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Aperiodic signal x(t) can be thought of as periodic signal x(t) with infinite fundamental
period. From Fourier series of x(t) and limiting process we obtain Fourier transform pair
x(t)
X ()
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|X ()|
|x(t)e
jt
Z
|dt =
|x(t)|dt <
F[x(t)] = L[x(t)]|s=j =
x(t)e jt dt
= X (s) |s=j
Duality between time and frequency allows computation of Fourier transforms
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X2(s) =
1
, ROC : > 2
s +2
1
1
|s=j =
s +2
j + 2
1
1
+
, ROC : 1 < < 1
s + 1 s + 1
2
2
=
=
1 (j)2 1 + 2
X3(s) =
X3() = X3(s)|s=j
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1
X
x(t)
||
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1
0.8
0.6
0.6
x2(t)
x1(t)
1
0.8
0.4
0.2
0.2
0
t
X2()
X1()
0.4
0
40
30
20
10
10
20
30
40
1
50
50
0
t
1
50
50
Fourier transform of pulses x1 (t) = u(t + 0.5) u(t 0.5), (left) and x2 (t) = u(t + 2) u(t 2)
(right). Notice the wider the pulse the more concentrated in frequency its Fourier transform
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1
x(t)
x1(t)
0.5
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
|X()|,|X1()
0.5
0
50
|X()|
|X1()|
50
1 e s
X (s) =
, ROC : whole s-plane
s
e j/2 (e j/2 e j/2 ) sin(/2) j/2
X () =
=
e
infinite support
2j/2
/2
x1 (t) = x(2t) = u(2t) u(2t 1) = u(t) u(t 0.5)
e j/4 (e j/4 e j/4 ) 1 sin(/4) j/4 1
=
e
= X (/2)
X1 () =
j
2 /4
2
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Duality
x(t)
X (t)
X ()
2x()
Example:
A(t)
2A() = 2A()
Example:
(t 0) + (t + 0)
2 cos(0t)
x(t) = cos(0t)
e j0 + e j0 = 2 cos(0)
2[( + 0) + ( 0)]
X () = [( + 0) + ( 0)]
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10
10
X1()
x1(t)
8
6
4
2
0
1
0.5
0
t
0.5
100
50
50
100
0.5
0.5
60
X()=2x1()
x(t)=X1(t)
10
0
100
50
0
t
50
100
40
20
0
1
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Modulation
Frequency shift:
x(t)
x(t)e j0t
X ()
X ( 0)
Modulation:
0.5 [X ( 0) + X ( + 0)]
y1(t)
1
0.5
0
0.5
5
t (sec)
1
<Y1()
|Y1()|
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
1
20
20
20
20
Modulated signal y1 (t) = e |t| cos(10t), its magnitude and phase spectra
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X () =
2Xk ( k0)
k
Example: Periodic x(t) with period x1(t) = r (t) 2r (t 0.5) + r (t 1), fundamental
frequency 0 = 2
e 0.5s 0.5s
1
0.5s
s
0.5s
e
+e
=
2+e
X1(s) = 2 1 2e
s
s2
Fourier coefficients :
2
1
k sin (k/2)
Xk = X1(s)|s=j2k = (1)
, k 6= 0, X0 = 0.5
T0
2k 2
X
X () = 2X0() +
2Xk ( 2k)
k=,6=0
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called the energy spectrum of x(t), and displays how the energy of the signal is
distributed over frequency
Example: Impulse x(t) = (t) is not finite energy signal
X () = F[(t)]
Z =1
1
Ex =
|X ()|2d
2
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Spectra
|X ()| vs
X () vs
|X ()|2 vs
Magnitude Spectrum
Phase Spectrum
Energy/Power Spectrum.
