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Bridge
Design
Manual
M 23-50
Washington State Department of Transportation
Bridge
Design
Manual
M 23-50
Chapters 1-7

Program Development Division
Bridge and Structures
Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) Information

Persons with disabilities may request this information be prepared
and supplied in alternate formats by calling the Washington State
Department of Transportation ADA Accommodation Hotline collect
(206) 389-2839. Persons with hearing impairments may access
Washington State Telecommunications Relay Service at 7-1-1, and
ask to be connected to (360) 705-7097.
Additional copies may be purchased from:

Directional Documents and Engineering Publications
PO Box 47408
Olympia, WA 98504-7408
Phone: 360-705-7430
Fax: 360-705-6861
E-mail: engrpubs@wsdot.wa.gov
This publication is also available on CD-ROM or via Internet on the WSDOT homepage
at http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/
Foreword
This manual has been prepared to provide Washington State Department of Transportation (WSDOT) bridge
design engineers with a guide to the design criteria, analysis methods, and detailing procedures for the preparation
of highway bridge and structure construction plans, specifications, and estimates.
It is not intended to be a textbook on structural engineering. It is a guide to acceptable WSDOT practice. This
manual does not cover all conceivable problems that may arise, but is intended to be sufficiently comprehensive to,
along with sound engineering judgment, provide a safe guide for bridge engineering.
A thorough knowledge of the contents of this manual is essential for a high degree of efficiency in the engineering
of WSDOT highway structures.
This loose leaf form of this manual facilitates modifications and additions. New provisions and revisions will be
issued from time to time to keep this guide current. Suggestions for improvement and updating the manual are
always welcome.
All manual modifications must be approved by the Bridge Design Engineer.
__________________________________________
M. MYINT LWIN
Bridge and Structures Engineer
V:BDM1
September 1993
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL

Criteria
General Information
Contents
Page
1.1
1.1.1
1.1.2
1.1.3
1.1.4
1.2
1.2.1
1.2.2
1.3
1.3.1
1.3.2
1.3.3
1.3.4
1.3.5
1.3.6
1.4
1.4.1
Manual Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Chapters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Numbering System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Revisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Manual Updates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Bridge Design Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Record of Manual Revisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bridge and Structures Office Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Organizational Elements of the Office . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Bridge and Structures Engineer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Bridge Design Engineer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Bridge Preservation Engineer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Bridge Management Engineer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E. Computer Applications Engineer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F. Consultant Coordinator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
G. Architect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
H. Staff Support Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I. Office Administrator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Design Procedures and Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Design/Check Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. WSDOT PS&E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Consultant PS&E Projects on WSDOT Right of Way . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Consultant PS&E On County and City Right of Way Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Design/Check Calculation File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. File of Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. To Be Included . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Not to Be Included . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E. Upon Completion of the Design Work, Fill Out a Design Completion Checklist . . . . . . . . . .
Office Copy Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Addenda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Shop Plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Bridge Shop Plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Sign Structure, Signal, and Illumination Shop Plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Contract Plan Changes (Change Orders and As-Builts) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Request for Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Processing Contract Revisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Coordination With Other Divisions and Agencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Preliminary Planning Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
August 1998
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
3
3
3
5
1.2-1
1
1
1
1
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
1.3-1
1
1
5
6
7
7
7
7
8
8
8
9
9
9
11
11
11
12
1.4-1
1
1.0-i

Criteria
General Information
1.4.2
1.5
1.5.1
1.5.2
1.5.3
1.6
1.6.1
1.6.2
1.6.3
1.6.4
1.6.5
1.99
Contents
Final Design Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

A. Coordination With Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Technical Design Matters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bridge Design Scheduling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Preliminary Design Schedule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Final Design Schedule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Breakdown of Project Man-Hours Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Estimate Design Time Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Monthly Project Progress Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Guidelines for Bridge Site Visits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bridge Rehabilitation Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bridge Widenings and Seismic Retrofits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Rail and Minor Expansion Joint Retrofits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
New Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bridge Demolition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1
1
1
1.5-1
1
1
1
1
2
3
1.6-1
1
1
1
1
1
1.99-1
Appendix A Design Aids

1.3-A1
Standard Design Criteria Form
1.3-A2
Exceptions to the Standard Design Criteria Form
1.3-A3
Design Completed Checklist
1.3-A4
Job File Table of Contents
1.3-A5
Office Time Report
1.3-A6
Not Included in Bridge Quantities List
1.3-A7
Special Provisions Checklist
1.5-A1
Breakdown of Project Manhours Required Form
1.5-A2
Monthly Project Progress Report Form
P:DP/BDM1
9807-0802
1.0-ii
August 1998

Criteria
Structural Steel
Manual Description
1.1
Manual Description
1.1.1
Purpose
This manual is intended to be a guide for Bridge Designers and others involved with bridge design for
the Washington State Department of Transportation (WSDOT). It contains design details and methods
that have been standardized and it interprets the intent of specifications. It is not intended to govern design
in unusual situations nor to unduly inhibit the designer in the exercise of engineering judgment. There is
no substitute for good judgment. The following axioms are given as a reminder that simple things make
a big difference.
1.
Gravity always works if something is not supported, it will fall.
2.
A chain reaction will cause small failures to become big failures, unless alternate load paths are
available in the structure (i.e., progressive collapse).
3.
Small errors, such as a drafting error or a misplaced decimal, can cause large failures.
4.
Vigilance is needed to avoid small errors. This applies to construction inspection as well as in the
design phase.
5.
A construction job should be run by one person with authority, not a committee. It has been said that
a camel is a horse designed and built by a committee.
6.
High quality craftsmanship must be provided by everyone.
7.
An unbuildable design is not buildable. An obvious fact often overlooked by the architect or
structural designer. Think about how forms will be built, then removed if necessary.
8.
There is no foolproof design.
9.
The best way to ensure a failure is to disregard or ignore lessons from past failures.
10. Many problems can be avoided by using a little loving care.
1.1.2
Specifications
The AASHTO publications Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges and LRFD Bridge Design
Specifications are the basic documents guiding the design of highway bridges and structures. This
WSDOT Bridge Design Manual is intended to supplement AASHTO and other specifications by providing additional direction, design aids, examples, and information on office practices. Where conflicts exist
between this manual and the AASHTO Standard Specifications, this manual will control. When a conflict
exists that is not resolved within the manual, further guidance shall be obtained from the Bridge Design
Engineer or his representative.
The AASHTO publications are not duplicated in this manual. Appropriate specifications and other
references are listed in Section 1.99.
1.1.3
Format
A. General
The Bridge Design Manual consists of two volumes with each chapter organized as follows:
Criteria or other information
Appendix A (printed on yellow paper) Design Aids
Appendix B (printed on salmon paper) Design Examples
August 1998
1.1-1

Criteria
Structural Steel
Manual Description
B. Chapters
1.
General Information
2.
Preliminary Design
3.
Analysis
4.
Loads
5.
Reinforced Concrete Superstructures
6.
Prestressed Concrete Superstructures
7.
Structural Steel
8.
Miscellaneous Design
9.
Substructure Design
10. Detailing Practice

11. Quantities
12. Construction Costs
13. Construction Specifications
14. Inspection and Rating
C. Numbering System
1.
The numbering system for the criteria consists of a set of numbers followed by letters as required
to designate individual subjects. This format is similar to that used by AASHTO.
Example:
5.0
(Chapter)
5.4
Box Girder Bridges
(Section)
5.4.2
Girder
(Subsection)
C. Shear Resistance
1.
The Shear Diagram

a.
Shear Reinforcement
(1) Placement
2.
Numbering of Sheets
Each section starts a new page numbering sequence. The page numbers are located in the lower
outside corners and begin with the chapter number, followed by the section number, then a
sequential page number.
Example: 5.4-1, 5.4-2, etc.
1.1-2
August 1998

Criteria
Structural Steel
3.
Manual Description
Appendices are included to provide the designer with design aids (Appendix A) and examples
(Appendix B). Design aids are generally standard in nature, whereas examples are modified to
meet specific job requirements.
An appendix is numbered using the chapter followed by section number and then a hyphen and
the letter of the appendix followed by consecutive numbers.
Example: 5.4-A1 (Box Girder Bridges) designates a design aid required or useful to accomplish
the work described in Chapter 5, Section 4.
4.
Numbering of Tables and Figures

Tables and figures shall be numbered using the chapter, section, subsection in which they are
located, and then a hyphen followed by consecutive numbers.
Example: Figure 5.4.2-1 is the first figure found in Chapter 5, section 4, subsection 2.
1.1.4
Revisions
A. Manual Updates
The Bridge Design Manual will change as new material is added and as criteria and specifications
change.
Revisions and new material will be issued with a Publications Transmittal Form. The form will have
a revision number and remarks or special instructions regarding the sheets. The revision number shall
be entered on the Record of Revision sheet in this manual. This allows the user to verify that the
manual is up to date.
B. Bridge Design Instruction
Special instructions regarding interpretation of criteria or other policy statements may be issued using
a Bridge Design Instruction (BDI). The BDI will be transmitted in the same manner as outlined above
for manual revisions. The BDI should be inserted in the appropriate place in the manual and remains
in effect until the expiration date shown or until superseded by a revision to the manual. A sample
BDI is shown on Figure 1.1.4-1.
P:DP/BDM1
9807-0802
August 1998
1.1-3

Criteria
Structural Steel
Manual Description
February 1997
BRIDGE DESIGN INSTRUCTION 5.1.1 CHAPTER 5

SUBJECT:
Use of Concrete Class 5000 and Class 4000D
ACTION:
Place this instruction in your manual and note the instruction number in your
Record of Manual Revisions, 1.1.4.
TEXT
There is confusion regarding the availability of Concrete Class 5000. This

class of concrete is available within a 30-mile radius of Seattle, Spokane and
Vancouver, Washington. Available means that there are concrete suppliers
in these urban areas capable of supplying Concrete Class 5000 in accordance
with WSDOT specifications. Outside this 30-mile radius (or near the fringe),
the concrete suppliers generally do not have the quality control procedures
and expertise to supply this higher strength concrete. The Construction Office
or Materials Lab should be contacted for availability for project sites outside
these areas.
In general, Class 4000D Concrete would be specified for bridge roadway decks
outside this 30 mile radius. Class 4000D Concrete specifications require a
14-day wet cure and flyash as an additive. Typically, Class 4000 Concrete would
be specified for other bridge concrete members above ground. This mix was
developed by the Materials Lab to be at least as durable as Class 5000 Concrete.
By utilizing the above guidelines, WSDOT will receive the most durable bridge
deck at the least cost.
Approved: _________________________
C. C. Ruth
Bridge Design Engineer
CCR/db
RTS
Figure 1.1.4-1
1.1-4
August 1998

Criteria
Structural Steel
Manual Description
C. Record of Manual Revisions

In order that a ready means be available to check whether a manual is up to date, each manual holder
is requested to keep his copy up to date and to record Bridge Design Instructions or Revisions as
material is added or changed. The form below is intended for use in keeping this record. At any time,
a manual holder will be able to check his list with the list in the master manual.
Revision
Number
August 1998
Entry
Date
By
(Initial)
Revision
Number
Entry
Date
By
(Initial)
Revision
Number
Entry
Date
By
(Initial)
1.1-5

Criteria
General Information
1.2
Bridge and Structures Office Organization
1.2.1
General
The document defining the responsibilities for bridge design within the Washington State Department of
Transportation (WSDOT) is the Organization Handbook. In that document, the responsibilities of the
Bridge and Structures Office are stated as follows:
Provides structural engineering services for the department. Provides technical advice and assistance
to other governmental agencies on such matters.
The WSDOT Design Manual states the following:
Bridge design is the responsibility of the Bridge and Structures Office in Olympia. Any design
authorized to be performed at the regional level is subject to review and approval by the Bridge
and Structures Office.
1.2.2
Organizational Elements of the Office

A. Bridge and Structures Engineer
Responsible for structural engineering services for the department. Manages staff and programs for
structure design, contract plan preparation, and inspections and assessments of existing bridges.
B. Bridge Design Engineer
The Bridge Design Engineer is directly responsible to the Bridge and Structures Engineer for
structural design and review, and advises other divisions and agencies on such matters.
1.
Structural Design Units

The Structural Design Units are responsible for the final design of bridges and other structures.
Final design includes preparation of plans. The units provide special design studies, develop
design criteria, check shop plans, and review designs submitted by consultants.
Each design unit normally consists of individuals including a section supervisor and a bridge
specialist. Organization and job assignments within the unit are flexible and are related to the
projects underway at any particular time as well as to the qualifications of individuals. The
emphasis in the design sections is on providing sound designs, checking, reviewing, and
detailing in an efficient manner.
A bridge specialist is assigned to each design unit. Each specialist has a particular area of
responsibility. The three areas are concrete, steel, and expansion joints and bearings. The
specialist acts as a resource person for the bridge office in his specialty and is responsible for
keeping up-to-date on current AASHTO criteria, new design concepts, technical publications,
construction and maintenance issues.
The design units are also responsible for the design and preparation of contract plans for
modifications to bridges in service. These include bridge rail replacement, deck repair, seismic
retrofits, emergency repairs when bridges are damaged by vehicle or ship collision or natural
phenomenon, and expansion joint and drainage retrofit. They review proposed plans of utility
attachments to existing bridges.
August 1998
1.2-1

Criteria
General Information
2.
Bridge Projects Unit

The Bridge Projects Engineer directs preliminary design work, specification and cost estimates
preparation, falsework review, and coordinates scheduling of bridge design projects with the
Bridge Design Engineer and the Design Unit Supervisors.
The Preliminary Design engineers are responsible for bridge project planning from design studies
to preliminary project reports. They are responsible for preliminary plan preparation of bridge
and walls including assembly and analysis of site data, preliminary structural analysis, cost
analysis, determination of structure type, and drawing preparation. They also review highway
project environmental documents and design reports and handle Coast Guard liaison duties.
The Specifications and Estimate (S&E) engineers develop and maintain construction
specifications and cost estimates for bridge projects originating in the Bridge and Structures
Office. They also review the specifications and cost estimates for bridge contracts prepared by
consultants and other government agencies which are administered by WSDOT. They assemble
and review the completed bridge PS&E before submittal to the Plans Branch. They also coordinate the PS&E preparation with the regions, Plans Branch, and maintain bridge construction
cost records.
The Construction Support engineers are responsible for checking the contractors falsework,
shoring, and form plans. Shop plans review and approval are coordinated with the design
sections. Actual check of the shop plan is done in the design section. Field requests for plan
changes come through this office for a recommendation as to approval. As built plans are
prepared by this unit at the completion of a contract.
The Scheduling Engineer monitors the design work schedule for the Bridge and Structures Office
and maintains records of bridge contract costs.
In addition, the unit is responsible for the Bridge Design Manual, design standards, professional
activities, and AASHTO support.
C. Bridge Preservation Engineer

Directs activities and develops programs to assure the structural and functional integrity of all state
bridges in service. Directs emergency response services when bridges are damaged.
1.
Bridge Preservation Unit

The Bridge Preservation Unit is responsible for planning and implementation of an inspection
program for the more than 3,000 fixed and movable state highway bridges. In addition, the unit
provides inspection services on some local agency bridges and on the states 21 ferry terminals.
All inspections are conducted in accordance with the National Bridge Inspection Standards
(NBIS).
The unit maintains a statewide computer inventory Washington State Bridge Inventory System
(WSBIS), of current information on more than 7,300 state, county, and city bridges in accordance
with the NBIS. This includes load ratings for all bridges. It prepares a Bridge List of the states
bridges which is published every two years.
The unit is responsible for the bridge load rating and risk reduction (SCOUR) programs. It
provides damage assessments and emergency response services when bridges are damaged or
lost due to vehicle or ship collision or natural phenomenon such as floods, wind, or earthquakes.
1.2-2
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D. Bridge Management Engineer

This Bridge Management Unit is responsible for program development, planning, and monitoring of
all H-Program activities. These include HBRRP funded bridge replacements and rehabilitation, bridge
deck protection, major bridge repair, and bridge painting.
In addition, this unit manages the bridge deck protection program including the deck testing program
and the bridge research program. It is responsible for the planning, development, coordination, and
implementation of new programs (e.g., Seismic Retrofit and Preventative Maintenance), experimental
feature projects, new product evaluation, and technology transfer.
E. Computer Applications Engineer
The Computer Support Unit is responsible for computer resource planning and implementation,
computer user support, liaison with Management Information Systems (MIS), and computer aided
engineer operation support. In addition, the unit is responsible for Standard Plan updates.
F. Consultant Coordinator
The Consultant Coordinator prepares bridge consultant agreements and coordinates consultant PS&E
development activities with those of the department.
G. Architect
The Principal Architect is responsible for approving preliminary plans, preparing renderings, model
making, and other duties to improve the aesthetics of our bridges and other structures. The Principal
Architect works closely with staff and regions. During the design phase, designers should get the
Architects approval for any changes to architectural details shown on the approved preliminary plan.
H. Staff Support Unit
The Staff Support Unit is responsible for many support functions, such as: typing, timekeeping,
payroll, receptionist, vehicle management, mail, inventory management, and other duties requested
by the Bridge and Structures Engineer. Other duties include: of field data, plans for bridges under
contract or constructed, and design calculations. This unit also maintains office supplies and provides
other services.
I.
Office Administrator
The Office Administrator is responsible for coordinating personnel actions, updating the
organizational chart, ordering technical materials, and other duties requested by the Bridge
and Structures Engineer. Staff development and training are coordinated through the Office
Administrator. Logistical support, office and building maintenance issues are also handled by
the Office Administrator.
July 2000
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1.2.3
Design Unit Responsibilities and Expertise

The following is an updated summary of design responsibilities/expertise within the Bridge Design
Section. Contact the unit manager for the name of the appropriate staff expert for the needed specialty.
Unit Manager
Responsibility/Expertise
K. N. Kirker
Expansion Joint Modifications

Retaining Walls (including MSE, Tie-Back, and Soil Nail)
Seismic Retrofit
Y. A. Mhatre
Noise Walls
Bridge Traffic Barriers
Standard Plans for Prestressed Concrete
R. T. Shaefer
Coast Guard Permits

Cost Estimates
Standard Plans (other than Prestressed Concrete)
Bridge Design Manual
J. A. VanLund
Sign Supports, Light Standards, Traffic Signal Supports

Repairs to Damaged Prestressed Girder Bridges
P. T. Clarke
Floating Bridges
Special Structures
P65:DP/BDM1
1.2-4
July 2000

Criteria
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Design Procedures and Processes
1.3
Quality Control/Quality Assurance (QC/QA) Process for WSDOT Bridge Designs
1.3.0
General
A. The QA/QC process for bridge designs is a critical element of quality structure plan preparation.
The overall goals of the structural design process are:
The structural design maximizes the safety of the traveling public and is in accordance with
State Law.
The structural design is in accordance with the WSDOT Bridge Design Manual, AASHTO
Bridge Design Specifications, good structural engineering practice, and geometric criteria
provided by the Region.
Designed structures are durable, low-maintenance, and inspectable.
The structural design facilitates constructibility and minimizes overall construction costs, while
exhibiting a pleasing architectural style.
The structural design contract documents are produced in accordance with customers needs
(schedule, construction staging, and available program funding).
Structural design costs are minimized.
A well-organized and readable structure calculation record is produced.
Plan quality is maximized.
Design process allows for change, innovation, and continuous improvement.
The overall goals are listed in order of importance. If there is a conflict between goals, the more
important goal takes precedence.
The design unit manager determines project assignments and the QC/QA process to be used in
preparation of the structural design. The intent of the QC/QA process is to facilitate production
efficiency and cost-effectiveness while assuring the structural integrity of the design and maximizing
the quality of the structure contract documents.
1.3.1
Design/Check Procedures
A. PS&E Prepared by WSDOT Bridge and Structures Office
1.
Design Team
The design team, consisting of the Designer(s), Checker(s), Structural Detailer(s), and Specification and Estimate engineer are responsible for preparing a set of contractible, clear, and concise
structural contract documents by the scheduled date and within the workforce hours allotted for
the project. On large projects, the design unit manager may assign a designer additional duties
as a Design Team Leader to assist the manager in planning, coordinating, and monitoring the
activities of the design team. In this case, the team leader would also coordinate with the Region
and the Geotechnical Branch.
The QC/QA process will likely vary depending on the type and complexity of the structure being
designed, and the experience level of the design team members. More supervision, review, and
checking are required when the design team members are less experienced. In general, it is good
QC/QA practice to have some experienced members on each design team. All design team
members should have the opportunity to provide input for maximizing the quality of the design
being produced.
July 2000
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Criteria
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2.
Designer Responsibility
The designer is responsible for the structural analysis, completeness, correctness, and quality
of the plans. The designer shall provide quality control in the process of plan preparation. That
is, errors and omissions need to be caught and corrected before subsequent checking and review
of plans. A good set of example plans to follow, representative of bridge type, is indispensable
in this regard.
During the design phase of a project, the designer will need to communicate with other
stakeholders. This includes acquiring, finalizing or revising roadway geometrics, soil reports,
hydraulics recommendations, and utility requirements. Constructibility issues may also require
that the designer communicate with the Region or Construction Office. The bridge plans must
be coordinated with the PS&E packages produced concurrently by the Region.
The designer or team leader is responsible for project planning which involves the following:
a.
Prepare a Design Time Estimate Bar Chart (see Section 1.5.2).
b.
Identify tasks and plan order of work.
c.
Prepare design criteria, which should be included in the design calculations. Use Standard
Design Criteria Form, 1.3-A1-1 for routine projects. A project specific design criteria should
be made when appropriate. Compare tasks with BDM office practice and AASHTO bridge
design specifications.
(1) Sufficient guidelines?
(2) Deviation from BDM/AASHTO?
(3) Any question on design approach?
(4) Deviation from office practices regarding design and details?
(5) Other differences.
d.
Meet with the Region design staff and other project stakeholders early in the design process
to resolve as many issues as possible before proceeding with final design and detailing.
e.
Identify coordination needs with other designers, units, and offices.
f.
Early in the project, determine the number and titles of sheets. For projects with multiple
bridges, each set of bridge sheets should have a unique set of bridge sheet numbers.
The bridge sheet numbering system should be coordinated with the Region design staff.
g.
At least monthly or as directed by the design unit manager:

(1) Update Project Schedule and List of Sheets.
(2) Estimate percent complete.
(3) Estimate time to complete.
(4) Work with design unit manager to adjust resources, if necessary.
h.
1.3-2
Develop preliminary quantities for 90 percent complete cost estimate.
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i.
Near end of project:

(1) Keep track of sheets as they are completed.
(2) Develop quantities and special provisions checklists that are to be turned in with
the plans.
(3) Prepare Bar List.
(4) Enter information into the Bridge Design Record.
(5) Coordinate all final changes, including review comments from the checker, managers,
specialists, the Region, and the Construction Office.
(6) Meet with Region design staff and other project stakeholders at the constructibility
meeting to address final project coordination issues.
The designer shall advise and get the design unit managers approval whenever details
deviate from the BDM office practice and AASHTO Bridge Design Specifications. The
designer shall provide documentation of the structural design deviations in the calculations.
The designer should inform the design unit manager of any areas of the design which should
receive special attention during checking and review.
The design calculations are prepared by the designer and become a very important record
document. Design calculations will be a reference document during the construction of the
structure and throughout the life of the structure. It is critical that the design calculations be
user friendly. The design calculations shall be well organized, clear, properly referenced,
and include numbered pages along with a table of contents. The design calculations shall
be archived. Computer files should be archived for use during construction, in the event that
changed conditions arise. Archive-ready design and check calculations shall be bound and
submitted to the design unit manager within 30 days of submitting the 100 percent PS&E.
Calculations shall be stored in the design unit until completion of construction. After
construction, they shall be sent to archives.
The designer is also responsible for resolving construction problems referred to the Bridge
Office during the life of the contract. These issues will generally be referred through the
Bridge Technical Advisor, the design unit manager, the Construction Support Unit, or the
OSC Construction Unit.
3.
Design Checker Responsibility

The checker is responsible to the design unit manager for quality assurance of the structural
design, which includes checking the design and plans to assure accuracy and constructibility.
The design unit manager works with the checker to establish the level of checking. The checking
procedure for assuring the quality of the design will vary from project to project. Following are
some general checking guidelines:
a.
Design Calculations
(1) For designs checked by an experienced checker, a review and initialing of the designers
calculations by the checker is acceptable. If it is more efficient, the checker may choose
to perform his/her own calculations to check. All the designer and checker calculations
shall be placed in one design calculation set.
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Criteria
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(2) For designs checked by an inexperienced checker, a more thorough check should be
performed by the checker to enhance his/her understanding of structural design. In this
case, the design unit manager should provide the checker with a design example.
(3) Revision of design calculations, if required, is the responsibility of the designer.
b.
Structural Plans
(1) The checkers plan review comments are recorded on the structural plans, including
details and bar lists, and returned to the designer for consideration. If the checkers
comments are not incorporated, the designer should provide justification for not doing
so. If there is a difference of opinion that cannot be resolved between the designer and
checker, the unit manager shall resolve the issue.
(2) If assigned by the design unit manager, the checker shall perform a complete check of
the geometry using CADD, hand calculations, or a geometric program.
(3) Revision of plans, if required, is the responsibility of the designer.
4.
Structural Detailer Responsibility

The structural detailer is responsible for the structural plan sheets. The plans shall be neat,
correct, and easy to follow and drawn to scale. The structural detailer may also assist the designer
and design checker in such areas as determining control dimensions and elevations, geometry,
and calculating quantities.
Some detailing basics and principles:
1.3-4
a.
Refer to BDM, Chapter 10, for detailing practices.
b.
Provide necessary and adequate information. Try to avoid repetition of information.
c.
Avoid placing too much information into any one sheet.
d.
Plan sheets should detailed in a consistent manner and follow accepted detailing practices.
e.
Provide clear and separate detail of structural geometrics. Use clear detailing such as stand
alone cross sections or a framing plan to define the structure.
f.
Avoid reinforcing steel congestion.
g.
Check reinforcement detail for consistency. Beware of common mistakes about placement
of stirrups and ties (such as: stirrups too short, effect of skew neglected, epoxy coating not
considered, etc.). Check splice location and detail, and welding locations.
h.
Use cross references properly.
i.
Use correct and consistent terminology. For example, the designation of Sections, Views,
and Details.
j.
Check for proper grammar and spelling.
k.
On multiple bridge contracts, the structural detailing of all bridges within the contract shall
be coordinated to maximize consistency of detailing from bridge to bridge. Extra effort
will be required to assure uniformity of details, particularly if multiple design units and/or
consultants are involved in preparing bridge plans. This is a critical element of good quality
bridge plans.
July 2000

Criteria
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l.
5.
Refer to the Bridge Book of Knowledge for current special features and details used on
other projects.
Specialist Responsibility
There are currently four specialist positions in the Bridge and Structures Office. There is a
specialist assigned to each of the three design sections and one to the Bridge Preservation
Section. The primary responsibility of the specialist is to act as a knowledge resource for this
office. The Specialists maintain an active knowledge of their specialty area along with a current
file of products and design procedures. Proactive industry contacts are maintained by the Specialists. Specialists also provide training in their area of specialty. As contract plans are prepared by
other designers, the Specialists are expected to review and initial drawings covered by their
specialty area. Plans produced directly by Specialists in their specialty area should be prepared
with their own stamp and signature. Specialists also assist the Bridge Engineer in reviewing and
voting on amendments to AASHTO specifications. They also are responsible for keeping their
respective chapters of the Bridge Design Manual up to date. The secondary responsibility of the
Specialist is to serve as design section supervisor when the supervisor is absent.
There are three specialty areas in the Design Section: Concrete, Expansion Joints and Bearings,
and Steel.
6.
Design Unit Technical Responsibilities

Each Design Unit is responsible for maintaining a resource of technical knowledge and leadership. As described in the previous Section (5.), each unit has a Design Specialist (Concrete, Steel,
Expansion Joints and Bearings). In addition, each Design Unit maintains a resource of technical
knowledge in several technical areas. Following, is a list of all technical subjects for which a
resource is maintained:
Coast Guard Permits
Cost Estimates
Bridge Special Provisions
Sign Supports, Light Standards, Traffic Signal Supports
Repairs to Damaged Prestressed Girders
Expansion Joint Modifications
Retaining Walls (Including MSE, Tie-Back, and Soil Nail)
Seismic Retrofit
Noise Walls
Traffic Barrier Retrofits/Standards
Bridge Standard Plans (BDM)
The resource/leadership responsibility for these technical areas does not necessarily include
responsibility for performing all of the work relating to the technical area. For many of the
technical areas, the Design Unit acts as a resource for the technical area, only, and as a contact
for industry and stakeholders.
July 2000
1.3-5

Criteria
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7.
Specification and Estimating Engineer Responsibilities

The S&E Engineer is responsible for compiling the PS&E package for bridge and/or related
highway structural components. This PS&E package includes Special Provisions (BSPs and
GSPs as appropriate), construction cost estimate, construction working day schedule, test hole
boring logs and other appendices as appropriate, and the design plan package.
The S&E Engineer begins work after the design unit submits copies of the 90 percent design
plans. This normally occurs on or before the date specified in the Bridge Design Schedule.
A set of quantities, a copy of the Not Included in Bridge Quantities, and a S&E Checklist
are included in the PS&E package.
As a first order of business, the S&E Engineer distributes the 90 percent design plans for review
by the Region and other offices. While other offices are reviewing the plan package, the S&E
Engineer attends to the following duties.
Review the job file, foundation report, and design plans to make sure that materials specified
in the plans are consistent with the current Standard Specifications.
Check the plans for engineering accuracy, completeness, and constructibility.
Create a run list of BSPs, GSPs, and appropriate Standard Specification amendments.
Compile a cost estimate file using the quantities submitted by the designers and current Unit
Cost figures for the various materials used in the bridge.
The S&E Engineer develops a construction working day schedule which is also based on the
quantities submitted by the designers.
At the same time, the S&E Engineer coordinates the Bridge and Structures Office review of the
Review PS&E and responds with comments to the Region. The S&E Engineer also receives all
Region review comments and distributes them to the appropriate designer for action. The S&E
Engineer also participates in the Region Review Roundtable Meeting. After the Review
Roundtable Meeting, all comments are addressed by the designers.
The S&E Engineer has the following responsibilities during coordination of the Final Bridge
PS&E turn in.
Make Special Provision reviews to the Bridge Special Provision word file.
Inform the appropriate Region PS&E contact when the word file is complete and ready for
transfer.
Complete Cost Estimate and Quantity revisions to the cost estimate files.
Electronically distribute all cost estimate file revisions to the appropriate Region PS&E
contact.
Once the final Bridge Sheet mylars are printed, stamped, and signed, the S&E Engineer arranges
for 11 by 17 paper prints for submittal to the appropriate Region PS&E contact. The original
stamped and signed mylars are turned in to the Construction Plans Unit for storage.
During the Advertising period many questions are funneled into the Bridge Office by the Project
Engineers and the communications are generally distributed to the S&E Engineer. The S&E
Engineer will ascertain the query, answer the question from the Contractors, or seek advice or
help from the design engineer. The S&E Engineer will then respond back to the PE. Revisions
to the Plans or Specs are sometimes needed as a result of these questions from Contractors.
1.3-6
July 2000

Criteria
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Addendums are created to augment the original advertised document to make sure all
Contractors are advised prior to Bid Openings. These Addendums are coordinated with the
Region and OSC Plans.
The S&E Engineer attends the award meetings to justify bids and advise whether or not to award
the contract.
Other responsibilities included are:
Special Provisions and Estimates for Change Order Work
Cost estimates in the scoping stage of a project
Working Day information during Stage Construction planning
Initiates/Coordinates Amendment and GSP Updates
Maintains BSP Library
8.
Design Unit Manager Responsibility

a.
The design unit manager is responsible to the Bridge Design Engineer for the timely
completion and quality of the bridge plans.
b.
The design unit manager works closely with the design team (designer, checker, and
structural detailer) during the design and plan preparation phases to help avoid major
changes late in the design process. Activities during the course of design include:
(1) Evaluate the complexity of the project and the designers skill and classification level
to deliver the project in a timely manner. Determine both the degree of supervision
necessary for the designer and the amount of checking that will be required by the
checker.
(2) Assist the design team in defining the scope of the project, identifying the tasks to be
accomplished, developing a project work plan and schedule, and assigning resources to
achieve delivery of the project.
(3) Review and approve design criteria before start of design.
(4) Help lead designer conduct face-to-face project meetings, such as: project kick-off
and wrap-up meetings with Region, geotechnical staff, bridge construction, and
consultants to resolve outstanding issues.
(5) Assist the design team with planning, anticipating possible problems, collectively
identifying solutions, and facilitating timely delivery of needed information, such as
geometrics, hydraulics, foundation information, etc.
(6) Interact with design team regularly to discuss progress, problems, schedule, analysis
techniques, constructibility and design issues. Always encourage forward thinking,
innovative ideas and suggestions for quality improvement.
(7) Arrange for and provide the necessary resources and tools for the design team to do the
job right the first time. Offer assistance to help resolve questions or problems.
(8) Help document and disseminate information on special features and lessons learned for
the benefit of others and future projects.
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1.3-7

Criteria
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(9) Mentor and train designers and detailers on state-of-the-art practices and through the
assignment of a variety of structure types.
c.
The design unit manager works closely with the design team during the plan review phase.
Review efforts should concentrate on reviewing the completed plan details and design
calculations for completeness and for agreement with office criteria and practices. Review
the following periodically and at the end of the project:
(1) Design Criteria
Seismic a value
Foundation report recommendations, selection of alternates
Deviations from AASHTO, BDM, Documentation
(2) Design Time
d.
Review designers estimated time to complete the project. Plan resource allocation to
complete the project to meet the scheduled Ad Date. Monitor monthly time spent on the
project. Prepare and submit to the Bridge Projects Engineer monthly time reports for each
project. Estimate time remaining to complete project, percent completed, and whether
project is on or behind schedule. Arrange and plan resources to ensure a timely delivery
of the project within the estimated time to complete the project.
e.
Advise Region of project scope and cost-creep. Use quarterly status reports to update Region
and Bridge Projects Engineer.
f.
Use appropriate computer scheduling software or other means to monitor time usage and to
allocate resources and to plan projects.
g.
Fill out Office Time Report (see Appendix 1.3-A5).
h.
Review of constructibility. Any problems unique to the project?
i.
Check the final plans for the following:

(1) Scan the job file for unusual items relating to geometrics, hydraulics, geotechnical,
environmental, etc.
(2) Overall check/review of sheet #1, the bridge layout for:
Consistency especially for multiple bridge project
Missing information
(3) Check footing layout for conformance to Bridge Plan and for adequacy of information
given. Generally, the field personnel should be given enough information to layout
the footings on the ground without referring to any other sheets. Details should be clear,
precise, and dimensions tied to base reference such as survey line or defined center line
of bridge.
(4) Check the sequence of the plan sheets. They should adhere to the following order:
layout, footing layout, substructures, superstructures, miscellaneous details, barriers,
and bar list. Also check for appropriateness of the titles.
1.3-8
July 2000

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(5) Check overall dimensions and elevations, spot check for compatibility. For example,
check compatibility between superstructures and substructure. Also spot check bar
marks.
(6) Use ones training, common sense, and experience to size-up structural dimensions
and reinforcement, etc., for structural adequacy. When in doubt, prepare for a line of
questioning to the designer/checker.
j.
9.
Stamp and seal the plans.
Bridge Design Engineers Responsibilities

The Bridge Design Engineer is the coach, mentor, and facilitator for the WSDOT QC/QA Bridge
Design Process. The leadership and support provided by this position is a major influence in
assuring bridge design quality for structural designs performed by both WSDOT and consultants.
The following summarizes the responsibilities of the Bridge Design Engineer relative to QC/QA:
a.
When the structural contract plans are sealed by the Bridge Design Engineer, a structural/
constructibility review of the plans is performed. This is a quality assurance (QA) function
as well as meeting the responsible charge requirements of the laws relating to Professional
Engineers.
b.
Review and approve the Preliminary Bridge Plans. The primary focus for this responsibility
is to assure that the most cost-effective and appropriate structure type is selected for a
particular bridge site.
c.
Participate in coordination, scheduling, and project-related discussions with stakeholders,

customers, and outside agencies relating to major structural design issues.
d.
Facilitate resolution of major project design issues.
e.
Review unique project special provisions and major Standard Specification modifications
relating to structures.
f.
Facilitate partnerships between WSDOT, consultant, and construction industry stakeholders

to facilitate design quality.
g.
Encourage designer creativity and innovation.
h.
Exercise leadership and direction for maintaining a progressive and up to date Bridge Design
Manual.
i.
Create an open and supportive office environment in which Design Section staff are empowered to do high quality structural design work.
10. General Bridge Plan Signature Policy

The sealing and signature of bridge plans is an important element of the Bridge QC/QA process.
It signifies review and responsible charge of the design and details represented in the plans. The
Bridge and Structures Office intends to have at least one Licensed Structural Engineer seal and
sign each contract plan sheet (except the bar list). For major projects, the Design Unit Manager
and the Bridge Design Engineer will typically review, seal, and sign the bridge plans. For routine
bridge designs and transportation structure designs, the Design Unit Manager (SE License) and
designer with a Civil Engineer License will typically review, seal, and sign the contract plans
(except the bar list).
July 2000
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B. PS&E Prepared by Consultant

This section is yet to be developed, but it will include the following elements:
Consultant Coordinator Responsibilities
Scope of Work
Negotiate Contract (Task Assignments)
Coordinate/Negotiate Changes to Scope of Work
WSDOT Design Reviewer/Coordinator Responsibilities
Review consultants design criteria and standard details early in the project
Identify resources needed to complete work
Early agreement on structural concepts/design method to be used
Identify who is responsible for what
Monitor progress
Facilitate communication
Review for design consistency with WSDOT practices and other bridge designs in project
Resolve differences
Assure that consultants QC/QA plan was followed during design
Design Unit Manager Responsibilities
Encourage/Facilitate communication
Early involvement to assure that design concepts are appropriate
Empower Design Reviewer/Coordinator
Facilitate resolution of problems beyond ability of Reviewer/Coordinator
S&E Unit Responsibilities
Prepare Specials and Estimate based on Consultants special provision checklist and quantities
Review plans for consistency
Forward Special Provisions and Estimate to consultant for review and comment
Bridge Design Engineer Responsibilities
Cursory review of design plans
Signature approval of S&E bridge contract package
C. Consultant PS&E On County and City Right of Way Projects
Consultants are frequently used by counties and cities to design bridges. The Highways and Local
Programs Office determines which projects are to be reviewed by the Bridge and Structures Office.
Where a review is required, the PS&E is sent by Highways and Local Programs to the Bridge Projects
Engineer for assignment. The Bridge and Structures Office Consultant Coordinator does not become
involved.
A Review Engineer will be assigned to the project and will review the project as outlined for
Consultant PS&E Projects on WSDOT Right of Way (see Section 1.3.1.B).
The plans with the reviewers comments should be returned to the Bridge Projects Unit where the
comments will be transferred to a second set of plans which will be returned to Highways and Local
Programs. The original set will be filed in the Bridge Projects Unit.
1.3-10
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Review is made of the Preliminary Plan first and the PS&E second. Comments are treated as advisory,
although major structural problems must be corrected. An engineer from the county, city, or consultant
may contact the reviewer to discuss the comments.
1.3.2
Design/Check Calculation File

A. File of Calculations
The Bridge and Structures Office maintains a file of all pertinent design/check calculations for
documentation and future reference.
B. Procedures
After an assigned project is completed and the bridge is built, the designer should turn in to the
manager a bound file containing the design/check calculations.
C. File Inclusions
The following items should be included in the file:
1.
Index Sheets
Number all calculation sheets and prepare an index by subject with the corresponding sheet
numbers.
List the name of the project, SR Number, designer/checker initials, date (month, day, and year),
and supervisors initials.
2.
Design Calculations
These should include design criteria, loadings, structural analysis, one set of moment and shear
diagrams and pertinent computer input and output data (reduced to 8 1 2 inch by 11 inch sheet
size).
3.
Special Design Features

Brief narrative of major design decisions or revisions and the reasons for them.
4.
Construction Problems or Revisions (As They Develop)

Not all construction problems can be anticipated during the design of the structure; therefore,
construction problems arise that require revisions. Calculations for revisions made during
construction should be included in the design/check calculation file when construction is
completed.
D. File Exclusions
The following items should not be included in the file:
July 2000
1.
Geometric calculations.
2.
Irrelevant computer information.
3.
Prints of Office Standard Sheets.
4.
Irrelevant sketches.
5.
Voided sheets.
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6.
Preliminary design calculations and drawings unless used in the final design.
7.
Test hole logs.
8.
Quantity calculations.
E. Upon completion of the design work, fill out a Design Completed Checklist (Form 230-035).
(See Appendix 1.3-A3.)
1.3.3
Office Copy Review

Office Copy is the compiled contract documents (plans/specials) of all involved disciplines (Region,
service center, and Bridge Office). It is normally distributed for final review for compatibility,
completeness, and accuracy before final printing and going to Ad with the contract.
1.3.4
a.
Note the due date to determine priority.
b.
Review the comments from any previous reviews of the Region PS&E and check to see if the items
have been corrected.
c.
Review all indexes for items related to traffic signals, illumination, signs, retaining walls, traffic
barrier, and other structural items.
d.
Review the index and verify that no bridge plans have been omitted.
e.
Review pertinent sections of the special provisions for consistency with the plans, design criteria,
and specifications.
f.
Verify that Standard Plans and preapproved plans are called out where applicable.
g.
Review pertinent plan sheets.
h.
Verify consistency between Region plans and bridge plans; particularly geometry, drainage,
guardrail, and other pertinent items.
i.
Determine if any nonstandard designs are shown or specified. If so, a structural review of them may
be necessary. Note any missing specifications, Standard Plans, etc.
j.
Return plans and comments to the unit manager.
Addenda
Plan or specification revisions during the advertising period require an addendum. The Bridge Projects
Engineer will evaluate the need for the addendum after consultation with the OSC Bridge Construction
Engineer, Region, and the Plans Branch. The Bridge Design Engineer or the design unit manager must
initial all addenda.
For addenda to contract plans, obtain the original drawing from the Bridge Project Unit. Use shading to
mark all changes (except deletions) and place a revision note at the bottom of the sheet (Region and Plans
Branch jointly determine addendum date) and a description of the change. Return the original and an
11 17 reduced copy to the Bridge Project Unit who will submit the reduced copy to the Plans Branch
for processing. See Chapter 10, Section 10.1.1I, for additional information.
For changes to specifications, submit a copy of the page with the change to the Bridge S&E Unit for
processing.
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1.3.5
Shop Plans
The following is intended to be a guide for checking shop plans.
A. Bridge Shop Plans
1.
Mark one copy of each sheet with the following, near the title block, in red pencil or with a
rubber stamp:
Office Copy
Contract (number)
(Checkers initials) (Date)
2.
On the Bridge Office copy, mark with red pencil any errors or corrections. Yellow shall be
used for highlighting the checked items, and ordinary lead (gray) pencil for other comments,
arithmetic, etc. (Only the red pencil marks will be copied onto the other copies to be returned
to the contractor.)
3.
Items to be checked are typically as follows: Check against Contract Plans, Special Provisions,
and Standard Specifications.
a.
Material specifications (ASTM specifications, hardness, alloy and temper, etc.).
b.
Size of member and fasteners.
c.
Length dimensions if shown on the Contract Plans.
d.
Finish (surface finish, galvanizing, anodizing, painting, etc.).
e.
Weld size and type and welding procedure if required.
f.
Strand or rebar placement, jacking procedure, stress calculations, elongations, etc.
g.
Fabrication reaming, drilling, and assembly procedures.
h.
Adequacy of details.
i.
Erection procedure.
The following items pertain only to post-tensioning shop plans:

j.
Center of gravity of post-tensioning (P/T) strands matches contract plans.
k.
Seating loss.
l.
Friction losses.
m. Time-dependent losses.
July 2000
n.
Steel stress diagram.
o.
Elongation of strands in all tendons. These will be compared with the field measurements.
(See WSDOT Construction Manual.) For curved bridges where the lengths of the exterior
webs vary by more than 2 percent, separate elongations should be provided for each web.
p.
Anchor plate size. If nonstandard, check bearing stress on concrete and flexural stress
in plate material. Test data must be on file to substantiate the adequacy of internal type
anchorages.
1.3-13

Criteria
General Information
q.
Vent conduit at all high and low points in the spans.
r.
Adequate room in the concrete members for the system.
s.
Interference with other reinforcement. Special attention to this item if post-tensioning (P/T)
supplier proposes a different number of tendons than shown on the plans.
t.
Offsets from soffit to bottom of conduits. Watch for sharp curvature of tendons near end
anchorages (see minimum radius requirements in Chapter 6 of BDM Criteria).
u.
Strand positions in conduit in sag and summit tendon curves.
v.
Stressing sequence.
w. Geometric details such as size of blockouts.

