discovery and development of electrically
62
conductive polymers.

Polymers may also have conductivities

corresponding to those of semiconductors.

Conductivity of conductive polymers compared to those

of other materials, from quartz (insulator) to copper
(conductor).

63

64

A key property of a conductive polymer is the presence of conjugated

double bonds along the backbone of the polymer. In conjugation, the
bonds between the carbon atoms are alternately single and double.
The presence of C5 makes
it impossible for the
electrons of the C6-C7 pi
bond to join the conjugated
system on the first four
carbons.

Chemical structures of some conductive polymers. From top left

clockwise: polyacetylene; polyphenylene vinylene; polypyrrole (X = NH)
and polythiophene (X = S); and polyaniline (X = NH/N) and
polyphenylene sulfide (X = S).

66

Conjugation is not enough to make the polymer

material conductive. In addition and this is what the
dopant does charge carriers in the form of extra
electrons or holes have to be injected into the
material.
The doped form of polyacetylene had a conductivity of
105 Siemens per meter, which was higher than that of any
previously known polymer. As a comparison, Teflon has a
conductivity of 1016 S.m1and silver and copper 108 S.m1.

67

Mechanism of polymer conductivity role

of doping
The
halogen
doping
that
transforms
polyacetylene to a good conductor of electricity is
oxidation (or p-doping).
Reductive doping (called n-doping) is also
possible using, e.g., an alkali metal.

The doped polymer is thus a salt. However, it is not the counter

ions, I3 or Na+, but the charges on the polymer that are the
mobile charge carriers.

68

Tnh cht in mi

69

70

71

72

73

74

75

76

77

78

Ferroelectric - A material that shows spontaneous

and reversible dielectric polarization.
Piezoelectric A material that develops voltage upon
the application of a stress and develops strain when
an electric field is applied.

79

80

The (a) direct and (b) converse piezoelectric effect.

In the direct piezoelectric effect, applied stress
causes a voltage to appear.
In the converse effect (b), an applied voltage
leads to development of strain.

2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning is a trademark used herein under license.

81

82

83