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Example:
(a) x1 (t) = u(t) u(t 1), let z(t) = x1 (t + 0.5)
sin(/2)
Z () =
(real)
/2
X1 () = e j0.5 Z ()
sin(/2)
|X1 ()| =
/2
X1 () = Z () 0.5 =
(b) x2 (t) = e t u(t), X2 () =
|X2 ()| =
1 ,
1+2
0.5
Z () 0
0.5 Z () < 0
1
1 + j
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x1(t)
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0.2
t (sec)
3
<X1()
|X1()|
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
1
2
0
0.2
3
20
20
20
Pulse x1 (t) = u(t) u(t 1) and its magnitude and phase spectra.
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20
Input x(t) (periodic or aperiodic) of stable LTI system has Fourier transform X ()
k=
where {Xk } are the Fourier series coefficients of x(t) and 0 its fundamental
frequency.
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Example: Windowing
rectangular window w(t) = u(t + ) u(t ), > 0
windowed signal y (t) = w(t)x(t)
Z
Z
1
1
y (t) = w(t)
X ()e jt d =
X ()w(t)e jt d
2
2
| {z
}
x(t)
Z
Z
1
1
Y () =
X ()F[w(t)e jt ]d =
X ()W( )d
2
2
y (t) = x(t)w(t)
1
2 sin()
convolution of X () and W () =
2
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Ideal filtering
Filtering: to pass desired frequency component and to attenuate undesirable components
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X
X () =
2Xk ( k0 )
k=
N
X
#
2Xk ( k0 )
k=N
= [x h](t),
Convolution around the discontinuities of x(t) causes ringing before and after them, independent of
the value of N
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L
+ vL (t)
C
vi (t)
vC (t)
1
VC (s)
= 2
lowpass: output vc (t), Hlp (s) =
Vi (s)
s +s +1
VL(s)
s2
highpass: output vL(t), Hhp (s) =
=
Vi (s) s 2 + s + 1
VR (s)
s
bandpass: output vR (t), Hbp (s) =
= 2
Vi (s)
s +s +1
VcL(s) s 2 + 1
bandstop: output vcL(t), Hbs (s) =
Vi (s) s 2 + s + 1
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G (s) = K
s z
,
s p
P! (0 )
! 0)
Z(
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~ ()
Z
~
P()
~ ()/P()
~
H(j) = Z
0e j/2
1e j0
0e j/2
j/2
1e
e j/2
2e j/4
e j/2
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0.707e j/4
1e j0
Spectrum analyzer
LP F
BP F1
x(t)
Power
measurement
Power
measurement
..
.
BP FN
Px (0)
Px (1 )
..
.
Power
measurement
Px (N )
Bank-of-filter spectrum analyzer: the frequency response of the bankoffilters is that of an allpass
filter covering the desired range of frequencies
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Expansion/contraction
x(t), 6= 0
X
||
Reflection
x(t)
X ()
Z
Z
1
2
Parsevals
Ex =
|X ()|2 d
|x(t)| dt
Ex =
2
Duality
X (t)
2x()
d n x(t)
Differentiation
, n1
(j)n X ()
n
Z dtt
X ()
+ X (0)()
Integration
x(t 0 )dt 0
j
Shifting
x(t ), e j0 t x(t)
e j X (), X ( 0 )
Modulation
x(t) cos(c t)
0.5[X ( c ) + X ( + c )]
X
X
Periodic
x(t) =
Xk e jk0 t
X () =
2Xk ( k0 )
k
Symmetry
Convolution
x(t) real
z(t) = [x y ](t)
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|X ()| = |X ()|,
X () = X ()
Z () = X ()Y ()
cos(0 t),
<t <
1, e j
1
1
+ (),
+ ()
j
j
2
j
A
2A(),
j + a
A
(j + a)2
2a
a 2 + 2
[( 0 ) + ( + 0 )]
sin(0 t),
<t <
j[( 0 ) ( + 0 )]
(t), (t )
u(t), u(t)
sgn(t) = 2[u(t) 0.5]
A, Ae at u(t), a > 0
Ate at u(t), a > 0
e a|t| , a > 0
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2A
sin( )