Note: Manufacturers details may vary slightly from contract plan requirements but must be
structurally adequate and reasonable.
4.
5.
Items Not Requiring Check:

a.
Quantities in bill of materials.
b.
Length dimensions not shown on Contract Plans except for spot checking.
Project Engineers Copy

If one copy has been marked by the Project Engineer (in green), do not use this as the office
copy. Transfer his corrections, if pertinent, to the office copy using red pencil.
6.
Marking Copies
When finished, mark the office copy with one of three categories (in red pencil, lower
right corner).
a.
APPD
(Approved, No Corrections required.)
b.
AAN
(Approved as noted minor corrections only. Do not place written questions on an
approved as noted sheet.)
c.
RFC
(Return for correction major corrections are required followed by resubmittal.)
If in doubt between AAN and RFC, check with the unit manager. An acceptable detail may
be shown in red. Mark the plans Approved-As-Noted provided that the detail is clearly noted
Suggested Correction Otherwise Revise and Resubmit.
Do not mark the other copies. This will be done in the Construction Support Unit. The reviewer
may be asked to proof the other copies after they have been marked.
Notify Project Engineer of any approved changes to the contract plans. Also notify the OSC
Bridge Construction Engineer, who may have to approve a change order and provide justification
for the change order.
1.3-14
July 2000

Criteria
General Information
If problems are encountered which may cause a delay in the checking of the shop plans or
completion of the contract, notify the unit manager and the Construction Support Unit.
Return all shop drawings and Contract Plans to the Construction Support unit when checking is
completed. Include a list of any deviations from the Contract Plans which are allowed and a list
of any disagreements with the Project Engineers comments (regardless of how minor they may
be). If deviations from the Contract Plans are to be allowed, a Change Order may be required.
Alert the Construction Support Unit so that their transmittal letter may inform the Region and
the OSC Bridge Construction Engineer.
B. Sign Structure, Signal, and Illumination Shop Plans
In addition to those instructions described under Bridge Shop Plans, the following instructions
apply:
1.3.6
1.
Review the shop plans to ensure that the pole sizes conform to the Contract Plans. Determine if
fabricator has supplied plans for each pole or type of pole called for in the contract.
2.
The Project Engineers copy may show shaft lengths where not shown on Contract Plans or
whether a change from Contract Plans is required. Manufacturers details may vary slightly
from contract plan requirements, but must be structurally adequate to be acceptable.
Contract Plan Changes (Change Orders and As-Builts)

A. Request for Changes
The following is intended as a guide for processing changes to the design plans after a project has
been awarded.
For projects which have been assigned a Bridge Technical Advisor, structural design change orders
can be approved at the Regional level provided the instructions outlined in the Construction Manual
are followed.
For all other projects, all changes are to be channeled through the Construction Support Unit which
will coordinate with the OSC Bridge Construction Engineer. Responses to inquiries should be
handled as follows:
1.
Request by Contractor or Supplier

A designer, BTA, or design unit manager contacted directly by a contractor/supplier may discuss
a proposed change with the contractor/supplier, but shall clearly tell the contractor/supplier to
formally submit the proposed change though the Project Engineer and that the discussion in no
way implies approval of the proposed change. Designers are to inform their manager if they are
contacted.
2.
Request From the Project Engineer

Requests for changes directly from the Project Engineer to the design unit manager should be
discouraged but may be acceptable when the Bridge Construction Engineer is not available. The
Bridge Construction Engineer and Construction Support Unit should be informed of any changes.
3.
Request From the Region Construction Engineer

Requests from the Region Construction Engineer are to be handled like requests from the Region
Project Engineer.
July 2000
1.3-15

Criteria
General Information
4.
Request From the OSC Bridge Construction Engineer

Requests for changes from the OSC Bridge Construction Engineer or his/her assistants are
usually made through the Construction Support Unit and not directly to the Design Unit.
However, sometimes, it is necessary to work directly with the Design Unit. The Construction
Support Unit should be informed of any decisions made involving changes to the Contract Plans.
5.
Request From the Design Unit

Request for changes from the Design Unit due to plan error, omissions, etc., shall be discussed
with the Bridge Design Engineer prior to revising and issuing new plan sheets.
B. Processing Contract Revisions

Changes to the Contract Plans or Specifications subsequent to the award of the contract may require
a contract revision. To clearly identify the scope of work, it is often desirable to provide revised or
additional drawings. When a revision or an additional drawing is necessary, request the original
mylars from the Construction Support Units Plans Technician and prepare revised or new original
mylars.
Send the new mylars to the Construction Support Units Plans Technician. The OSC Construction
Office requires two reduced paper copies; Construction Support Unit requires one reduced paper
copy; Design Unit requires one or more reduced paper copies; one full-sized paper print, stamped
As Constructed Plans, shall be sent to the Project Engineer who shall use it to mark construction
changes and upon project completion, forward them to the Construction Support Bridge Plans
Technician. The Designer is responsible for making the prints and distributing them.
This process applies to all contracts including OSC Ad and Award, Region Ad and Award, or Local
Agency Ad and Award.
Whenever new plan sheets are required as part of a contract revision, the information in the title
blocks of these sheets must be identical to the title blocks of the contract they are for (e.g., Job
Number, Contract No., Fed. Aid Proj. No., Approved by, and the Project Name). These title blocks
shall also be initialed by the Bridge Design Engineer, manager, designer, and reviewer of the change
before they are distributed. If the changes are modifications made to an existing sheet, the sheet
number will remain the same. A new sheet shall be assigned the same number as the one in the
originals that it most closely applies to and shall also be given a letter (e.g., the new sheet applies to
the original sheet 25 of 53 so it will be number 25A of 53). A full size mylar of the contract revision
sheet shall be stored in the Bridge Projects Unit.
Every revision will be assigned a number which shall be enclosed inside a triangle (e.g., 1 ).
The assigned number shall be located both at the location of the change on the sheet and in the
revision block of the plan sheet along with an explanation of the change.
Any revised sheets shall be sent to the OSC Construction Office with a written explanation describing
the changes to the contract, justification for the changes, and a list of material quantity additions
or subtractions.
1.3-16
July 2000

Criteria
General Information
1.3.7
Archiving Design Calculations, Design Files, and S&E Files

Upon Award, the following information will be collected by the Bridge Standard Plans Engineer.
Design File
S&E File
Design Calculations
Place a job file cover sticker on the file folder (see Figure 1). Fill in all fields completely. Keep these files
on site for future reference until the end of the retention period. Update the file with any contract plan
changes that occur during construction. After the retention period, send the files to the Office of the
Secretary of State for archiving at:
Archives & Records Management
1129 Washington Street SE
Olympia, WA 98504-0238
Telephone: 360-586-4900
SR # _____ County ____________________ CS # _____

Bridge Name _____________________________________
Bridge # _______________ Contract # ________________
Contents ________________________________________
Designed by _____________ Checked by _____________
Archive Box # _____________________ Vol. # _______
Figure 1
P65:DP/BDM1
July 2000
1.3-17

Criteria
General Information
1.4
Coordination With Other Divisions and Agencies
Coordination With Other Divisions and Agencies

During the various phases of design, it is necessary to coordinate the elements of the bridge design
function with the requirements of other divisions and agencies. E-mail messages, telephone calls, and
other direct communication with other offices are necessary and appropriate. Adequate communications
are essential but organizational format and lines of responsibility must be recognized. However, a written
request sent through channels is required before work can be done or design changes made on projects.
1.4.1
Preliminary Planning Phase

See Chapter 2.1 of this manual for coordination required at preliminary planning phase.
1.4.2
Final Design Phase

A. Coordination With Region
During this phase, final coordination of the bridge design with region requirements must be
accomplished. This is normally done with the Region Project Engineer, Region Design Engineer,
or Region Plans Engineer. Details such as division of quantity items between the region PS&E and
bridge PS&E become highly important to a finished contract plan set. The region PS&E and bridge
PS&E are combined by the Region Plans Branch. However, necessary coordination should be
accomplished before this time.
During the design of a project for a region level contract, the region shall provide a copy of the
proposed structural plans (such as retaining walls, barrier, large culverts, etc.) to the Bridge and
Structures Office. Bridge and Structures Office will review these plans and indicate any required
changes, then send them back to the region.
The region shall incorporate the changes prior to contract advertisement.
After contract advertisement, the region shall return the original plan sheets to Bridge and Structures
Office. These sheets shall be held in temporary storage until the As Constructed Plans for them are
completed by the region.
The region shall then transmit the As Constructed Plans to Bridge and Structures Office where
they will be transferred to the original plans for permanent storage. Upon request, the region will be
provided copies of these plans by Bridge and Structures Office.
B. Technical Design Matters
Technical coordination must be done with the OSC Materials Laboratory Foundation Engineer and
with the OSC Hydraulic Engineer for matters pertaining to their responsibilities. A portion of the
criteria for a project design may be derived from this coordination, otherwise it shall be developed
by the designer subject to approval of the Bridge Design Engineer.
When two or more structures are to be let under the same contract, the designer should make a special
effort to be uniform on structural details, bid items, specifications, and other items.
P:DP/BDM1
9807-0802
August 1998
1.4-1

Criteria
General Information
1.5
Bridge Design Scheduling
1.5.1
General
The Bridge Projects Engineer is responsible for scheduling and monitoring the progress of projects.
The Bridge Design Schedule is used to track the progress of a project and is updated monthly. A typical
project would involve the following steps:
A. Regions advise Bridge and Structures Office of an upcoming project.
B. The Bridge Projects Unit estimates design time required for preliminary plans, design, and S&E
(see Section 1.5.2).
C. The project is entered into the Bridge Design Schedule with start and due dates for site data
preliminary plan, project design, PS&E, and the ad date.
D. Bridge site data received.
E. Preliminary design started.
F. Final Design Started Designer estimates time required for final plans (see Section 1.5.3).
G. Monthly Schedule Update Each Design Unit Supervisor turns in to the Bridge Scheduling
Engineer an updated copy of the Bridge Design Schedule showing man-months used last month,
man-months used to date, percentage complete, and adjustments required in the schedule. The report
is due by the fourth working day of the month.
H. Project turned in to S&E unit.
1.5.2
Preliminary Design Schedule

The preliminary design estimate done by the Bridge Projects Unit is based on historical records from
past projects factoring in unique features of each individual project, the efficiencies of designing similar
bridges on the same project, CADD system efficiencies, designer experience, and other factors as
appropriate.
1.5.3
Final Design Schedule

A. Breakdown of Project Man-Hours Required
Using a spreadsheet, list each item of work required to complete the project and the man-hours
required to accomplish them. Certain items of work may have been partially completed during the
preliminary design, and this partial completion should be reflected in the columns % Completed
and Date Completed. Formerly, WSDOT Form 232-002 (see Appendix 1.5-A1), was used to
monitor project progress. This form can still be used.
The designer or team leader should research several sources when making the final design time
estimate. The following are possible sources that may be used:
The Bridge Design Summary contains records of design time and costs for past projects. The
summary is kept in the Bridge Projects Unit. The times given include preliminary plan, design,
check, drafting, and supervision as reported on the summary from the Accounting Office.
The Bridge Projects Unit has Bridge Construction Cost Summary books. These are grouped
according to bridge types and have records of design time, number of drawings, and bridge cost.
The hours shown are the total for the bridge as reported from the designers time sheets.
August 1998
1.5-1

Criteria
General Information
B. Estimate Design Time Required

The designer or design team leader shall determine an estimate of design time required to complete
the project. The use of a spreadsheet, Microsoft Project, or other means is encouraged to ensure
timely completion and adherence to the schedule. In the past, WSDOT Form 232-003 was used.
Typically, the following completion percentages (percent of the total project time) from Form
232-002 are applied on Form 232-003 for the following activities:
Activity No.
Percentage
1
2
3
4
5
7
40
20
25
5
5
5
Completion percentages for Activities 4, 5, and 7 are approximately 5 percent of the project total.
Activity 6 is separate from design time required by needs to be included to determine the
completion date.
Activities 8 and 9 are estimates dependant on individual circumstances.
Note: Activities 1 through 5 and Activity 7 make up 100 percent of the design time required to
complete the job.
The individual activities include the specific items as follows under each major activity.
Activity No. 1
Activity No. 2
1.5-2
Design Includes:
1.
Project coordination.
2.
Geometric computations.
3.
Design calculations (including time for Load Rating).
4.
Complete check of all plan sheets by the designer.
5.
Supervisor time related to design (estimate 10 percent of design time).
Design Check As defined in Section 1.3.1A3 Includes:

1.
Checking design at maximum stress locations.
2.
Checking major items on the drawings, including geometrics.
3.
Additional checking required.
4.
Supervisor time related to checking (estimate 10 percent of design

check time).
August 1998

Criteria
General Information
Activity No. 3

Drawings Includes:
Preparation of all drawings.
Activity No. 4
Activity No. 5
Activity No. 6
Activity No. 7
Revisions Includes:
1.
Revisions resulting from the checkers check.
2.
Revisions resulting from the supervisory review.
Quantities Includes:
1.
Compute quantities including bar list.
2.
Check quantities.
S&E Includes:
1.
Preparing special provisions checklist.
2.
Assemble backup data covering any unusual feature.
Review Includes:
1.
Activity No. 8
Other Jobs Includes:

1.
Activity No. 9
Supervisors review.
Interruptions.
Leave Includes:
1.
Annual, sick, and other leave.
See Figures 1.5.2-1 and 2 for sample Bar Chart problem and corresponding progress report form.
C. Monthly Project Progress Report
The designer or design team leader is responsible for determining monthly project progress and
reporting the results to the Unit Supervisor. In the past, WSDOT Form 232-004 (see Appendix
1.5-A2) was used to monitor the progress of the project design. The Design Unit Supervisor is
required to update a copy of the bridge design schedule each month using information from the
designer or design team leader. Any discrepancies between actual progress and the project schedule
must be determined. Adjustments, either by revising the workforce assigned to the project, hours
assigned to activities or, the project schedule, should be made accordingly.
Man-hours Used to Date indicates the total number of hours used for each activity during
the current period added to the total shown on the last report done.
% of Total Time Used is the number of hours used for the activity divided by the current
number of hours assigned to the activity from the Current Estimate of Time to Complete
on Form 232-003.
% of Activity Complete and % of Total Project Complete are estimates. Some activities
will probably be ahead of schedule, some behind, and others on schedule. It is here that major
discrepancies should be noticed and adjustments made as described above.
August 1998
1.5-3

Criteria
General Information
The designer may use a computer spreadsheet, to track the progress of the project and as an aid in
evaluating the percent complete. Other tools include using an Excel spreadsheet listing bridge sheet
plans by title, bridge sheet number, percent design complete, percent design check, percent plan
details completed, and percent plan details checked. A spreadsheet with this data allows the designer
or design team leader to rapidly determine percent of project completion and where resources need to
be allocated to complete the project on schedule.
P:DP/BDM1
9807-0802
1.5-4
August 1998

Criteria
General Information

Design Estimate Bar Chart
Sample Criteria
The designer estimates that 792 man-hours will be required to complete the design phase of the project.
The hours are distributed among Activities 1 through 7 and entered in the first column of the Bar Chart
Form. Enter the percentage amount in column three. Estimate the time for Activity 8 (approximately
5 percent of subtotal) and for Activity 9 (approximately 8 percent of subtotal). Time from Activities 8
and 9 will not enter into job manpower estimates, but will affect the estimated completion date. Using a
convenient scale, draw the bar chart.
To compute the Anticipated Completion Date, scale from the zero-line to the farthest block on the
right and to this add Activities 8 and 9 (in effect extending the completion time). Multiply this number by
the scale you are using and divide by 8, and this will give you the number of working days to completion
date. The number of working days in conjunction with the Working Day Calendar (see Bridge Projects
Unit) will give the completion date. For this example, this will be:
(5.5 + 1.2) 100 1/8 = 84 working days
August 2, 1982 Start Date
Number of working days
=
=
6,475
+84
6,559
(from working day calendar)

Dec. 2, 1982 (anticipated completion date)
Washington State
Department of Transportation
SR No.
Job No.
Design
Design
Check
Drawings
Revisions
Quantities
S&E
Reviews
Subtotals
Other Jobs
Leave
Totals
Drawn By
Design Start Date
Scheduled Completion Date
Anticipated Completion Date
Completion
Percentage
Layout By
(Man Hours)
Current Estimate
of Time to Complete
Original Estimate
to Complete
(Man Hours)
Design Checked By
Activity
Activity No.
Designed By
Design Time Bar Chart
Project
Layout Check
Bar Chart
Layout Man Hours

Scale: 1" = __________ Man Hours
100%
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678
12345678 Remarks
DOT 232-003 (formerly C1M4)

Rev 3/91
Figure 1.5.2-1
August 1998
1.5-5

Criteria
General Information
Sample Progress Report Form

Figure 1.5.2-2
1.5-6
August 1998

Criteria
General Information
1.6
Guidelines for Bridge Site Visits

The following guidelines are established to help all staff in determining the need for visiting bridge sites
prior to final design. These guidelines should apply to consultants as well as to our own staff. In all cases,
the associated region should be made aware of the site visit so that they would have the opportunity to
participate. Region participation would be especially useful if a preliminary bridge plan is involved.
1.6.1
Bridge Rehabilitation Projects (excluding rail and minor expansion joint rehabilitation
projects)
For this type of bridge project, it is critical that the design team know as much as possible about the
bridge that is to be rehabilitated. There is good information regarding the condition of existing bridges
at the Bridge Preservation Office (Mottman). As-built drawings and contract documents are also helpful,
but may not necessarily be accurate. At least one bridge site visit is necessary for this type of project. In
some cases, an in-depth inspection with experienced condition survey inspectors would be appropriate.
The decision to perform an in-depth inspection should include the Unit Supervisor, Region, and the
Bridge Design Engineer.
1.6.2
Bridge Widenings and Seismic Retrofits

For this type of bridge project, it is important that the design team is familiar with the features and
condition of the existing bridge. There is good information regarding the condition of existing bridges
at the Bridge Preservation Office (Mottman). As-built drawings and contract documents are also helpful,
but may not necessarily be accurate. A site visit is recommended for this type of project, particularly if
the bridge to be widened has unique features or is other than a standard prestressed girder bridge with
elastomeric bearings.
1.6.3
Rail and Minor Expansion Joint Retrofits

Generally, pictures and site information from the region along with as-builts and condition survey
information are adequate for most of these types of projects. However, if there is any doubt about the
adequacy of the available information or concern about accelerated deterioration of the structure
elements to be retrofitted, a site visit is recommended.
1.6.4
New Bridges
Generally, pictures and site information from the region are adequate for most new bridge designs.
However, if the new bridge is a replacement for an existing bridge, a site visit is recommended,
particularly if the project requires staged removal of the existing bridge and/or staged construction
of the new bridge.
1.6.5
Bridge Demolition
If a bridge demolition is required as part of a project, a site visit would help the design team determine
if there are unique sit restrictions that could affect the demolition. If unique site restrictions are observed,
they should be properly documented, included in the job file and noted on the special provisions checklist.
Before making a site visit, the Condition Survey Unit and the region should be contacted to determine
if there are any unique site conditions or safety hazards. Proper safety equipment and procedures should
always be incorporated into any site visit. When making a site visit, it is important to obtain as much
information as possible. Pictures, video records with spoken commentary, field measurements, and field
notes are appropriate forms of field information. A written or pictorial record should be made of any
August 1998
1.6-1

Criteria
General Information
observed problems with an existing bridge or obvious site problem. The site visit data would then be
incorporated into the job file. This information will be a valuable asset in preparing constructable and
cost-effective structural designs. When negotiating with consultants for structural design work, it is
important to make appropriate site visits part of the consultantss scope of work.
P:DP/BDM1
9807-0802
1.6-2
August 1998

Criteria
General Information
1.99
Bibliography
Bibliography
1.
Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges, Latest Edition and Interims, American Association
of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO).
2.
LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, Latest Edition and Interims. American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO).
3.
Organization Handbook, Washington State Department of Transportation.
4.
WSDOT Design Manual.
5.
WSDOT Construction Manual.
P:DP/BDM1
9807-0802
August 1998
1.99-1

Appendix A
General Information
STANDARD DESIGN CRITERIA

PROJECT
SR
MADE BY
CHECKED BY
DATE
SUPV.
STANDARD DESIGN CRITERIA FOR THIS STRUCTURE
ITEM
STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS FOR HIGHWAY BRIDGES

AASHTO_________TH EDITION, 19___________
INTERIM SPECIFICATION, 19____________(IF USED)
STATE OF WASHINGTON, STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS FOR ROAD, BRIDGE, AND MUNICIPAL

CONSTRUCTION, 19__________
STATE OF WASHINGTON, STANDARD PLANS FOR ROAD, BRIDGE, AND MUNICIPAL

CONSTRUCTION WITH REVISIONS TO 19____________
BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL, VOLUME_____________, WITH REVISIONS TO 19___________
OTHER_______________________________________________________________________________________________________
DESIGN BY: LOAD FACTOR____________________________________________________________________________________

WORKING STRESS________________________________________________________________________________
STEEL REINFORCING BARS:

A.A.S.H.T.O.
M31
GRADE 60_______________
A.A.S.H.T.O.
M31
GRADE 40______________
CONCRETE:
F'C = 4000 PSI (CLASS AX)
F'C = 3000 PSI (CLASS B)
F'C = _________ PSI (LIGHTWEIGHT)
DENSITY = ________________ LBS. PER FT.
OTHER__________________________________________________________________________________________________
10
PRESTRESSED GIRDERS:
SERIES, __________________________________
SPECIAL,_________________________________
STANDARD CONCRETE DENSITY = ___________________________ LBS.
FT.3
LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE DENSITY = _______________________________LBS.
FT.3
MINIMUM CONCRETE STRENGTH AT STRAND RELEASE = _______________________________PSI

MINIMUM CONCRETE STRENGTH AT 28 DAYS = ________________________________________PSI
FOUNDATION DATA FROM SOILS
11
PIER
NO.
PILE/SPREAD
ALLOWABLE SOIL p
MAXIMUM DESIGN SOIL p OR PILE LOAD

DESIGNER
GROUP
CHECKER
GROUP
1
2
3
4
5
6
August 1998
1.3-A1-1

Appendix A
General Information
ITEM
12
STANDARD DESIGN CRITERIA FOR THIS STRUCTURE
STEEL STRUCTURES:
INDICATE BY SPECIFICATION THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF STEEL USE
A.A.S.H.T.O.
M-
A.A.S.H.T.O.
M-
A.A.S.H.T.O.
M-
A.A.S.H.T.O.
M-
ROLLERS
A.A.S.H.T.O.
M-
CASTINGS
OTHER
13
SPECIAL CRITERIA:
SEE FORM ENTITLED EXCEPTIONS TO THE STANDARD DESIGN CRITERIA
230-030
DOT Revised 1/89
1.3-A1-2
August 1998

Appendix A
General Information
Exceptions to the Standard Design Criteria Form
Project
SR No.
Made By
Check By
Supervisor
Date
EXCEPTIONS TO THE STANDARD DESIGN CRITERIA

No.
Gen. Area
Addition or Modification
Appd By

Rev 3/91
August 1998
1.3-A2

Appendix A
General Information
August 1998
Design Completed Checklist
1.3-A3

Appendix A
General Information

Item
August 1998
Date
Who
Subject
1.3-A4

Appendix A
General Information
Office Time Report
Bridge and Structures Office Time Report

_______________ Region
PRELIMINARY PLAN:
L-Number ___________
Design Unit Staffing Level estimate __________
Start Date: ____________________ Completion Date: _______________

TIME CHARGED
Design ____________
Check ____________
Drafting ___________
Review ___________
Total _____________
DESIGN AND DETAIL
Hours
Hours
Hours
Hours
Hours
Standard _______________
Design Unit Staffing Level estimate __________
Start Date: ____________________ Completion Date: _______________

TIME CHARGED
Design ____________
Check ____________
Drafting ___________
Review ___________
Total _____________
August 1998
Hours
Hours
Hours
Hours
Hours
Standard _______________
1.3-A5

Appendix A
General Information
Not Included In
Bridge Quantities List
Environmental And Engineering Service Center
Bridge and Structures Office
SR
Job Number
Designed By
Checked By
Project Title
Date
Supervisor
Type of Structure
The following is a list of items for which the Bridge and Structures Office is relying on the Region to furnish
plans, specifications and estimates.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
DOT
Form 230-038 EF
Revised 2/97
August 1998
1.3-A6

Appendix A
General Information
August 1998
1.3-A7-1

Appendix A
General Information
1.3-A7-2
August 1998

Appendix A
General Information
August 1998
1.3-A7-3

Appendix A
General Information
1.3-A7-4
August 1998

Appendix A
General Information
August 1998
1.3-A7-5

Appendix A
General Information
1.3-A7-6
August 1998

Rev 3/91
19
20
21
22
16
17
18
Drawing or Item
% Completed
Hours Required
% Completed
Draw
Check Drawing
Made By
Comments
Date
General Information
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
1
2
No.
Hours Required
Check
% Completed
Design
Hours Required
Project
By
SR
% Completed
Job No.
Date Completed
By
Date Completed
By
Breakdown of Project Manhours Required
Hours Required
August 1998
Date Completed
Washington State
Appendix A
Breakdown of Project Manhours Required Form
1.5-A1
Date Completed
By

Rev 3/91
Totals
Man Hours
Used to Date
As of
Man Hours
Used to Date
As of
As of
Man Hours
Used to Date
% of Total
Time Used
% of Total
Time Used
Reference No.
% of Total
Time Used
Reference No.
Reference No.
As of
Man Hours
Used to Date
% of Activity
Complete
Project
% of Total
Time Used
Reference No.
987654321
9
8765432
987654321
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7
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76543210987654321
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765432109876543211
76543210987654321
Job No.
987654321
98765432
987654321
9876543211
987654321
6543210987654321
6
543210987654321
654321098765432
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6543210987654321
6543210987654321
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6543210987654321
6543210987654321
6543210987654321
65432109876543211
6543210987654321
SR
99887766554433221
987654321
9876543211
987654321
66543210987654321
54321098765432
6543210987654321
6543210987654321
6543210987654321
6543210987654321
6543210987654321
65432109876543211
65
4321098765432
6543210987654321
65432109876543211
6543210987654321
% of Total
Project Complete
% of Activity
Complete
% of Total
Project Complete
% of Activity
Complete
Monthly Project Progress Report
Monthly Project Progress Report Form

General Information
1.5-A2
% of Total
Project Complete
August 1998
987654321
98765432
987654321
9876543211
987654321
6543210987654321
654321098765432
6543210987654321
6543210987654321
6543210987654321
65432109876543211
6543210987654321
6543210987654321
6543210987654321
654321098765432
65432109876543211
6543210987654321
Washington State
Appendix A
% of Total
Project Complete
% of Activity
Complete
Activity No.

Criteria
Preliminary Design
Contents
Page
2.0
2.1
2.1.1
2.1.2
2.1.3
2.1.4
2.1.5
2.2
2.2.1
2.2.2
2.2.3
2.2.4
2.2.5
Preliminary Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Preliminary Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Interdisciplinary Design Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Value Engineering Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Preliminary Project Recommendations (Existing Bridges) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Preliminary Project Recommendations (New Bridges) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Type, Size, and Location Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. TS&L General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. TS&L Outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Reviews and Submittal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Preliminary Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Development of the Preliminary Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Responsibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Site Reconnaissance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Coordination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Consideration of Alternatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E. Designer Recommendation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F. Concept Approval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
G. Inspection and Maintenance Access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Job File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Bridge Site Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Request for Preliminary Foundation Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Request for Preliminary Hydraulics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E. Design Report or Design Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F. Other Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
G. Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
General Factors for Consideration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Site Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Economic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Structural . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E. Environmental . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F. Aesthetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
G. Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
H. Hydraulic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I. Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Permits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Coast Guard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Approvals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Bridge Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Bridge Architect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Railroad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
August 1998
2.1-1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
3
4
2.2-1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
5
6
2.0-i

Criteria
Preliminary Design
Contents
Page
2.3
2.3.1
2.3.2
2.3.3
2.3.4
2.3.5
2.3.6
2.3.7
2.3.8
2.3.9
2.3.10
2.4
2.4.1
2.0-ii
Preliminary Plan Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Highway Crossings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Bridge Width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Horizontal Clearances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Vertical Clearances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E. End Slopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F. Determination of Bridge Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
G. Pedestrian Crossings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
H. Bridge Redundancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Railroad Crossings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Bridge Width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Horizontal Clearances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E. Crash Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F. Vertical Clearances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
G. Determination of Bridge Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
H. Special Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Water Crossings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Bridge Width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Horizontal Clearances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Vertical Clearances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. End Slopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E. Determination of Bridge Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F. Scour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
G. Pier Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
H. Construction Access and Time Restrictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bridge Widenings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Bridge Width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Traffic Restrictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Construction Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Detour Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Bridge Width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Live Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Retaining Walls and Noise Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bridge Deck Drainage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bridge Deck Protective Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Construction Clearances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Inspection and Maintenance Acces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Safety Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Travelers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Selection of Structure Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bridge Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Reinforced Concrete Flat Slab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Reinforced Concrete Tee Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3-1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
5
6
6
6
6
6
6
7
7
7
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
9
9
9
9
10
10
11
11
2.4-1
1
1
1
August 1998

Criteria
Preliminary Design
Contents
Page
2.4.2
2.5
2.5.1
2.5.2
2.5.3
2.5.4
2.5.5
2.6
2.6.1
2.6.2
2.6.3
2.7
2.7.1
2.99
C. Reinforced Concrete Box Girder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

D. Post Tensioned Concrete Box Girder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E. Prestressed Concrete Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F. Composite Steel Plate Girder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
G. Composite Steel Box Girder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
H. Steel Truss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I. Segmental Concrete Box Girder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
J. Railroad Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
K. Timber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
L. Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Wall Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Aesthetic Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
General Visual Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
End Piers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Wing Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Retaining Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Slope Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Intermediate Piers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Barrier and Wall Surface Treatments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Plain Surface Finish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Fractured Fin Finish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Pigmented Sealer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Superstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Miscellaneous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Structure Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Handling and Shipping of Precast Members and Steel Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Salvage of Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
WSDOT Standard Highway Bridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Design Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Substructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Superstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2
2
3
3
3
4
4
5
5
5
5
2.5-1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2.6-1
1
1
1
2.7-1
1
1
1
1
2
2.99-1

2.2-A1
Bridge Site Data General
2.2-A2
Bridge Site Data Rehabilitation
2.2-A3
Bridge Site Data Stream Crossings
2.2-A4
Preliminary Plan Checklist
2.3-A1
Bridge Stage Construction Comparison
2.3-A2
Bridge Redundancy Criteria
2.4-A1
Bridge Selection Guide
2.7-A1
Standard Superstructure Elements
2.7-A2
Standard Pier Elements
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Contents
Appendix B Design Examples

2.2-B1
Preliminary Plan Bridge Replacement
2.2-B2
Preliminary Plan Bridge Widening
2.2-B3
Preliminary Plan New Bridge
P:DP/BDM2
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2.0
Preliminary Design
2.1
Preliminary Studies
2.1.1
Interdisciplinary Design Studies
Preliminary Studies
As part of the preparation for a major project, an Interdisciplinary Design Team (IDT) may be established
by the region. The IDT is composed of members of different expertise and backgrounds, selected from
regions, the Service Center, and outside agencies. The IDT members and the support groups serve to
give an objective analysis and review of the various design alternatives for the regions project. They
contribute ideas and participate in the selection of design alternatives. This work will often culminate in
the publication of the Environmental Impact Statement (EIS).
Bridge Design Engineers are often asked to be a part of this process, either as a support resource or as a
member of the IDT itself.
2.1.2
Value Engineering Studies

Value Engineering (VE) is a process of review and analysis of a project. The VE team seeks to define the
most cost-effective means of satisfying the basic function(s) of the project. Usually a VE study takes place
before or during the time that the region is working on the design. Occasionally a VE study examines a
project with a completed PS&E.
A VE team is typically made up of members of different expertise and backgrounds, selected from the
region, Service Center, and outside agencies. The Team Facilitator will lead the team through the VE
process. The team will review the project as defined by the projects design personnel. They will seek to
decide the basic function(s) that are served by the project, brainstorm to develop other alternatives to
serve the same function(s), and evaluate these alternatives on how well they satisfy these basic functions.
The VE team will present their findings in a presentation to the region. The region is then required to
investigate these findings further and address them in the design.
Bridge Design Engineers are often asked to be a part of this process, either as support contacts or as VE
team members. The process usually involves three to five days.
2.1.3
Preliminary Project Recommendations (Existing Bridges)

Projects that call for the rehabilitation of an existing bridge require that the existing condition of the
bridge be reviewed and a recommendation the existing bridge be prepared. When a region starts a design
for such a project, they will request by an Inter-Departmental (IDC) memorandum that the Bridge and
Structures Office make Preliminary Project recommendations. This will provide them with a scope of
work and a cost estimate for the project. It involves review of the inspection and condition reports from
the Bridge Preservation Section and a site visit with the region and other project stakeholders. Special
inspections of certain portions of the structure may need to be scheduled to determine the load capacity of
the existing bridge, what types of rehabilitation work need to be done, the extended life span achieved by
certain types of rehabilitation work, and to develop various alternatives with cost estimates for comparison, ranging from do nothing to replacement.
A typical recommendation consists of two parts. The first is a report to the file providing detailed
information related to the bridge rehabilitation and a summary of the various alternatives considered and
an itemized list of the rehabilitation work with the associated costs. The second part is an IDC to the
region discussing the overall project in general terms mentioning any particular items of concern to the
region and a summary of the preferred alternatives with recommendations. The region should be given the
opportunity to review a draft report and IDC and provide input prior to finalization.
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2.1.4
Preliminary Studies
Preliminary Project Recommendations (New Bridges)

Projects that call for a new bridge require that a recommendation for the new structure be prepared. While
a region is preparing a design for a project, they will seek assistance from the Bridge and Structures
Office by writing an IDC. This request could range from confirmation of construction cost data to
consideration of various structure designs or staging alternatives. An IDC to the region will provide
recommendations and information. A face to face meeting with the region project staff is recommended.
2.1.5
Type, Size, and Location Studies

It is the policy of the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) that major or unusual bridges must go
through the preparation of a Type, Size, and Location (TS&L) study. The TS&L study will outline the
project, describe the proposed structure and other design alternatives considered, and show justification
for the selection of the preferred alternative. Approval of the TS&L study by FHWA is the basis for
advancing the project to the design stage.
The FHWA requires a TS&L study for tunnels, movable bridges, unusual structures, and major structures
with deck areas greater than 125,000 square feet. This is a guideline only. Smaller bridges that are unusual
may also require a TS&L study while some, such as long viaducts, may not. As early as possible in the
Project Development stage, the FHWA should be contacted for conformation.
The preparation of the TS&L study is the responsibility of the Bridge and Structures Office. The TS&L
cannot be submitted to FHWA until after the Environmental documents have been submitted. However,
TS&L preparation need not wait for Environmental document approval, but may begin as soon as the
bridge site data is available. See Chapter 1110 of the Design Manual for the type of information required
for a bridge site data submittal.
A. TS&L General
In order to become familiar with the project, the designer should first review its history. The
Environmental and Design Reports should be reviewed. The bridge site data should be scrutinized so
that additional data, maps, or drawings can be requested. After reviewing the history of the project, a
meeting with region and a site visit should be arranged.
In order to have foundation information, the Materials Lab must be contacted early. FHWA expects
specific recommendations on the foundation type. The Materials Lab will submit a detailed
foundation report for inclusion as an appendix to the TS&L study.
In order to find the preferred structural alternative, the designer should:
2.1-2
l.
Develop a list of all the feasible alternatives. At this stage of the process, the range of alternatives
should be kept wide open. Brainstorming with supervisors and other engineers can help bring out
fresh and innovative solutions.
2.
Eliminate the unusable alternatives by applying the constraints of the project. Question restrictive
constraints and document their bases. At the end of this step, there should be no more than four
alternatives.
3.
Perform preliminary level design calculations for unique structural problems to ensure that the
remaining alternatives are feasible.
4.
Compare the advantages, disadvantages, and costs of the remaining alternatives to determine the
preferred alternative(s).
5.
Visit the project site with the region and Geotech Branch.
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Criteria
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Preliminary Studies
After piers have been located, a memorandum request for a Hydraulics Report should be made to
the Olympia Service Center Hydraulics Unit. FHWA expects specific information on scour and
backwater on both falsework and permanent piers. The Olympia Service Center Hydraulics Unit
will submit a report for inclusion as an appendix to the TS&L study.
The Bridge Architect at the Bridge and Structures Office should be consulted early on and
throughout the study process Notes to the file should be made documenting the aesthetic
requirements and recommendations of the Architect.
Cost backup data is needed for any costs used in the TS&L study. FHWA expects TS&L costs
based on estimated quantities. This data is to be included in an appendix to the TS&L study. It is
a good idea to coordinate the quantities submitted are in a form compatible with the estimators
cost breakdown method.
B. TS&L Outline
The TS&L study should describe the project, the proposed structure, and give reasons why the bridge
type, size, and location were selected.
1.
Cover, Title Sheet, and Contents

These should identify the project and the contents of the TS&L.
2.
Photographs
There should be enough color photographs to provide the look and feel of the area. The prints
should be numbered and labeled and the location indicated on a diagram.
3.
Introduction
The introduction describes the report and references other reports used to prepare the TS&L
study. The following reports should be listed if used.
Design Reports and Supplements
Environmental Reports
Architectural or Visual Assessment Reports
Hydraulic Report
Geotechnical Reports
4.
Project Description
The project description is intended to summarize the preferred alternative of the project design so
that the TS&L study clearly defines the project. Care should be taken to describe the project
adequately but briefly. A vicinity map should be shown.
5.
Design Criteria
Design criteria states to what code, loading, etc., the bridge will be constructed. Besides
the AASHTO specifications and assorted AASHTO guide specifications, other criteria are
sometimes used. These criteria should be listed. Examples of this would be the temperature
loading used for segmental bridges or areas defined as wetlands.
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Criteria
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6.
Preliminary Studies
Structural Studies
The structural studies section documents how the proposed structure type, size, and location were
determined. The following considerations should be addressed.
Aesthetics
Cost Estimates
Geometric constraints
Project staging
Foundations
Hydraulics
Feasibility of construction
Structural constraints
Maintenance
This section should have a narrative style describing how these factors point to the preferred
alternative. Show how each constraint eliminated or supported the alternatives. For instance,
Because the geometry required a 200-foot span, prestressed concrete girders could not be used
or Restrictions on falsework placement forced the use of self supporting precast concrete or
steel girders.
7.
Executive Summary
The executive summary should be able to stand alone as a separate document. The project and
structure description should be given. Present the recommended alternative with its cost and
include a summary of considerations used to choose or eliminate alternatives.
8.
Drawings
Preliminary Plan drawings of the recommended alternative are included in the appendix. The
drawings show the plan, elevation, and typical section. For projects where alternative designs are
specified as recommended alternatives, Preliminary Plans for each of these structure types shall
be included. Supplemental drawings showing special features, such as complex piers, are often
provided to clearly define the project.
C. Reviews and Submittal

While writing the TS&L study, all major decisions should be discussed with the unit supervisor, who
can decide if the Bridge Design Engineer needs to be consulted. A peer review meeting with the
Bridge Design Engineer should be scheduled at 50 percent completion. The FHWA Bridge Engineer
should be invited to provide input.
The final report must be reviewed, approved, and the Preliminary Plan drawings signed by the Bridge
Architect, the Bridge Projects Engineer, the Bridge Design Engineer, and the Bridge and Structures
Engineer. The TS&L study is submitted with a cover letter to FHWA signed by the Bridge and
Structures Engineer.
2:DP:BDM2
2.1-4
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Criteria
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2.2
Preliminary Plan
Preliminary Plan
The Preliminary Plan is the most important phase of bridge design as it sets the groundwork for the final
design. The intent is to completely define the bridge geometry so final roadway design by the regions and
the structural design by the Bridge and Structures Office can take place with minimal revisions.
During the regions preparation of the highway design, they also begin work on the bridge site data.
Region submits the bridge site data to the Bridge and Structures Office which initiates the start of the
Preliminary Plan. Information that must be included as part of the bridge site data submittal is outlined
in Chapter 1110 of the Design Manual.
2.2.1
Development of the Preliminary Plan

A
Responsibilities
In general, the responsibilities of the designer, checker, detailer, and supervisor are as specified in
Chapter 1 of the Bridge Design Manual. The primary design engineer is responsible for developing a
Preliminary Plan for the structure that is compatible with geometric, aesthetic, staging, geotechnical,
hydraulic, financial, and structural requirements and conditions that exist at the site.
Upon receipt of the bridge site data from the region, the designer shall review it for completeness and
verify that what the project calls for is realistic and structurally feasible. Any omissions or corrections
are to be called to the regions attention immediately.
The supervisor shall be kept informed of progress on the preliminary plan so that the schedule can
be monitored. Should problems develop, the supervisor can make adjustments to the schedule or
manpower assignments. The designer must keep the job file up to date by documenting all conversations, meetings, requests, questions, and approvals concerning the project. Notes to the designer, and
details not shown in the Preliminary Plan shall be documented in the job file.
The checker shall give an independent review of the plan, verifying that it is in compliance with the
site data as provided by the region and as corrected in the job file. The plan shall be compared against
the Preliminary Plan checklist to ensure that all necessary information is shown. The checker is to
review the plan for consistency with office design practice, detailing practice, and for constructibility.
The preliminary plan shall be drawn using current office CAD equipment and software by the
Engineer or Detailer.
B. Site Reconnaissance
The site data submitted by the region will include a video and photographs of the site. Even for
minor projects, this may not be enough information for the designer to work from in developing the
Preliminary Plan. For most bridge projects, site visits are necessary. Site visits with region project
staff and other project stakeholders such as Hydraulics, Design, and Geotech Branch should be
arranged with the knowledge and approval of the Bridge Projects Engineer.
C
Coordination
The designer is responsible for coordinating the design and review process throughout the project.
This includes seeking input from various WSDOT units and outside agencies.
D. Consideration of Alternatives
In the process of developing the Preliminary Plan, the designer should brainstorm, develop, and
evaluate various design alternatives. Depending on how the General Factors for Consideration
(Section 2.2.3) apply to a particular site, the number of alternatives will usually be limited to only a
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2.2-1

Criteria
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Preliminary Plan
few for most projects. For some smaller projects and most major projects, design alternatives merit
development and close evaluation. The process of considering and rejecting design alternatives
provides documentation for the preferred alternative.
E. Designer Recommendation
Once the designer has done a thorough job of evaluating the needs and limitations of the site,
analyzed all information and developed and evaluated design alternatives for the project, he should
be able to make a recommendation for the optimum solution. Based on this recommendation, the
designer should discuss the recommendation with the Bridge Projects Engineer.
F. Concept Approval
For some projects, the presentation, in E above, to the Bridge Projects Engineer will satisfy the
need for concept approval. Large complex projects, projects of unique design, or projects where two
or more alternatives appear viable, should be presented to the Bridge Design Engineer for his
concurrence before plan development is completed. For unique or complex projects a presentation is
made to the Bridge and Structures Office Peer Review Committee.
G. Inspection and Maintenance Access
In the process developing the Preliminary Plan, the design engineer should consult with the Bridge
Preservation Section for input.
2.2.2
Documentation
A. Job File
When a memorandum IDC, transmitting site data from the region is received by the Bridge and
Structures Office, a job file is created. This official job file serves as a depository for all
communications and resource information for the job. Scheduling and time estimates are logged in
this file, as well as cost estimates, preliminary quantities, and documentation of all approvals.
When the Preliminary Plan is completed, the job file continues to serve a useful purpose as a
communications and documentation depository for all pertinent project-related information during
the design process.
B. Bridge Site Data
All Preliminary Plans are developed from site data as submitted by the region. This submittal will
consist of a memorandum IDC, and appropriate attachments as specified by Chapter 1110 of the
Design Manual. When this information is received, it should be reviewed for completeness so that
missing or incomplete information can be noted and requested.
C. Request for Preliminary Foundation Data
A Request for Preliminary Foundation Data is sent to Geotech Branch to solicit any foundation
data that is available at this preliminary stage. The Geotech Branch is provided with approximate
dimensions for overall structure length and width, an approximate number of intermediate piers
(if applicable), and approximate stations for beginning and end of structure on the alignment.
Based on test holes from previous construction in the area, geological maps, and soil surveys.
The Materials Lab responds by IDC giving an analysis of what foundation conditions arc likely to
be encountered and what types of substructure are best suited for these conditions.
2.2-2
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Criteria
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Preliminary Plan
D. Request for Preliminary Hydraulics

A Request for Preliminary Hydraulics data is sent to the Hydraulics Office to document hydraulic
requirements that must be considered in the structure design. The Hydraulics Office is provided with
the contour plan and other bridge site data.
Seal vent elevations, normal water, 100-year flood and 500-year flood elevations, and flows (Q), pier
configuration, scour depth and minimum footing cover, ice pressure, minimum waterway channel
width, riprap requirements, and minimum clearance to the 100-year flood elevation are provided in
an IDC response from the Hydraulics Office.
E. Design Report or Design Summary
Some bridge construction projects have a Design Report or Design Summary prepared by the region.
This is a document which includes design considerations and conclusions reached in the development
of the project. It defines the scope of work for the project. It serves to document the design standards
and applicable deviations for the roadway alignment and geometry. It is also an excellent reference
for project history, safety and traffic data, environmental concerns, and other information.
F. Other Resources
For some projects, preliminary studies or reports will have been prepared. These resources can
provide additional background for the development of the Preliminary Plan.
G. Notes if meetings with Regions and other project stakeholders shall be included in the documentation.
2.2.3
General Factors for Consideration

Many factors must be considered in preliminary bridge design. Some of the more common of these are
listed in general categories below. These factors will be discussed in appropriate detail in subsequent
portions of this manual.
A. Site Requirements
Topography Alignment (tangent, curved, skewed)
Vertical profile and superelevation
Proposed or existing utilities
B. Safety
Feasibility of falsework (impaired clearance and sight distance)
Density and speed of traffic
Detours or possible elimination of detours by staging construction
Sight distance
Horizontal clearance to piers
Hazards to pedestrians, bicyclists
Inspection and Maintenance Access (UBIT clearances) (see Figure 2.3.10-1)
C. Economic
Funding classification (federal and state funds, state funds only, local developer funds)
Funding level
August 1998
2.2-3

Criteria
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Preliminary Plan
D. Structural
Limitation on structure depth
Requirements for future widening
Foundation and groundwater conditions
Anticipated settlement
E. Environmental
Site conditions (wetlands, environmentally sensitive areas)
EIS requirements
Mitigating measures
F. Aesthetic
General appearance
Compatibility with surroundings and adjacent structures
Visual exposure and importance
G. Construction
Ease of construction
Falsework clearances and requirements
Erection problems
Hauling difficulties and access to site
Construction season
Time limit for construction
H. Hydraulic
Bridge deck drainage
Stream flow conditions and drift
Passage of flood debris
Scour, effect of pier as an obstruction (shape, width, skew, number of columns)
Bank and pier protection
Consideration of a culvert as an alternate solution
Permit requirements for navigation and stream work limitations
I.
Other
Prior commitments made to other agency officials and individuals of the community
Recommendations resulting from preliminary studies
2.2.4
Permits
A. Coast Guard
As outlined in Chapter 240 of the Design Manual, the Bridge and Structures Office is responsible for
coordinating and applying for Coast Guard permits for bridges over waterways. This is handled by
the Coast Guard Liaison Engineer in the Bridge Projects Unit of the Bridge and Structures Office.
A determination of whether a bridge requires a permit is known before the bridge site data is
received. Generally, tidal-influenced waterways and waterways used for commercial navigation will
require Coast Guard permits. However, some waterways may qualify for an exemption from a permit
if certain conditions apply including the exclusion of use by vessels larger than 21 feet long. The
2.2-4
August 1998

Criteria
Preliminary Design
Preliminary Plan
process of getting this exemption, from FHWA, not the Coast Guard, is the responsibility of the
region. The Coast Guard Liaison Engineer should be asked to check with the region and the Coast
Guard to confirm the situation on a case by case basis.
For all waterway crossings, the Coast Guard Liaison Engineer is required to initial the Preliminary
Plan as to whether a Coast Guard permit or exemption is required. This box regarding Coast Guard
permit status is located in the center left margin of the plan. If a permit is required, the permit target
date will also be noted. The reduced print, signed by the Coast Guard Liaison Engineer, shall be
placed in the job file.
The work on developing the permit application should be started such that it is ready to be sent to the
Coast Guard eight months before the project ad date. The Coast Guard Liaison Engineer should be
given a copy of the Preliminary Plan from which to develop the plan sheets that are part of the permit.
B. Other
All other permits will be the responsibility of the region. The Bridge and Structures Office may be
asked to provide information to the region to assist them in making applications for these permits.
2.2.5
Approvals
A. Bridge Design
When the Preliminary Plan has been checked by the checker and signal by the Bridge Projects
Engineer, it is ready to go to the Bridge Design Engineer and the Bridge and Structures Engineer
for approval.
B. Bridge Architect
For all preliminary plans, the Architect should be aware and involved when the designer is first
developing the plan. The Architect should be presented with a reduced print of the plan by the
designer. This is done prior to the job going to the checker. The Architect will review the print and
signify his approval by signing it. This print is placed in the job file. If future plan revisions change
elements of aesthetic importance, the Architect should be asked to review and approve, by signature,
a print of the revised plan.
For large, multiple bridge projects, the Bridge Architect should be contacted for development of a
coordinated architectural concept for the project corridor. The architectural concept for a project
corridor is generally developed in draft form and reviewed with the project stakeholders prior to
finalizing.
C. Region
Prior to the completion of the preliminary plan the designer should meet with the region to discuss the
concept and get their input. When the Preliminary Plan and the Not Included in Bridge Quantities
List along with the preliminary plan transmittal IDC.
The region will review the plan for compliance and agreement with their original site data. They will
work to answer any notes to the region that have been listed on the plan. When this review is complete, the Regional Administrator, or his representative, will sign the plan. The region will send back
a print of the plan with any comments noted in red (additions) and green (deletions) along with
responses to the notes to the region.
August 1998
2.2-5

Criteria
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Preliminary Plan
D. Railroad
When a railroad is involved with a structure on a Preliminary Plan, the Right of Way Accommodation
Engineer of the Design Office must be involved during the plan preparation process. A copy of the
Preliminary Plan is sent to the Right of Way Accommodation Engineer, who then sends a copy to the
railroad involved for their comments and approval.
The railroad will respond with approval by letter to the Right of Way Accommodation Engineer.
A copy of this letter is then routed to the Bridge and Structures Office and is placed in the job file.
P:DP/BDM2
2.2-6
August 1998

Criteria
Preliminary Design
2.3
Preliminary Plan Criteria
2.3.1
Highway Crossings
A. General
A highway crossing is defined as a grade separation between two intersecting roadways. A highway
crossing is further categorized as either an undercrossing or an overcrossing.
1.
Undercrossing
A bridge which provides for passage of a state highway under a less important state highway,
a county road, or a city street is called an undercrossing. Relative importance between state
highways is indicated by functional classification. For details, see Chapter 440 of the
Design Manual.
For example, a bridge included as a part of an interchange involving SR 182 (Interstate) and
SR 14 (Principal) and providing for passage of traffic on SR 182 under SR 14 would be called
SR 14 I/C Undercrossing.
2.
Overcrossing
A bridge which carries traffic on a state highway over a less important state highway, a county
road, or a city street is called an overcrossing.
For example, a bridge which carries traffic on SR 5 over Hamilton Road would be called
Hamilton Road Overcrossing.
B. Bridge Width
The bridge roadway channelization is provided by the region with the Bridge Site Data. For state
highways, the roadway geometrics are controlled by Chapters 430 and 440 of the Design Manual. For
city and county arterials, the roadway geometrics are controlled by Chapter IV of the Local Agency
Guidelines.
C. Horizontal Clearances
Safety dictates that fixed objects be placed as far from the edge of the roadway as is economically
feasible. Criteria for minimum horizontal clearances to bridge piers and retaining walls are outlined in
the Design Manual. Chapter 710 of the Design Manual outlines clear zone and recovery area
requirements for horizontal clearances without guardrail or barrier being required.
Actual horizontal clearances shall be shown in the plan view of the Preliminary Plan (to the nearest
0.1 foot). Minimum horizontal clearances to inclined columns or wall surfaces should be provided at
the roadway surface and for a vertical distance of 6 feet above the edge of pavement. When bridge
end slopes fall within the recovery area, the minimum horizontal clearance should be provided for a
vertical distance of 6 feet above the fill surface. See Figure 2.3.1-1.
Bridge piers and abutments ideally should be placed such that the minimum clearances can be
satisfied. However, if for structural or economic reasons, the best span arrangement requires a pier to
be within clear zone or recovery area, then guardrail or barrier can be used to mitigate the hazard.
There are instances where it may not be possible to provide the minimum horizontal clearance even
with guardrail or barrier. An example would be placement of a bridge pier in a narrow median. The
required column size may be such that it would infringe on the shoulder of the roadway. In such
cases, the New Jersey barrier shape would be incorporated into the shape of the column. Barrier or
August 1998
2.3-1

Criteria
Preliminary Design
guardrail would need to taper into the pier at a flare rate satisfying the criteria in Chapter 710 of the
Design Manual. See Figure 2.3.1-2. The reduced clearance to the pier would need to be approved by
the region.
D. Vertical Clearances
The required minimum vertical clearances are established by the functional classification of the
highway and the construction classification of the project. For state highways, this is as outlined in
Chapters 430 and 440 of the Design Manual. For city and county arterials, this is as outlined in
Chapter IV of the Local Agency Guidelines.
Actual minimum vertical clearances are shown on the Preliminary Plan (to the nearest 0.1 foot). The
approximate location of the minimum vertical clearance is noted in the upper left margin of the plan.
For structures crossing divided highways, minimum vertical clearances for both directions are noted.
E. End Slopes
The type and rate of end slope used at bridge sites is dependent on several factors. Soil conditions and
stability, right of way availability, fill height or depth of cut, roadway alignment and functional
classification, and existing site conditions are all important.
The region should have made a preliminary determination based on these factors during the
preparation of the bridge site data. The side slopes noted on the Roadway Section for the roadway
should indicate the type and rate of end slope.
The Materials Lab will recommend the minimum rate of end slope. This should be compared to the
rate recommended in the Roadway Section and to existing site conditions (if applicable). The types of
end slopes and the conditions for which each are applicable are spelled out in Chapter 640 of the
Design Manual.
End slope protection may be required at certain highway crossings, as spelled out in Chapter 1120 of
the Design Manual. Examples of slope protection are shown on Standard Plan D-9.
F. Determination of Bridge Length
Establishing the location of the end piers for a highway crossing is a function of the profile grade of
the overcrossing roadway, the minimum vertical and horizontal clearances required for the structure,
and the type and rate of end slope used.
For the general case of bridges in cut or fill slopes, the control point is where the cut or fill slope
plane meets the bottom of ditch or edge of shoulder as applicable. From this point, the fill or cut slope
plane is established at the recommended rate up to where the slope plane intersects the grade of the
roadway at the shoulder. Following the requirements of Standard Plan H-9, the back of pavement
seat, end of wing wall or end of retaining wall can be established at 3 feet behind the slope
intersection.
For the general case of bridges on wall type or closed abutments, the controlling factors are the
required horizontal clearance and the size of the abutment. This situation would most likely occur in
an urban setting or where right of way is limited.
2.3-2
August 1998

Criteria
Preliminary Design
Horizontal Clearance to Inclined Piers

1990
Figure 2.3.1-1
Bridge Pier in Narrow Median

1990
Figure 2.3.1-2
August 1998
2.3-3

Criteria
Preliminary Design
G. Pedestrian Crossings
Pedestrian crossings follow the same format as highway crossings. Geometric criteria for pedestrian
facilities are established in Chapter 1020 of the Design Manual. Width and clearances would be as
established there and as confirmed by region. Unique items to be addressed with pedestrian facilities
include ADA requirements, the railing to be used, handrail requirements, overhead enclosure
requirements, and profile grade requirements for ramps and stairs.
H. Bridge Redundancy
Design bridges to minimize the risk of catastrophic collapse by using redundant supporting elements
(columns and girders).
For substructure design use:
One column minimum for roadways 28 feet wide and under.
Two columns minimum for roadways over 28 feet to 40 feet.
Three columns minimum for roadways over 40 feet to 60 feet.
Collision protection or design for collision loads for piers with one or two columns.
For superstructure design use:
Three girders (webs) minimum for roadways 32 feet and under.
Four girders (webs) minimum for roadways over 32 feet.
See Appendix 2.3-A2 for details.
Note: Any deviation from the above guidelines shall have a written approval by the Bridge
Design Engineer.
2.3.2
Railroad Crossings
A. General
A railroad crossing is defined as a grade separation between an intersecting highway and a railroad.
A bridge which provides highway traffic over the railroad is called an overcrossing. A bridge which
provides highway traffic under the railroad is called an undercrossing.
Requirements for railroad separations for both undercrossings and overcrossings may involve
negotiations with the railroad company concerning clearances, geometrics, utilities, and maintenance
roads. The railroads review and approval, will be based on the completed Preliminary Plan.
B. Criteria
The initial Preliminary Plan shall be prepared in accordance with the criteria of this section to
apply uniformly to all railroads. Variance from this criteria will be negotiated with the railroad,
when necessary, after a Preliminary Plan has been provided for their review.
C. Bridge Width
For railroad overcrossings, the provisions of Section 2.3.1 pertaining to bridge width of highway
crossings shall apply. Details for railroad undercrossings will depend on the specific project and the
railroad involved.
2.3-4
August 1998

Criteria
Preliminary Design
D. Horizontal Clearances
For railroad undercrossings, the provisions of Section 2.3.1 pertaining to horizontal clearances for
highway crossings shall apply. However, because of the heavy live loading of railroad spans, it is
advantageous to reduce the span lengths as much as possible. For railroad undercrossings skewed to
the roadway, piers may be placed up to the outside edge of 8-foot (minimum) shoulders if certain
conditions are met (structural requirements, satisfactory aesthetics, satisfactory sight distance, etc.).
The actual minimum horizontal clearances are shown in the Plan view of the Preliminary Plan (to the
nearest 0.1 foot). For railroad overcrossings, minimum horizontal clearances are as noted below:
Railroad
Alone
Fill Section
14 feet
Cut Section
16 feet
Horizontal clearance shall be measured from the center of the outside track to the face of pier. When
the track is on a curve, the minimum horizontal clearance shall be increased at the rate of 11/2 inches
for each degree of curvature. An additional 8 feet of clearance for off-track equipment shall only be
provided when specifically requested by the railroad.
E. Crash Walls
Crash walls, when required, shall be designed to conform to the criteria from of the AREA Manual.
F. Vertical Clearances
For railroad undercrossings, the provisions of Section 2.3.1 pertaining to vertical clearances of
highway crossings shall apply. For railroad overcrossings, the minimum vertical clearance shall
satisfy the requirements of Chapter 1120 of the Design Manual.
The actual minimum vertical clearances are shown on the Preliminary Plan (to the nearest 0.1 foot).
The approximate location of the minimum vertical clearance is noted in the upper left margin of the
plan.
G. Determination of Bridge Length
For railroad overcrossings, the provisions of Section 2.3.1 pertaining to the determination of bridge
length shall apply. For railroad overcrossings, the minimum bridge length shall satisfy the minimum
horizontal clearance requirements. The minimum bridge length shall generally satisfy the
requirements of Figure 2.3.2-1.
H. Special Considerations
For railroad overcrossings, the top of footings for bridge piers or retaining walls adjacent to railroad
tracks shall be 2 feet or more below the top of tie. The footing face shall not be closer than 10 feet to
the center of the track. Any cofferdams, footings, excavation, etc., encroaching within 10 feet of the
center of the track requires the approval of the railroad.
August 1998
2.3-5

Criteria
Preliminary Design
For railroads, the minimum horizontal construction opening is 8 feet 6 inches to either side of the centerline of track. The minimum vertical construction opening is 22 feet 6 inches above the top of rail at 6 feet
offset from the centerline of track. Falsework openings shall be checked to verify that enough space is
available for falsework beams to span the required horizontal distances and still provide the minimum
vertical falsework clearance. Minimum vertical openings of less than 22 feet 6 inches may be negotiated
with the railroad through the Utilities-Railroad Engineer.
2.3.3
Water Crossings
A. Bridge Width
The provisions of Section 2.3.1 pertaining to bridge width for highway crossings apply here.
B. Horizontal Clearances
Water crossings over navigable waters requiring clearance for navigation channels shall satisfy the
horizontal clearances required by the Coast Guard. Communication with the Coast Guard will be
handled through the Coast Guard Liaison Engineer. For bridges over navigable waters, the centerline
of the navigation channel and the horizontal clearances (to the nearest 0.1 foot) to the piers or the pier
protection are shown on the Plan view of the Preliminary Plan.
C. Vertical Clearances
Vertical clearances for water crossings must satisfy floodway clearance and, where applicable,
navigation clearance.
Bridges over navigable waters must satisfy the vertical clearances required by the Coast Guard.
Communication with the Coast Guard will be handled through the Coast Guard Liaison Engineer.
The actual minimum vertical clearance (to the nearest 0.1 foot) for the channel span is shown on the
Preliminary Plan. The approximate location of the minimum vertical clearance is noted in the upper
left margin of the plan. The clearance shall be shown to the water surface as required by the Coast
Guard criteria.
Floodway vertical clearance will need to be discussed with the Hydraulics Office. In accordance with
the flood history, nature of the site, character of drift, and other factors, they will determine a minimum vertical clearance for the 100-year flood. The roadway profile and the bridge superstructure
depth must accommodate this. The actual minimum vertical clearance to the 100-year flood is shown
(to the nearest 0.1 foot) on the Preliminary Plan, and the approximate location of the minimum
vertical clearance is noted in the upper left margin of the plan.
D. End Slopes
The type and rate of end slopes for water crossings is similar to that for highway crossings. Soil
conditions and stability, fill height, location of toe of fill, existing channel conditions, flood and scour
potential, and environmental concerns are all important.
As with highway crossings, the region, and Materials Lab will make preliminary recommendations as
to the type and rate of end slope. The Hydraulics Office will also review the Regionss
recommendation for slope protection.
E. Determination of Bridge Length
Determining the overall length of a water crossing is not as simple and straight forward as for a
highway crossing. Floodway requirements and environmental factors have a significant impact on
where piers and fill can be placed.
2.3-6
August 1998

Criteria
Preliminary Design
Determination of Bridge Length for a Railroad Undercrossing

Figure 2.3.2-1
If a water crossing is required to satisfy floodway and environmental concerns, it will be known by
the time the Preliminary Plan has been started. Environmental studies and the Design Report prepared
by the region will document any restrictions on fill placement, pier arrangement, and overall floodway clearance. The Hydraulics Office will need to review the size, shape, and alignment of all bridge
piers in the floodway and the subsequent effect they will have on the base flood elevation. The overall
bridge length may need to be increased depending on the span arrangement selected and the change in
the flood backwater, or justification will need to be documented.
F. Scour
The Hydraulics Office will indicate the anticipated depth of scour at the bridge piers. They will
recommend pier shapes to best streamline flow and reduce the scour forces. They will also recommend measures to protect the piers from scour activity or accumulation of drift (minimum cover to
top of footing, riprap, pier alignment to stream flow, closure walls between pier columns, etc.).
G. Pier Protection
For bridges over navigable channels, piers adjacent to the channel may require pier protection. The
Coast Guard will determine whether pier protection is required. This determination is based on the
horizontal clearance provided for the navigation channel and the type of navigation traffic using the
channel.
H. Construction Access and Time Restrictions
Water crossings will typically have some sort of construction restrictions associated with them. These
must be considered during preliminary plan preparation.
August 1998
2.3-7

Criteria
Preliminary Design
The time period that the contractor will be allowed to do work within the waterway may be restricted
by regulations administered by various agencies. Depending on the time limitations, a bridge with
fewer piers or faster pier construction may be more advantageous even if more expensive.
Contractor access to the water may also be restricted. Shore areas supporting certain plant species are
sometimes classified as wetlands. In order to work in or gain access through such areas, a work trestle
may be necessary. Work trestles may also be necessary for bridge removal as well as new bridge
construction.
2.3.4
Bridge Widenings
A. Bridge Width
The provisions of Section 2.3.1 pertaining to bridge width for highway crossings shall apply. In most
cases, the width to be provided by the widening will be what is called for by the design standards,
unless a deviation is approved.
B. Traffic Restrictions
Bridge widenings inherently involve traffic restrictions on the lanes above and where applicable on
the lanes below. The bridge site data submitted by the district should contain information regarding
temporary lane widths and staging configurations. This information should be checked to be certain
that the existing bridge width, and the bridge roadway width during the intermediate construction
stages of the bridge are sufficient for the lane widths, shy distances, temporary barriers, and construction room for the contractor. These temporary lane widths and shy distances are noted on the
Preliminary Plan. The temporary lane widths and shy distances on the roadway beneath the bridge
being widened should also be checked that adequate clearance is available for any substructure
construction.
C. Construction Sequence
Using the traffic restriction data in the bridge site data, a construction sequence shall be developed.
Such a sequence shall take into account necessary steps for construction of the bridge widening
(substructure and superstructure), any construction work off of and adjacent to the structure, and the
requirements of traffic flow on and below the structure. Checks shall be made to be certain that girder
spacings, closure pours, and removal work are all compatible with the traffic arrangements.
Projects with several bridges being widened at the same time should have sequencing that is
compatible with the regions traffic plans during construction and that allow the contractor room
to work. It is important to meet with the region project staff to assure that the construction staging and
characterization of traffic during construction is constructible and minimizes the impact to the
traveling public.
2.3.5
Detour Structures
A. Bridge Width
The lane widths, shy distances, and overall roadway widths for detour structures are determined by
the Region. Review and approval of detour roadway widths is done by the Traffic Office.
B. Live Load
Unless otherwise justified, all detour structures shall be designed for an AASHTO HS 15 live load.
Construction requirements and staging can be sufficient reason to justify designing for a higher
live load.
2.3-8
August 1998

Criteria
Preliminary Design
2.3.6
Retaining Walls and Noise Walls

The requirements for Preliminary Plans for retaining walls and noise walls are similar to the requirements
for bridges. The plan and elevation views define the overall limits and the geometry of the wall. The
section view will show general structural elements that are part of the wall and the surface finish of the
wall face.
The most common types of walls are outlined in Section 9.4.2 of the Bridge Design Manual and
Chapter 1130 of the Design Manual. The Bridge and Structures Office is responsible for Preliminary
Plans for all nonstandard walls (retaining walls and noise walls) as spelled out in Chapter 1130 of the
Design Manual.
2.3.7
Bridge Deck Drainage

The Hydraulics Office provides a review of the Preliminary Plan with respect to the requirements for
bridge deck drainage. As soon as the Preliminary Plan has been developed to the point that the length and
width of the structure, profile grade, and superelevation diagram are shown on the plan, a reduced print
shall be provided to the Hydraulics Office for their review. Any other pertinent information (such as
locations of drainage off the structure) should be given to them also. For work with existing structures, the
locations of any and all bridge drains shall be noted.
The Hydraulics Office will determine the type of drains necessary (if any) and their location and spacing
requirements. They will furnish any details or modifications required for special drains or special
situations.
If low points of sag vertical curves or superelevation crossovers occur within the limits of the bridge, the
region should be asked to revise their geometrics to place these features outside the limits of the bridge.
If such revisions cannot be made, the Hydraulics Office will provide details to handle drainage with
bridge drains on the structure.
2.3.8
Bridge Deck Protective Systems

The Preliminary Plan shall note in the lower left margin the type of deck protective system to be utilized
on the bridge. The most commonly used systems are described in Section 8.4.7 of the Bridge Design
Manual.
New construction will generally be System 1 (21/2-inch concrete cover plus epoxy-coated rebars).
System 2 (MC overlay) and System 3 (ACP overlay) are to be used on new construction that require
overlays and on widenings for major structures. The type of overlay to be used should be noted in the
bridge site data submitted by the region. The bridge condition report will indicate the preference of the
Bridge and Structures Office and the Deck Systems Specialist in the Bridge and Structures Office.
2.3.9
Construction Clearances
Most projects will involve construction in and around traffic. Both traffic and construction have to be
accommodated. Construction clearances and working room must be reviewed at the Preliminary Plan
stage to verify the constructibility of the project.
For construction clearances for roadways, the region shall supply the necessary traffic staging information
with the bridge site data. This includes temporary lane widths and shy distances, allowable or necessary
alignment shifts, and any special minimum vertical clearances. With this information, the designer can
establish the falsework opening or construction opening.
August 1998
2.3-9

Criteria
Preliminary Design
The horizontal dimension of the falsework or construction opening shall be the sum of the temporary
traffic lane widths and shy distances, plus two 2-foot temporary concrete barriers, plus 2 feet shy behind
these barriers. For multispan openings, a minimum of 2 feet shall be assumed for the interior support. This
interior support shall also have 2 feet shy on both sides to the two 2-foot temporary concrete barriers that
will flank it.
The vertical clearance shall normally be 14 feet 6 inches minimum. The space available for the falsework
must be enough for whatever depth is necessary to span the required horizontal opening. If the necessary
depth is greater than the space available, either the minimum vertical clearance for the falsework shall be
reduced or the horizontal clearance and span for the falsework shall be reduced.
Preferably, the falsework span shall not exceed 38 feet. This limits the stresses in the new structure from
the construction and concrete pouring sequences. While the falsework or construction openings are
measured normal to the crossroad alignment, the falsework span is measured parallel to the bridge
alignment.
Once the construction clearances have been determined the designer should meet with the region to
review the construction clearances to assure compatibility with the construction staging. This review
should take place prior to finalization of the preliminary bridge plan.
For railroads see Section 2.3.2H.
2.3.10 Inspection and Maintenance Access

A. General
Bridge inspection is required by the FHWA a minimum of every two years. The inspectors are
required to access the bridge components to within 3 feet (1 meter). Maintenance forces need to
access damaged members and locations that may collect debris. This is accomplished by using many
methods. Safety cables, ladders, bucket trucks, Under Bridge Inspection Truck (UBIT), (see Figure
2.3.10-1), and under bridge travelers are just a few of the most common methods. Preliminary
designers need to be aware of these requirements to assist the inspectors efforts over the life of the
bridge. Access should be considered throughout the Preliminary Plan TS&L stages.
2.3-10
August 1998

Criteria
Preliminary Design
Figure 2.3.10-1
B. Safety Cables
Safety cables strung on steel plate girders or trusses allow for walking access. Care must be given to
the application and location. Built-up plate girder bridges are detailed with a safety cable for inspectors walking the bottom flange. However, when the girders become more than 8 feet deep, the
inspection of the top flange and top lateral connections becomes difficult. When the girders are less
than 5 feet deep, it is not feasible for the inspectors to stand on the bottom flanges. On large trusses,
large gusset plates (3 feet or more wide) are difficult to negotiate around. Cable are best run on the
exterior of the bridge except at large gusset plates. At these locations, cables or lanyard anchors
should be placed on the inside face of the truss. This way inspectors can utilize bottom lateral gusset
plates to stand on while traversing around the main truss gusset.
C. Travelers
Under bridge travelers, placed on rails that remain permanently on the bridge, can be considered on
large steel structures. This is an expensive option but it should be evaluated for large bridges with
high ADT as access to the bridge would be limited by traffic windows that specify when a lane can be
closed. Some bridges are restricted to weekend UBIT inspection for this reason.
4:P:BDM2
August 1998
2.3-11

Criteria
Preliminary Design
Selection of Structure Types
2.4
Selection of Structure Type
2.4.1
Bridge Types
The following superstructure depth to span ratios have been determined from past experience to be
reasonable and economical and are in some cases less than the minimum depth recommended by
AASHTO. In this situation, the Bridge Design Manual will govern. The length of span used to determine
superstructure depth shall be the length between centerline of bearings. Do not use the length between
points of dead load contraflexure as noted in AASHTO for design.
A. Reinforced Concrete Slab
l.
Use
Used for simple and continuous spans up to 60 feet.
2.
Characteristics
Design details and falsework relatively simple. Shortest construction time for any cast-in-place
structure. Correction for anticipated falsework settlement must be included in the dead load
camber curve because of the single concrete pour.
3.
Depth/Span Ratios
a.
Constant depth
Simple spans
Continuous spans
b.
1/22
1/25
Variable depth
Adjust ratios to account for change in relative stiffness of positive and negative moment
sections.
B. Reinforced Concrete Tee-Beam

1.
Use
Used for continuous spans 30 feet to 60 feet. Has been used for longer spans with inclined
leg piers.
2.
Characteristics
Forming and falsework is more complicated than flat slab. Construction time is longer than for a
flat slab.
3.
Depth/Span Ratios
a.
Constant depth
Simple spans
Continuous spans
b.
1/13
1/15
Variable depth
sections.
August 1998
2.4-1

Criteria
Preliminary Design
C. Reinforced Concrete Box Girder

1.
Use
Used for continuous spans 50 feet to 130 feet. Maximum simple span 110 feet to limit excessive
dead load deflections.
2.
Characteristics
Forming and falsework is somewhat complicated. Construction time is approximately the same
as for a tee-beam. High torsional resistance makes it desirable for curved alignments.
3.
Depth/Span Ratios*
a.
Constant depth
Simple spans
Continuous spans
b.
1/18
1/20
Variable depth
sections.
*If the configuration of the exterior web is sloped and curved, a larger depth/span ratio may
be necessary.
D. Post-Tensioned Concrete Box Girder

1.
Use
Normally used for continuous spans longer than 130 feet or simple spans longer than 110 feet.
Should be considered for shorter spans if a shallower structure depth is needed.
2.
Characteristics
Construction time is somewhat longer due to post-tensioning operations. High torsional
resistance makes it desirable for curved alignments.
3.
Depth/Span Ratios*
a.
Constant depth
Simple spans
Continuous spans
b.
1/20.5
1/25
Variable depth
Two span structures
@ Center of span
@ Intermediate pier
1/25
1/12.5
Multispan structures
@ Center of span
@ Intermediate pier
1/36
1/18
*If the configuration of the exterior web is sloped and curved, a larger depth/span ratio may
be necessary.
2.4-2
August 1998

Criteria
Preliminary Design
E. Prestressed Concrete Sections

1.
Use
Local precast fabricators have several standard forms available for precast concrete sections
based on WSDOT standard girder series plans. They are versatile enough to cover a wide variety
of span lengths.
WSDOT standard girders are:
2.
a.
W74G, W58G, W50G, and W42G prestressed, concrete I-girders requiring a cast-in-place
concrete roadway deck.
b.
W53DG, and W35DG prestressed, concrete decked bulb tee girders requiring an ACP
overlay roadway surface.
c.
12-inch, 18-inch, and 26-inch precast prestressed slabs requiring an ACP overlay roadway
surface.
d.
26-inch precast prestressed tribeam requiring an ACP overlay roadway surface.
Characteristics
Construction details and forming are fairly simple. Construction time is less than for a
cast-in-place bridge. Little or no falsework is required.
F. Composite Steel Plate Girder

1.
Use
For simple spans up to 260 feet and for continuous spans from 120 to 400 feet. Relatively low
dead load when compared to a concrete superstructure makes this bridge type an asset in areas
where foundation materials are poor.
2.
Characteristics
Construction details and forming are fairly simple Construction time is comparatively short.
Shipping and erecting of large sections must be reviewed. Cost of maintenance is higher than for
concrete bridges. Current cost information should be considered because of changing steel
market conditions.
3.
Depth/Span Ratios
a.
Constant depth
Simple spans
Continuous spans
b.
1/22
1/25
Variable depth
@ Center of span
@ Intermediate pier
1/40
1/20
G. Composite Steel Box Girder

1.
Use
For simple spans up to 260 feet and for continuous spans from 120 to 400 feet. Relatively low
dead load when compared to a concrete superstructure makes this bridge type an asset in areas
where foundation materials are poor.
August 1998
2.4-3

Criteria
Preliminary Design
2.
Characteristics
Construction details and forming are more difficult than for a steel plate girder. Shipping and
erecting of large sections must be reviewed. Current cost information should be considered
because of changing steel market conditions.
3.
Depth/Span Ratios
a.
Constant depth
Simple spans
Continuous spans
b.
1/22
1/25
Variable depth
@ Center of span
@ Intermediate pier
1/40
1/20
Sloping webs are not used on box girders of variable depth.

H. Steel Truss
1.
Use
For simple spans up to 300 feet and for continuous spans up to 1,200 feet. Used where vertical
clearance requirements dictate a shallow superstructure and long spans or where terrain dictates
long spans and construction by cantilever method.
2.
Characteristics
Construction details are numerous and can be complex. Cantilever construction method can
facilitate construction over inaccessible areas. Through trusses are discouraged because of the
resulting restricted horizontal and vertical clearances for the roadway.
3.
Depth/Span Ratios
a.
b.
Simple spans 1/6

Continuous spans
@ Center of span
@ Intermediate pier
I.
1/18
1/9
Segmental Concrete Box Girder

1.
Use
For continuous spans from 200 to 700 feet. Used where site dictates long spans and construction
by cantilever method.
2.
Characteristics
Use of travelers for the form apparatus facilitates the cantilever construction method enabling
long-span construction without falsework. Precast concrete segments may be used. Tight
geometric control is required during construction to ensure proper alignment.
3.
Depth/Span Ratios
Variable depth
@ Center of span
@ Intermediate pier
2.4-4
1/50
1/20
August 1998

Criteria
Preliminary Design
J.
Railroad Bridges
1.
Use
For railroad undercrossings, most railroad companies prefer simple span steel construction. This
is to simplify repair and reconstruction in the event of derailment or some other damage to the
structure.
2.
Characteristics
The heavier loads of the railroad live load require deeper and stiffer members than for highway
bridges. Through girders can be used to reduce overall structure depth if the railroad concurs.
Piers should be normal to the railroad to eliminate skew loading effects.
3.
Depth/Span Ratios
Constant depth
Simple spans
Continuous two span
Continuous multi-span
1/12
1/14
1/15
K. Timber
1.
Use
Generally used for spans under 40 feet. Usually used for detour bridges and other temporary
structures.
2.
Characteristics
Excellent for short-term duration as for a detour. Simple design and details.
3.
Depth/Span Ratios
Constant depth
Simple span Timber beam
Simple span Glulam beam
Continuous spans
1/10
1/12
1/14
L. Other
Bridge types such as cable-stayed, suspension, arch, tied arch, and floating bridges have special and
limited applications. Their use is generally dictated by site conditions. Preliminary design studies will
generally be done when these types of structures are considered.
2.4.2
Wall Types
The process of selecting a type of retaining wall should economically satisfy structural, functional, and
aesthetic requirements and other considerations relevant to a specific site. A detailed listing of the
common wall types and their characteristics can be found in Section 9.4.2 of the Bridge Design Manual.
2:-4DTP:BDM2
August 1998
2.4-5

Criteria
Preliminary Design
2.5
Aesthetic Considerations
2.5.1
General Visual Impact
A bridge can be a strong feature in any landscape. Steps must be taken to assure that even the most basic
structure will complement rather than detract from its surroundings. The Design Report, EIS, and bridge
site data submitted by the region should each contain a discussion on the aesthetic importance of the
project site. This commentary, along with the video and/or pictures submitted, will help the designer
determine the appropriate structure. Generally a visit to the bridge site with the Bridge Architect and the
region will be made as well. The Bridge Architect should be contacted early in the preliminary bridge plan
process for input.
Aesthetics is a very subjective element that must be factored into the design process in the otherwise very
quantitative field of structural engineering. Bridges that are well proportioned structurally using the least
material possible are generally well proportioned. However, the details such as pier walls, columns, and
crossbeams require special attention to ensure a structure that will enhance the general vicinity.
2.5.2
End Piers
A. Wing Walls
The size and exposure of the wing wall at the end pier should balance, visually, with the depth and
type of superstructure used. For example, a prestressed girder structure fits best visually with a
15-foot wing wall (or curtain wall/retaining wall). However, there are instances where a 20-foot wing
wall (or curtain wall/retaining wall) may be used with a prestressed girder (maximizing a span in a
remote area, for example). These guidelines shall be used with engineering judgment and with the
review of the Bridge Architect.
It is less expensive for bridges of greater than 40 feet of overall width to be designed with wing walls
(or curtain wall/retaining wall) than to use a longer superstructure.
B. Retaining Walls
For structures at sites where profile, right of way, and alignment dictate the use of high exposed
wall-type abutments for the end piers, retaining walls that flank the approach roadway can be used to
retain the roadway fill and reduce the overall structure length. Stepped walls are often used to break
up the height, and allow for landscape planting. A curtain wall runs between the bridge abutment and
the heel of the abutment footing. In this way, the joint in the retaining wall stem can coincide with the
joint between the abutment footing and the retaining wall footing. This simplifies design and provides
a convenient breaking point between design responsibilities if the retaining walls happen to be the
responsibility of the region. The length shown for the curtain wall dimension is an estimated dimension based on experience and preliminary foundation assumptions. It can be revised under design to
satisfy the intent of having the wall joint coincide with the end of the abutment footing.
C. Slope Protection
The region is responsible for making initial recommendations regarding slope protection. It should be
compatible with the site and should match what has been used at other bridges in the vicinity. The
type selected shall be shown on the Preliminary Plan. It shall be noted on the Not Included in Bridge
Quantities list.
August 1998
2.5-1

Criteria
Preliminary Design
2.5.3
Intermediate Piers
The size, shape, and spacing of the intermediate pier elements must satisfy two criteria. They must be
correctly sized and detailed to efficiently handle the structural loads required by the design and shaped to
enhance the aesthetics of the structure.
The primary view of the pier must be considered. For structures that cross over another roadway, the
primary view will be a section normal to the roadway. This may not always be the same view as shown on
the Preliminary Plan as with a skewed structure, for example. This primary view should be the focus of
the aesthetic review.
Tapers and flairs on columns should be kept simple and structurally functional. Fabrication and
constructibility of the formwork of the pier must be kept in mind. Crossbeam ends should be carefully
reviewed. Skewed bridges and bridges with steep profile grades or those in sharp vertical curves will
require special attention to detail.
Column spacing should not be so small as to create a cluttered look. Column spacing should be
proportioned to maintain a reasonable crossbeam span balance.
2.5.4
Barrier and Wall Surface Treatments

A. Plain Surface Finish
This finish will normally be used on structures that do not have a high degree of visibility or where
existing conditions warrant. A bridge in a remote area or a bridge among several existing bridges all
having a plain finish would be examples.
B. Fractured Fin Finish
This finish is the most common and an easy way to add a decorative texture to a structure. Variations
on this type of finish can be used for special cases. The specific areas to receive this finish should be
reviewed with the Bridge Architect.
C. Pigmented Sealer
The use of a pigmented sealer can also be an aesthetic enhancement. The particular hue can be
selected to blend with the surrounding terrain. Most commonly, this would be considered in urban
areas. The selection should be reviewed with the Bridge Architect and the region.
2.5.5
Superstructure
The horizontal elements of the bridge are perhaps the strongest features. The sizing of the structure depth
based on the span/depth ratios in Section 2.4.1, will generally produce a balanced relationship.
Haunches or rounding of girders at the piers can enhance the structures appearance. The use of such
features should be kept within reason considering fabrication of materials and construction of formwork.
The amount of haunch should be carefully reviewed for overall balance from the primary viewing
perspective.
The slab overhang dimension should approach that used for the structure depth. This dimension should be
balanced between what looks good for aesthetics and what is possible with a reasonable slab thickness and
reinforcement.
For box girders, the exterior webs can be sloped. The amount of slope should not exceed l1/2: l for
structural reasons. Sloped webs should only be used in locations of high aesthetic impact.
DP:BDM2
2.5-2
August 1998

Criteria
Preliminary Design
2.6
Miscellaneous
2.6.1
Structure Costs
Miscellaneous
Historical bridge and structure cost data is outlined in Chapter 12. When using this data for cost estimates,
the cost range assumed shall be based on the amount of information available. Unless foundation conditions are known, the worst case conditions would be assumed (e.g., pile foundations) for cost analysis. An
estimate contingency of 10 percent (minimum) staff be added to all preliminary bridge plan estimates. For
small projects or remote areas, high-range costs would be used. The cost data would be adjusted for
inflation to the current date. Estimates include mobilization but not sales tax, engineering, future inflation,
or contingencies, and the accuracy of the estimate is 15 percent.
2.6.2
Handling and Shipping Precast Members and Steel Beams

Bridges utilizing precast concrete beams or steel beams need to have their access routes checked and sites
reviewed to be certain that the beams can be transported to the site. It must also be determined that they
can be erected once they reach the site.
Both the size and the weight of the beams must be checked. Likely routes to the site must be adequate to
handle the truck and trailer hauling the beams. Avoid narrow roads with sharp turns, steep grades, and/or
load-rated bridges which may prevent the beams from reaching the site. The Condition Survey Section of
the Bridge and Structures Office should be consulted for limitations on hauling lengths and weights.
The site should be reviewed for adequate space for the contractor to set up the cranes and equipment
necessary to pick up and place the girders. The reach and boom angle should be checked and should
accommodate standard cranes.
2.6.3
Salvage of Materials
When a bridge is being replaced or widened, the material being removed should be reviewed for anything
that WSDOT may want to salvage. Items such as aluminum rail, luminaire poles, sign structures, and steel
beams should be identified for possible salvage. The region should be asked if such items are to be
salvaged since they will be responsible for storage and inventory of these items.
DP:BDM2
August 1998
2.6-1

Criteria
Preliminary Design
2.7
WSDOT Standard Highway Bridge
2.7.1
Design Elements
Miscellaneous
The following are standard design elements for highway undercrossings and overcrossings. They are
meant to provide a generic base for consistent, clean looking bridges, and to reduce design and construction costs. Modification of some elements may be required, depending on site conditions. This should be
determined on a case-by-case basis during the preliminary plan stage of the design process.
A. General
Fractured Fin Finish shall be used on the exterior face of the traffic barrier. All other surfaces shall be
Plain Surface Finish.
Exposed faces of wingwalls, columns, and abutments shall be vertical. The exterior face of the traffic
barrier and the end of the intermediate pier crossbeam and diaphram shall have a 1:12 backslope.
B. Substructure
End piers use the following details:
15-0 wingwalls (Standard Cadd File WW15_21.FGB).
Stub abutment wall with vertical face. Footing elevation, pile type (if required), and setback
dimension are determined from recommendations in the WSDOT Materials Laboratory
Foundation Report.
Intermediate piers use the following details:
Semi-drop Crossbeams: The crossbeam below the girders is designed for the girder and slab
dead load, and construction loads. The crossbeam and the hinge diaphram together are designed
for all live loads and composite dead loads. The crossbeam shall be 3-0 minimum depth.
Round Columns: Columns shall be 3-0 or 4-0 in diameter. Dimensions are constant full height
with no tapers. Bridges with roadway widths of 28-0 or less will generally be single column
piers. Bridges with roadway widths of greater than 28-0 shall have two or more columns,
following the criteria established in Section 2.3.1 H.
C. Superstructure
Concrete Slab: 7 1 2 minimum thickness, with the top mat being epoxy coated steel reinforcing bars.
Prestressed Girders: Girder spacing will vary depending on roadway width and span length. The slab
overhang dimension is approximately half of the girder spacing. Girder spacings typically range
between 6-0 and 8-0.
W74G spans up to about 132. (Standard Cadd File W74G.FGB).
W58G spans up to about 110. (Standard Cadd File W58G.FGB).
Intermediate Diaphrams: Locate at the midspan for girders up to 80 long. Locate at third points for
girders over 80 long. (Standard Cadd File DIA63A5.FGB).
End Diaphrams: End Wall on Girder type. (Standard Cadd File DIA63A5.FGB).
Traffic Barrier: New Jersey face barrier. (Standard Cadd File TB.FGB).
August 1998
2.7-1

Criteria
Preliminary Design
Miscellaneous
Hinge Diaphram: Full width of crossbeam between girders and outside of the exterior girders.
Exterior face is flush with the end of the crossbeam and matches the 1:12 slope of the crossbeam face.
(Standard Cadd File TO BE DEVELOPED).
BP Rail: 3-6 overall height for pedestrian traffic. 4-6 overall height for bicycle traffic. (Standard
Cadd File BPRAIL.FGB).
Sidewalk: 6 height at curb line. Transverse slope of -.01 per foot towards the curb line. (Standard
Cadd File PED_BAR.FGB).
Sidewalk barrier: Inside face is vertical. Outside face slopes 1:12 outward. (Standard Cadd File
PED_BAR.FGB).
D. Examples
Appendices 2.7-A1 and A2 detail the standard design elements of a standard highway bridge.
The following bridges are good examples of a standard highway bridge. However, they do have some
modifications to the standard.
SR 17 Undercrossing 395/110
Mullenix Road Overcrossing 16/203E&W
Contract 3785
Contract 4143
DTP:BDM2
2.7-2
August 1998

Criteria
Preliminary Design
2.99
Bibliography
Bibliography
1.
Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) publication Federal Aid Highway Program Manual.
FHWA Order 5520.1 (dated December 24, 1990) contains the criteria pertaining to Type, Size, and
Location studies.
Volume 6, Chapter 6, Section 2, Subsection 1, Attachment 1 (Transmittal 425) contains the criteria
pertaining to railroad undercrossings and overcrossings.
2.
Washington Utilities and Transportation Commission Clearance Rules and Regulations Governing
Common Carrier Railroads.
3.
American Railway Engineering Association (AREA) Manual for Railroad Engineering. Note: This is
the criteria which we follow except as superseded by FHWA or WSDOT criteria. This manual is used
as the basic design and geometric criteria by all railroads.
4.
Washington State Department of Transportation (WSDOT) Design Manual (M 22-01).
5.
Local Agency Guidelines (M 36-63).
6.
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) Standard

Specifications for Highway Bridges.
DTP:BDM2
August 1998
2.99-1

Appendix A
Preliminary Design
Bridge Site Data General
Bridge Site Data

General
Region
Made By
Date
Bridge Information
SR
Bridge Name
Control Section
Highway Section
Section, Township & Range
Project No.
Datum
What are expected foundation conditions?
Structure width between curbs ?
Will the structure be widened in a

contract subsequent to this contract ?
Yes
No
N/A
Which side and amount ?
When can foundation drilling be accomplished?
Is slope protection or riprap required for the bridge end slopes?
Will the roadway under the structure be widened in the future?

Stage construction requirements ?
Yes
No
N/A
Yes
No
N/A
Are sidewalks to be provided?
Yes
No
N/A
Yes
No
N/A
Yes
No
N/A
No
N/A
No
N/A
If Yes, which side and width?
Should the additional clearance for off-track railroad maintenance

equipment be provided?
Will sidewalks carry bicycle traffic?
Can a pier be placed in the median?
Will signs or illumination be attached to the structure?
Yes
No
N/A
What are the required falsework or construction opening dimensions ?
Yes
Will utility conduits be incorporated in the bridge?
Yes
Are there detour or shoofly bridge requirements?

(If Yes, attach drawings)
Yes
No
N/A
What do the bridge barriers transition to?
Can the R/W be adjusted to accommodate toe of approach fills?
Yes
No
N/A
What is the required vertical clearance?
Furnish type and location of existing features within the limits of this
project, such as retaining walls, sign support structures, utilities,
buildings, powerlines, etc.
What is the available depth for superstructure?
Are overlays planned for a contract subsequent to this contract ?

Can profile be revised to provide greater
or less clearance?
Yes
No
N/A
Yes
No
N/A
Any other data relative to selection of type, including your

recommendations?
If Yes, which line and how much?

Will bridge be contracted before, with or after approach fill?
Before
With
After
N/A
Attachments
Vicinity Map
Bridge Site Contour Map
Specific Roadway sections at bridge site and approved roadway sections
Vertical Profile Data
Horizontal Curve Data
Superelevation Transition Diagrams
Tabulated field surveyed and measured stations, offsets, and elevations of existing roadways
Photographs and video tape of structure site, adjacent existing structures and surrounding terrain
DOT Form 235-002 EF

Revised 6/97
August 1998
2.2-A1

Appendix A
Preliminary Design
Bridge Site Data Rehabilitation
Bridge Site Data

Rehabilitation
Region
Made By
Date
Bridge Information
SR
Bridge Name
Control Section
Highway Section
Existing roadway width, curb to curb
Left of CL
Proposed roadway width, curb to curb
Left of CL
Project No.
Datum
Right of CL
Right of CL
Existing wearing surface (concrete, ACP, ACP w /membrane, LMC, epoxy, other)
Thickness
Existing drains to be plugged, modified, moved, other?

Proposed overlay (ACP, ACP w /membrame, LMC, epoxy)
Is bridge rail to be modified?
Yes
Thickness
No
Existing rail type

Proposed rail replacement type
Will terminal design F be required?
Yes
Will utilities be placed in the new barrier?
No
Yes
No
Will the structure be overlayed with or after rail replacement?
With Rail Replacement
After Rail Replacement
Condition of existing joints

Existing joints watertight?
Yes
No
@ CL roadway
@ curb line
Inch
Measure width of existing joint, normal to skew.
@ curb line
Inch
Inch
Estimate structure temperature at time of joint measurement

Type of existing joint
Describe damage, if any, to existing joints
Existing Vertical Clearance
Proposed Vertical Clearance (at curb lines of traffic barrier)
Attachments
Video tape of project
Sketch indicating points at which joint width was measured.

Photographs of existing joints.
Existing deck chloride and detamination data.
Roadway deck elevations at curb lines (10-foot spacing)
DOT Form 235-002A EF
Revised 3/97
2.2-A2
August 1998

Appendix A
Preliminary Design
Bridge Site Data Stream Crossings
Bridge Site Data

Stream Crossings
Region
Made By
Date
Bridge Information
SR
Control Section
Bridge Name
Highway Section
Name of Stream
Project No.
Datum
Tributary of
Elevation of W.S.
Stream Velocity
(@ date of survey)
(fps @ date of survey)
Depth of Flow
(@ date of survey)
Max Highwater Elevation
@ Date
Normal Highwater Elevation
@ Date
Normal Stage Elevation
@ Date
Extreme Low Water Elevation
@ Date
Amount and Character of Drift

Streambed Material
Datum (i.e., USC and GS, USGS, etc.)
Mannings N Value (Est.)
Attachments
Site Contour Map (See Sect. 7.02.00 Highway Hydraulic Manual)
Highway Alignment and Profile (refer to map and profiles)
Streambed: Profile and Cross Sections (500 ft. upstream and downstream)
Photographs
Character of Stream Banks (i.e., rock, silt, etc.) / Location of Solid Rock
Other Data Relative to Selection of Type and Design of Bridge, Including your Recommendations (i.e., requirements of
riprap, permission of piers in channel, etc.)
DOT Form 235-001 EF

Revised 3/97
August 1998
2.2-A3

Appendix A
Preliminary Design
Preliminary Plan Checklist
Project__________________ SR______ Prelim. Plan by _____ Check by _____ Date_____

PRELIMINARY PLAN CHECKLIST
PLAN
___Survey Lines and Station Ticks
___Survey Line Intersection Angles
___Survey Line Intersection Stations
___Survey Line Bearings
___Roadway and Median Widths
___Lane and Shoulder Widths
___Sidewalk Width
___Connection/Widening for Guardrail/Barrier
___Profile Grade and Pivot Point
___Roadway Superelevation Rate (if constant)
___Lane Taper and Channelization Data
___Traffic Arrows
___Mileage to Junctions along Mainline
___Back to Back of Pavement Seats
___Span Lengths
___Lengths of Walls next to/ part of Bridge
___Pier Skew Angle
___Bridge Drains, or Inlets off Bridge
___Existing drainage structures
___Existing utilities Type/Size, and Location
___New utilities - Type, Size, and Location
___Luminaires, Junction Boxes, Conduits
___Bridge mounted Signs and Supports
___Contours
___Top of Cut: Toe of Fill
___Bottom of Ditches
___Test Holes (if available)
___Riprap Limits
___Stream Flow Arrow
___R/W Lines and/or Easement Lines
___Points of Minimum Vertical Clearance
___Horizontal Clearance
___Exist. Bridge No. (to be removed, widened)
___Section, Township, Range
___City or Town
___North Arrow
___SR Number
___Bearing of Piers, or note if radial
MISCELLANEOUS
___Structure Type
___Live Loading
___Undercrossing Alignment Profiles/Elevs.
___Superelevation Diagrams
___Curve Data
___Riprap Detail
___Layout Approval Block
___Notes to Region
___Names and Signatures
___Not Included in Bridge Quantities List
___Inspection and Maintenance Access
2.2-A4
ELEVATION
___Full Length Reference Elevation Line
___Existing Ground Line x ft. Rt of Survey Line
___End Slope Rate
___Slope Protection
___Pier Stations and Grade Elevations
___Profile Grade Vertical Curves
___BP/Pedestrian Rail
___Barrier/Wall Face Treatment
___Construction/Falsework Openings
___Minimum Vertical Clearances
___Water Surface Elevations and Flow Data
___Riprap
___Seal Vent Elevation
___Datum
___Grade elevations shown are equal to
___For Embankment details at bridge ends
___Indicate F, H, or E at abutments and piers
TYPICAL SECTION
___Bridge Roadway Width
___Lane and Shoulder Widths
___Profile Grade and Pivot Point
___Superelevation Rate
___Survey Line
___Overlay Type and Depth
___Barrier Face Treatment
___Limits of Pigmented Sealer
___BP/Pedestrian Rail dimensions
___Stage Construction Lane Orientations
___Locations of Temporary Concrete Barrier
___Closure Pour
___Structure Depth/Prestressed Girder Type
___Conduits/Utilities in bridge
___Substructure Dimensions
LEFT MARGIN
___Job Number
___Bridge (before/with/after) Approach Fills
___Structure Depth/Prestressed Girder Type
___Deck Protective System
___Coast Guard Permit Status
___Railroad Agreement Status
___Points of Minimum Vertical Clearance
___Cast in Place Concrete Strength
RIGHT MARGIN
___Control Section
___Project Number
___Region
___Highway Section
___SR Number
___Structure Name
August 1998

Appendix A
Preliminary Design
January 1991
Bridge Stage Construction Comparison
2.3-A1

Criteria
Analysis
Contents
Page
3.0
3.1
3.1.1
3.1.2
3.2
3.2.1
3.2.2
3.2.3
3.2.4
3.2.5
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.5.1
3.5.2
3.6
3.6.1
3.6.2
3.6.3
3.6.4
3.6.5
3.7
3.8
3.8.1
3.8.2
3.9
3.9.1
3.9.2
Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
General Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Philosophy of Analysis Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Analysis Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Frame Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Member and Frame Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Partial Fixity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Development of F.E.M.s and Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Influence Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sidesway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Trusses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Computer Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
General Discussion of Computer Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
List of Programs Available . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Other Analysis Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Energy Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Castiglano . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Virtual Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Buckling Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Finite Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dynamic Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Special Analysis Problems by Bridge Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Suspension bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cable Stayed Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Special Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Skew . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Footing Deflections and Rotations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Appendix A
3.0-A1
3.0-A2
3.0-A3
3.0-A4
3.0-A5
3.0-A6
3.0-A7
3.0-A8
3.1-1
1
1
1
*
*
*
3.2-1
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Concentrated Load Coefficients General

Concentrated Load Coefficients Case I
Fixed End Moment Coefficient Chart
Influence Lines Two Equal Spans
Coefficients and Factors for Double Tapered Members
Stiffness Factors for Tapered Members
Carry Over Factors for Tapered Members
Fixed End Moments for Tapered Members
*Indicates sections not issued to date.

3-CON:V:BDM3
July 1994
3.0-i

Criteria
Analysis
3.0
Analysis
3.1
General Considerations
3.1.1
Philosophy of Analysis Procedures
For the design of concrete bridges, in distribution of moments, generally use the gross moment of inertia
of the concrete superstructure. In lieu of including the transformed area of steel for columns or other
compression members, 120 percent of the gross moment of inertial of columns and other compression
members may generally be used.
3.1.2
Analysis Methods
The maximum live load deflection computed shall be in accordance with AASHTO except that the maximum live load deflection in a span shall not exceed 1/1000 and for a cantilever 1/375, regardless of
whether the bridge is used by pedestrians.
3-1:V:BDM3
July 1994
3.1-1

Criteria
Analysis
3.2.1
Theory (Vacant)
3.2.2
Member and Frame Factors (Vacant)
3.2.3
Partial Fixity
Frame Analysis
In general, assume 50 percent fixity of footings except footings on rock shall be 100 percent fixed. For
frame analysis, the point of fixity shall normally be taken to be at the approximate center line of footing.
For column design, Volume 2 Sheets 9-220 through 9-225 shall be consulted. This shall hold for footings
with or without seals. Where superstructures are supported directly on piles, for analyses of the structure
the piles may be assumed fixed at a point 5 feet to 10 feet in the ground. For flat slab bridges supported
on piling, the piles shall be assumed pinned at the tops. For design of structures with large diameter
shafts see Section 9.8
For one column piers assume the footing fully fixed in the direction transverse to the roadway. For loads
on one column piers assume the pier acts transversely as a simple cantilever, fixed at the footing, with no
allowance for torsional, or lateral stiffness of the superstructure.
3-2:V:BDM3
July 1994
3.2-1

Appendix A
Analysis
Concentrated Load
Coefficients General
July 1994
3.0-A1

Appendix A
Analysis
3.0-A2
Concentrated Load
Coefficients Case I
July 1994

Appendix A
Analysis
Fixed End Moment

Coefficient Chart
July 1994
3.0-A3-1

Appendix A
Analysis
3.0-A3-2
Fixed End Moment

Coefficient Chart
July 1994

Appendix A
Analysis
Influence Lines
Two Equal Spans
July 1994
3.0-A4

Appendix A
Analysis
Coefficients and Factors

for Double Tapered Members
July 1994
3.0-A5-1

Appendix A
Analysis
3.0-A5-2
Coefficients and Factors

for Double Tapered Members
July 1994

Appendix A
Analysis
Stiffness Factors
for Tapered Members
July 1994
3.0-A6

Appendix A
Analysis
3.0-A7
Carry Over Factors

for Tapered Members
July 1994

Appendix A
Analysis
Fixed End Moments

for Tapered Members
July 1994
3.0-A8-1

Appendix A
Analysis
3.0-A8-2
Fixed End Moments

for Tapered Members
July 1994

Criteria
Loads and Loading
Contents
Page
4.0
4.1
4.1.1
4.1.2
Loads and Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dead Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Live Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Distribution to Superstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Distribution to Substructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.3
Wind Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.4
Wind on Live Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.5
Earthquake Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.6
Other Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Thermal, Shrinkage, and Prestressing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Buoyancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Centrifugal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Force from Stream Current, Floating Ice, and Drift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2
Load Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.1
Combination of Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.2
Load Factor Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.3
Service Load Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3
Application of Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.1
Dead Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.2
Live Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.3
Wind Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.4
Earthquake Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4
Foundation Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4.1
Procedure Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4.2
Spread Footings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4.3
Pile Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Lateral Spring Input from P-Y Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Lateral Spring Input to Dynamic Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Vertical Springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Stiffness Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E. GPILE Computer Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.99
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Appendix A
4.4-A1-1 Foundation Design Seismic Flow Chart
4.4-A2
Peak Ground Acceleration Map
Appendix B
4.3-B1
Basic Truck Loading
4.3-B2
Common Response Modification Factors
4.3-B3
Seismic Analysis Example
4.4-B1
Spring Constants Evaluation Example
4.1-1
1
1
1
1
1
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
5
4.2-1
1
1
3
4.3-1
1
1
4
4
4.4-1
1
1
1
1
4
7
8
8
4.99-1
P:DP/BDM4
August 1998
4.0-i

Criteria
Loads and Loading
4.0
Loads
Loads and Loading

AASHTO loading specifications shall be the minimum design criteria used for all bridges.
4.1
Loads
4.1.1
Dead Loads
Use values in AASHTO except as herein modified:
Reinforced Concrete 160 pounds per cubic foot.
D.L. Forms in Top Slab of Concrete Box Girders 5 pounds per square foot of cell area.
4.1.2
Live Loads
A. General
Live load design criteria is specified in the lower right corner of the bridge preliminary plan sheet.
The Bridge Projects Unit determines this criteria using the following guideline:
HS 25 New bridges on the interstate or state system and bridge widenings involving addition
of substructure.
HS 20 Bridge widenings with no addition of substructure.
HS 15 Detour bridges.
Use values described in AASHTO. Design for HS25 loading by multiplying HS20-44 axle loads by
1.25. The loading consisting of two 24K axles at 4-foot centers sometimes governs for short span
bridges. See Figure 4.3.2-1 for illustration of this alternative loading.
See Figures 4.3.2-2 and 3 for L value to use in the formula in Section 4.3.2. Figure 4.3.2-2
illustrates determination of the L length of the member under consideration. For beams and girders,
use span length center to center of supports. For cantilevers, use length from center of support to
farthest load on cantilever. See Figure 4.3.2-2 for illustration.
B. Distribution to Superstructure
1.
Integral Deck Precast Sections

The Live Load Distribution factor for Bulb Tee, Single Tee, and Double Tee bridges shall be as
determined through use of the DISTBM computer program. (See Bridge Computer Programs
Manual.)
The AASHTO Specifications should be used for Rib Deck Bridges and the beam types listed
therein. For Rib Deck Bridges use a K value of 2.2.
Examples of beam types are shown on Figure 4.1.2-1.
2.
Concrete Box Girders

The value for the number of traffic lanes to be used in the concrete box girder superstructure
design shall be determined by dividing the entire roadway slab width by 14. Use fractional lanes,
rounding to the nearest tenth of a foot, if applicable. Roadway slab widths of less than 28 feet
shall have two design lanes. No reduction factor will be applied to the superstructure for multiple
loadings.
August 1998
4.1-1

Criteria
Loads and Loading
Loads
Beam Types
Figure 4.1.2-1
4.1-2
August 1998

Criteria
Loads and Loading
3.
Loads
Other Types
See AASHTO Specifications.
C. Distribution to Substructure
The value for the number of traffic lanes to be used in the substructure design shall be determined
by dividing the entire roadway slab width by 12. No fractional lanes shall be used. Roadway
slab widths of less than 24 feet shall have a maximum of two design lanes. A reduction factor will be
applied in the substructure design for multiple loadings in accordance with AASHTO. The following
percentages of the resulting live loading shall be used:
Number of Lanes Loaded
Two Lanes
Three Lanes
Four Lanes or More
4.1.3
Percent
100
90
75
Wind Loads
AASHTO load combinations for wind are based on probability of simultaneous load occurrence. The
basic wind loads result from 100 mph wind, which produces 75 psf on trusses and arches, 50 psf on
girders and beams, and 40 psf on substructures. This wind is assumed to act on the structure when live
load is not present. A 30 mph wind (0.3 100, or a 70 percent reduction from basic) is included in
Groups III and IV, and is assumed to act when live load is present.
The forces tending to overturn a structure are represented by an upward high wind pressure of 20 psf
acting on the plan view area, for Groups II, V, and IX. A moderate wind pressure of 6 psf is used for
Groups III and VI. The force is applied at the windward quarter point of the transverse superstructure.
4.1.4
Wind on Live Load

A moderate wind force is assumed to act on the live load itself, represented by a live load acting 6 feet
above the roadway surface, both transversely and longitudinally. This force is computed by multiplying
the bridge length tributary to a particular member by 0.1 for transverse and 0.04 for longitudinal direction.
4.1.5
Earthquake Loads
a.
Design for earthquake shall be in accordance with Division 1-A, Seismic Design of the 1996
AASHTO Standard Specifications for Seismic Design of Highway Bridges.
b.
The Multimode Spectral Method of dynamic analysis described in the AASHTO Specifications shall
be used for most continuous bridges. The SEISAB computer program can be used to analyze most
common bridges. The GTSTRUDL dynamic analysis system is capable of handling a larger range of
structures.
c.
The Single Mode Spectral Method may be used in certain cases, as described in the AASHTO
Specifications.
d.
Use the USGS Peak Ground Acceleration map (Appendix 4.4-A2, 10 percent Probability of
Exceedance in 50 Years) to obtain an acceleration coefficient for preliminary design. The project
Foundation Report will contain the acceleration coefficient to use in the final design of a bridge.
When using Appendix 4.4-A2, interpolate between contours to find the value to use for particular site,
and round to the nearest 1 percent of gravity (g). In general, Appendix 4.4-A2 can also be used for
August 1998
4.1-3

Criteria
Loads and Loading
Loads
bridge seismic retrofit designs. However, seismic evaluation and retrofitting of older bridges can
sometimes result in excessive costs (the retrofit costs are not consistent with the benefit gained). In
these situations, the Bridge Design Engineer should be consulted for direction.
4.1.6
e.
It is recommended that temporary (detour) structures shall be designed for a seismic acceleration
coefficient equal to 0.5 x the acceleration coefficient for a permanent structure. All other requirements of the AASHTO Specifications for Seismic Design of Highway Bridges shall apply. Seismic
Performance Category shall be based on the magnitude of the reduced acceleration coefficient.
f.
The Geotechnical Engineer should be consulted when determining the soil type to be used in the
seismic analysis.
Other Loads
A. Thermal, Shrinkage, and Prestressing
Member loadings are induced by movements of the structure and can result from several sources.
Movements due to temperature changes are calculated using coefficients of thermal expansion of
0.000006 ft/ft per degree for concrete and 0.0000065 ft/ft per degree for steel. Reinforced concrete
shrinks at the rate of 0.0002 ft/ft.
Refer to AASHTO and Bridge Design Manual Chapters 6, 8, and 9 for guidance on computation and
application of these force types.
B. Buoyancy
The effects of submergence of a portion of the substructure is to be calculated, both for designing
piling for uplift and for realizing economy in footing design.
C. Centrifugal
Centrifugal forces are included in all groups which contain vehicular live load. They act 6 feet above
the roadway surface and are significant where curve radii are small or columns are long. They are
radial forces induced by moving trucks. See AASHTO for force equation.
4.1-4
August 1998

Criteria
Loads and Loading
Loads
D. Force from Stream Current, Floating Ice, and Drift

In designing for stream flow force on piers, a reasonable area of drift or floating ice must be
determined, considering the stream or river characteristics (check with the Hydraulics Unit). Water
depth and pier spacing will partly determine drift areas.
W.S. =
Water surface as defined by the Hydraulics Unit
SF
PdAd + PpAp
Ad
Area of drift or floating ice = D x E
Ap
Area of pier below ice = B x C. Where the pier is skewed to the stream, flow C
equals the width of the column normal to the stream flow.
Velocity of water (ft/sec)
Pd
Pressure on drift (psf) = 1.38 V2
Pp
Pressure on pier (psf) = KV2
In the absence of other data, the maximum values of D and E shall be 10 feet and 50 feet,
respectively.
Water Related Forces
Figure 4.1.6-1
DP:BDM4
August 1998
4.1-5

Criteria
Loads and Loading
Load Combinations
4.2
Load Combinations
4.2.1
Combination of Loads
Group numbers represent various combinations of loads and forces which may act on a structure. Group
loading combinations for both Load Factor and Service Load Design are defined by the following
equation:
Group (N) = [d D + p PS + L (L+I) + c CF + E E + D B + s SF + w W + wL WL + L LF + R
(R + S + T) + EQ EQ + ICE ICE]
where:
N
N
D
PS
L
I
E
B
W
WL
LF
CF
R
S
T
EQ
SF
ICE
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
Group Number
General Factor
Specific Factor
Dead Load (including overburden)
Prestress Load*
Live Load
Live Load Impact
Earth Pressure (Lateral, only)
Buoyancy
Wind Load on Structure
Wind Load on Live Load 100 pounds per linear foot of span
Longitudinal Force from Live Load
Centrifugal Force
Rib Shortening
Shrinkage
Temperature
Earthquake
Stream Flow Pressure
Ice Pressure
*PS = Forces and moments transferred from members containing post-tensioning steel to other
members upon application of the post-tensioning force.
Terms in the general equation that do not contribute to a particular combination are represented by zeros
in the table.
4.2.2
Load Factor Coefficients

LFD requires basic design loads or related internal moments and forces to be increased by specified load
factors, and .
The factor is applied for stress control. Its common value is 1.3, which enables use of 77 percent of the
ultimate capacity. The 30 percent increase in design load represented by the factor is intended to account
for variations in weight, reinforcement placement, structural behavior, and calculation of stress.
The factor is a measure of the accuracy of load prediction and the probability of simultaneous
application of loads in a combination.
Table 4.2.2-1 contains the terms and factors required to meet AASHTO Load Factor Design.
August 1998
4.2-1

Criteria
Loads and Loading
Load Combinations
Column Design
D = 0.75 or bD = 1.0, whichever governs.
Flexural and Tension Members
D = 1.0
E = 1.0
Footing Bearing Pressure and Internal Footing Stresses
D = 0.75 or D = 1.0
E = 1.0
Footing Stability and Sliding
D = 0.75 or D = 1.0, whichever governs.
E = 0.4 or E = 1.3, whichever governs.
Notes:
1.
For footing design, check Basic Loading Combination in accordance with BDM Section 9.5.1A3.a.
2.
For rigid frame design, see BDM Section 9.3.4.E.
3.
Check stability for all group loadings in accordance with BDM Section 9.5.1A3.b.
4.
Group 1A load combination shall be applied only with live loadings less than HS 20 or H 20. See
AASHTO.
*Applies if design loads are already factored, such as in cases where MDes = 1.0 ML + 0.3 MT or MDes = 0.3
ML + 1.0 MT are used.
Table of Coefficients and
For Load Factor Design
Table 4.2.2-1
4.2-2
August 1998

Criteria
Loads and Loading
4.2.3
Load Combinations
Service Load Coefficients

Table 4.2.3-1 contains the terms and factors required to meet AASHTO Service Load Design. The
allowable percentage of the basic unit stress is given in the right hand column of the table.
Footing Bearing Pressure and Internal Footing Stresses

E = 1.0
Footing Stability and Sliding
E = 0.5 or E = 1.0, whichever governs.
Notes:
1.
For culvert loading, see AASHTO.
2.
No increase in allowable unit stresses shall be permitted for members or connections carrying wind
load only.
Table of Coefficients and
For Service Load Design
Table 4.2.3-1
4-2:P:BDM4
August 1998
4.2-3

Criteria
Loads and Loading
4.3
Application of Loads
4.3.1
Dead Loads
Dead load is commonly applied to supports by assuming that it acts along each girder line.
4.3.2
Live Loads
The three types of live loadings ordinarily applied to a bridge when checking for maximum stresses in its
components are illustrated in AASHTO and Figure 4.3.2-1. The standard H-S truck represents common
vehicles. The lane load consists of combinations of uniform and concentrated loads which represent three
lighter trucks spaced close together. The alternative loading represents certain heavy military vehicles.
The loading type governing the design depends on the structure configuration. For example, truck loading
governs for maximum moment in simple spans shorter than 145 feet and lane loading controls for longer
spans. In continuous spans, lane loading governs for maximum negative moment, except for spans shorter
than 45 feet, in which truck loading will govern. The maximum positive moment in continuous spans is
usually produced by using lane loading, for span lengths of over about 110 feet. Alternative loading
governs in certain short span situations.
Figures 4.3.2-2 and 4.3.2-3 illustrate application of loads to produce maximum stresses in various span
arrangements. Appendix 4.3-B1 illustrates calculation of reactions and maximum moments in a simple
span. Impact is figured using the following formula:
I=
50
L + 125
Where L is the loaded portions of the spans.
Alternative (Military) Loading

Figure 4.3.2-1
August 1998
4.3-1

Criteria
Loads and Loading
Figure 4.3.2-2
4.3-2
August 1998

Criteria
Loads and Loading
Application of Loading
Figure 4.3.2-3
August 1998
4.3-3

Criteria
Loads and Loading
4.3.3
Wind Loads
Wind loads acting on the superstructure are based on the profile presented to the wind, the height of which
usually consists of the girder depth and traffic barrier height.
4.3.4
Earthquake Loads
Bibiography 1 through 4 contain several examples of applying earthquake loads to bridges. This section
serves to amplify some analysis concepts.
Load factors applied in the Group VII combination are based on two concepts:
1.
Full utilization of the elastic capacity of a particular element or member.
2.
Taking advantage of the ductility or redundancy of the structure to absorb the energy released in an
earthquake and keep the structure intact.
Two typical AASHTO load case equations are:
MEQ
MEQ
=
or
=
1.0
ML
0.3
MT
1.0
ML
1.0
MT
Where the moments are:

MEQ
ML
MT
=
=
=
Earthquake
Longitudinal
Transverse
These equations are intended to satisfy concept 1. The SEISAB computer program prints out solutions to
the two equations as load cases 3 and 4.
Concept 2 is handled through use of the R factor. It appears in the factored loading equation:
Mu
1.0 (MDL + MEQ/R)
The Guide Specification lists values for R for various structural components and types of supports.
Some common examples are:
Single column bents, considered ductile but nonredundant, R = 3 for both directions.
Multi-column bents, considered ductile and redundant, R = 5 both ways.
Wall-type piers, less ductile than single column bents, often having R = 2 for transverse behavior and
R = 3 longitudinally.
Footings, R = 1 for seismic performance Categories C and D and R = Rcol for SPC B. Higher values
are used than for columns and crossbeams because below ground structural damage is difficult to spot
and repair. Plastic hinging moments are often less than those produced using an R of 1, so that some
economy may be realized.
Bearing type connections and stops, R = 0.8, due to lack of ductility and redundancy and because they
serve to prevent large displacements.
See Appendix 4.3-B2-1 and 2 for illustrations of common piers and appropriate factors to apply to the
members.
4.3-4
August 1998

Criteria
Loads and Loading
In order to design structures to survive the forces and strains resulting from earthquake motion, the
following factors need to be considered:
The proximity of the site to known active faults and the historical record of activity.
The seismic response of the soil at the site.
The dynamic response characteristics of the total structure.
See Appendix 4.3-B3-1 through 3 for a general discussion of a seismic analysis.
4-3:P:BDM4
August 1998
4.3-5

Criteria
Loads and Loading
4.4
Foundation Modeling
Foundation Modeling
Proper foundation modeling for earthquake loads is necessary because misinterpreted AASHTO Specifications can lead to a wide range of member sizes. Realistic models will likely produce savings in material,
especially when determining loads to apply to a substructure. Analysis is an iterative process which
converges to an acceptable design.
4.4.1
Procedure Summary
Following is a workable procedure for analysis:
4.4.2
4.4.3
a.
Assume the foundation as fixed (unless you know otherwise). Use SEISAB or GTSTRUDL to
perform a dynamic analysis to determine initial loading.
b.
If the support is not founded in rock, multiply the forces from the fully fixed model by 0.85 for the
initial trial design. Otherwise, use the fully fixed forces for the trial.
c.
Determine a preliminary footing size, pile size, and arrangement, as applicable to the type of support.
d.
Determine foundation springs as outlined in this section and Section 4.4.2. If pile support is being
used, see Section 4.4.3.E.
e.
Rerun the dynamic model with springs included.
f.
Compare loads and deflections using the same range used to determine the springs.
g.
Redesign the footing, piles, adjust the springs, etc., until tolerable convergence is attained.
Spread Footings
a.
You may apply load factor column moments from groups other than Group VII and column plastic
hinging moments for a first trial footing configuration. Then determine soil spring constants using the
footing plan area and depth of embedment. Assuming a shear wave velocity value, consult a Foundation or Geotechnical Engineer for an appropriate value.
b.
Appendix 4.4-B1 through 4 illustrate a procedure to determine soil spring constants for spread
footings.
Pile Foundations
A. Lateral Spring Input from P-Y Curves
Spring constants that represent pile supports may be obtained using a procedure which begins by
applying moments (as described in Section 4.4.1A) to an assumed footing and pile configuration. P-Y
curves from the foundation report may be input to the LPILE1 computer program to derive the initial
spring constants.
The spacing between pile centers is often about 4 times the pile diameter (D), which means that each
pile in the group may deflect more than if it were acting alone. Apply efficiency factors, if provided
on the soils report, to quantify that difference. If information is not available, use the following table
to estimate values.
August 1998
4.4-1

Criteria
Loads and Loading
Foundation Modeling
Efficiency Factor
Table 4.4.3-1
For driven piles, the following factors apply:
Contact the Olympia Service Center Materials Lab to verify any assumptions.
The LPILE1 computer program will generate P-Y curves, or the user can input them. To
obtain generated curves, input a modulus of subgrade reaction (K), and a soil shear strength
(C) which are the values taken from the soils report multiplied by the efficiency factor. To
figure P-Y curves for input, multiply the P-Y values from the soils report by the efficiency
factor.
For a typical soil, the relationship between its normalized resistance value and friction angle
is defined by the curve in Figure 4.4.3-1. The friction angle could be adjusted for efficiency
and input to LPILE1 by following these steps:
4.4-2
1.
Begin at the coordinate of the natural friction angle (36).
2.
Read across to the normalized resistance (61).
3.
Multiply the resistance by the efficiency reduction factor, i.e., 61 (0.5) = 31.
4.
Read across from the reduced value to obtain the adjusted friction angle (31).
5.
Input the value to LPILE1.
August 1998

Criteria
Loads and Loading
Foundation Modeling
Friction Angle ()
PS
= Ka (tan8B-1) + Ko tan tan 4B
bx
PS
Soil Resistance on Pile Element
Pile Width
Soil Unit Weight
Depth to Pile Element
Step in Example
45 + /2
Ka
tan2(45 /2)
Ko
1 Sin
Figure 4.4.3-1
August 1998
4.4-3

Criteria
Loads and Loading
Foundation Modeling
B. Lateral Spring Input to Dynamic Analysis

Lateral spring constants can be generated for input to SEISAB (or GTSTRUDL) by using LPILE1
and two types of loading.
Case 1 Applied Lateral Load See Figure 4.4.3-2(A). Apply a lateral load (F) to the model of a
pile, and restrain its top against rotation. The load produces a deflected shape with the top deflection
being . A moment (M) is also induced. F and M may be plotted against to produce two curves.
The spring constants are defined as slopes of the curves, and their calculation and SEISAB
nomenclature are given by the equations in Figure 4.4.3-2(A).
Make enough LPILE1 runs to define a linear range along the lateral force versus a deflection curve.
Vary axial loads, to bracket the values expected from the dynamic analysis (i.e., SEISAB results).
Include negative axial loads to represent anticipated tension due to uplift effects.
Case 2 Applied Moment See Figure 4.4.3-2(B). Apply a moment (M) to the pile model,
restraining the pile top against translation. Calculate the pile top rotation () from the LPILE1 output
by dividing the deflection at the bottom of the top increment (1) by the increment length (H1). The
spring constants are defined as slopes of the curves, and they are calculated using the equations in
Figure 4.4.3-2(B).
A rapid way to approximate the slope of any curve is to select a point at half of the ultimate lateral
force or moment capacity of the pile. Note that the off-diagonal terms must be equal and opposite in
sign.
Figure 4.4.3-3 contains examples of spring calculation from LPILE1 output.
4.4-4
August 1998

Criteria
Loads and Loading
Foundation Modeling
Figure 4.4.3-2A
Figure 4.4.3-2B
August 1998
4.4-5

Criteria
Loads and Loading
Foundation Modeling
Loading Number 1
Boundary condition code
Lateral load at the pile head
Slope at the pile head
Axial load at the pile head
=
=
=
=
2
0.250D+05 lbs = 25 K applied
0.000D+00 in/in
0.758D+05 lbs
Deflection
Moment
Shear
In
In
Lbs-In
Lbs
*****
**********
********** ********** **********
********** **********
0.00
0.267D+01
-0.383D+07
0.270D+05
0.250D+05
0.000D+00
Total
Stress
Lbs/In**2
Flexural
Rigidity
Lbs-In**2
0.392D+11
=25K
=2.67
KF1F1 = KF3F3 =
Soil
Reaction
Lbs/In
K
25K
= 112
(2.67in / 12 in / ft )
ft
(A)
Loading Number 1
Boundary condition code
Deflection at the pile head
Moment at the pile head
Axial load at the pile head
=
=
=
=
4
0.000D+00 in
0.391D+07 in-lbs = 391 K-in applied
0.103D+06 lbs
Deflection
Moment
Shear
In
In
Lbs-In
Lbs
*****
**********
********** ********** **********
********** **********
0.00
28.04
0.000D+00
-0.237D+00
0.391D+07
0.340D+07
0.281D+05
0.247D+05
0.189D+05
-0.186D+05
Soil
Reaction
Lbs/In
0.000D+00
0.208D+02
Total
Stress
Lbs/In**2
Flexural
Rigidity
Lbs-In**2
0.392D+11
0.392D+11
0.237 = 1
28.04 = H
1
f = Tan1 H = Tan1
1
0.237
= 0.48426
28.04
or = 0.00845 rad
(B)
Sample LPILE1 Output
Figure 4.4.3-3
4.4-6
August 1998

Criteria
Loads and Loading
Foundation Modeling
C. Vertical Springs
Vertical spring constants, Kv (or KF2F2) can be calculated from the following equations:
Point bearing pile: Kv =
AE
L
where,
A
E
L
=
=
=
Cross sectional area

Youngs modulus
Length
Pile having constant skin friction:

Kv =
2AE
L
Pile linearly varying skin friction:

Kv =
3AE
L
Pile partially embedded in the soil:
August 1998
1.
AE
Kv = 1 F L
2.
AE
Kv = 1 2 F L
4.4-7

Criteria
Loads and Loading
Foundation Modeling
Torsional (M/) spring constants for individual piles are based on the strength of the pile only. The
torsional resistance is given by the following equation:
M/
T/
JG/L
where,
G
J
L
=
=
=
0.4 E
Torsional Moment of Inertia
length of pile
D. Stiffness Matrix
Eight individual pile stiffness terms should be put into Seisab, which forms a {6 6} matrix as shown
below:
F1
F2
F3
M1
M2
M3
F1
F2
F3
M1
M2
M3
KF1F1
0
KF2F2
0
0
KF3F3
0
0
-KF3M1
KM1M1
0
0
0
0
KM2M2
KF1M3
0
0
0
0
KM3M3
"Symmetrical"
KF1M3 is cross-coupling term P/. -KF3M1 is cross-coupling term M/d. Note that the two have
opposite signs.
E. GPILE Computer Program
If a large number of piles is required per footing, to reduce Seisab input/output, individual springs can
be used in the GPILE computer program. The output will contain a {6 6} stiffness matrix for the
pile group which can be used to model the foundation in SEISAB. GPILE input includes pile configuration and spring constants. The program also computes individual pile loads and deflections from a
set of input loads. GPILE can be used in conjunction with the plastic hinging moments, transmitted
from the column, to converge on an acceptable pile configuration.
4-4:P:BDM4
4.4-8
August 1998

Criteria
Loads and Loading
4.99
Bibliography
Bibliography
1.
AASHTO, Standard Specifications for Design of Highway Bridges, 1996, Division 1-A Seismic
Design.
2.
Imbsen, R. A., Seismic Design of Highway Bridges, FHWA Workshop Manual, January 1981,
DOT-FH-11-9426.
3.
FHWA/RD-83/007 Seismic Retrofitting Guidelines for Highway Bridges, December 1983.
4.
FHWA-IP-87-6, Seismic Design and Retrofit Manual for Highway Bridges, May 1987.
5.
California Department of Transportation, Bridge Design Practice, 1983.
6.
Chen, R. L., Pile Foundation Modeling for Bridge Dynamic Response Analysis, unpublished paper
available in WSDOT Bridge and Structures Design, April 1987.
7.
Engineering Computer Corporation, SEISAB-I, Workshop Manual, October 1984 and August 1985.
8.
Reese, Lymon C., Documentation of Computer Program LPILE1, report for Ensoft, Inc., The
University of Texas at Austin, 1985.
9.
AASHTO, Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges, 1996.
10. Washington State Department of Transportation, Bridge Computer Programs Manual, GPILE and
DISTBM.
11. Washington State Department of Transportation, 1996, USGS National Seismic Hazards, Mapping
Project.
12. Hart Crowser, Subsurface Explorations and Design Phase Geotechnical Engineering Study, SR 90,
Seattle Access, Volume 111, September 1986, J-712-50.
13. Federal Highway Administration, Manual on Design and Construction of Driven Pile Foundations,
FHWA-DD-66-1, Revision 1.
14. Imbsen & Associates, FHWA, Seismic Design of Highway Bridges Training Course Participant
Workbook, February 1989.
15. FHWA-86/103, Seismic Design of Highway Bridges, Vol. II: Example problems and Sensitivity
Studies, June 1986.
4-99:P:BDM4
August 1998
4.99-1

Appendix A
Loads and Loading
August 1998
Foundation Design Seismic Flow Chart
4.4-A1-1

Appendix A
Loads and Loading
4.4-A1-2
August 1998

Appendix A
Loads and Loading
August 1998
4.4-A1-3

Appendix A
Loads and Loading
4.4-A1-4
August 1998

Appendix A
Loads and Loading
August 1998
4.4-A1-5

Appendix A
Loads and Loading
4.4-A1-6
August 1998

Appendix A
Loads and Loading
August 1998
4.4-A1-7

Appendix A
Loads and Loading
4.4-A1-8
August 1998

Appendix A
Loads and Loading
August 1998
4.4-A1-9

Appendix A
Loads and Loading
4.4-A1-10
August 1998

Appendix A
Loads and Loading
August 1998
Peak Ground Acceleration Map
4.4-A2

Appendix B
Loads and Loading
Basic Truck Loading
Basic Truck Loading

HS25
August 1998
4.3-B1

Appendix B
Loads and Loading
August 1998
4.3-B2-1

Appendix B
Loads and Loading
4.3-B2-2
August 1998

Appendix B
Loads and Loading
A recent analysis of a bridge on I-90 in the Mercer Slough area near Bellevue provides the following
example:
The deep soft soil at the site is classified as Type III from the AASHTO Specifications. An
acceleration coefficient of 0.25, see Figure 4.1.5-1, was selected as appropriate.
The acceleration spectrum shown in Appendix 4.3-B3-2 was used to load the bridge. The results which
SEISAB calculated for the first 6 modes of oscillation appear in Appendix 4.3-B3-3. The CS values in
the table relate directly to the response periods of the various modes as solutions to the equation:
CS = 1.22AS
/3
T
where:
A
The acceleration coefficient
The soil profile coefficient (1.5 in this case)
The period of vibration of the bridge, the time it takes for one cycle of oscillation
In an undamped, single degree of freedom system, the natural period is defined as:
T=
M
K
where:
M
The mass involved
The spring constant
See Bibliography 1 and 7 for further comments and procedures.

CS, the elastic seismic response coefficient, is the percentage of a gravity force which is applied to the
bridge for a particular mode. The participation factors indicate that modes 1 and 3 contribute most heavily
to the design forces. In this case, the ground sends 0.25 g and the bridge receives about 0.50 g.
The 0.50 g applied, divided by R = 5, translates to 0.1 g when figuring design moments for a multiple
column bent. Design shears would be the lesser of the values produced by 0.50 g and the shears associated
with plastic hinging moments. Since the column reinforcement may yield when the 0.1 g level is reached,
the energy remaining will be redistributed to the remainder of the bridge. The main column reinforcement
must be adequately confined by ties or spirals to allow redistribution to occur while maintaining structural
integrity.
P:DP/BDM4
August 1998
4.3-B3-1

Appendix B
Loads and Loading
Example Seismic Analysis
4.3-B3-2
August 1998

Appendix B
Loads and Loading
Example Seismic Analysis (Continued)
August 1998
4.3-B3-3

Appendix B
Loads and Loading
Given Data
Cohesionless soil Poissons ratio = 0.33 =
Soil density 120 pcf =
VS = shear wave velocity = 1,500 ft/sec
Solution:
Shear Modulus
120 lb/ft 3 (1, 500 ft/sec)
G= Vs2 = 32.2 ft/sec 2 1000 Lb/ K

(
)
Vertical Stiffness
L/W;
Z ;
1.0
2.12
L/W =
KZ =
1.5
2.14
18
= 1.20
15
2.0
2.18
3.0
2.26
5.0
2.44
10.0
2.82
Z = 2.13
Z G LW
K
2.13 8385 18 15
=
= 438,000
1
ft
1 0.33
Embedment Factor
ro =
KW
=- 9.27
H
6
ro = 9.27 = 0.65
August 1998
4.4-B1-1

Appendix B
Loads and Loading
Vertical Stiffness Modified

KZH = 1.36 KZ = 1.36 438,000 = 596,000 kips/ft = KFY
Horizontal Stiffness
L
= 1.20 < 5
W
x = 2.0
KX = X (1 )
G LW
= 2.0 (1 0.33)
8385
(See page 6-37 of Bilbliography 2 for explanation.)
18 15 = 185,000 K/ft
Assuming that the horizontal embedment effect is the same as the vertical.
Horizontal Stiffness Modified
KXH = 1.85 105 1.36 = 2.5 105 K/ft = KFX = KFZ
4.4-B1-2
August 1998

Appendix B
Loads and Loading
Rocking Stiffness
Long Direction
R=
d
= 1.20
c
R;
;
c = 7.5
d = 9
= 0.52
0.2
0.4
0.5
0.45
1.0
0.5
2.0
0.6
4.0
0.8
6.0
0.95
8.0
1.1
(8G cd )
2
K =
K ft
0.52 8 8385 7.5 9 2
= 3.2 107
rad
1 0.33
KH = 1.36 (3.2 107) = 4.3 107
K ft
= KMZ
rad
Short Direction
R=
c
= 0.83
d
K =
= 0.48
(8G)dc 2
1
= 2.4 107
K ft
rad
0.48 8 8385 9 7.52

1 0.33
K H = 1.36 (2.4 107) = 3.3 107
K ft
rad
Torsional Stiffness
rc =
K =
16cd(c 2 + d 2 )
6
=4
16 7.5 9(7.52 + 9 2 )
6
16
16
K ft
Gre3 =
8385 9.423 = 3.7 107
3
3
rad
K H = 1.36 (3.7 107) = 5.0 107
K ft
= KMY
rad
Appendix 4.4-B1-4 depicts the footing from the example in spring matrix form. The nomenclature is
general, and is used for GTSTRUDL input (GTSTRUDL 4.2.2d contains a similar matrix using
SEISAB nomenclature).
August 1998
4.4-B1-3

Appendix B
Loads and Loading
Spring Matrix
4.4-B1-4
August 1998

Criteria
Contents
Page
5.0
5.1
5.1.1
5.1.2
5.2
5.2.1
5.2.2
5.3
5.3.1
5.3.2
5.3.3
5.3.4
5.3.5
Reinforced Concrete Superstructures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Concrete and Grout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Classes of Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Strength of Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Grout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Grades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Splices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E. Bends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F. Fabrication Lengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
G. Placement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
H. Percentage Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Design Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Strength Design Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Design Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Flexure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Strut-and-Tie Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E. Shear and Torsion, ACI Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F. Shear and Torsion, Strut-and-Tie Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
G. Deflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
H. Serviceability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Working Stress Design Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Reinforced Concrete Box Girder Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Girder Spacing and Basic Geometries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Girder Spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Basic Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Construction Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Load Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Top Slab Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Bottom Slab Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Web Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Intermediate Diaphragm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Crossbeam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Basic Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Reinforcing Steel Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
End Diaphragm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Basic Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Reinforcing Steel Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dead Load Deflection and Camber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
July 2000
5.1-1
1
1
1
1
2
3
3
3
4
4
9
9
10
10
5.2-1
1
1
1
2
2
7
7
7
7
8
5.3-1
1
1
1
3
3
4
4
7
7
11
13
13
13
14
14
16
16
5.0-i

Criteria
Contents
Page
5.3.6
5.3.7
5.3.8
5.4
5.5
5.5.1
5.5.2
5.5.3
5.5.4
5.5.5
5.5.6
5.5.7
5.5.8
5.99
5.0-ii
Thermal Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Effective Bridge Temperature and Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Differential Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hinges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Utility Openings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Confined Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Drain Holes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Access Hole and Air Vent Holes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hinges and Inverted T-Beam Pier Caps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Local Failure Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Shear Friction Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Flexural Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Hanger Tension Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E. Punching Shear Check . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F. Bearing Strength Check . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Widenings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Review of Existing Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Original Contract Plans and Special Provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Original Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Final Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Analysis and Design Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Seismic Design Criteria for Bridge Widenings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Substructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Superstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E. Stability of Widening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Removing Portions of the Existing Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Attachment of Widening to Existing Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Connection Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Expansion Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Possible Future Widening for Current Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bridge Widening Falsework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Existing Bridge Widenings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17
17
17
19
19
19
19
19
5.4-1
1
4
5
6
7
8
5.5-1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
4
5
6
7
7
7
7
11
19
20
20
21
5.99-1
July 2000

Criteria
Contents

5.1-A1
Reinforcing Bar Properties
5.1-A2
Bar Area vs. Bar Spacing
5.1-A3
Bar Area vs. Number of Bars
5.1-A4
Tension Development Length of Straight Deformed Bars
5.1-A5
Tension Development Length of Standard 90 and 180 Hooks
5.1-A6
Tension Lap Splice Lengths of Grade 60 Uncoated Bars
5.1-A7
Minimum Development Length and Minimum Lap Splices of Deformed Bars
in Compression
5.2-A1
Values for Singly Reinforced Beams fc = 3,000 psi fy = 60,000 psi
5.2-A2
5.2-A3
5.3-A1
Positive Moment Reinforcement
5.3-A2
Negative Moment Reinforcement
5.3-A3
Adjusted Negative Moment Case I (Design for M @ Face of Effective Support)
5.3-A4
Adjusted Negative Moment Case II (Design for M @ 1/4 Point)
5.3-A5
Load Factor Slab Design fc = 4,000 psi
5.3-A6
Load Factor Slab Design fc = 5,000 psi
5.3-A7
Slab Design Traffic Barrier Load
5.2-B1
Slab Design
5.2-B2
Slab Design for Prestressed Girders
5.2-B3
Strut-and-Tie Design
5.2-B4
Working Stress Design
P65:DP/BDM5
July 2000
5.0-iii

Criteria
5.0
5.1
General
General
Prior to precast pretensioned and post-tensioned concrete members introduced in the early 1960s, all short
and medium span bridges were built as cast-in-place (CIP) reinforced concrete superstructures.
Examples of reinforced concrete superstructures are: flat slabs, slab and T-beams, arches, slabs for all
types of steel bridges, and box girders.
Many of the bridges built before 1960 are functional, durable, and structurally sound. The service life of
some of these early bridges can be extended by widening their decks to accommodate increased traffic
demand or to improve safety. This chapter addresses special requirements for widenings.
The design aids in this chapter can also be utilized in the design of nonprestressed reinforcement in
prestressed structural elements and reinforced concrete substructures.
5.1.1
Concrete and Grout

A. Classes of Concrete
1.
CLASS 3000
Used in large sections with light to nominal reinforcement, mass pours, sidewalks, curbs, gutters,
and nonstructural concrete guardrail anchors, luminaire bases.
2.
CLASS 4000
Used in traffic and pedestrian barriers, approach slabs, footings, box culverts, wing walls, curtain
walls, retaining walls, columns, and crossbeams.
3.
CLASS 4000D
Used in bridge concrete decks. Standard specifications require two coats of curing compound and
a continuous wet cure for 14 days.
4.
CLASS 4000P
Used for cast-in-place pile and shaft.
5.
CLASS 4000W
Used underwater in seals.
6.
CLASS 5000 or Higher

Used in CIP post-tensioned concrete box girder construction or in other special structural
applications situations. Use of CLASS 5000 or higher requires approval of the Bridge Design
Engineer, the Olympia Service Center, and Materials Lab. Place documentation in job file.
B. Strength of Concrete
1.
July 2000
The 28-day compressive design strengths (fc) in pounds per square inch (psi) are:
5.1-1

Criteria
General
f c
Class
COMMERCIAL
3000
4000, 4000D
4000W
5000
6000
4000P
2300
3000
4000
2400*
5000**
6000
3400***
*40 percent reduction from CLASS 4000.

**Concrete Class 5000 is available within a 30-mile radius of Seattle, Spokane, and Vancouver.
Outside this 30-mile radius, concrete suppliers do not have the quality control rocedures and
expertise to Supply Control Class 5000.
***15 percent reduction from CLASS 4000 for all drilled shafts.
2.
Relative Compressive Concrete Strength

a.
During design or construction of a bridge, it is necessary to determine the strength of

concrete at various stages of construction. For instance, Section 6-02.3(17)J of the Standard
Specifications discusses the time at which falsework and forms can be removed to various
percentages of the concrete design strength. Occasionally, construction problems will arise
which require a knowledge of the relative strengths of concrete at various ages. Table 5.1-1
is intended to supply this information.
b.
Curing conditions of the concrete (especially in the first 24 hours) have a very important
influence on the strength development of concrete at all ages. Temperature affects the rate
at which the chemical reaction between cement and water takes place. Loss of moisture can
seriously impair the concrete strength.
c.
Table 5.1-1 shows the approximate values of the minimum compressive strengths of different classes of concrete at various ages. If the concrete has been cured under continuous moist
curing at an average temperature, it can be assumed that these values have been developed.
d.
If test strength is above or below that shown in Table 5.1-1, the age at which the design
strength will be reached can be determined by direct proportion.
For example, if the relative strength at 10 days is 64 percent instead of the minimum
70 percent shown in Table 5.1-1, the time it takes to reach the design strength can be
determined as follows:
Let x =
relative strength to determine the age at which the concrete will reach
the design strength
x
100
=
Therefore, x = 110
70
64
From Table 5.1-1, the design strength should be reached in 40 days.
C. Grout
Grout is usually a prepackaged cement based grout or nonshrink grout that is mixed, placed, and
cured as recommended by the manufacturer. It is used under steel base plates for both bridge bearings
and luminaire or sign bridge bases. Nonshrink grout is used in keyways between precast prestressed
deck slabs, tri-beams, and bulb-tees. For design purposes, the strength of the grout, if properly cured,
can be assumed to be equal to or greater than that of the adjacent concrete.
Should the grout pad thickness exceed 4 inches, steel reinforcement shall be used.
5.1-2
July 2000

Criteria
General
The following chart shows approximate relative strength of concrete and compressive strength of different
classes of concrete at various ages based on continuous moist curing at an average temperature.
Relative and Compressive Strength of Concrete
Table 5.1.1-1
Relative
Age Strength
(Days)
(%)
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
5.1.2
35
43
50
55
59
63
67
70
73
75
77
79
81
83
85
87
89
Class
5000
(psi)
Class
4000
(psi)
Class
3000
(psi)
1750
2150
2500
2750
2950
3150
3350
3500
3650
3750
3850
3950
4050
4150
4250
4350
4450
1400
1720
2000
2200
2360
2520
2680
2800
2920
3000
3080
3160
3240
3320
3400
3480
3560
1050
1290
1500
1650
1770
1890
2010
2100
2190
2250
2310
2370
2430
2490
2550
2610
2670
Relative
Age Strength
(Days)
(%)
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
91
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
102
110
115
120
125
129
131
Class
5000
(psi)
Class
4000
(psi)
Class
3000
(psi)
4550
4650
4700
4750
4800
4850
4900
4950
5000
5100
5500
5750
6000
6250
6450
6550
3640
3720
3760
3800
3840
3880
3920
3960
4000
4080
4400
4600
4800
5000
5160
5240
2730
2790
2820
2850
2880
2910
2940
2970
3000
3060
3300
3450
3600
3750
3870
3930
Reinforcement
A. Grades
Steel reinforcing bars are manufactured as plain or deformed bars (which have ribbed projections that
grip the concrete in order to provide better bond between steel and concrete). In Washington State,
main bars are always deformed. Plain bars are used for spirals and ties.
Reinforcing bars conform to either the requirements of AASHTO M31, Grade 60 (ASTM A-615
Grade 60) with a 60,000 psi yield strength or in the case of bars in portions of concrete members
where plastic hanging can occur during an earthquake or which are to be spliced by welding,
ASTM A 706 Specifications for Low-Alloy Steel deformed Bars for Concrete Reinforcement.
B. Sizes
Reinforcing bars are referred to in the contract plans and specifications by number and vary in
size from #3 to #18. For bars up to and including #8, the number of the bar coincides with the bar
diameter in eighths of an inch. The #9, #10, and #11 bars have diameters that provide areas equal
to 1 x 1 square bars, 11/8 x 11/8 square bars and 11/4 x 11/4 square bars respectively. Similarly,
the #14 and #18 bars correspond to 11/2 x 11/2 and 2 x 2 square bars, respectively. Tables 5.1-A1
through 5.1-A3 in Appendix A, show the sizes, number, and various properties of the types of bars
used in Washington State.
July 2000
5.1-3

Criteria
General
C. Development
1.
Development Length, ld, in Tension

Development length or anchorage of reinforcement is required on both sides of a point of
maximum stress at any section of a reinforced concrete member.
Development of bars in tension involves calculating the basic development length, ldb, which
is modified by factors to reflect bar spacing, cover, enclosing transverse reinforcement, top
bar effect, type of aggregate, epoxy coating, and ratio of required area to provided area of
reinforcement to be developed.
The development length, ld (including all applicable modification factors) must not be less
than 12 inches.
Tables 5.1-A4 and 5.1-A5 in Appendix A, show the tension development length for both uncoated and epoxy coated Grade 60 bars for normal weight concrete with specified strengths of
3,000 to 6,000 psi.
2.
Development Length, ld, in Compression

The basic development lengths for deformed bars in compression are shown in Table 5.1-A7,
Appendix A. These values may be modified for ratio of required area vs. provided area of
reinforcement, or for bars enclosed in a 1/4 inch diameter spiral at 4 inch maximum pitch.
However, the minimum development length is 1 foot 0 inches (office practice).
3.
Standard End Hook Development Length, ldh, in Tension

Standard end hooks, utilizing 90 and 180 degree end hooks, are used to develop bars in tension
where space limitations restrict the use of straight bars. End hooks on compression bars are not
effective for development length purposes. Figures 5.1.2-1 and 5.1.2-2 and Table 5.1.2-1 show
the minimum embedment lengths necessary to provide 2 inches of cover on the tails of 90 and
180 degree end hooks. Epoxy coating does not affect the tension development lengths, ldh, of
standard 90 and 180 degree end hooks. The values shown in Table 5.1-1A5, Appendix A, show
the tension development lengths for normal weight concrete with specified strengths of 3,000 to
6,000 psi.
D. Splices
Three methods are used to splice reinforcing bars; lap splices, mechanical splices, and welded splices.
Lap splicing of reinforcing bars is the most common method. The Contract Plans should clearly show
the locations and lengths of lap splice. Lap splices are not permitted for bars larger than #11.
No lap splices, for either tension or compression bars, shall be less than 2 feet 0 inches (office
practice). See Section 8.32 of the Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges and Section
6-02.3(24)D Standard Specifications for additional splice requirements.
1.
Lap Splices Tension

Many of the same factors which affect development length affect splices. Consequently, tension
lap splices are a function of the bars development length, ld. There are three classes of tension
lap splices: Class A, B, and C. Designers are encouraged to splice bars at points of minimum
stress and to stagger lap splices along the length of the bars.
5.1-4
July 2000

Criteria
General
Minimum Embedment Lengths to Provide 2-inch Cover to Tail of Standard 180 End Hooks
Table 5.1.2-1
#3
#4
#5
#6
#7
#8
#9
#10
#11
#14
#18
10
1-0
1-2
1-3
1-5
1-7
2-10
3-7
Standard 180 and 90 End Hooks

Figure 5.1.2-1
Special Confinement for 180 and 90 End Hooks

Figure 5.1.2-2
July 2000
5.1-5

Criteria
General
Recommended End Hooks
Table 5.1.2-2
5.1-6
July 2000

Criteria
General
Figure 5.1.2-3
July 2000
5.1-7

Criteria
General
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 5.1.2-4
5.1-8
July 2000

Criteria
General
Table 5.1A6 in Appendix A, shows tension lap splices for both uncoated and epoxy coated
Grade 60 bars for normal weight concrete with specified strengths of 3,000 to 6,000 psi. For
additional requirements, see Section 8.32.3 of the AASHTO Standard Specifications for
Highway Bridges.
For Seismic Performance Categories C and D, Section 8.4.1(F) of the AASHTO Standard
Specifications for Seismic Design of Highway Bridges, the lap splices for longitudinal column
bars are permitted only within the center half of the column height and shall not be less than the
lap splices given in Table 5.1-A6 in Appendix A, or 60 bar diameters whichever is greater.
Note that the maximum spacing of the transverse reinforcement (i.e., column ties) over the
length of the splice shall not exceed the smaller of 4 inches or 1/4 of the minimum column plan
dimension.
2.
Lap Splices Compression

The compression lap splices shown in Table 5.1-A7 (right-hand column) in Appendix A, are
for concrete strengths greater than 3,000 psi. If the concrete strength is less than 3,000 psi, the
compression lap splices should be increased by one third. Note that when two bars of different
diameters are lap spliced, the length of the lap splice shall be the larger of the lap splice for the
smaller bar or the development length of the larger bar.
3.
Mechanical Splices
A second method of splicing is by mechanical splices, which are proprietary splicing
mechanisms. The requirements for mechanical splices are found in Section 6-02.3(24)F of the
Standard Specifications, Sections 8.32.2 and 8.32.3 of the AASHTO Standard Specifications for
Highway Bridges, and Section 8.4.1(F) of the Standard Specifications for Seismic Design of
Highway Bridges.
4.
Welded Splices
Welding of reinforcing bars is the third acceptable method of splicing reinforcing bars. Section
6-02.3(24)E of the Standard Specifications describes the requirements for welding reinforcing
steel. On modifications to existing structures, welding of reinforcing bars may not be possible
because of the non-weldability of some steels. See Sections 8.32.2 and 8.32.3 of the AASHTO
Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges and Section 8.4.1(F) of the Standard Specifications
for Seismic Design of Highway Bridges for additional welded splice requirements.
E. Bends
For standard hooks and bend radii, see Table 5.1-15. Note that the tail lengths are greater for the 135
seismic tie hook than for the regular or nonseismic 135 tie hook. For field bending requirements, see
Section 6-02.3(24)A of the Standard Specifications.
F. Fabrication Lengths
Reinforcing bars are normally stocked in lengths of 60 feet. They can also be fabricated in longer
lengths.
July 2000
5.1-9

Criteria
General
The maximum overall bar lengths to be specified on the plans are:

Bar Size
#3
#4, #5
#6, #7
#8, #9, #10
#11, #14, #18
Maximum Length
30-0
40-0
60-0
60-0
60-0
Where possible, specify lengths 60 feet and less for bar sizes #8 through #18. Because of placement
considerations, the overall lengths of bar size #3 has been limited to 30 feet and bar sizes #4 and #5
to 40 feet. To use longer lengths, the designer should make sure that the bars can be placed and
transported by truck. See Table 5.1-A1 in Appendix A.
G. Placement
Placement of reinforcing bars can be a problem during construction. Reinforcing bars are more than
just lines on the drawing, they have size, weight, and volume. In confined areas, the designer should
ensure that reinforcing bars can be placed. Sometimes it may be necessary to make a large scale
drawing of reinforcement to look for interference and placement problems. If interference is expected,
additional details may be required in the contract plans showing how to handle the interference and
placement problems.
H. Percentage Requirements
There are several AASHTO requirements to ensure that minimum reinforcement is provided in
reinforced concrete members.
1.
Flexure
The reinforcement provided at any section should be adequate to develop a moment at least 1.2
times the cracking moment calculated on the basis of the modulus of rupture for normal weight
concrete. The modulus of rupture for normal weight concrete is 7.5 fc . This requirement may
be waived if the area of reinforcement provided is at least one-third greater than that required by
analysis. For additional minimum reinforcement required, see Section 8.17, AASHTO Standard
2.
Compression
For columns, the area of longitudinal reinforcement shall not exceed 0.08 nor be less than 0.01 of
the gross area, Ag, of the section. Preferably, the ratio of longitudinal reinforcement should not
exceed 0.04 of the gross area, Ag, to ensure constructibility and placement of concrete. If a ratio
greater than 0.04 is used, the designer should verify that concrete can be placed. If for architectural purposes the cross section is larger than that required by the loading, a reduced effective
area may be used. The reduced effective area shall not be less than that which would require
1percent of the longitudinal area to carry the loading. Additional lateral reinforcement requirements are given in Section 8.18, AASHTO Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges, and
for plastic hinge zones, see Section 8.4.1(D), AASHTO Standard Specifications for the Seismic
Design of Highway Bridges. For column reinforcing, ASTM A 706 reinforcing should be
pecified to improve durability.
3.
Other Minimum Reinforcement Requirements

For minimum shear reinforcement requirements, see Section 8.19 and for minimum temperature
and shrinkage reinforcement, see Section 8.20, AASHTO Standard Specifications for Highway
Bridges.
5.1-10
July 2000

Criteria
5.2
Design Methods
5.2.1
Strength Design Method
Design Methods
A. Design Philosophy
In the strength design method or ultimate strength method, the service loads are increased by load
factors to obtain the ultimate design load. The structural members are then proportioned to provide
the design ultimate strength. Several textbooks listed in the bibliography, which are excellent
sources [1,2,3].
B. Flexure
The basic strength design requirement can be expressed as follows:
Design Strength Required Strength or Mn Mu
(1)
For design purposes, the area of reinforcement for a singly reinforced beam or slab can be determined
by letting:
Mu = Mn = [As (fy) (d a/2)]
(2)
However, if a As(fy)/(0.85)(fc)(b) and = As/(b)(d)
(3)
Equation (2) can be expressed as:

Mu/ (b) (d)2 = (fy) [1 0.59 () fy/fc]
(4)
Tables 5.2-1 through 5.2-3 in Appendix 5.2-A1, -A2, and -A3, were prepared based on Eq (4) to
quickly determine the amount of reinforcing steel required, As required, when Mu, fc, fy, b, and d
are known.
An alternate approach is to solve directly for As required from:
As required =
0.85 fc (b)
fy
(
d
d2
31.3725 Mu
fc (b)
where
Mu = kips in
fc = ksi
(5)
Similarly, substituting 1.2Mcr for Mu, As min can be found from:

As min =
0.85 fc (b)
fy
(
d
d2
0.124 h2
f c
where
h = slab thickness
(6)
From AASHTO 8.16.3.1.1 and 8.16.3.2.2, As max can be found from:

As max = 0.6375 1 (b) (d)
where
fc
fy
87
87 + fy
(7)
1 = 0.85 if fc 4 ksi and

1 = 0.85 0.05 (fc 4) if fc > 4 ksi, but not less than 0.65
Tension reinforcement should be designed in the following order:
July 2000
1.
From Eq (5) or Tables 5.2-A1 through 5.2-A3 in Appendix A, determine As required.
2.
From Eq (6) determine As min.
3.
From Eq (7) or Tables 5.2-A1 through 5.2-A3 in Appendix A, determine As max.
5.2-1

Criteria
4.
Design Methods
If As required > As max, increase the members dimensions.

If As max > As required > As min, use As As required.
If As required < As min < 1.33 As required, use As As min.
If 1.33 As required < As min, use As 1.33 As required.
Always use As As max.
See Appendix 5.2-B1 and 5.2-B2 for design examples.

C. Shear
The AASHTO Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges addresses shear design of members
in Section 8.16.6. Shear friction provisions (Section 8.16.6.4) are applied to transfer shear across
a plane, such as: an existing or potential crack, an interface between dissimilar materials, or at a
construction joint between two sections of concrete placed at different times.
The shear design for deep beams is not addressed in the AASHTO Standard Specifications, but is
discussed in Section 11.8, ACI 318-89 Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete and
Commentary, and ACI-ASCE Committee 343 Analysis and Design of Reinforced Concrete Bridge
Structures [4,5,6].
D. Strut-and-Tie Model
1.
General
Strut-and-tie models may be used to determine internal force effects near supports and the points
of application of concentrated loads [16].
The strut-and-tie model should be considered for the design of deep footings and pile caps or
other situations in which the distance between the centers of applied load and supporting reaction
is less than twice the member thickness.
2.
Structural Modeling
The structure and a component or region, thereof, may be modeled as an assembly of steel
tension ties and concrete compressive struts interconnected at nodes to form a truss capable
of carrying all the applied loads to the supports as shown in Figure 5.2.1-1 for a deep beam.
The required widths of compression struts and tension ties shall be considered in determining
the geometry of the truss. The truss model does not necessarily need to conform to structural
stability as a real truss would.
The factored resistance, Pn,of struts and ties shall be taken as that of axially loaded components.
Pu = Pn
where:
Pn = nominal resistance of strut or tie (KIP)
= 0.7 Compression
= 0.9 Tension
5.2-2
July 2000

Criteria
3.
Design Methods
Proportioning of Compressive Struts

a.
Strength of Unreinforced Strut

The nominal resistance of an unreinforced compressive strut shall be taken as:
Pn = fcuAcs
where:
Pn = nominal resistance of a compressive strut (kips)
fcu = limiting compressive stress (ksi)
Acs = effective cross-sectional area of strut (in2)
b.
Effective Cross-Sectional Area of Strut

The value of Acs shall be determined by considering both the available concrete area and the
anchorage conditions at the ends of the strut, as shown in Figure 5.2.1-2.
When a strut is anchored by reinforcement, the effective concrete area may be considered
to extend a distance of up to six bar diameters from the anchored bar, as shown in Figures
5.2.1-2(a), 5.2.1-2(b), and 5.2.1-2(c).
c.
Limiting Compressive Stress in Strut

The limiting compressive stress, fcu, shall be taken as:
fcu =
fc
0.8 + 1701
0.8 fc
for which:
1 = s + (s + 0.002) cot2 s
where:
as
= the smallest angle between the compressive strut and adjoining tension
ties (DEG)
s = the tensile strain in the concrete in the direction of the tension tie (in/in)
fc = specified compressive strength (ksi)
d.
Reinforced Strut
If the compressive strut contains reinforcement that is parallel to the strut and detailed to
develop its yield stress in compression as shown in Figure 5.2.1-2(d), the nominal resistance
of the strut shall be taken as:
Pn = fcu Acs + fy Ass
where:
Ass = area of reinforcement in the strut (in2)
July 2000
5.2-3

Criteria
Design Methods
Strut-and-Tie Model for Deep Beam

Figure 5.2.1-1
5.2-4
July 2000

Criteria
Design Methods
Influence of Anchorage Conditions on Effective Cross-Sectional Area of Strut

Figure 5.2.1-2
July 2000
5.2-5

Criteria
4.
Design Methods
Proportioning of Tension Ties

a.
Strength of Tie
Tension tie reinforcement shall be anchored to the nodal zones by specified embedment
lengths, hooks, or mechanical anchorages. The tension force shall be developed at the inner
face of the nodal zone.
The nominal resistance of a tension tie in KIP shall be taken as:
Pn = fy Ast + Aps [fpe + fy]
where:
Ast
Aps
fy
fpe
b.
=
=
=
=
total area of longitudinal mild steel reinforcement in the tie (IN2)

area of prestressing steel (IN2)
yield strength of mild steel longitudinal reinforcement (KSI)
stress in prestressing steel due to prestress after losses (KSI)
Anchorage of Tie
The tension tie reinforcement shall be anchored to transfer the tension force therein to
the node regions of the truss in accordance with the requirements for development of
reinforcement as specified in Article 5.1.2C.
5.
Proportioning of Node Regions

Unless confining reinforcement is provided and its effect is supported by analysis or
experimentation, the concrete compressive stress in the node regions of the strut shall not exceed:
For node regions bounded by compressive struts and bearing areas: 0.85 fc
For node regions anchoring a one-direction tension tie: 0.75 fc
For node regions anchoring tension ties in more than one direction: 0.65 fc
where:
= 0.7 resistance factor for bearing on concrete
The tension tie reinforcement shall be uniformly distributed over an effective area of concrete at
least equal to the tension tie force divided by the stress limits specified herein.
In addition to satisfying strength criteria for compression struts and tension ties, the node regions
shall be designed to comply with the stress and anchorage limits.
6.
Crack Control Reinforcement

Structures and components or regions thereof, except for slabs and footings, which have been
designed in accordance with the provisions strut-and-tie model, shall contain an orthogonal
grid of reinforcing bars near each face. The spacing of the bars in these grids shall not exceed
12.0 inches.
The ratio of reinforcement area to gross concrete area shall not be less than 0.003 in each
direction.
Crack control reinforcement, located within the tension tie, may be considered as part of the
tension tie reinforcement.
5.2-6
July 2000

Criteria
Design Methods
E. Shear and Torsion, ACI Method

The AASHTO Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges does not address the design of reinforced
concrete members for torsion. The design for shear and torsion is based on ACI 318-95 Building
Code Requirements for Structural Concrete and Commentary (318F-95) and is satisfactory for bridge
members with dimensions similar to those normally used in buildings. The AASHTO LRFD Specifications Article 5.8.3.6 may also be used for design of sections subjected to shear and torsion.
F. Shear and Torsion, Strut-and-Tie Method
According to Hsu [7], utilizing ACI 318-89 for members is awkward and overly conservative when
applied to large-size hollow members. Collins and Mitchell [8] propose a rational design method for
shear and torsion based on the compression field theory or strut and tie method for both prestressed
and non-prestressed concrete beams. These methods assume that diagonal compressive stresses can
be transmitted through cracked concrete. In addition to transmitting these diagonal compressive
stresses, shear stresses are transmitted from one face of the crack to the other by a combination of
aggregate interlock and dowel action of the stirrups.
For recommendations and design examples for beams in shear and torsion, the designer can refer
to the paper by M.P. Collins and D. Mitchell, Shear and Torsion Design of Prestressed and
Non-Prestressed Concrete Beams, PCI Journal, September-October 1980, pp. 32-100 [8]. See
Appendix 5.2-B3 for a strut and tie design example for a pier cap.
G. Deflection
Flexural members are designed to have adequate stiffness to limit deflections or any deformations
which may adversely affect the strength or serviceability of the structure at service load plus impact.
The minimum superstructure depths are specified in AASHTO Table 8.9.2 and deflections shall be
computed in accordance with Section 8.13, AASHTO Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges.
H. Seviceability
In addition to the deflection control requirements described above, service load stresses shall be
limited to satisfy fatigue (Section 8.16.8.3) and for distribution of tension reinforcement when fy for
tension reinforcement exceeds 40,000 psi (Section 8.16.8.4 AASHTO Specifications).
To control cracking of the concrete, tension reinforcement at maximum positive and negative moment
sections shall be chosen so that the calculated service load stress, fs in ksi, shall be less than the value
computed by:
z
1/
fs =
3 0.6 fy
(dc x A)
The requirements for control of cracking apply to superstructure elements only
The calculated service load stress is calculated utilizing Working Stress Design (WSD) principles
described below. The values of dc and A are defined in Section 8.16.8.4 of the AASHTO Standard
Specifications for Highway Bridges. The value z shall be 130 kips per inch for girder and crossbeam
reinforcing bars in negative moment regions, and all deck reinforcing bars. A value of 170 kips per
inch shall be used for all other positive moment regions. Note that this check is for distribution of
flexural reinforcement to control cracking. See Appendix 5.2-B2 which shows the flexural reinforcement at a pier location placed equally in top and bottom layers. When this is done, the total slab
thickness can be used in computing A.
July 2000
5.2-7

Criteria
5.2.2
Design Methods
Working Stress Design Method

Prior to the strength design method, introduced in the 1973, AASHTO Standard Specifications for
Highway Bridges, the working stress design (WSD) method was used to design bridges. Many design aids
were produced as a result. The ACI Publication SP-3, Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook Working
Stress Method [9], is a publication that was widely used by designers and several textbooks have sections
devoted to WSD [1,2].
Working Stress Design principles are used to compute the tensile stress, fs, and Mcr, which are used to
check crack control and minimum flexural reinforcement respectively. Design aid for working stress
design method for Class 3000 and 4000 concrete is provided in Appendix B4.
P65:DP/BDM5
5.2-8
July 2000

Criteria
5.3
Reinforced Concrete Box Girder Bridges

A typical box girder bridge is comprised of top and bottom concrete slabs connected by a series of vertical
girder stems. This section is a guide for designing:
Top slab
Bottom slab
Girder stem (web)
For design criteria not covered, see Section 2.4.1.C.
5.3.1
Girder Spacing and Basic Geometries

A. Girder Spacing
The most economical web spacing for ordinary box girder bridges varies from about 8 to 12 feet.
Greater girder spacing requires some increase in both top and bottom slab thickness, but the cost of
the additional concrete can be offset by decreasing the total number of girder stems. Fewer girder
stems reduces the amount of form work required and a lower cost.
The number of girder stems can be reduced by cantilevering the top slab beyond the exterior girders.
A deck overhang of approximately one-half the girder spacing generally gives satisfactory results.
This procedure usually results in a more aesthetic as well as a more economical bridge.
For girder stem spacing in excess of 12 feet or cantilever overhang in excess of 6 feet, transverse
post-tensioning shall be used.
B. Basic Dimensions (Figure 5.3.1-1)
1.
Top Slab Thickness, T1 (includes 1/2 wearing surface)

T1 = 12 x (S+10)/30 but not less than 7 with overlay or 7.5 without overlay.
2.
Bottom Slab Thickness, T2

a.
Near Center Span

T2 = 12 x (Sclr)/16 but not less than 5.5 (normally 6.0 is used).
b.
Near Intermediate Piers

Thickening of the bottom slab is often used in negative moment regions to control
compressive stresses that are significant.
Transition slope = 24:1 (see T2 in Figure 5.3.2-8).
3.
Girder Stem (Web) Thickness, T3

a.
Near Center Span

Minimum T3 = 9.0 vertical
Minimum T3 = 10.0 if sloped
b.
Near Supports
Thickening of girder stems is used in areas adjacent to supports to control shear
requirements.
July 2000
5.3-1

Criteria
Changes in girder web thickness shall be tapered for a minimum distance of 12 times the
difference in web thickness.
Maximum T3 = T3+4.0 maximum
Transition length = 12 x (T3) in inches
Basic Dimensions
Figure 5.3.1-1
5.3-2
July 2000

Criteria
4.
Intermediate Diaphragm Thickness, T4 and Diaphragm Spacing

a.
For tangent and curved bridge with R > 800 feet

T4 = 0 (Diaphragms are not required.)
b.
For curved bridge with R < 800 feet

T4 = 8.0
Diaphragm spacing shall be as follows:
For 600 < R < 800at 1/2 pt. of span.
For 400 < R < 600 at 1/3 pt. of span.
For R < 400 at 1/4 pt. of span.
C. Construction Considerations
Review the following construction considerations to ensure that:
1.
Construction joints at slab/stem interface or fillet/stem interface at top slab are appropriate.
2.
All construction joints to have roughened surfaces.
3.
Bottom slab is parallel to top slab (constant depth).
4.
Girder stems are vertical.
5.
Dead load deflection and camber to nearest 1/8.
6.
Skew and curvature effects have been considered.
7.
Thermal effects have been considered.
8.
The potential for falsework settlement is acceptable. This always requires added stirrup
reinforcement in sloped outer webs.
D. Load Distribution
1.
Unit Design
According to the AASHTO specifications, the entire slab width shall be assumed effective for
compression. It is both economical and desirable to design the entire superstructure as a unit
rather than as individual girders. When a reinforced box girder bridge is designed as an individual girder with a deck overhang, the positive reinforcement is congested in the exterior cells.
The unit design method permits distributing all girder reinforcement uniformly throughout the
width of the structure.
2.
July 2000
Dead Loads
a.
Box dead loads.
b.
D.L. of top deck forms 5 lbs. per sq. ft. of the area.
10 lbs. per sq. ft. if web spacing > 100.
c.
Traffic barrier.
d.
Overlay, intermediate diaphragm, and utility weight if applicable.
5.3-3

Criteria
3.
Live Load
a.
Superstructure
No. of lanes = slab width (curb to curb) / 14
Fractional lane width will be used
For example, 58 roadway / 14 = 4.14, then no. of lanes = 4.14
b.
Substructure
No. of lanes = slab width (curb to curb) / 12
Fractional lane width will be ignored
For example, 58 roadway / 12 = 4.83, then no. of lanes = 4.0
c.
5.3.2
Overload if applicable.
Reinforcement
This section discusses moment reinforcement for top slab, bottom slab, and intermediate diaphragms in
box girders.
A. Top Slab Reinforcement
1.
Near Center of Span

Figure 5.3.2-1 shows the reinforcement required near the center of the span and Figure 5.3.2-2
shows the overhang reinforcement.
2.
a.
Transverse reinforcing in the top and bottom layers to transfer the load to the main girder
stems shall be equal in size and spacing.
b.
Bottom longitudinal distribution reinforcement in the middle half of the deck span (Seff) to
aid in distributing the wheel loads.
c.
Top longitudinal temperature and shrinkage reinforcement.

Figure 5.3.2-3 illustrates the reinforcement requirement near intermediate piers. See Appendix
5.2-B2 for design of longitudinal deck reinforcement.
a.
Transverse reinforcing same as center of span.
b.
Longitudinal reinforcement to resist negative moment (see Figure 5.3.2-3).
c.
Distribution of flexure reinforcement to limit cracking (see Figure 5.3.2-3).

Allowable fs = z/(dc x A)
3.
1/ 3
0.6fy, where z = 130 kips per inch.
Bar Patterns
a.
Transverse Reinforcement
It is preferable to place the transverse reinforcement parallel to the X-Beam and end
diaphragm on skews up to 25 degrees or less. Where skew angles exceed 25 degrees, the
transverse bars are normal to bridge center line and the areas near the expansion joint and
bridge ends are reinforcement by partial length bars. The bottom transverse slab reinforcement is discontinued at the X-Beam (see Figure 5.3.2-4).
5.3-4
July 2000

Criteria
b.
Longitudinal Reinforcement
For longitudinal reinforcing bar patterns, see Chapter 6.
Partial Section Near Center of Span

Figure 5.3.2-1
Overhang Detail
Figure 5.3.2-2
July 2000
5.3-5

Criteria
Top Slab Flexural Reinforcing Near Intermediate Pier

Figure 5.3.2-3
Partial Plans at Abutments

Figure 5.3.2-4
5.3-6
July 2000

Criteria
B. Bottom Slab Reinforcement

1.
Near Center of Span

Figure 5.3.2-5 shows the reinforcement required near the center of the span.
a.
Minimum transverse distributed reinforcement.

As=0.005 x flange area with 1/2 As distributed equally to each surface.
b.
Longitudinal main reinforcement to resist positive moment.
c.
Check distribution of flexure reinforcement to limit cracking (see Figure 5.3.2-5).

Allowable fs = z/(dc x A)
d.
2.
1/ 3
0.6fy, where z = 170 kips per inch.
Add steel for construction load (sloped outer webs).

Figure 5.3.2-6 shows the reinforcement required near intermediate piers.
a.
Minimum transverse reinforcement same as center of span.
b.
Minimum longitudinal temperature and shrinkage reinforcement.

As=0.004 x flange area with 1/2 As distributed equally to each face.
c.
3.
Add steel for construction load (sloped outer webs).
Bar Patterns
a.
Transverse Reinforcement
See top slab bar patterns, Figures 5.3.2-1, 5.3.2-2, and 5.3.2-3.
All bottom slab transverse bars shall be bent at the outside face of the exterior web.
For vertical web, the tail will be 1-0 and for sloping exterior web 2-0 minimum splice
with the outside web stirrups. See Figure 5.3.2-7.
b.
For longitudinal reinforcing bar patterns, see Chapter 6.
C. Web Reinforcement
1.
Vertical Stirrups (see Figure 5.3.2-8)

The web reinforcement should be designed for the following requirements:
Vertical shear requirements.
Out of plane bending on outside web due to live load on cantilever overhang.
Horizontal shear requirements for composite flexural members.
A
b
Minimum v = 50 w (#5 bars @ 1-6), where bw = no. of girder stems (T3).
s
fy
July 2000
5.3-7

Criteria
2.
Web Longitudinal Reinforcement (see Figure 5.3.2-8)

If the depth of the side face of a member exceeds 3 feet, longitudinal skin reinforcement shall be
uniformly distributed along both side faces of the member for a distance d/2 nearest the flexural
tension reinforcement. The area of skin reinforcement Ask per foot of height on each side face
shall be 0.012 (d 30). The maximum spacing of skin reinforcement shall not exceed the lesser
of d/6 and 12 inches. Such freinforcement may be included in strength computations if a strain
compatibility analysis is made to determine stresses in the individual bars or wires. The total area
of longitudinal skin reinforcement in both faces need not exceed one half of the flexural tensile
reinforcement.
Where As = Total required area of longitudinal reinforcing steel.
Reinforcing steel spacing < Web Thickness (T3) or 12.
For cast-in-place sloped outer webs, increase inside stirrup reinforcement and bottom slab top
transverse reinforcement as required for the web moment locked-in during construction of the top
slab. This moment about the bottom corner of the web is due to tributary load from the top slab
concrete placement plus 10 psf form dead load. See Figure 5.3.2-10 for typical top slab forming.
Bottom Slab Reinforcement Near Center of Span

Figure 5.3.2-5
Bottom Slab Reinforcement Near Intermediate Pier

Figure 5.3.2-6
5.3-8
July 2000

Criteria
Figure 5.3.2-7
July 2000
5.3-9

Criteria
Figure 5.3.2-8
5.3-10
July 2000

Criteria
D. Intermediate Diaphragm (see Figure 5.3.2-9)
Figure 5.3.2-9
Intermediate diaphragms are not required for bridges on tangent alignment or curved bridges with an
inside radius of 800 feet or greater.
Notes:
1.
If the bar is not spliced, the horizontal dimension should be 4 shorter than the slab width.
2.
Stirrup hanger must be placed above longitudinal steel when diaphragm is skewed and slab
reinforcement is placed normal to center of roadway. (Caution: Watch for the clearance with
longitudinal steel).
3.
The reinforcement should have at least one splice to facilitate proper bar placement.
Notes:
July 2000
5.3-11

Criteria
1.
The diagonal brace supports web forms during web pour. After cure, the web is stiffer than the brace,
and the web attracts load from subsequent concrete placements.
2.
The tributary load includes half the overhang because the outer web form remains tied to and
transfers load to the web which is considerably stiffer than the formwork.
Increase Web Reinf. for Locked-In Construction Load
Due to Typical Top Slab Forming for Sloped Web Box Girder
Figure 5.3.2-10
5.3-12
July 2000

Criteria
5.3.3
Crossbeam
A. Basic Geometry
For aesthetic purposes, it is preferable to keep the crossbeam within the superstructure so that the
bottom slab of the entire bridge is a continuous plane surface interrupted only by the columns.
Although the depth of the crossbeam may be limited, the width can be made as wide as necessary to
satisfy design requirements. Normally, it varies from 3 feet to the depth of box but is not less than
column sizes to utilize the column reinforcement (see Figure 5.3.3-1 and 5.3.3-2).
Crossbeams on box girder type of construction shall be designed as a T beam utilizing the flange in
compression, assuming the deck slab acts as a flange for positive moment and bottom slab a flange
for negative moment. The effective overhang of the flange on a cantilever beam shall be limited to six
times the flange thickness.
The bottom slab thickness is frequently increased near the crossbeam in order to keep the main box
girder compressive stresses to a desirable level for negative girder moments (see Figure 5.3.2-8). This
bottom slab flare also helps resist negative crossbeam moments. Consideration should be given to
flaring the bottom slab at the crossbeam for designing the cap even if it is not required for resisting
main girder moments.
B. Reinforcing Steel Details
Special attention should be given to the details to ensure that the column and crossbeam reinforcement will not interfere with each other. This can be a problem especially when round columns with a
great number of vertical bars must be meshed with a considerable amount of positive crossbeam
reinforcement passing over the columns.
1.
Top Reinforcement
Provide negative moment reinforcement at the 1/4 point of the square or equivalent square
columns (see Appendix 5.3-A1 and 5.3-A4).
a.
When Skew Angle < 10 Degrees

If the bridge is tangent or slightly skewed and the deck reinforcement is parallel to the cross
beam, the negative cap reinforcement can be placed either in contact with top deck negative
reinforcement or directly under the main deck reinforcement (see Figure 5.3.3-1). Reinforcement must be epoxy coated if the location of reinforcement is less than 4 below top of deck.
b.
When Skewed Angle > 10 Degrees

When the structure is on a greater skew and the deck steel is normal or radial to the longitudinal centerline of the bridge, the negative cap reinforcement should be lowered to below the
main deck reinforcement (see Figure 5.3.3-2).
c.
To avoid cracking of concrete, interim reinforcements are required below the construction
joint in diaphgragms and crossbeams.
The interim reinforcements shall develop a moment capacity of 1.2 Mcr where Mcr may be
given as:
July 2000
5.3-13

Criteria
Mcr =
fr Ig
yt
fr = 7.5 fc
Mcr = 1.25 bh2
f c
Mn = 1.2Mcr = 1.5 bh2 fc

As =
5.3.4
0.85 fc b
fy
(
d
d2
31.3725M
fc
End Diaphragm
A. Basic Geometry
Bearings at the end diaphragms are usually located under the girder stems and transfer loads directly
to the pier (see Figure 5.3.3-3). In this case, the diaphragm width should be equal to or greater than
bearing sole plate grout pads (see Figure 5.3.3-4).
Designer should provide access space for maintenance and inspection of bearings.
Allowance should be provided to remove and replace the bearings. Lift point locations, jack capacity,
number of jacks, and maximum permitted lift should be shown in the plan details.
Skew Angle 10
Crossbeam Top Reinforcement
Figure 5.3.3-1
5.3-14
July 2000

Criteria
Skew Angle > 10

Crossbeam Top Reinforcement
Figure 5.3.3-2
Bearing Locations, Lift Points, Jack Capacity, and Maximum Lift Permitted at End Diaphragm
Figure 5.3.3-3
July 2000
5.3-15

Criteria
L Abutment End Diaphragm

Figure 5.3.4-1
The end diaphragms should be wide enough to provide adequate reinforcing embedment length.
When the structure is on a skew greater than 10 degrees and the deck steel is normal or radial to
the center of the bridge, the width should be enough to accommodate the embedment length of
the reinforcement.
The most commonly used type of end diaphragm is shown in Figure 5.3.3-5. The dimensions shown
here are used as a guideline and should be modified if necessary. This end diaphragm is used with a
stub abutment and overhangs the stub abutment. It is used on bridges with an overall or out-to-out
length less than 400 feet. If the overall length exceeds 400 feet, an L abutment should be used.
B. Reinforcing Steel Details
Typical reinforcement details for an end diaphragm are shown in Figure 5.3.3-6.
5.3.5
Dead Load Deflection and Camber

Camber is the adjustment made to the vertical alignment to compensate for the anticipated dead load
deflection and the long-term deflection caused by shrinkage and creep. The multipliers for estimating
long-term deflection and camber for reinforced concrete flexural members may be taken as shown in
Table 1.
5.3-16
July 2000

Criteria
Multipliers for Estimating Long-term Deflection and Camber of Concrete Members

Table 5.3.5-1
Multiplier
Coefficient
Girder Adjacent to Existing/Stage Construction
Deflection (downward) apply to the elastic deflection due
to the weight of member
1.90

to superimposed dead load only
2.20
Girder Away From Existing/Stage Construction

to the weight of member
2.70

to superimposed dead load only
3.00
In addition to dead load deflection, forms and falsework tend to settle and compress under the weight
of freshly placed concrete. The amount of this takeup is dependent upon the type and design of the
falsework, workmanship, type and quality of materials and support conditions. The camber should be
modified to account for anticipated takeup in the falsework.
5.3.6
Thermal Effects
Concrete box girder bridges are subjected to stresses and/or movements resulting from temperature
variation. Temperature effects result from time-dependent variations in the effective bridge temperature
and from temperature differentials within the bridge superstructure.
A. Effective Bridge Temperature and Movement
Fluctuation in effective bridge temperature causes expansion and contraction of the structure. Proper
temperature expansion provisions are essential in order to ensure that the structure will not be
damaged by thermal movements. These movements, in turn, induce stresses in supporting elements
such as columns or piers, and result in horizontal movement of the expansion joints and bearings.
For more details, see Chapter 8.
B. Differential Temperature
Although time-dependent variations in the effective temperature have caused problems in both
reinforced and prestressed concrete bridges, detrimental effects caused by temperature differential
within the superstructure have occurred only in prestressed bridges. Therefore, computation of
stresses and movements resulting from the vertical temperature gradients is not included in this
chapter. For more details, see AASHTO Guide Specifications, Thermal Effects on Concrete
Bridge Superstructures (1989).
July 2000
5.3-17

Criteria
End Diaphragm With Stub Abutment

Figure 5.3.4-2
Typical End Diaphragm Reinforcement

Figure 5.3.4-3
5.3-18
July 2000

Criteria
5.3.7
Hinges
Hinges are one of the weakest links of box girder bridges subject to earthquake forces and it is desirable to
eliminate hinges or reduce the number of hinges. For more details on the design of hinges, see Section 5.4.
Designer should provide access space or pockets for maintenance and inspection of bearings.
Allowance should be provided to remove and replace the bearings. Lift point locations, maximum lift
permitted, jack capacity, and number of jacks should be shown in the hinge plan details.
5.3.8
Utility Openings
A. Confined Spaces
A confined space is any place having a limited means of exit which is subject to the accumulation of
toxic or flammable contaminants or an oxygen deficient environment. Confined spaces include but
are not limited to pontoons, box girder bridges, storage tanks, ventilation or exhaust ducts, utility
vaults, tunnels, pipelines, and open-topped spaces more than 4 feet in depth such as pits, tubes, vaults,
and vessels. The designer should provide for the following:
A sign with Confined Space Authorized Personnel Only.
In the Special Provisions Check List, alert and/or indicate that a special provision might be
needed to cover confined spaces.
B. Drain Holes
Drain holes should be placed in the bottom slab at the low point of each cell to drain curing water
during construction and any rain water that leaks through the deck slab. Additional drains shall be
provided as a safeguard against water accumulation in the cell (especially when waterlines are carried
by the bridge). In some instances, drainage through the bottom slab is difficult and other means shall
be provided (i.e., cells over large piers and where a sloping exterior web intersects a vertical web).
In this case, a horizontal drain should be provided through the vertical web. Figure 5.3.8-1 shows
drainage details for the bottom slab of concrete box girder bridges.
C. Access Hole and Air Vent Holes
Access holes with doors should be placed in the bottom slab if necessary to inspect utilities inside
cells (i.e., waterline, conduits, E.Q. restrainers, etc.). Figure 5.3.8-2 and 5.3.8-3 shows access hole
and air vent hole details. Air vents are required when access holes are used.
July 2000
5.3-19

Criteria
Figure 5.3.8-1
P65:DP/BDM5
5.3-20
July 2000

Criteria
Figure 5.3.8-2
July 2000
5.3-21

Criteria
Figure 5.3.8-3
5.3-22
July 2000

Criteria
5.4
Hinges and Inverted T-Beam Pier Caps

Hinges and inverted T-beam pier caps require special design and detailing considerations. Continuous
hinge shelves (both top and bottom projecting shelves) and continuous ledges of inverted T-beam pier
caps, which support girders, are shown in Figures 5.4-1 and 5.4-2 respectively. In each case, vertical
tensile forces (hanger tension) act at the intersection of the web and the horizontal hinge shelf or ledge.
In the ledges of inverted T-beam pier caps, passage of live loads may also cause reversing torsional
stresses which together with conventional longitudinal shear and bending produce complex stress
distributions in the ledges [10,11].
Provide minimum shelf or ledge support lengths (N, N1, and N2) and provide positive longitudinal
linkage (e.g., earthquake restrainers) [12] in accordance with the current AASHTO seismic design
requirements.
A. Local Failure Modes
In addition to conventional longitudinal bending and shearing forces, there are several local modes
of failure which should be addressed in the design [10,11]. These are: shear friction failure, flexural
failure, hanger tension failure, punching shear failure of the horizontal hinge shelf or ledge, and
spalling under the bearing.
Figure 5.4-3 shows these local failure modes and potential cracks. For all conditions, except for the
bearing strength check, use =0.85. For the bearing strength check, use =0.7 [13].
Continuous Hinge
Figure 5.4-1
July 2000
5.4-1

Criteria
Inverted T-Beam Pier Cap

Figure 5.4-2
5.4-2
July 2000

Criteria
The forces acting on the hinge shown in Figure 5.4-3 are: shear, Vu; horizontal tensile force, Nuc;
and moment, Mu.
Vu
= Factored Shear (Dead Load + Live Load + Impact)
(1)
Nuc
0.2Vu, but less than 1.0Vu
(2)
Mu
= Vu(af) + Nuc(h-d)
(3)
where: af
= Flexural moment arm is the distance from the reaction to the

centerline of the hanger reinforcement, and shall include the thermal
movement of the reaction, Vu.
h-d
= Moment arm for the horizontal load, Nuc.
The horizontal tensile load, Nuc, is due to indeterminate causes such as restrained shrinkage or
temperature stresses and is considered a live load [13].
In addition, service load conditions should also be checked for deflections and crack control.
Crack 1
could lead to a flexural or shear friction failure mode.
Crack 2
necessitates hanger reinforcement.
Crack 3
could lead to a punching shear failure.
Crack 4
can be avoided by reducing the bearing stress or allowing more edge distance.
Failure Modes and Potential Cracks
Figure 5.4-3
July 2000
5.4-3

Criteria
B. Shear Friction Design

1.
Interior Bearing
Figure 5.4-4 shows the effective shelf width used to compute the allowable shear strength. The
ratio av/d shall satisfy equation (4) and the factored shear force (including shelf dead load) shall
satisfy both equations (5) and (6) [13]:
av/d 1.0
(4)
Vu (0.2fc)(W+4av)(d)
(5)
Vu (Avf)(fy)
(6)
where:
av
d
0.2fc
W+4av
Avf
=
=
=
=
=
Distance from the reaction to the vertical face

Depth from compression face to tensile reinforcement
0.85
800 psi
Effective shelf width
1.4 for cast-in-place concrete (e.g., monolithic construction,
no construction joint)
= Shear friction reinforcement
When W+4av > S, check:

Vu (0.2fc)(S)(d)
2.
(7)
Bearing at End of Hinge or Ledge

When S > 2c < (W+4av), check:
Vu (0.2fc)(2c)(d)
(8)
When S > (W+4av) < 2c, check:

Vu (0.2fc)(W+4av)(d)
(9)
When (W+4av) > S > 2c, check:

Vu (0.2fc)(S)(d)
(10)
In addition, equation (6) shall be satisfied. Avf is distributed over 2c, W+4av, or S, whichever
is less.
where
c = Distance from the end of the hinge or ledge to the center of the
exterior bearing.
S = Center-to-center of girders or hinge seat bearings.
5.4-4
July 2000

Criteria
Shear Friction Design

Figure 5.4-4
C. Flexural Design (Figure 5.4-5)
The primary reinforcement, As, for the shelf or ledge shall be determined from equations (11),
(12), and (13), whichever is greater [13]:
As Af + An
(11)
As 2(Avf)/3 + An
(12)
As min (W+5af)(d)
(13)
where:
min = 0.04(fc/fy)
Af = Flexural reinforcement required for Mu
Avf = Shear friction reinforcement
An = Tensile reinforcement = Nuc/(fy)
In addition, closed stirrups or ties parallel to As with a total area Ah of not less than 0.5(As-An)
shall be uniformly distributed within two thirds of the effective depth adjacent to As [13].
If the effective width W+5afS place the reinforcement over distance S. At the ends of the hinge
or ledge, distribute the reinforcement over distance 2c, S, or W+5af, whichever is less.
July 2000
5.4-5

Criteria
Flexural Design
Figure 5.4-5
D. Hanger Tension Design (Figure 5.4-6)
The hanger tension reinforcement, Ahr, shall satisfy both of the following strength and serviceability equations:
Vu Ahr/s)(fy)(S)
V (Ahr/s)(0.5fy)(W+3av)
Strength
Serviceability
(14)
(15)
where:
Ahr = Hanger reinforcement in square inches
s = Spacing of the hanger reinforcement
V = Service load reaction
W+3av = Effective width for hanger reinforcement-Serviceability
Hinge Hanger Reinforcement

Figure 5.4-6
5.4-6
July 2000

Criteria
In addition to equations (14) and (15), the following equation shall also be satisfied for inverted
T-beam pier caps (see Figure 5.4-7):
2Vu 2[2 fc bfdf] + (ahr/s)(fy)(W+2df)
where
(16)
bf = Width of bottom flange of inverted T-beam

df = Distance from top of ledge to center of longitudinal cap reinforcement
near the bottom flange of the inverted T-beam
W+2df = Effective width for hanger reinforcement for inverted T-beam.
If S>(W+2df), it is not necessary to add the stirrup reinforcement for conventional shear and
torsion to the hanger reinforcement. Ensure that the stirrup reinforcement satisfies either the
conventional longitudinal shear and torsion reinforcement requirements or the hanger reinforcement requirement, whichever is greater. If S<(W+2df), it will be necessary to add the required
hanger reinforcement to that required for shear and torsion [11].
Inverted T-Beam Hanger Reinforcement

Figure 5.4-7
E. Punching Shear Check
As shown in Figure 5.4-8, punching shear of the horizontal shelves of hinges and ledges of inverted
T-beam pier caps should be checked. For an interior bearing, check:
Vu (4 fc )(W + 2L + 2d)(d)
(17)
For an exterior bearing at the end of a hinge or inverted T-beam cap, check:
Vu (4 fc )(W + L + d)(d)
(18)
where:
4 fc = Allowable tensile strength of concrete for punching shear
W = Width of the rectangular bearing perpendicular to the longitudinal axis
of the bridge (e.g., width parallel to the centerline of bearings)
L = Length from face of hinge or ledge to back of bearing = L+c
July 2000
5.4-7

Criteria
Punching Shear at Interior Bearing

Figure 5.4-8
F. Bearing Strength Check
To prevent spalling under the bearing, the bearing stress should not exceed 0.85()(fc) [13]:
Vu 0.85()(fc)(W)(L)
(19)
where: = 0.70
L = Length of the rectangular bearing parallel to the longitudinal
axis of the bridge (e.g., parallel to the direction of traffic).
P65:DP/BDM5
5.4-8
July 2000

Criteria
5.5
Widenings
Widenings
This section provides general guidance for the design of bridge widenings. Included are additions to the
substructure and the superstructure of reinforced concrete box girder, flat slab, T-beam, and precastprestressed girder bridges. For additional information, see ACI Committee Report, Guide for Widening
Highway Bridges [15].
5.5.1
Review of Existing Structures

A. General
Obtain the following documents from existing records for preliminary review, design, and plan
preparation:
1.
Reduced copy of As-Builtcontract plans from our microfilm records in Bridge Records, Office
of Bridges and Structures.
2.
Reduced copy of original contract plans and special provisions, which can be obtained from
Engineering Records (Plans Vault), Records Control. These will not include the As-Built plans,
since they are made prior to receiving the As-Built plans from the Project Engineer. Backup
microfilm records are also maintained by Engineering Records (Plans Vault), Records Control,
but the As-Built plans may not be current.
3.
Check with the Bridge Preservation Unit for records of any unusual movements/rotations and
other structural information.
4.
Original design calculations, which are stored in State Archives and can be retrieved by Bridge
Records personnel.
5.
Current field data on Supplemental Site Data Form (including current deck elevations at interface
of widening and existing deck, as well as cross slopes), are obtained from District. Current field
measurements of existing pier crossbeam locations are recommended so that new prestressed
girders are not fabricated too short or too long. This is particularly important if piers have been
constructed with different skews. This information may not be available in any existing plans,
so field trips may be necessary to determine actual details.
6.
Original and current Foundation Reports from the Materials Lab or from the Plans Vault.
7.
Change Order files to the original bridge contract in Records Control Unit.
B. Original Contract Plans and Special Provisions

Location and size of reinforcement, member sizes and geometry, location of construction joints,
details, allowable design soil pressure, and test hole data are given on the plans. Original contract
plans can be more legible than the microfilm copies.
The special provisions may include pertinent information that is not covered on the plans or in the
Standard Specifications.
C. Original Calculations
The original calculations should be reviewed for any special assumptions or office criteria used
in the original design. The actual stresses in the structural members, which will be affected by the
widening, should be reviewed. This may affect the structure type selected for the widening.
July 2000
5.5-1

Criteria
Widenings
D. Final Records
For major widening/renovation projects, the Final Records should be reviewed particularly for
information about the existing foundations and piles. Sometimes the piles indicated on the original
plans were omitted, revised, or required preboring. Final Records are available from Records Control
or Bridge Records (Final Records on some older bridges may be in storage at the Materials Lab).
5.5.2
Analysis and Design Criteria

A. General
Each widening represents a unique situation and construction operations may vary between widening
projects. The guidelines in this section are based on over 20 years of WSDOT design experience with
bridge widenings.
1.
Appearance
The widening of a structure should be accomplished in such a manner that the existing structure
does not look added on to. When this is not possible, consideration should be given to enclosure walls, cover panels, paint, or other aesthetic treatments. Where possible and appropriate, the
structures appearance should be improved by the widening.
2.
Materials
Preferably, materials used in the construction of the widening shall have the same thermal and
elastic properties as the materials used in the construction of the original structure.
3.
Load Distribution and Construction Sequence

The members of the widening should be proportioned to provide similar longitudinal and
transverse load distribution characteristics as the existing structure. Normally this can be
achieved by using the same cross sections and member lengths that were used in the existing
structure.
The construction sequence and degree of interaction between the widening and the existing
structure, after completion, shall be fully considered in determining the distribution of the dead
load for design of the widening and stress checks for the existing structure. The distribution of
live load shall be in accordance with the AASHTO specifications. Where precast-prestressed
girders are used to widen an existing cast-in-place concrete box girder or T-beam bridge, the live
load distribution factor for interior girder(s) shall be S/5.5.
The construction sequence or stage construction should be clearly shown in the plans to avoid
confusion and misinterpretation during construction. A typical construction sequence may
involve placing the deck concrete, removing the falsework, placing the concrete for the closure
strip, and placing the concrete for the traffic barrier. Indicate in the plans a suggested stage
construction plan to avoid misinterpretation.
4.
Specifications
The design of the widening shall conform to the current AASHTO Specifications and the state of
Washingtons Standard Specifications for Road, Bridge, and Municipal Construction.
The method of design for the widening shall be by load factor design methods even though the
original design may have been by service load design.
5.5-2
July 2000

Criteria
5.
Widenings
Geometrical Constraints
The overall appearance and geometrical dimensions of the superstructure and columns of the
widening should be the same or as close as possible to those of the existing structure. This is to
ensure that the widening will have the same appearance and similar structural stiffness as the
original structure.
6.
Strength of Concrete
The allowable stresses shown in the latest AASHTO Specifications are to be used. For concrete
structures located in rural areas or where the volume of concrete is less than 30 cubic yards, use
Class 4000 (fc = 4000 psi) and Grade 60 reinforcement. For projects located in urban areas and
having a volume of concrete greater than 30 cubic yards, Class 5000 may be specified only if
necessary to meet structural requirements and if facilities are available. Concrete with a greater
strength may be used, if needed, with consultation and approval of the Bridge Design Engineer.
7.
Overlay
It should be established at the preliminary plan stage if an overlay is required as part of the
widening.
8.
Strength of the Existing Structure

A review of the strength of the main members of the existing structure shall be made for
construction conditions utilizing AASHTO Load Factors.
A check of the existing main members after attachment of the widening shall be made for the
final design loading condition.
If the existing structural elements do not have adequate strength, consult your supervisor or in the
case of consultants, contact the Consultant Liason Engineer for appropriate guidance.
If significant demolition is required on the existing bridge, consideration should be given to
requesting concrete strength testing for the existing bridge and including this information in the
contract documents.
9.
July 2000
Special Considerations
a.
For structures that were originally designed for HS20 loading, HS25 shall be used to design
the widening. For structures that were originally designed for less than HS20, consideration
should be given to replacing the structure instead of widening it.
b.
Where large cambers are expected, a longitudinal joint between the existing structure and the
widening may be considered. Longitudinal joints, if used, should be located out of traveled
lanes or beneath median barriers to eliminate potentially hazardous vehicle control problems.
c.
The Standard Specifications do not permit falsework to be supported from the existing
structure unless the Plans and Specifications state otherwise. This requirement eliminates the
transmission of vibration from the existing structure to the widening during construction.
The existing structure may still be in service.
d.
For narrow widenings where the Plans and Specifications require that the falsework be
supported from the original structure (e.g., there are no additional girders, columns,
crossbeams, or closure strips), there should be no external rigid supports such as posts or
falsework from the ground. Supports from the ground do not permit the widening to deflect
5.5-3

Criteria
Widenings
with the existing structure when traffic is on the existing structure. This causes the uncured
concrete of the widening to crack where it joins the existing structure. Differential dead load
deflection during construction should be given consideration.
e.
Precast members may be used to widen existing cast-in-place structures. This method is
useful when the horizontal or vertical clearances during construction are insufficient to build
cast-in-place members.
f.
The alignment for diaphragms for the widening shall generally coincide with the existing
diaphragms.
g.
When using battered piles, estimate the pile tip elevations and ensure that they will have
ample clearance from all existing piles, utilities, or other obstructions. Also check that there
is sufficient clearance between the existing structure and the pile driving equipment.
B. Seismic Design Criteria for Bridge Widenings

1.
Adequacy of Existing Structure

Early in the project, determine whether earthquake loading poses any problems for the structural
adequacy of the existing structure (e.g., original unwidened structure). The amount of reinforcement and structural detailing of older structures may not meet the current AASHTO seismic
design requirements. It is important that these deficiencies be determined as soon as possible so
that remedial/retrofitting measures can be evaluated. It should be noted that for some structures,
because of deterioration and/or inadequate details, the widening may not be structurally or
economically feasible. In this case, the Bridge Design Engineer should be consulted for possible
structure replacement instead of proceeding with widening the structure.
2.
Superstructure Widening Without Adding Substructure

No seismic analysis is necessary for this condition. Check the support shelf length required at all
piers. Check the need for longitudinal earthquake restrainers and transverse earthquake stops.
3.
Superstructure Widening by Adding Column(s) and Substructure

Use the AASHTO/BDM seismic design criteria with appropriate R factors to design and detail
the new columns and footings for the maximum required capacity.
Analyze the widening and the existing structure as a combined unit.
If the existing structure is supported by single column piers, and is located in SPC or C (LRFD
Seismic Zone 2, 3, or 4), the existing columns should be retrofitted if the existing column does
not have adequate ductility to meet current standards.
If the existing structure is supported by multiple column piers, determine the need to retrofit the
existing columns as part of the widening as follows:
a.
5.5-4
For existing bridges in SPC B or C (LRFD, Zone 2, 3, or 4) that are widened with additional
columns and substructure, existing columns should be considered for retrofitting unless
calculations or column details indicate that the existing columns have adequate ductility.
Nonductile existing columns will likely not be able to carry vertical load if they experience
the inelastic deflection that a new (ductile) column can tolerate.
July 2000

Criteria
4.
Widenings
b.
Only the columns should be retrofitted. Retrofitting the foundations supporting existing
columns is generally too expensive to consider for a widening project. Experience in past
earthquakes in California has shown that bridges with columns (only) retrofitted have
performed quite well.
c.
Approval for retrofitting existing multiple column piers is subject to available funding and
approval of the Bridge Design Engineer.
Other Criteria
a.
If recommended in the foundation report, the superstructure widening with new substructure
shall also be checked for differential settlement between the existing structure and the new
widened structure. All elements of the structure shall be analyzed and detailed to account for
this differential settlement especially on spread footing foundations.
b.
Check support width requirements; if there is a need for earthquake restrainers on the
existing structure as well as the widened portion, they shall be included in the widening
design.
c.
The current AASHTO seismic design criteria may result in columns with more reinforcement and larger footings for the widened portion than those on the existing structure. If it is
not possible to use larger footings because of limited space, an alternate design concept such
as drilled shafts may be necessary.
d.
When modifications are made near or on the existing bridge, be careful to isolate any added
potential stiffening elements (such as traffic barrier against colmuns).
e.
The relative stiffness of the new columns compared to the existing columns should be
considered in the combined analysis. The typical column retrofit is steel jacketing with
grouted annular space (between the existing column and the steel jacket).
f.
When strutted columns (horizontal strut between existing columsn) are encountered, remove
the strut and analyze the existing columns for the new unbraced length and retrofit, if
necessary. Refer to WSDOT Research Report on Strutted Columns (nearing completion).
C. Substructure
1.
2.
Selection of Foundation
a.
The type of foundation to be used to support the widening should generally be the same as
that of the existing structure unless otherwise recommended by the Geotechnical Engineer.
The effects of possible differential settlement between the new and the existing foundations
shall be considered.
b.
Consider present bridge site conditions when determining new foundation locations. The
conditions include: overhead clearance for pile driving equipment, horizontal clearance
requirements, working room, pile batters, channel changes, utility locations, existing
embankments, and other similar conditions.
Scour and Drift

Added piles and columns for widenings at water crossings may alter stream flow characteristics
at the bridge site. This may result in pier scouring to a greater depth than experienced with the
existing configuration. Added substructure elements may also increase the possibility of trapping
drift. The Hydraulics Engineer should be consulted concerning potential problems related to
scour and drift on all widenings at water crossings.
July 2000
5.5-5

Criteria
Widenings
D. Superstructure
1.
Camber
Accurate prediction of dead load deflection is more important for widenings than for new
bridges, since it is essential that the deck grades match [15].
The multipliers for estimating long-term delfection and camber for bridge widening may be taken
as 2.7 times the elastic deflection due to the weight of the member and 3.0 times the elastic
deflection due to the superimposed loads.
To obtain a smooth transition in transverse direction of the bridge deck, the camber of the girder
adjacent to the existing structure shall be adjusted for the difference in camber between new and
existing structure. A linear interpolation may be used to adjust the camber of the girders located
away from the existing structure.
When large cambers are expected, see Section 5.5.2.A9b.
2.
Closure Strip
Except for narrow deck slab widenings (see Section 5.5.2.A9c) a closure strip is required for all
cast-in-place widenings. The width shall be the minimum required to accommodate the necessary
reinforcement and for form removal. Reinforcement, which extends through the closure strip
shall be investigated in accordance with Section 5.5.4A7. Shear shall be transferred across the
closure strip by shear friction and/or shear keys.
All falsework supporting the widening shall be released and formwork supporting the closure
strip shall be supported from the existing and newly widened structures prior to placing concrete
in the closure strip. Because of deck slab cracking experienced in widened concrete decks,
closure strips are required unless the mid-span dead load deflection is 1/2 inch or less.
3.
Stress Levels and Deflections in Existing Structures

Caution is necessary in determining the cumulative stress levels, deflections, and the need for
shoring in existing structural members during rehabilitation projects.
For example, a T-beam bridge was originally constructed on falsework and the falsework was
released after the slab concrete gained strength. As part of a major rehabilitation project, the
bridge was closed to traffic and the entire slab was removed and replaced without shoring.
Without the slab, the stems behave as rectangular sections with a reduced depth and width. The
existing stem reinforcement was not originally designed to support the weight of the slab without
shoring. After the new slab was placed, wide cracks, eminating from the bottom of the stem
opened, indicating that the reinforcement was overstressed. This overstress resulted in a lower
load rating for the newly rehabilitated bridge. This example shows the need to shore up the
remaining T-beam stems prior to placing the new slab so that excessive deflections do not occur
and overstress in the existing reinforcing steel is prevented.
It is necessary to understand how the original structure was constructed, how the rehabilitated
structure is to be constructed, and the cumulative stress levels and deflections in the structure
from the time of original construction through rehabilitation.
5.5-6
July 2000

Criteria
Widenings
E. Stability of Widening
For relatively narrow box girder and T-beam widenings, symmetry about the vertical axis should be
maintained because lateral loads are critical during construction. When symmetry is not possible, use
pile cap connections, lateral connections, or special falsework. A minimum of two webs is generally
recommended for box girder widenings. For T-beam widenings that require only one additional web,
the web should be centered at the axis of symmetry of the slab. Often the width of the closure strip
can be adjusted to accomplish this.
5.5.3
Removing Portions of the Existing Structure

Portions of the existing structure to be removed shall be clearly indicated on the plans. Where a clean
break line is required, a 3/4 deep saw cut shall be specified for a slab with normal wear and a 1/2 deep saw
cut for worn roadway slabs. In no case, however, shall the saw blade cut or nick the main transverse top
slab reinforcement. The special provisions shall state that care will be taken not to damage any reinforcement which is to be saved. Hydromilling is preferred where reinforcing bar cover is shallow and can
effectively remove delaminated decks because of the good depth control it offers. When greater depths of
slab are to be removed, special consideration should be given to securing exposed reinforcing bars to
prevent undue vibration and subsequent fatigue cracks from occurring in the reinforcing bars.
The current General Special Provisions should be reviewed for other specific requirements on slab
removal.
Removal of any portion of the main structural members should be held to a minimum. Careful consideration shall be given to the construction conditions, particularly when the removal affects the existing
frame system. In extreme situations, preloading by jacking is acceptable to control stresses and deflections
during the various stages of removal and construction. Removal of the main longitudinal slab reinforcement should be kept to a minimum. See Slab Removal Detail, Figure 5.5-1, for the limiting case for the
maximum allowable removal.
The plans should include a note that critical dimensions and elevations are to be verified in the field prior
to the fabrication of precast units or expansion joint assemblies.
In cases where an existing sidewalk is to be removed but the supporting slab under the sidewalk is to be
retained, district personnel should check the feasibility of removing the sidewalk. Prior to design, district
personnel should make recommendations on acceptable removal methods and required construction
equipment. The plans and specifications should then be prepared to accommodate these recommendations.
This will ensure the constructibility of plan details and the adequacy of the specifications.
5.5.4
Attachment of Widening to Existing Structure

A. General
1.
Lap and Mechanical Splices

To attach a widening to an existing structure, the first choice is to utilize existing reinforcing
bars by splicing new bars to existing. Lap splices or mechanical splices should be used. However,
it may not always be possible to splice to existing reinforcing bars and spacing limitations may
make it difficult to use mechanical splices.
July 2000
5.5-7

Criteria
2.
Widenings
Welding Reinforcement
Existing reinforcing steel may not be readily weldable. Mechanical splices should be used
wherever possible. If welding is the only feasible means, the chemistry of the reinforcing steel
must be analyzed and acceptable welding procedures developed.
3.
Drilling Into Existing Structure

It may be necessary to drill holes and set dowels in epoxy resin in order to attach the widening to
the existing structure.
When drilling into heavily reinforced areas, chipping should be specified to expose the main
reinforcing bars. If it is necessary to drill through reinforcing bars or if the holes are within
4 inches of an existing concrete edge, core drilling should be specified. Core drilled holes shall
be roughened before resin is applied. If this is not done, a dried residue, which acts as a bond
breaker and reduces the load capacity of the dowel, will remain. Generally, the drilled holes are
1
/8 inch in diameter larger than the dowel diameter for #5 and smaller dowels and 1/4 inch in
diameter larger than the dowel diameter for #6 and larger dowels.
In special applications requiring drilled holes greater than 11/2 inch diameter or deeper than
2 feet, core drilling shall be specified. These holes should also be intentionally roughened prior
to applying epoxy resin.
Core drilled holes should have a minimum clearance of 3 inches from the edge of the concrete
and 1-inch clearance from existing reinforcing bars in the existing structure. These clearances
should be noted in the plans.
4.
Dowelling Reinforcing Bars Into the Existing Structure

a.
Dowel bars shall be set with an approved epoxy resin. The existing structural element shall
be checked for its adequacy to transmit the load transferred to it from the dowel bars.
b.
Dowel spacing and edge distance affect the allowable tensile dowel loads [14]. Allowable
tensile loads, dowel bar embedments, and drilled hole sizes for reinforcing bars (Grade 60)
used as dowels and set with an approved epoxy resin are shown in Table 5.5-1. These values
are based on an edge clearance greater than 3 inch, a dowel spacing greater than 6 inch, and
are shown for both uncoated and epoxy coated dowels. Table 5.5-2 lists dowel embedment
lengths when the dowel spacing is less than 6 inch. Note that in Table 5.5-2 the edge
clearance is equal to or greater than 3 inch, because this is the minimum edge clearance
for a drilled hole from a concrete edge.
If it is not possible to obtain these embedments, such as for traffic railing dowels into
existing deck slabs, the allowable load on the dowel shall be reduced by the ratio of the
actual embedment divided by the required embedment.
5.5-8
July 2000

Criteria
c.
Widenings
The embedments shown in Table 5.5-1 and -2 are based on dowels embedded in concrete
with fc=4,000 psi.
Allowable Tensile Load for Dowels Set With Epoxy Resin fc=4,000 psi,
Gr 60 Reinforcing Bars, Edge Clearance 3 in., and Spacing 6 in.[14]
Table 5.5-1
Bar
Size
Allowable Design
Tensile Load, T*
(kips)
Drill Hole
Size
(in)
Required Embedment, Le**

Uncoated
Epoxy Coated
(in)
(in)
12.0
/8
18.6
/4
26.4
10
36.0
11/8
11
12
47.4
11/4
13
141/2
60.0
13/8
16
171/2
*Allowable Tensile Load (Strength Design) = (fy)(As).

**Based on removed cover. In cases where concrete cover is not removed, the designer
should add the cover thickness to the required embedment.
Allowable Tensile Load for Dowels Set With Epoxy Resin fc=4,000 psi,
Gr 60 Reinforcing Bars, Edge Clearance 3 in., and Spacing < 6 in.[14]
Table 5.5-2
Bar
Size
4
5
6
7
8
9
Allowable Design
Tensile Load, T*
(kips)
12.0
18.6
26.4
36.0
47.4
60.0
Drill Hole
Size
(in)
5
/8
/4
1
11/8
11/4
13/8
Required Embedment, Le**

Uncoated
Epoxy Coated
(in)
(in)
91/2
101/2
111/2
131/2
161/2
20
101/2
111/2
121/2
15
18
22
*Allowable Tensile Load (Strength Design) = (fy)(As).

**Based on removed cover. In cases where concrete cover is not removed, the designer
should add the cover thickness to the required embedment.
5.
Shear Transfer Across a Dowelled Joint

Shear should be carried across the joint by shear friction on an intentionally roughened surface
instead of depending on the dowels to transmit the shear force. Chipping shear keys in the
existing concrete can also be used to transfer shear across a dowelled joint, but is expensive.
July 2000
5.5-9

Criteria
6.
Widenings
Preparation of Existing Surfaces for Concreting

See Removing Portions of Existing Structure in the General Special Provisions for
requirements. Unsound, damaged, dirty, porous, or otherwise undesirable old concrete should be
removed, and the remaining concrete surface should be clean, free of laitance, and intentionally
roughened to ensure proper bond between the old and new concrete surfaces.
7.
Control of Shrinkage and Deflection on Connecting Reinforcement

Dowels that are fixed in the existing structure may be subject to shear as a result of longitudinal
shrinkage and vertical deflection when the falsework is removed. These shear forces may result
in a reduced tensile capacity of the connection. When connecting the transverse reinforcing bars
across the closure strip is unavoidable, the interaction between shear and tension in the dowel
or reinforcing bar should be checked. The use of wire rope or sleeved reinforcement may be
acceptable, subject to approval by your supervisor.
Where possible, transverse reinforcing bars should be spliced to the existing reinforcing bars in a
blocked-out area which can be included in the closure strip. Nominal, shear friction, temperature
and shrinkage, and distribution reinforcing bars should be bent into the closure strip.
Rock bolts may be used to transfer connection loads deep into the existing structure, subject to
the approval of your supervisor.
8.
Post-Tensioning
Post-tensioning of existing crossbeams may be utilized to increase the moment capacity and
to eliminate the need for additional substructure. Generally, an existing crossbeam can be
core drilled for post-tensioning if it is less than 30 feet long. The amount of drift in the holes
alignment may be approximately 1 inch in 20 feet. For crossbeams longer than 30 feet, external
post-tensioning should be considered.
For an example of this application, refer to Contract 3846, Bellevue Transit Access Stage 1.
5.5-10
July 2000

Criteria
Widenings
B. Connection Details
The details on the following sheets are samples of details which have been used for widening
bridges. They are informational and are not intended to restrict the designers judgment.
Slab Removal Detail

Figure 5.5.-1
July 2000
5.5-11

Criteria
1.
Widenings
Box Girder Bridges

Figures 5.5-2, -3, -4, and -5 show typical details for widening box girder bridges.
Box Girder Section in Span

Figure 5.5-2
5.5-12
July 2000

Criteria
Widenings
Box Girder Section Through X-Beam

See Box Girder Section in Span for additional details.
Figure 5.5-3
Welding or mechanical butt splice are preferred over dowelling for the main reinforcement in crossbeams
and columns when it can be done in the horizontal or flat position. It shall be allowed only when the bars
to be welded are free from restraint at one end during the welding process.
**If bars are to be dowelled, provide a sufficient embedment depth for moment connection bars into
existing structure that will provide the required moment capacity in the existing structure. See Table 5.5-1
or 5.5-2.
July 2000
5.5-13

Criteria
Widenings
Box Girder Section in Span at Diaphragm Alternate I

Figure 5.5-4
5.5-14
July 2000

Criteria
Widenings
Box Girder Section in Span at Diaphragm Alternate II

Figure 5.5-5
July 2000
5.5-15

Criteria
2.
Widenings
Flat Slab Bridges

It is not necessary to remove any portion of the existing slab to expose the existing transverse
reinforcing bars for splicing purposes, because the transverse slab reinforcement is only distribution reinforcement. The transverse slab reinforcement for the widening may be dowelled directly
into the existing structure without meeting the normal splice requirements.
For the moment connection details, see Figure 5.5-6 for Flat Slab Section through X-Beam.
Note: Falsework shall be maintained under pier crossbeams until closure pour is made and cured 10 days.
Flat Slab Section through X-Beam
Figure 5.5-6
5.5-16
July 2000

Criteria
3.
Widenings
T-Beam Bridges
Use details similar to those for box girder bridges for crossbeam connections. See Figure 5.5-7
for slab connection detail.
T-Beam Section in Span

Figure 5.5-7
July 2000
5.5-17

Criteria
4.
Widenings
Prestress Concrete Girder Bridges

Use details similar to those for box girder bridges for crossbeam moment connections and use
details similar to those in Figure 5.5-8 for connecting to the slab.
Prestressed Girder Section in Span

Figure 5.5-8
5.5-18
July 2000

Criteria
5.5.5
Widenings
Expansion Joints
The designer should determine if existing expansion joints can be eliminated. It will be necessary to
determine what modifications to the structure are required to provide an adequate functional system when
existing joints are eliminated.
For expansion joint design, see Section 8.4.1 Expansion Joints. Very often on widening projects it is
necessary to chip out the existing concrete deck and rebuild the joint. Figures 5.5-9 and 5.5-10 show
details for rebuilding joint openings for compression seal expansion joints.
If a widening project includes an overlay, the expansion joint may have to be raised, modified or replaced.
See the Joint Specialist for plan details that are currently being used to modify or retrofit existing
expansion joints.
Expansion Joint
Detail Shown for Compression Seal Existing Reinforcing Steel Saved
Figure 5.5-9
July 2000
5.5-19

Criteria
Widenings
Expansion Joint
Detail shown for compression seal with new reinforcing steed added.
Figure 5.5-10
5.5.6
Possible Future Widening for Current Designs

For current projects that include sidewalks (and where it is anticipated that the structure may be modified
or widened in the future), provide a smooth rather than a rough construction joint between the sidewalk
and the slab. This will normally pertain to flat slab bridges or where the sidewalk width exceeds the slab
cantilever overhang.
5.5.7
Bridge Widening Falsework

For widenings which do not have additional girders, columns, crossbeams, or closure pours, flasework
should be supported by the existing bridge. There should be an external support from the ground. The
reason is that the ground support will not allow the widening to deflect the existing bridge when traffic is
on the bridge. This will cause the green concrete to crack where it joins the existing bridge. Designer
should contact the bridge construction support unit regarding fasework associated with widenings.
5.5-20
July 2000

Criteria
5.5.8
Widenings
Existing Bridge Widenings

The following listed bridge widenings are included as aid to the designer. These should not be construed
as the only acceptable methods of widening; there is no substitute for the designers creativity or ingenuity
in solving the challenges posed by bridge widenings.
Bridge
SR
Contract
No.
Type of
Bridge
Unusual Features
NE 8th Street UXing
405
9267
Ps. Gir.
Pier replacements
Higgins Slough
536
9353
Flat Slab
ER17 and AR17 O-Xing
9478
Box Girder
Middle and outside widening.
SR 538 O-Xing
9548
T-Beam
Unbalanced widening section support at

diaphragms until completion of closure pour.
B-N OXing
9566
Box Girder
Widened with P.S. Girders, X-beams, and

diaphragms not in line with existing jacking
required to manipulate stresses, added
enclusure walls.
Blakeslee Jct. E/W
9638
T-Beam and
Box Girder
B-N OXing
18
SR 536
Post-tensioned X-beam, single web.
9688
Box Girder
9696
T-Beam
Similar to Contract 9548.
LE Line over Yakima River
90
9806
Box Girder
Pier shaft.
SR 18 O-Xing
90
9823
P.S. Girder
Lightweight concrete.
Hamilton Road O-Xing
9894
T-Beam
Precast girder in one span.
Dillenbauch Creek
Flat Slab
Longview Wye SR 432 U-Xing
P.S. Girder
Bridge lengthening.
142
P.S. Girder
Bridge replacement.
Skagit River Bridge
Steel Truss
Rail modification.
B-N O-Xing at Chehalis
Klickitat River Bridge
Bellevue Access EBCD Widening

and Pier 16 Modification
Replacement of thru steel girder span

with stringer span.
90
3846
Flat Slab and

Box Girder
Deep, soft soil. Stradle best replacing

single column.
405
3716
T-Beam
Skew = 55 degrees.
Pacific Avenue I/C
3087
Box Girder
Complex parallel skewed structures.
SR 705/SR 5 SB Added Lane
3345
Box Girder
Multiple widen structures.
Mercer Slough Bridge 90/43S
3846
CIP Conc.
Flat Slab
Tapered widening of flat slab outrigger

pier, combined footings.
Spring Street O-Xing

No. 5/545SCD
3845
CIP Conc.
Box Girder
Tapered widening of box girder with

hingers, shafts.
Fishtrap Creek Bridge 546/8
3661
P.C. Units
Widening of existing P.C. Units.

Tight constraints on substructure.
Columbia Drive O-Xing 395/16
3379
Steel Girder
Widening/Deck replacement using standard

rolled sections.
Totem Lake/NE 124th I/C
July 2000
5.5-21

Criteria
Bridge
Widenings
SR
Contract
No.
Type of
Bridge
Unusual Features
S 74th-72nd St. O-Xing No. 5/426
3207
CIP Haunched
Con. Box Girder
Haunched P.C. P.T. Bath Tub girder

sections.
Pacific Avenue O-Xing No. 5/332
3087
CIP Conc.
Box Girder
Longitudinal joint between new and

existing.
Tye River Bridges 2/126 and 2/127
3565
CIP Conc.
Tee Beam
Stage construction with crown shift.
SR 20 and BNRR O-Xing No. 5/714
9220
CIP Conc.
Tee Beam
Widened with prestressed girders

raised crossbeam.
NE 8th St. UXing No. 405/43
9267
Prestressed
Girders
Pier replacement widening.
So. 212th St. UXing SR 167
3967
Prestressed
Girders
Widening constructed as stand alone

structure. Widening column designed
as strong column for retrofit.
SE 232nd St. SR 18
5801
CIP Conc.
Post-tensioned
Box
Skew = 50 degree. Longitudinal link

pin deck joint between new and
existing to accommodate new creep.
Obdashian Bridge 2/275
N/A
1999
CIP Post-tensioned
Box
Sidewalk widening with pipe struts.
P65:DP/BDM5
5.5-22
July 2000

Criteria
5.99
Bibliography
Bibliography
1.
McCormac, J. C., Design of Reinforced Concrete, Harper & Row, New York, 1st Ed., 1978, 507 pp.
2.
Wang, C.-K. and Salmon, C. G., Reinforced Concrete Design, Harper & Row, New York, 3rd Ed.,
1979, 918 pp.
3.
Park, R. and Pauley, T., Reinforced Concrete Design, John Wiley & Sons, New york, 1st ed., 1975,
769 pp.
4.
ACI 318-89, Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete and Commentary, American
Concrete Institute, 1989, pp.353.
5.
Ghosh, S. K. and Rabbat, B. G., Editors, Notes on ACI 318-89, Building Code Requirements for
Reinforced Concrete with Design Applications, Portland Cement Association, 5th ed., 1990.
6.
ACI-ASCE Committee 343, Analysis and Design of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Structures,
American Concrete Institute, 1988, 162 pp.
7.
Hsu, T. T. C., Torsion of Reinforced Concrete, Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., New York, 1st Ed.,
1984, 516 pp.
8.
Collins, M. P. and Mitchell, D., Shear and Torsion Design of Prestressed and Non-Prestressed
Concrete Beams, PCI Journal, September-October, 1980, pp. 32-100.
9.
ACI Committee 317, Reinforced Concrete Design Handbook Working Stress Method, Publication
SP-3, American Concrete Institute, 3rd Ed., 1965, 271 pp.
10. Mirza, S.A., and Furlong, R.W., Design of Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete Inverted T Beams
for Bridge Structures, PCI Journal, Vol. 30, No. 4, July-August 1985, pp. 112-136.
11. Rabbat, B.G., Reader Comments Design of Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete inverted T Beams
for Bridge Structures, PCI Journal, Vol. 31, No. 3, May-June 1986, pp. 157-163.
12. Supplement A, Standard Specifications for Seismic Design of Highway Bridges, AASHTO,
Washington, D.C., 1991, pp. 14-16.
13. Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges, 16th Edition, AASHTO, Washington, D.C., 1996.
14. Babaei, K. and Hawkins, N. M., Bending/Straightening and Grouting Concrete Reinforcing Steel:
Review of WSDOTs Specifications and Proposed Modifications, Final Report WA-RD 168.1,
Washington State Transportation Center (TRAC), December 1988, 75 pp.
15. ACI Committee 345, Guide for Widening Highway Bridges, ACI Structural Journal, July/August,
1992, pp. 451-466.
16. AASHTO LRFD Specifications, 2nd Edition, AASHTO, Washington, D.C., 1998.
P65:DP/BDM5
July 2000
5.99-1

Appendix A
Reinforcing Bar Properties
Nominal
Diameter*
(in)
Outside
Diameter
(in)
Area (in2)
Maximum
Bar Length
(ft)
Normal
Bar Length
(ft)
Size
Weight
(lbs/ft)
#3
0.376
/ 8
0.42
0.11
40
30
#4
0.668
/ 2
0.56
0.20
40
40
#5
1.043
/ 8
0.70
0.31
60
40
#6
1.502
/ 4
0.83
0.44
60
60
#7
2.044
/ 8
0.96
0.60
60
60
#8
2.670
1.10
0.79
72**
60
#9
3.400
1.13 (11/8)
1.24
1.00
72**
60
#10
4.303
1.27 (11/4)
1.40
1.27
72**
60
#11
5.313
1.41 (13/8)
1.55
1.56
90**
60
#14
7.650
1.69 (13/4)
1.86
2.25
90**
60
#18
13.600
2.26 (11/4)
2.48
4.00
90**
60
*Normally 1/8 per bar size number.

**Requires large special order. Since these lengths may pose problems in transporting and handling, get your
supervisors approval before using them. See Chapter 5, Section 5.1.2F.
Note: For sizes > #9, area and weight are based on the decimal diameter.
Table 5.1-A1
July 2000
5.1-A1

Appendix A
Bar Area vs. Bar Spacing
(Reinforcing Bars
AASHTO M31)
Bar Size
#3
#4
#5
#6
#7
Spacing 3
0.44
0.80
3 1 /4
0.41
0.74
1.14
3 1 /2
0.38
0.69
3 3 /4
0.35
#8
#9
#10
#11
1.06
1.51
2.06
0.64
0.99
1.41
1.92
2.53
3.20
0.33
0.60
0.93
1.32
1.80
2.37
4 1 /4
0.31
0.56
0.88
1.24
1.69
4 1 /2
0.29
0.53
0.83
1.17
4 3 /4
0.28
0.51
0.78
0.26
0.48
5 1 /4
0.25
5 1 /2
#14
#18
3.00
3.81
4.68
2.23
2.82
3.59
4.40
1.60
2.11
2.67
3.39
4.16
6.00
1.11
1.52
2.00
2.53
3.21
3.94
5.68
0.74
1.06
1.44
1.90
2.40
3.05
3.74
5.40
0.46
0.71
1.01
1.37
1.81
2.29
2.90
3.57
5.14
0.24
0.44
0.68
0.96
1.31
1.72
2.18
2.77
3.40
4.91
5 3 /4
0.23
0.42
0.65
0.92
1.25
1.65
2.09
2.65
3.26
4.70
8.35
0.22
0.40
0.62
0.88
1.20
1.58
2.00
2.54
3.12
4.50
8.00
6 1 /2
0.20
0.37
0.57
0.81
1.11
1.46
1.85
2.35
2.88
4.15
7.38
0.19
0.34
0.53
0.75
1.03
1.35
1.71
2.18
2.67
3.86
6.86
7 1 /2
0.18
0.32
0.50
0.70
0.96
1.26
1.60
2.03
2.50
3.60
6.40
0.17
0.30
0.47
0.66
0.90
1.19
1.50
1.91
2.34
3.38
6.00
8 1 /2
0.16
0.28
0.44
0.62
0.85
1.12
1.41
1.79
2.20
3.18
5.65
0.15
0.27
0.41
0.59
0.80
1.05
1.33
1.69
2.08
3.00
5.33
9 1 /2
0.14
0.25
0.39
0.56
0.76
1.00
1.26
1.60
1.97
2.84
5.05
10
0.13
0.24
0.37
0.53
0.72
0.95
1.20
1.52
1.87
2.70
4.80
101/2
0.13
0.23
0.35
0.50
0.69
0.90
1.14
1.45
1.78
2.57
4.57
11
0.12
0.22
0.34
0.48
0.65
0.86
1.09
1.39
1.70
2.45
4.36
111/2
0.11
0.21
0.32
0.46
0.63
0.82
1.04
1.33
1.63
2.35
4.17
As Per Foot of Bar

Table 5.1-A2
5.1-A2
July 2000

Appendix A
Bar Area vs. Number of Bars
Size
No.
#3
#4
#5
#6
#7
#8
#9
0.11
0.20
0.31
0.44
0.60
0.79
1.00
0.22
0.40
0.62
0.88
1.20
1.58
0.33
0.60
0.93
1.32
1.80
0.44
0.80
1.24
1.76
0.55
1.00
1.55
0.66
1.20
0.77
#10
#11
#14
#18
1.27
1.56
2.25
4.00
2.00
2.54
3.12
4.50
8.00
2.37
3.00
3.81
4.68
6.75
12.00
2.40
3.16
4.00
5.08
6.24
9.00
16.00
2.20
3.00
3.95
5.00
6.35
7.80
11.25
20.00
1.86
2.64
3.60
4.74
6.00
7.62
9.36
13.50
24.00
1.40
2.17
3.08
4.20
5.53
7.00
8.89
10.92
15.75
28.00
0.88
1.60
2.48
3.52
4.80
6.32
8.00
10.16
12.48
18.00
32.00
0.99
1.80
2.79
3.96
5.40
7.11
9.00
11.43
14.04
20.25
36.00
10
1.10
2.00
3.10
4.40
6.00
7.90
10.00
12.70
15.60
22.50
40.00
11
1.21
2.20
3.41
4.84
6.60
8.69
11.00
13.97
17.16
24.75
44.00
12
1.32
2.40
3.72
5.28
7.20
9.48
12.00
15.24
18.72
27.00
48.00
13
1.43
2.60
4.03
5.72
7.80
10.27
13.00
16.51
20.28
29.25
52.00
14
1.54
2.80
4.34
6.16
8.40
11.06
14.00
17.78
21.84
31.50
56.00
15
1.65
3.00
4.65
6.60
9.00
11.85
15.00
19.05
23.40
33.75
60.00
16
1.76
3.20
4.96
7.04
9.60
12.64
16.00
20.32
24.96
36.00
64.00
17
1.87
3.40
5.27
7.48
10.20
13.43
17.00
21.59
26.52
38.25
68.00
18
1.98
3.60
5.58
7.92
10.80
14.22
18.00
22.86
28.08
40.50
72.00
19
2.09
3.80
5.89
8.36
11.40
15.01
19.00
24.13
29.64
42.75
76.00
20
2.20
4.00
6.20
8.80
12.00
15.80
20.00
25.40
31.20
45.00
80.00
21
2.31
4.20
6.51
9.24
12.60
16.59
21.00
26.67
32.76
47.25
84.00
22
2.42
4.40
6.82
9.68
13.20
17.38
22.00
27.94
34.32
49.50
88.00
23
2.53
4.60
7.13
10.12
13.80
18.17
23.00
29.21
35.88
51.75
92.00
24
2.64
4.80
7.44
10.56
14.40
18.96
24.00
30.48
37.44
54.00
96.00
25
2.75
5.00
7.75
11.00
15.00
19.75
25.00
31.75
39.00
56.25
100.00
26
2.86
5.20
8.06
11.44
15.60
20.54
26.00
33.02
40.56
58.50
104.00
27
2.97
5.40
8.37
11.88
16.20
21.33
27.00
34.29
42.12
60.75
108.00
28
3.08
5.60
8.68
12.32
16.80
22.12
28.00
35.56
43.68
63.00
112.00
29
3.19
5.80
8.99
12.76
17.40
22.91
29.00
36.83
45.24
65.25
116.00
30
3.30
6.00
9.30
13.20
18.00
23.70
30.00
38.10
46.80
67.50
120.00
Areas for Various Bar Sizes and Number of Bars

Table 5.1-A3
July 2000
5.1-A3

Appendix A
Tension Development Length of Uncoated Deformed Bars
fc = 3,000 psi
fc = 4,000 psi
fc = 5,000 psi
fc = 6,000 psi
Bar Size
Top Bars
ft-in
Others
ft-in
Top Bars
ft-in
Others
ft-in
Top Bars
ft-in
Others
ft-in
Top Bars
ft-in
Others
ft-in
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
14
18
1-5
1-5
1-9
2-3
3-1
4-1
5-2
6-6
8-0
10-11
14-1
1-0
1-0
1-3
1-8
2-3
2-11
3-8
4-8
5-9
7-10
10-1
1-5
1-5
1-9
2-2
2-8
3-6
4-6
5-8
6-11
9-5
12-3
1-0
1-0
1-3
1-6
1-11
2-6
3-2
4-1
5-0
9-9
8-9
1-5
1-5
1-9
2-2
2-6
3-2
4-0
5-1
6-3
8-5
10-11
1-0
1-0
1-3
1-6
1-9
2-3
2-10
3-8
4-5
6-1
7-10
1-5
1-5
1-9
2-2
2-6
2-11
3-8
4-8
5-8
7-9
10-0
1-0
1-0
1-3
1-6
1-9
2-1
2-7
3-4
4-1
5-6
7-2
Tension Development Length of Epoxy Coated Deformed Bars

fc = 3,000 psi
fc = 4,000 psi
fc = 5,000 psi
fc = 6,000 psi
Bar Size
Top Bars
ft-in
Others
ft-in
Top Bars
ft-in
Others
ft-in
Top Bars
ft-in
Others
ft-in
Top Bars
ft-in
Others
ft-in
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
14
18
1-9
1-9
2-2
2-9
3-9
4-11
6-3
7-11
9-9
13-3
17-1
1-6
1-6
1-11
2-5
3-4
4-4
5-6
7-0
8-7
11-8
15-1
1-9
1-9
2-2
2-7
3-3
4-3
5-5
6-10
8-5
11-6
14-10
1-6
1-6
1-11
2-3
2-11
3-9
4-9
6-1
7-5
10-1
13-1
1-9
1-9
2-2
2-7
3-0
3-10
4-10
6-2
7-6
10-3
13-3
1-6
1-6
1-11
2-3
2-8
3-5
4-3
5-5
6-8
9-1
11-8
1-9
1-9
2-2
2-7
3-0
3-6
4-5
5-7
6-11
9-4
12-1
1-6
1-6
1-11
2-3
2-8
3-1
3-11
4-11
6-1
8-3
10-8
Top Bars are so placed that more than 12 of concrete is cast below the reinforcement. Modification Factor for Spacing >=6 and side cover >=3
= 0.8. Minimum Development Length = 12. Modification Factor for Reinforcement Enclosed in Spiral = 0.75
Table 5.1-A4
Tension Development Length of Standard 90 and 180 Hooks

fc = 3,000 psi
Bar Size
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
14
18
Side Cover
Side Cover
< 21/2 Cover >= 21/2 Cover
on Tail < 2
on Tail >= 2
0-9
0-11
1-2
1-5
1-8
1-10
2-1
2-4
2-7
3-1
4-2
0-6
0-8
0-10
1-0
1-2
1-4
1-6
1-8
1-10
3-1
4-2
fc = 4,000 psi
fc = 5,000 psi
Side Cover
Side Cover
Side Cover
Side Cover
< 21/2 Cover >= 21/2 Cover < 21/2 Cover >= 21/2 Cover
on Tail < 2
on Tail >= 2
on Tail < 2
on Tail >= 2
0-8
0-10
1-0
1-3
1-5
1-7
1-10
2-1
2-3
2-9
3-7
0-6
0-7
0-9
0-10
1-0
1-2
1-3
1-5
1-7
2-9
3-7
0-7
0-9
0-11
1-1
1-3
1-5
1-8
1-10
2-0
2-5
3-3
0-6
0-7
0-8
0-9
0-11
1-0
1-2
1-3
1-5
2-5
3-3
fc = 6,000 psi
Side Cover
Side Cover
< 21/2 Cover >= 21/2 Cover
on Tail < 2
on Tail >= 2
0-6
0-8
0-10
1-0
1-2
1-4
1-6
1-8
1-10
2-3
2-11
0-6
0-7
0-7
0-8
0-10
0-11
1-1
1-2
1-4
2-3
2-11
Table 5.1-A5
5.1-A4
July 2000

Appendix A
Tension Lap Splice Lengths of Grade 60 Uncoated Bars Class B
fc = 3,000 psi
Bar Size
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
14
18
Top Bars
ft-in
Others
ft-in
2-0
2-0
2-0
2-0
2-4
2-0
2-11
2-1
4-0
2-11
5-3
3-9
6-8
4-9
8-6
6-1
10-5
7-5
Lap Splices
Not Allowed
fc = 4,000 psi
Top Bars
ft-in
Others
ft-in
2-0
2-0
2-0
2-0
2-4
2-0
2-9
2-0
3-6
2-6
4-7
3-3
5-9
4-2
7-4
5-3
9-0
6-5
Lap Splices
Not Allowed
fc = 5,000 psi
Top Bars
ft-in
Others
ft-in
2-0
2-0
2-0
2-0
2-4
2-0
2-9
2-0
3-3
2-4
4-11
2-11
5-2
3-9
6-7
4-8
8-1
5-9
Lap Splices
Not Allowed
fc = 6,000 psi
Top Bars
ft-in
Others
ft-in
2-0
2-0
2-0
2-0
2-4
2-0
2-9
2-0
3-3
2-4
3-9
2-8
4-9
3-5
6-0
4-4
7-4
5-3
Lap Splices
Not Allowed
Tension Lap Splice Lengths of Grade 60 Epoxy Coated Bars Class B

fc = 3,000 psi
Bar Size
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
14
18
Top Bars
ft-in
Others
ft-in
2-3
2-0
2-3
2-0
2-10
2-6
3-7
3-2
4-11
4-4
6-5
5-8
8-1
7-2
10-3
9-1
12-8
11-2
Lap Splices
Not Allowed
fc = 4,000 psi
Top Bars
ft-in
Others
ft-in
2-3
2-0
2-3
2-0
2-10
2-6
3-4
3-0
4-3
3-9
5-7
4-11
7-0
6-2
8-11
7-10
10-11
9-8
Lap Splices
Not Allowed
fc = 5,000 psi
Top Bars
ft-in
Others
ft-in
2-3
2-0
2-3
2-0
2-10
2-6
3-4
3-0
3-11
3-5
5-0
4-5
6-3
5-7
8-0
7-0
9-9
8-0
Lap Splices
Not Allowed
fc = 6,000 psi
Top Bars
ft-in
Others
ft-in
2-3
2-0
2-3
2-0
2-10
2-6
3-4
3-0
3-11
3-5
4-6
4-0
5-9
5-1
7-3
6-5
8-11
7-11
Lap Splices
Not Allowed
Top Bars are so placed that more than 12 of concrete is cast below the reinforcement.
Definition of Splice Classes:
Class A:
Class B:
Class C:
Low stressed bars 75% or less are spliced

Low stressed bars more than 75% are spliced
High stressed bars 1/2 or less are spliced
High stressed bars more than 50% are spliced
Class B Lap splice is the preferred and most commonly used by bridge office.
Modification Factor for Class A:
0.77
Modification Factor for Class C:
1.31
Modification Factor for 3-bar Bundle = 1.2
Table 5.1-A6
July 2000
5.1-A5

Appendix A
Minimum Development Length and Minimum
Lap Splices of Deformed Bars in Compression
Development Length of Deformed Bars in

Compression and Minimum Compression Lap Splice
Per AASHTO Standard Specifications, 1991, 16th Edition Articles 8.26, 8.32.4
Concrete
Reinf.
fc = 3,000 psi fc = 4,000 psi fc = 5,000 psi fc = 6,000 psi fc > 3,000 psi
Grade 60
Bar
Size
Grade 60
Grade 60
Grade 60
Grade 60
Minimum
Lap Splice
Development Length, ld
3&4
1-0*
1-0*
1-0*
1-0*
2-04
1-2
1-0
1-0*
1-0*
2-04
1-5
1-3
1-2
1-2
2-04
1-8
1-5
1-4
1-4
2-3
1-10
1-7
1-6
1-6
2-6
2-1
1-10
1-9
1-9
2-10
10
2-4
2-1
1-11
1-11
3-3
11
2-7
2-3
2-2
2-2
3-7
14
3-1
2-9
2-7
2-7
4-3
18
4-2
3-7
3-5
3-5
5-8
Note:
1. Where excess bar area is provided, ld may be reduced by the ratio of required area to area provided.
2. *1-0 minimum (office practice).
3. ld (compression) must be developed with straight bar extension. Reduced length noted in (1) shall also be
straight bar extension.
4. 2-0 minimum (office practice).
5. When splicing smaller bars to larger bars, the lap splice shall be the larger of the minimum compression lap
splice or the development length of the larger bar in compression, AASHTO Art. 8.32.4.1.
Table 5.1-A7
5.1-A6
July 2000

Appendix A
Mu
bd2
0.0010
0.0011
0.0012
0.0013
0.0014
0.0015
0.0016
0.0017
0.0018
0.0019
0.0020
0.0021
0.0022
0.0023
0.0024
0.0025
0.0026
0.0027
0.0028
0.0029
0.0030
0.0031
0.0032
0.0033
0.0034
0.0035
0.0036
0.0037
0.0038
0.0039
0.0040
0.0041
0.0042
0.0043
0.0044
0.0045
0.0046
0.0047
0.0048
0.0049
0.0050
0.0051
0.0052
59.3
65.1
71.0
76.8
82.6
88.4
94.2
100.0
105.7
111.4
117.2
122.9
128.6
134.3
139.9
145.6
151.2
156.8
162.4
168.0
173.6
179.2
184.8
190.3
195.8
201.3
206.8
212.3
217.8
223.2
228.7
234.1
239.5
244.9
250.3
255.7
261.0
266.4
271.7
277.0
282.3
287.6
292.9
Mu
bd2
0.0053
0.0054
0.0055
0.0056
0.0057
0.0058
0.0059
0.0060
0.0061
0.0062
0.0063
0.0064
0.0065
0.0066
0.0067
0.0068
0.0069
0.0070
0.0071
0.0072
0.0073
0.0074
0.0075
0.0076
0.0077
0.0078
0.0079
0.0080
0.0081
0.0082
0.0083
0.0084
0.0085
0.0086
0.0087
0.0088
0.0089
0.0090
0.0091
0.0092
0.0093
0.0094
0.0095
0.0096
298.1
303.4
308.6
313.8
319.0
324.2
329.4
334.5
339.7
344.8
349.9
355.0
360.1
365.2
370.2
375.3
380.3
385.3
390.3
395.0
400.3
405.2
410.2
415.1
420.0
424.9
429.8
434.7
439.5
444.4
449.2
454.0
458.8
463.6
468.4
473.2
477.9
482.6
487.4
492.1
496.8
501.4
506.1
510.7
0.0097
0.0098
0.0099
0.0100
0.0101
0.0102
0.0103
0.0104
0.0105
0.0106
0.0107
0.0108
0.0109
0.0110
0.0111
0.0112
0.0113
0.0114
0.0115
0.0116
0.0117
0.0118
0.0119
0.0120
0.0121
0.0122
0.0123
0.0124
0.0125
0.0126
0.0127
0.0128
0.0129
0.0130
0.0131
0.0132
0.0133
0.0134
0.0135
0.0136
0.0137
0.0138
0.0139
0.0140
Values for Singly

Reinforced Beams
fc = 3,000 psi
fy = 60,000 psi
Mu
bd2
515.4
0.0141
520.0
0.0142
524.6
0.0143
529.2
0.0144
533.8
0.0145
538.3
0.0146
542.9
0.0147
547.4
0.0148
551.9
0.0149
556.4
0.0150
560.9
0.0151
565.4
0.0152
569.9
0.0153
574.3
0.0154
578.8
0.0155
583.2
0.0156
587.6
0.0157
592.0
0.0158
596.4
0.0159
600.7
0.0160
605.1 max 0.0161
609.4
613.7
618.0
622.3
626.6
630.9
635.1
639.4
643.6
647.8
652.0
656.2
660.3
664.5
668.6
672.8
676.9
681.0
685.0
689.1
693.2
697.2
701.2
Mu
bd2
705.2
709.2
713.2
717.2
721.1
725.1
729.0
732.9
736.8
740.7
744.6
748.4
752.3
756.1
759.9
763.7
767.5
771.2
775.0
778.7
782.5
Notes:
Mu
1. Units of bd2 are in psi.
2. min should be based on 1.2 Mcr or 1.33 analysis, whichever is smaller.
3. max = 0.75b = 0.0161 based on 1 = 0.85.
Table 5.2-A1
July 2000
5.2-A1

Appendix A
0.0010
0.0011
0.0012
0.0013
0.0014
0.0015
0.0016
0.0017
0.0018
0.0019
0.0020
0.0021
0.0022
0.0023
0.0024
0.0025
0.0026
0.0027
0.0028
0.0029
0.0030
0.0031
0.0032
0.0033
0.0034
0.0035
0.0036
0.0037
0.0038
0.0039
0.0040
0.0041
0.0042
0.0043
0.0044
0.0045
0.0046
0.0047
0.0048
0.0049
0.0050
0.0051
0.0052
0.0053
0.0054
0.0055
Mu
bd2
59.5
65.4
71.2
77.1
83.0
88.8
94.6
100.5
106.3
112.1
117.9
123.7
129.4
135.2
140.9
146.7
152.4
158.1
163.8
169.5
175.2
180.9
186.6
192.2
197.9
203.5
209.1
214.7
220.3
225.9
231.5
237.1
242.6
248.2
253.7
259.2
264.8
270.3
275.8
281.2
286.7
292.2
297.6
303.1
308.5
313.9
0.0056
0.0057
0.0058
0.0059
0.0060
0.0061
0.0062
0.0063
0.0064
0.0065
0.0066
0.0067
0.0068
0.0069
0.0070
0.0071
0.0072
0.0073
0.0074
0.0075
0.0076
0.0077
0.0078
0.0079
0.0080
0.0081
0.0082
0.0083
0.0084
0.0085
0.0086
0.0087
0.0088
0.0089
0.0090
0.0091
0.0092
0.0093
0.0094
0.0095
0.0096
0.0097
0.0098
0.0099
0.0100
0.0101
Mu
bd2
319.3
324.7
330.1
335.5
340.9
346.2
351.6
356.9
362.2
367.6
372.9
378.2
383.4
388.7
394.0
399.2
404.5
409.7
414.9
420.1
425.3
430.5
435.7
440.9
446.0
451.2
456.3
461.4
466.5
471.6
476.7
481.8
486.9
491.9
497.0
502.0
507.1
512.1
517.1
522.1
527.1
532.0
537.0
542.0
546.9
551.8
0.0102
0.0103
0.0104
0.0105
0.0106
0.0107
0.0108
0.0109
0.0110
0.0111
0.0112
0.0113
0.0114
0.0115
0.0116
0.0117
0.0118
0.0119
0.0120
0.0121
0.0122
0.0123
0.0124
0.0125
0.0126
0.0127
0.0128
0.0129
0.0130
0.0131
0.0132
0.0133
0.0134
0.0135
0.0136
0.0137
0.0138
0.0139
0.0140
0.0141
0.0142
0.0143
0.0144
0.0145
0.0146
0.0147
Mu
bd2
556.7
561.7
566.6
571.5
576.3
581.2
586.1
590.9
595.7
600.6
605.4
610.2
615.0
619.8
624.5
629.3
634.1
638.8
643.5
648.2
653.0
657.7
662.3
667.0
671.7
676.3
681.0
685.6
690.3
694.9
699.5
704.1
708.6
713.2
717.8
722.3
726.9
731.4
735.9
740.4
744.9
749.4
753.9
758.3
762.8
767.2
Values for Singly

Reinforced Beams
fc = 4,000 psi
fy = 60,000 psi
0.0148
0.0149
0.0150
0.0151
0.0152
0.0153
0.0154
0.0155
0.0156
0.0157
0.0158
0.0159
0.0160
0.0161
0.0162
0.0163
0.0164
0.0165
0.0166
0.0167
0.0168
0.0169
0.0170
0.0171
0.0172
0.0173
0.0174
0.0175
0.0176
0.0177
0.0178
0.0179
0.0180
0.0181
0.0182
0.0183
0.0184
0.0185
0.0186
0.0187
0.0188
0.0189
0.0190
0.0191
0.0192
0.0193
Mu
bd2
771.7
776.1
780.5
784.9
789.3
793.7
798.1
802.4
806.8
811.1
815.4
819.7
824.1
828.3
832.6
836.9
841.2
845.4
849.7
853.9
858.1
862.3
866.5
870.7
874.9
879.1
883.2
887.4
891.5
895.6
899.7
903.9
907.9
912.0
916.1
920.2
924.2
928.3
932.3
936.3
940.3
944.3
948.3
952.3
956.2
960.2
0.0194
0.0195
0.0196
0.0197
0.0198
0.0199
0.0200
0.0201
0.0202
0.0203
0.0204
0.0205
0.0206
0.0207
0.0208
0.0209
0.0210
0.0211
0.0212
0.0213
max 0.0214
Mu
bd2
964.1
968.1
972.0
975.9
979.8
983.7
987.6
991.5
995.3
999.2
1003.0
1006.8
1010.7
1014.5
1018.3
1022.0
1025.8
1029.6
1033.3
1037.1
1040.8
Notes:
Mu
3. max = 0.75b = 0.0214 based on 1 = 0.85.
Table 5.2-A2
5.2-A2
July 2000
Values for Singly

Reinforced Beams
fc = 5,000 psi
fy = 60,000 psi
Appendix A
0.0010
0.0011
0.0012
0.0013
0.0014
0.0015
0.0016
0.0017
0.0018
0.0019
0.0020
0.0021
0.0022
0.0023
0.0024
0.0025
0.0026
0.0027
0.0028
0.0029
0.0030
0.0031
0.0032
0.0033
0.0034
0.0035
0.0036
0.0037
0.0038
0.0039
0.0040
0.0041
0.0042
0.0043
0.0044
0.0045
0.0046
0.0047
0.0048
0.0049
0.0050
0.0051
0.0052
0.0053
0.0054
0.0055
0.0056
0.0057
0.0058
0.0059
0.0060
Mu
bd2
59.6
65.5
71.4
77.3
83.2
89.0
94.9
100.8
106.6
112.5
118.3
124.1
129.9
135.8
141.6
147.3
153.1
158.9
164.7
170.4
176.2
181.9
187.7
193.4
199.1
204.8
210.5
216.2
221.9
227.5
233.2
238.9
244.5
250.1
255.8
261.4
267.0
272.6
278.2
283.8
289.4
295.0
300.5
306.1
311.6
317.1
322.7
328.2
333.7
339.2
344.7
0.0061
0.0062
0.0063
0.0064
0.0065
0.0066
0.0067
0.0068
0.0069
0.0070
0.0071
0.0072
0.0073
0.0074
0.0075
0.0076
0.0077
0.0078
0.0079
0.0080
0.0081
0.0082
0.0083
0.0084
0.0085
0.0086
0.0087
0.0088
0.0089
0.0090
0.0091
0.0092
0.0093
0.0094
0.0095
0.0096
0.0097
0.0098
0.0099
0.0100
0.0101
0.0102
0.0103
0.0104
0.0105
0.0106
0.0107
0.0108
0.0109
0.0110
0.0111
0.0112
Mu
bd2
350.2
355.7
361.1
366.6
372.1
377.5
382.9
388.4
393.8
399.2
404.6
410.0
415.4
420.7
426.1
431.5
436.8
442.2
447.5
452.8
458.1
463.4
468.7
474.0
479.3
484.6
489.8
495.1
500.4
505.6
510.8
516.0
521.3
526.5
531.7
536.9
542.0
547.2
552.4
557.5
562.7
567.8
572.9
578.1
583.2
588.3
593.4
598.5
603.5
608.6
613.7
618.7
0.0113
0.0114
0.0115
0.0116
0.0117
0.0118
0.0119
0.0120
0.0121
0.0122
0.0123
0.0124
0.0125
0.0126
0.0127
0.0128
0.0129
0.0130
0.0131
0.0132
0.0133
0.0134
0.0135
0.0136
0.0137
0.0138
0.0139
0.0140
0.0141
0.0142
0.0143
0.0144
0.0145
0.0146
0.0147
0.0148
0.0149
0.0150
0.0151
0.0152
0.0153
0.0154
0.0155
0.0156
0.0157
0.0158
0.0159
0.0160
0.0161
0.0162
0.0163
0.0164
Mu
bd2
623.8
628.8
633.8
638.8
643.8
648.9
653.8
658.8
663.8
668.8
673.7
678.7
683.6
688.6
693.5
698.4
703.3
708.2
713.1
718.0
722.9
727.7
732.6
737.4
742.3
747.1
751.9
756.7
761.5
766.3
771.1
775.9
780.7
785.4
790.2
795.0
799.7
804.4
809.1
813.9
818.6
823.3
827.9
832.6
837.3
842.0
846.6
851.3
855.9
860.5
865.1
869.7
0.0165
0.0166
0.0167
0.0168
0.0169
0.0170
0.0171
0.0172
0.0173
0.0174
0.0175
0.0176
0.0177
0.0178
0.0179
0.0180
0.0181
0.0182
0.0183
0.0184
0.0185
0.0186
0.0187
0.0188
0.0189
0.0190
0.0191
0.0192
0.0193
0.0194
0.0195
0.0196
0.0197
0.0198
0.0199
0.0200
0.0201
0.0202
0.0203
0.0204
0.0205
0.0206
0.0207
0.0208
0.0209
0.0210
0.0211
0.0212
0.0213
0.0214
0.0215
0.0216
Mu
bd2
874.3
878.9
883.5
888.1
892.7
897.2
901.8
906.3
910.9
915.4
919.9
924.4
928.9
933.4
937.9
942.4
946.8
951.3
955.7
960.2
964.6
969.0
973.5
977.9
982.3
986.6
991.0
995.4
999.8
1004.1
1008.5
1012.8
1017.1
1021.5
1025.8
1030.1 max
1034.4
1038.7
1042.9
1047.2
1051.5
1055.7
1060.0
1064.2
1068.4
1072.7
1076.9
1081.1
1085.3
1089.5
1093.6
1097.8
0.0217
0.0218
0.0219
0.0220
0.0221
0.0222
0.0223
0.0224
0.0225
0.0226
0.0227
0.0228
0.0229
0.0230
0.0231
0.0232
0.0233
0.0234
0.0235
0.0236
0.0237
0.0238
0.0239
0.0240
0.0241
0.0242
0.0243
0.0244
0.0245
0.0246
0.0247
0.0248
0.0249
0.0250
0.0251
0.0252
Mu
bd2
1102.0
1106.1
1110.3
1114.4
1118.5
1122.6
1126.8
1130.9
1134.9
1139.0
1143.1
1147.2
1151.2
1155.3
1159.3
1163.4
1167.4
1171.4
1175.4
1179.4
1183.4
1187.4
1191.4
1195.3
1199.3
1203.2
1207.2
1211.1
1215.0
1218.9
1222.8
1226.7
1230.6
1234.5
1238.4
1242.2
Notes:
Mu
3. max = 0.75b = 0.0252 based on 1 = 0.80.
Table 5.2-A3
July 2000
5.2-A3

Appendix A
Positive Moment Reinforcement
Figure 5.3-A1
July 2000
5.3-A1

Appendix A
Negative Moment Reinforcement
Figure 5.3-A2
5.3-A2
July 2000

Appendix A
Adjusted Negative Moment

Case I (Design for M @
Face of Effective Support)
Figure 5.3-A3
July 2000
5.3-A3

Appendix A
Adjusted Negative Moment
Case II (Design for M @ 1/4 Point)
Figure 5.3-A4
5.3-A4
July 2000

Appendix A
Load Factor Slab Design
fc = 4,000 psi
Figure 5.3-A5
July 2000
5.3-A5

Appendix A
Load Factor Slab Design
fc = 5,000 psi
Figure 5.3-A6
5.3-A6
July 2000

Appendix A
Slab Design Traffic Barrier Load
Notes:
1.
Section A-A is taken to be the critical section. Other sections ordinarily do not need to be investigated.
2.
Provide enough extension to the left of A-A to develop the As required (usually will require hooking bars).
3.
Service Load fs = 20,000, Load Factor = (1.3D + 2.17L).
4.
For Load Factor design, check distribution of flexural reinforcement AASHTO 8.16-8.4. If #5 or #6 bars
are used to furnish the As from this chart, then this requirement will not have to be checked.
Figure 5.3-A7
July 2000
5.3-A7

Appendix B
Slab Design
Example 5.2-B1
Given: Center-to-center spacing of girders =
Width of top flange of steel girder =
Deck concrete, Class 4000 fc
=
=
Reinforcing steel, Grade 60 fy
Cover to top bars
=
Cover to bottom bars
=
Analyze a 1 foot wide section of slab
Find:
1.
12 feet 3 inches
18 inches wide
4,000 psi
60,000 psi
2.5 inches
1.0 inch
Deck thickness, deck reinforcement
Determine Deck Thickness

Seff = 12.25 2 (18) / (4) (12) = 11.50
Minimum thickness, tmin = (Seff + 10) (12) / 30 = (11.50 + 10) (12) / 30 = 8.60
Use 83/4 thick slab
2.
Determine Transverse Deck Reinforcement Top Slab Reinforcement

Dead Load Moment, MDL:
MDL = (1/10) [ (8.75 / 12) (0.160 kcf) ] (11.50)2 = 1.55 kip-ft/ft
Live Load Moment + Impact, MLL+I:
MLL+I =
(S + 2)
(Pwheel) (0.8) (1.30)
32
AASHTO, 1989, Section 3.24.3.1
where: Pwheel = 1.25 (16 kips/wheel) = 20.0 kips/wheel (HS25 Truck)

continuity factory = 0.8
impact factor
= 1.30
(11.50 + 2)
MLL+I =
(20.0) (0.8) (1.30) = 8.78 kip-ft/ft
32
AASHTO, 1989, Section 3.24.3.1
Factored Design Moment, Mu:

Mu = 1.3 [ 1.55 + (5/3) (8.78) ] = 21.04 kip-ft/ft
Determine As reqd: dtop bars = 8.75 2.5 (0.75) / 2 = 5.875
Mu / () (b) (d)2 = 21.04 (12,000) / (0.9) (12) (5.875)2 = 677.3 psi
Interpolating from Table 5.2-A2, Appendix A: = 0.01272
As reqd = (b) (d) = 0.01272 (12) (5.875) = 0.90 in2/ft
Use #6 bars at 5 ctrs, As = 1.06 in2/ft > 0.90 in2/ft
ok
Use same bar size and spacing for bottom slab reinforcement. An alternate approach is to solve directly for
As reqd from Eq (5), BDM Section 5.2.1B:
As reqd = 0.85 (fc / fy) (b) [ d
d2 (31.3725 Mu / fc b) ]
= [ 0.85 (4) (12) / 60 ] [ 5.875

As reqd = 0.90 in2/ft
July 2000
(5)
(5.785)2 31.3725 (21.04) / (4) (12) ]
Agrees with value previously computed by tables.
5.2-B1-1

Appendix B
Slab Design
Check As min using Table 5.2-A2, Appendix A:

Mu = 1.2 Mcr = 1.2 fr S = (1.2) 7.5 fc (1/6) (b) (t)2
= (1.2) 7.5 4,000 (1/6) (12) (8.75)2 87,160 in-lbs/ft
Mu / bd2 = 87,160 / [ 0.9 (12) (5.875)2 ] = 233.8 psi
From Table 5.2-A2, Appendix A, interpolate = 0.00404
As min = (b) (d) = 0.00404 (12) (5.875) = 0.28 in2/ft < 1.06 in2/ft
Check As min using Eq (6):
As min =
0.85 fc (b)
fy
As min =
0.85 (4) (12)

(60)
As min = 0.285 in2/ft

Check As max:
(
(
d
d2
5.875
0.124 h2
f c
(5.875)2
(6)
0.124 (8.75)2
Agrees with value from tables.
From Table 5.2-A2, Appendix A, max = 0.75 b = 0.0214
As max = 0.0214 (12) (5.875) = 1.51 in2/ft

Check As max using Eq (7), BDM Section 5.2.1B:
As max
3.
fc
fy
( 87 87+ f )
(4)
87
= 0.6375 (0.85) (12) (5.875)
=
(60) ( 87 + 60 )
As max = 0.6375 1 (b) (d)
(7)
1.51 in2/ft
ok
Check Crack Control Requirements

Calculate fs due to Service Load:
M service load = 1.55 + 8.78 = 10.33 kip-ft/ft
fs calc = M(12,000) / Asjd
Where
j = l k/3 = 0.884 Agrees with Table 1, page 81, ACI Publication SP-3 Reinforced
Concrete Design Handbook Working Stress Design, 1965
k = 1 / 1 [ 1 + fs/nfc] = 1 / [ 1 + 24,000 / (8) (1,600) ] = 0.348
fs = 24,000 psi Grade 60 bars per AASHTO, Section 8.15.2.2
fc = 0.40 fc = 1,600 psi for Conc Cl 4000
n = Es / Ec = 29,000,000 / 3,620,000 = 8.0
fs calc = 10.33 (12,000) / (1.06) (0.884) (5.875) = 22,517 psi

Using Eq (21), BDM Section 5.2.1G, Calculate allowable fs:
fs allowable = z / [ (dc) (A) ]1/3
= 130 / [ (2.875) (5) (5.75) ]1/3 = 29.63 ksi > 22.52 ksi
5.2-B1-2
Eq (21)
ok
July 2000

Appendix B
Slab Design
Alternate Approach, Check zcalc < 130 kips/in using Eq (22):

zcalc
= fs calc [ (dc) (A) ]1/3 < 130 kips/in

= (22.52) [ (2.875) (5) (5.75) ]1/3 = 98.1 kips/in < 130 kips/in
Eq (22)
ok
Use #6 bars at 5 ctrs top and bottom transverse slab reinforcement.
Deck Reinforcement Mid-Span Steel Plate Girder
July 2000
5.2-B1-3

Appendix B
Example 5.2-B2
Given: Center-to-center spacing of W58G girders
Width of top flange
Average flange thickness
Girder concrete strength fc
Deck concrete, Class 5000 fc
Cover to top bars
Cover to bottom bars
Find:
1.
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
8 feet 0 inches
25 inches wide
6 inches
7,000 psi
5,000 psi
2.5 inches
1.0 inch
Deck thickness, deck reinforcement
Determine Deck Thickness

Minimum slab thickness = 7.5 no overlay, per BDM, Chapter 6. This thickness permits the use of
#6 transverse and #5 longitudinal bars.
Seff = clear span per AASHTO 3.24.1.2(a)
Width of top flange/average flange thick = 4.16
Close enough to 4.0, use clear span for Seff
Seff = Sg W2 = 8.0 2.083 = 5.92
Check Minimum Slab Thickness, tmin:
tmin = (Seff + 10) (12) / 30 = (5.92 + 10) (12) / 30 = 6.37 < 7.5
2.
ok
Determine Transverse Deck Reinforcement Top Slab Reinforcement

Dead Load Moment, MDL:
MDL = (1/10) [ (7.5 / 12) (0.160 kcf) ] (5.92)2 = 0.43 kip-ft/ft
Live Load Moment + Impact, MLL+I:
(S + 2)
(6.54 + 2)
(Pwheel) (0.8) (1.30) =
(20.0) (0.8) (1.30)
32
32
= 5.15 kip-ft/ft
MLL+I =
MLL+I
Factored Design Moment, Mu:

Mu = 1.3 [ 0.35 + (5/3) (5.15) ] = 11.61 kip-ft/ft
Determine As reqd: dtop bars = 7.5 2.5 (0.75) / 2 = 4.625
Mu / () (b) (d)2 = 12.54 (12,000) / (0.9) (12) (4.625)2 = 651.4 psi
As reqd = (b) (d) = 0.01089 (12) (4.625) = 0.61 in2/ft
Use #6 bars at 8 ctrs, As = 0.66 in2/ft
ok
Use same bar size and spacing for bottom slab reinforcement.
July 2000
5.2-B2-1

Appendix B
3. Check Crack Control Requirements Transverse Reinforcement

Calculate fs due to Service Load:
Mservice load = 0.35 + 5.15 = 5.50 kip-ft/ft
fs calc = M (12,000) / Asjd
where:
j =
k =
fc =
Ec =
fs =
n =
l k/3 = 1 0.375/3 = 0.875

1 / 1 [ 1 + fs/nfc ] = 1 / [ 1 + 24,000 / (7.2) (2,000) ] = 0.375
0.40 fc = (0.40) (5,000) = 2,000 psi for Concrete Class 5000
57,000 5,000 = 4,030,500 psi
24,000 psi Grade 60 bars
Es / Ec = 29,000,000 / 4,030,500 = 7.2
fs calc = 5.50 (12,000) / (0.66) (0.875) (4.625) = 24,710 psi top bar
Calculate fs allowable = z / (Adc)1/3:
A = (7.5) (2.875) (2) / 1 bar = 43.125
dc = 2.5 + 0.75 / 2 = 2.875
fs allow = 130 / [ (43.125) (2.875) ]1/3 = 26.07 ksi > 24.71 ksi
4.
ok
Determine Longitudinal Deck Reinforcement

Moments at Pier, Negative Reinforcement:
MDL = 187.6 kip-ft/girder
MLL+I = 780.0 kip-ft/girder
Service Load Moments
Mu = 1.3 [ 187.6 + (5/3) (780.0) ] = 1,933.8 kip-ft/girder

Determine As reqd assume two layers of #5 with davg = 64.0:
Mu / () (b) (d)2 = 1,933.8 (12,000) / (0.9) (25) (64)2 = 251.8 psi
As reqd = 0.00433 (25) (64.0) = 6.93 in2
Use 24-#5 (12-#5 in each layer) As = 7.44 in2 > 6.93 in2
ok
Spacing is approximately 8.0, As/ft = 0.47 in2/ft

Check longitudinal distribution reinforcement so that spacing can be coordinated with the reinforcement
required for negative pier girder moment:
P = 220 / S = 220 / 6.54 = 86.0 percent but not to exceed 67 percent
Distribution Reinforcement = 0.67 (As actual) = 0.67 (0.70) = 0.47 in2/ft
As provided = 0.47 in2/ft
5.2-B2-2
ok
July 2000

Appendix B
5. Check Crack Control Requirement Longitudinal Reinforcement

24-#5
As = 7.44 in2
n = Es/Ec = 29,000,000 / 4,769,000 = 6.0
k =
2 n + ( n)2 n
k =
2 (0.0047) (6.0) + [ (0.0047) (6.0) ]2 (0.0047) (6.0) = 0.210
j = l k/3 = 0.93
fs calc = M (12,000) / Asjd = 967.6 (12,000) / (7.44) (0.93) (64.0) = 26,220 psi
fs allowable = z / [ (dc) (A) ]1/3
Use actual girder spacing = (8.0) (12) = 96.0 to compute A
A = (96) (7.5) / 24 bars = 30.0 in2/bar
fs allowable = 130 / [ 30.0 (3.56)
]1/3
dc = 2.5 + 0.75 + 0.625/2 = 3.56
= 27.40 psi > 26.22 psi
ok
Deck Reinforcement at Intermediate Pier Prestressed Girder Bridge

Longitutdinal Deck Reinforcement is designed for the negative moment at an intermediate pier. Otherwise, the
longitudinal deck reinforcement will be similar to that shown in Example 5.2-B1-1.
July 2000
5.2-B2-3

Appendix B
Example 5.2-B3
Design Loads
Group I:
Pu = 1600k
H=0
k
Group VII: Pu = 1500
H = 400k
Assume crossbeam dead load is included with bearing loads.
Use Section 12.4 of AASHTOs Guide Specifications for Design and Construction of Segmental Concrete Bridges,
1989.
July 2000
5.2-B3-1

Appendix B
Develop a Preliminary Strut-and-Tie Model:
Estimate node size at top of column:

b (fcn Acn) Su
Assuming spiral reinforcement provides confinement, use b = 0.75 and fcn = 0.85 fc:
0.75 (0.85 5) Acn 2,400
Acn 753 in2
Use the following node size at the top of column:
5.2-B3-2
July 2000

Appendix B
Determine Truss Element Forces:
Group I Strut Loads
Group VII Strut Loads
Determine Minimum Size of Node Regions:

b (fcn Acn) Su
where: b = 0.70 for bearing
fcn = 0.85 fc in regions with compression only

fcn = 0.70 fc in regions with one tension tie
At base of inclined strut,
0.75 (0.85 5) Acn 2,596
Acn 873 in2
depth of node =
873
= 12.1
72
(72 12.1)
where width of crossbeam = 72

2,596
At top of inclined strut, Acn
= 1,060 in2
0.70 (0.70 5)
1,060
depth of node =
= 14.7
(72 14.7)
72
For 1,600k chord:
Acn
1,600
= 538 in2
0.70 (0.85 5)
538
= 7.5
72
915
For 915k chord: Acn
(538) = 308 in2
1,600
308
depth of node =
= 4.3
72
depth of node =
July 2000
5.2-B3-3

Appendix B
Determine Minimum Sizes of Compression Members:

v (fcu Acs) Su
(inclined compressive struts)
f (0.85 fc Acc + As fs) Su
(compression chords)
For 2,596k inclined compressive strut:

0.85 (0.45 5) Acs 2,596k
(fcu = 0.45 fc)
2,596
= 1,357 in2
0.85 (0.45) (5)
1,357
and depth of strut =
= 18.9 in
72
Acs
For 915k inclined compressive strut:

915
Acs
(1,357) = 478 in2
2,596
478
and depth of strut =
= 6.6 in
72
For 1,600k compression chord:
Acs
1,600
0.9 (0.85) (5)
and depth of chord =
= 418 in2
418
= 5.8 in
72
Incorporate Node and Member Sizes Into Model:
5.2-B3-4
July 2000

Appendix B
Recalculate Truss Member Forces:
Group I Strut Loads
Group VII Strut Loads
Design Tie Member:

f (As fsy + A*s f*su) Su
without prestress:
0.90 (As) (60) 2,240
As 41.5 in2
Try using 12 bundles of #14 top and #11 bot (As = 45.7 in2)
Check development length of tie bars:
For #14 bars with fc = 5,000 psi, ldh = 2 5
Development length available = 2 4 < 2 5
For #11 bars, ldh = 1 5
ok
Therefore, total developed steel As = 12 (1.56) + 12 (2.25)

As = 44.8 in2 > 41.5 in2
( 2829 )
ok
Partial Elevation-Tension Tie at Top of Pier Cap

12
(2.25)
(3.26)
+
12
(1.56)
(5.97) = 4.37 = 4 estimate
x =
ok
45.7
July 2000
5.2-B3-5

Appendix B
Determine Minimum Vertical and Horizontal Steel Using Sections 12.5.3.2 and 12.5.3.3:
For vertical reinforcing: As fy 120 bw s
d
where s <
or 12
4
120 bw s
Therefore, As
= 0.002 bw s
60,000
Assume 4 legs of #6 stirrups: As = 1.76 in2
s
1.76
As
=
0.002 (72)
0.002 bw
s 12.2 in
Check:
d
72 4.37
=
= 16.9
4
4
Therefore, use 4 #6 legs at 12 maximum spacing.

For horizontal reinforcing:
where s < d or 12
3
As fy 120 bw s
For s = 12, As 0.002 (72) (12) = 1.73 in2

Try 2 #8 bars:
s
(2 #9 bars)
As = 1.58 in2
1.58
= 11.0
0.002 (72)
Use #8 bars at 11 maximum spacing on side faces.

For bottom bars, use #6 at approximately 12 (7 #6 bars)
5.2-B3-6
July 2000

Appendix B
Example 5.2-B4
Service Load Concrete Stresses and Constants
July 2000
5.2-B4-1

Appendix B
5.2-B4-2
July 2000

Appendix B
July 2000
5.2-B4-3

Criteria
Contents
Page
6.0
6.1
6.1.1
6.1.2
6.1.3
6.1.4
6.1.5
6.1.6
6.1.7
6.1.8
6.2
6.2.1
6.2.2
6.2.3
6.2.4
6.2.5
6.3
6.3.1
Prestressed Concrete Superstructures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Allowable Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Concrete Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Strength of Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Modulus of Elasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Creep Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Shrinkage Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Prestressing Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Allowable Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Prestressing Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Anchorages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Instantaneous Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Time-dependent Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Contract Plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Shop Plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Connections (Joints) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Deflection and Camber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Precast Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pre-Tensioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Post-Tensioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Washington Standard Prestressed Girder Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Section Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Basic Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Design Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E. Prestressing Strands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F. Development of Prestressing Strand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
G. Fabrication and Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Precast Prestressed (Short Span Bridges) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Precast Prestressed Slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Precast Prestressed Tri-Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Precast Prestressed Deck Bulb-Tee Girders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Precast Box Girders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Precast Girder Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Criteria for Girder Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Support Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Composite Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Prestressed Girder Camber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
July 2000
6.1-1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
5
5
5
5
5
6
6.2-1
1
1
1
1
1
3
4
7
8
10
14
14
14
15
15
6.3-1
1
1
1
7
6.0-i

Criteria
Contents
Page
6.3.2
6.3.3
6.3.4
6.3.5
6.3.6
6.4
6.4.1
6.4.2
6.4.3
6.99
6.0-ii
Framing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Girder Selection and Spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Slab Cantilevers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Diaphragm Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Skew Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E. Grade and Cross Slope Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F. Curve Effect and Flare Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Simple Spans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Continuous Spans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Roadway Slab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Slab Thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Transverse Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Crossbeam Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Geometry and Construction Requirement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Skin Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Repair of Damaged Bridge Girders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Repair Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Miscellaneous References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cast-in-Place Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Design Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Bridge Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Section Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Strand and Tendon Arrangements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E. Layout of Anchorages and End Blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F. Superstructure Shortening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Section Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Preliminary Stress Check . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Tendon Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Prestress Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E. Steel Stress Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F. Prestress Moment Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
G. Flexural Stress in Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
H. Temperature Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I. Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
J. End Block Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
K. Anchorage Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
L. Camber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
M. Expansion Bearing Offsets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
N. Post-Tensioning Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Review of Shop Plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
10
11
12
13
13
13
13
13
14
18
18
20
21
21
21
21
22
22
22
22
24
6.4-1
1
1
1
2
3
3
10
10
11
11
12
13
13
15
16
17
18
19
20
20
20
20
21
6.99-1
July 2000

Criteria
Contents

6.1-A1
A Dimension for P.S. Concrete Bridges
6.2-A1
W95G and W83G
6.3-A1
Prestressed Girder Intermediate Hinge Diaphragm
6.4-A1-1 WSDOT Standard Girder Composite Sections
6.4-A1-2 WSDOT Standard Girder Non-Composite Sections
6.4-A2
WSDOT Standard Girders Section Properties Composite Sections
6.4-A3-1 WSDOT Standard Girders Section Properties Non-Composite Sections 1 of 2
6.4-A3-2 WSDOT Standard Girders Section Properties Non-Composite Sections 2 of 2
6.4-A4
WSDOT Standard Girders Span Range Capacity
6.5-A1-1 W42G Girder Details 1 of 2
6.5-A5-1 WF74G Girder Details 1 of 3
6.5-A8
End Wall on P.S. Concrete Girder Diaphragm Details
6.5-A9
Abutment Type Pier Diaphragm Details
6.5-A10-1 Intermediate Pier Fixed Recessed-Face Diaphragm Details
6.5-A10-2 Intermediate Pier Fixed Flush-Face Diaphragm Details
6.5-A10-3 Intermediate Pier Hinge Diaphragm Details
6.5-A10-4 Intermediate Pier End Wall on Girder Details
6.5-A11 Intermediate Diaphragm Details
6.5-A12 Miscellaneous Diaphragm Details
6.5-A13 Single Span Prestressed Girder Construction Sequence
6.5-A14 Multiple Span Prestressed Girder Construction Sequence
6.6-A1-1 Precast Prestressed 1-0 Solid Slab Details 1 of 2
6.6-A1-2 Precast Prestressed 1-0 Solid Slab Details 2 of 2
6.6-A2-1 Precast Prestressed 1-6 Voided Slab Details 1 of 2
July 2000
6.0-iii

Criteria
6.6-A4
6.6-A5
6.6-A6
6.7-A1-1
6.7-A1-2
6.7-A3
6.8-A1-1
6.8-A1-2
6.8-A1-3
6.8-A1-4
6.8-A2-1
6.8-A2-2
6.8-A2-3
6.8-A2-4
6.8-A3-1
6.8-A3-2
6.8-A3-3
6.8-A3-4
6.8-A4-1
6.8-A4-2
6.8-A4-3
6.8-A4-4
6.8-A5
Contents
Precast Prestressed Slab End Pier Details

Precast Prestressed Slab Intermediate Pier Details
Precast Prestressed Slab Layout
Precast Prestressed Ribbed Tri-Beam Girder Details 1 of 2
Precast Prestressed Ribbed Tri-Beam Girder Details 2 of 2
Precast Prestressed Ribbed Tri-Beam Girder Pier Details
W35DG Deck Bulb Tee Girder Details 1 of 2
W35DG Deck Bulb Tee Girder Design Tables
W35DG Deck Bulb Tee Diaphragm Details
Deck Bulb Tee Diaphragm Details

6.1-B1
Post-Tensioning Anchorages
6.2-B1
Notes to Designers Post-Tensioning
6.3-B1
P.T. Box Girder Bridges Single Span
6.3-B2
P.T. Box Girder Bridges Two Span
6.3-B3
P.T. Box Girder Bridges Multiple Span
P65:DP/BDM6
6.0-iv
July 2000

Criteria
6.0
6.1
General
General
WSDOT uses three types of prestressed concrete bridges. They are (1) prestressed precast concrete girder
or slab bridges, (2) cast-in-place post-tensioned bridges, and (3) combination prestressed/post-tensioned
bridges. WSDOT utilizes prestressed concrete in special structures such as segmental cast-in-place or
precast construction. This section provides criteria for these structure types and provides general guidance
for other designs using prestressed concrete.
6.1.1
Criteria
A. General
AASHTO specifications shall be used to design prestressed concrete bridges, except as modified
in this section. Prestressed concrete bridges shall be designed using working stress design and
checked for ultimate load capacity. Refer to portions of Chapter 5 for information relating to
concrete reinforcement and design methods used for prestressed structures.
B. Allowable Stresses
AASHTO standard specifications list the allowable stresses to be used in design except as noted
below.
1.
Concrete Stresses at Service Load

Under working stress conditions, tensile stresses in the precompressed tensile zone shall be
limited to zero. This prevents cracking of the concrete during service life of the structure and
provides more allowance for overloads during the life of the bridge.
2.
Shear Capacity
Shear in webs of prestressed bridges shall be in accordance with AASHTO specifications.
Where additional guidance is needed, the latest ACI Code should be consulted. For special
considerations used for design of Washington State standard prestressed girders, see
Subsection 6.3.
6.1.2
Concrete Properties
A. Strength of Concrete
Pacific NW aggregates have consistently resulted in excellent concrete strengths, to as much as
10,000 psi in 28 days. The following strengths are normally used for design.
1.
Precast Girders
Nominal 28-day concrete strength (fc) for precast girders with a cast-in-place deck is 7,000 psi.
Where higher strengths would eliminate a line of girders, this strength can be specified, preferably at 8,500 psi, to a maximum of 10,000 psi. The final strength of concrete shall be specified as
required by design and shall be shown on the plans.
The minimum concrete compressive strength at release (fci) for each prestressed girder in a
bridge is to be calculated and shown in the plans. For a 28-day concrete compressive strength
of 7,000 psi, a concrete compressive strength (at release) of between 3,500 and 6,000 psi shall
be specified. For high strength concrete, the compressive strength at release shall be limited to
July 2000
6.1-1

Criteria
General
7,500 psi. Release strengths of up to 8,500 psi can be achieved with extended curing for special
circumstances. The specified concrete strength at release should be rounded to the next highest
100 psi.
2.
Cast-in-Place Post-tensioned Bridges

Since conditions for placing and curing concrete on cast-in-place bridges are not controlled,
as they are for precast bridge sections, a lower figure is used for concrete strength. Normally,
use class 4000 concrete for post-tensioned cast-in-place bridges. Where significant economy
can be gained and structural requirements dictate, the structure could be designed for class
5000 concrete.
3.
Cast-in-Place Slabs
Concrete class 4000D shall be used for all cast-in-place bridge decks unless otherwise approved
by the Bridge Design Engineer.
B. Modulus of Elasticity
The modulus of elasticity for concrete strength up to 10 ksi is normally 33w3/2 fc, where w is the
weight of concrete in lbs/ft3. Normal weight concretes used in Washington generally have weights
close to 160 lbs/ft3. With this value, the modules of elasticity equation simplifies to E = 66,800 fc.
C. Creep Rate
The creep coefficient for standard conditions may be taken as follows:
Standard conditions are relative humidity 40 percent and average thickness of section 6 inches.
1.
Cast-in-Place Girders
For most designs, the creep coefficient for loading at 7 days for moist-cured concrete and 1-3
days for steam-cured concrete is:
22
. t0.60.6
Ct =
6 + fc
10 + t
The final deflection is a combination of the elastic deflection and the creep effect associated with
given loads shown by the equation below.
total = elastic (1+ Ct)
For other factors affecting this equation, see Reference 6.99.2 and 6.99.4. Reference to 6.99.4
discusses methods for calculating creep effects.
2.
Standard Prestressed Girders

The creep coefficient for standard prestressed girders may be taken as:
3.95 .
Ct =
Ln (t + 1)
6 + f c
Ct = creep coefficient
t = time in days
fc = ultimate strength of concrete in ksi
6.1-2
July 2000

Criteria
General
D. Shrinkage Rate
To compute the variation of shrinkage with time, use the following equations:
t
(SH)t =
x 0.51 x 10-3
For moist cured concrete after 7 days:
35 + t
t
(SH)t =
x 0.56 x 10-3
For steam cured concrete after 1 to 3 days:
55 + t
Where (SH)t is the shrinkage strain at any point in time.
For corrections to the shrinkage rate values including correction for initial shrinkage, see
Reference 6.99.4.
6.1.3
Prestressing Steel
A. General
Three types of high-tensile steel are used for producing prestress. They are:
1.
Strands: ASTM A 416 Grade 270, low relaxation or stress relieved.
2.
Bars: ASTM A 722 Grade 150, Type 2.
3.
Parallel wires: ASTM A 421 Grade 240.
All WSDOT designs are based on low relaxation strands using either 1/2 or 0.6 diameter strands.
B. Allowable Stresses
Allowable stresses for design are as listed in AASHTO specifications.
6.1.4
Prestressing Systems
A. General
There are numerous prestressing systems. Most systems combine a method of stressing the
prestressing strands with a method of anchoring it to concrete.
B. Anchorages
WSDOT requires approval of all multi-strand and/or bar anchorages used in prestressed concrete
bridges by testing or by a certified report, stating that the anchorage assembly will develop the yield
strength of post-tensioning steel. Manufacturers whose anchorages have been approved are.
6.1.5
1.
V.S.L. Corporation
2.
Avar Construction System
3.
Dywidag Systems International
Losses
AASHTO specifications outline the method of predicting prestress losses for usual prestressed concrete
bridges which may be used in design except as noted below.
The following sources of prestress loss can influence the effective stress in the strand.
July 2000
6.1-3

Criteria
General
A. Instantaneous Losses
1.
Anchorage slippage. This slippage is assumed to be 1/4 inch for design purposes.
2.
Friction losses. These losses are due to intended cable curvature and unintended wobble
coefficient. For strands against rigid galvanized metal duct these values are respectively = 0.20
and k = 0.0002. For strands against smooth polyethylene duct = 0.16 and k = 0.0002.
3.
Elastic shortening of concrete.
B. Time-dependent Losses
1.
Creep of concrete.
2.
Shrinkage of concrete.
3.
Steel relaxation.
For normal design in lieu of more accurate methods, time dependent losses may be taken as given in
Table 6.1.5-1.
Type of Section
Low-relaxation Strands
Bars
Rectangular Beam
33 ksi
25 ksi
Box Girder
21 ksi
15 ksi
I-Girder
33 [1- 0.15 (fc - 6) / 6 ]
19 ksi
Single/Double T, Hollow
Core Voided Slab
37 [ 1- 0.15 (fc - 6) / 6 ]
29 [ 1- 0.15 (fc - 6) / 6 ]
Time Dependent Prestress Losses

Table 6.1.5-1
Prestress losses due to instantaneous sources shall be added to the time dependent losses to determine
the total losses. The loss due to elastic shortening in pretensioned members shall be taken as:
PLES = (Ep / Eci ) fcgp
The loss due to elastic shortening in post-tensioned members shall be taken as:
PLES = [(N-1)/2N x Ep / Eci ] fcgp
where: Ep = modulus of elasticity of prestressing steel, ksi
Eci = modulus of elasticity of concrete at transfer, ksi
N
= number of identical prestressing tendons
fcgp = sum of concrete stresses at the center of gravity of prestressing tendons due to the
prestressing force at transfer (after jacking for posttensioned members) and the
self-weight of the member at the section of maximum moment, ksi
For pretensioned member and low-relaxation strands, fcgp may be calculated on the basis of 0.7fpu.
For post-tensioned members with bonded tendons, fcgp may be calculated on the basis of prestressing
force after jacking at the section of maximum moment.
For preliminary design of pretensioned prestressed girders with normal strength concrete limited to
7,000 psi, the total prestress loss may be taken as 48 ksi.
6.1-4
July 2000

Criteria
6.1.6
General
Construction
A. General
Construction plans for conventional post-tensioned box girder bridges include two different sets of
drawings. The first set (contract) is prepared by the design engineer (WSDOT or contracting agency)
and the second set (shop) is prepared by the post-tensioning materials supplier (contractor).
B. Contract Plans
The plans should be prepared to accommodate any post-tensioning system, so only prestressing forces
and eccentricity should be detailed. The concrete sections should be detailed so that available systems
can be installed. Design the thickness of webs and flanges to facilitate concrete placement. Generally,
web thickness for post-tensioned bridges shall be at least 12 inches.
C. Shop Plans
The shop plans are used to detail, install, and stress the post-tensioning system selected by the
Contractor. These plans must contain sufficient information to allow the engineer to check their
compliance with the contract plans. These plans must also contain the location of anchorages,
stressing data, and arrangement of tendons.
6.1.7
Connections (Joints)
The connections or joints must divide the structure into a logical pattern of separate elements which also
permit ease of manufacture and assembly.
The connection or joint surfaces should be oriented perpendicular to the centroidal axis of the precast
element.
Types of Connections (Joints):
Connections or joints are either wide or match cast. Depending on their width, they may be filled
with cast-in-place concrete or grouted. Match cast joints are normally bonded with an epoxy bonding
agent. Dry match cast joints are not recommended.
Shear and Alignment Keys:
In order to assist shear transmission in wide joints, use a suitable system of keys. The shape of the
keys may be chosen to suit a particular application and they can be either single keys or multiple
keys. Single keys are generally large and localized whereas multiple keys generally cover as much
of the joint surface area as is practical.
Single Key
July 2000
Multiple Keys
6.1-5

Criteria
General
Single keys provide an excellent guide for erection of elements. Single keys are preferred for all
match cast joints.
For all types of joints, the surfaces must be clean, free from grease and oil, etc. When using epoxy for
bonding, the joints should be lightly sand-blasted to remove laitance. For cast-in-place or other types
of wide joints, the adjacent concrete surfaces should be roughened and kept thoroughly wet, prior to
construction of the joint. Cast-in-place joints are generally preferred.
6.1.8
Deflection and Camber

Deflections of prestressed concrete beams can be predicted with greater accuracy than those for reinforced
concrete beams. Since prestressed concrete is more or less homogeneous and obeys ordinary laws of
flexure and shear, the deflection can be computed using elementary methods. However, accurate predictions of the deflections are difficult to determine, since modulus of elasticity of concrete, Ec, varies with
stress and age of concrete. Also, the effects of creep on deflections are difficult to estimate. For practical
purposes, an accuracy of 10 to 20 percent is often sufficient. Prestressing can be used advantageously to
control deflections, however, there are cases where excessive camber due to prestress have caused
problems. For normal design, in lieu of more accurate methods, the deflection and camber of prestressed
members may be estimated by the multipliers as given in Table 6.1.8-1.
Multipliers for Estimating Long-term Deflection of Prestressed Concrete Girders
Table 6.1.8-1
Normal Strength
Concrete fc <= 7.0 ksi
High Strength
Concrete fc > 7.0 ksi
NonComposite
Composite
NonComposite
Composite
Apply to the elastic deflection due to the member weight

at release of prestress
1.85
1.85
1.75
1.75
Apply to the elastic deflection due to prestressing at

release of prestress
1.80
1.80
1.70
1.70
Apply to the elastic deflection due to the member weight

at release of prestress
2.70
2.40
2.50
2.20
Apply to the elastic deflection due to prestressing at

2.45
2.20
2.25
2.10
Apply to the elastic deflection due to the Super Imposed

Dead Loads
3.00
3.00
2.75
2.75
----
2.30
----
2.15
Deflection at Erection
Deflection at Final
Apply to the elastic deflection due to weight of slab

P65:DP/BDM6
6.1-6
July 2000

Criteria
6.2
Precast Sections
Precast Sections
Precast sections are generally cast in a permanent plant or somewhere near the construction site and then
erected. Precasting permits better material quality control and is often more economical than cast-in-place
concrete. The precast U sections are commonly called bathtubs which can be joined together with
wet joint.
6.2.1
Pre-Tensioning
Pre-tensioning is accomplished by stressing high strength steel strands to a predetermined tension and
then placing concrete around the strands, while the stress is maintained. After the concrete has hardened,
the strands are released and the concrete, which has become bonded to the tendon, is prestressed as a
result of the strands attempting to relax to their original length. The strand stress is maintained during
placing and curing of the concrete by anchoring the ends of strands to abutments that may be as much as
500 feet apart. The abutments and appurtenances used in this procedure are referred to as pre-tensioning
bed or bench.
6.2.2
Post-Tensioning
Post-tensioning consists of installing steel tendons into a hollow metalic duct in a structure after the
concrete sections are cast. These tendons are usually anchored at each end of the structure and stressed to
a design strength using a hydraulic jacking system. Commonly the tendons are encased in a tight metal
tube. This tube is referred to as a sheath or duct and remains in the structure. After the tendon has been
stressed, the duct is filled with grout which bonds the tendon to the concrete section and prevents corrosion of the strand. Finally, closure pours are made at the anchor heads to provide corrosion protection.
6.2.3
Washington Standard Prestressed Girder Sections

Washington State Standard girders were adopted in the mid-1950s. These girder shapes proved to be very
efficient due to their thin webs and small flange fillets. These are still the most efficient shapes available
and variations of these girders have been adopted by other states. The original series was graduated in
10-foot increments from 30 feet to 100 feet.
In 1990, revisions were made to the prestressed concrete girder standards incorporating the results of the
research done at Washington State University on girders without end blocks. The new standards incorporate three major changes. They have a thicker web, the end blocks are eliminated, and have increased
distance between strands. The new standard designations are W74G, W58G, W50G, W42G, and deck
bulb tee standards W53DG and W35DG. The numbers refer to the depth of the section.
In 1999, deeper girders, commonly called Supergirders were added to the WSDOT prestressed concrete
girder standards. These new supergirders may be pretensioned or post-tensioned. The pretensioned
standards are designated as WF74G, W83G and W95G and the post-tensioned standards are designated
as W83PTG and W95PTG.
A. Properties
The properties which are needed for design of standard girders are listed in Appendix 6.4-A3-1 and 2.
B. Section Geometry
Table 6.2.3-1 gives the dimensions of the Washington State Standard Girder Sections.
July 2000
6.2-1

Criteria
Precast Sections
Dimensions of Standard Prestressed Girder Sections

Table 6.2.3-1
6.2-2
July 2000

Criteria
Precast Sections
C. Basic Assumptions
The following basic assumptions are used in the design of these standard girders. Figure 6.2.3-1
illustrates some of the factors which are constant in the WSDOT Prestressed Girder Design computer
program. Figure 6.2.3-2 show variations from those assumptions for a typical backwall design and a
typical notched girder design.
Typical Prestressed Girder Span

Figure 6.2.3-1
Typical Prestressed Girder Configuration

Figure 6.2.3-2
Figure 6.2.3-3 and Appendix 6.5-A1 through A7 show the standard strand positions in these girders.
July 2000
6.2-3

Criteria
1.
Precast Sections
Prestress
For final conditions, the designer shall assume the prestress acting on the section to be NAs
(.70 fs-PL) for stress relieved strands and NAs (.75 fs-PL) for low relaxation strands.
Where:
N
= number of stressed strands passing through the section
As = the area of one strand, in2

fs = the ultimate strength in ksi
PL = indicates total prestress losses in ksi in pretensioned members.
For checking of stresses during release, lifting, transportation, and erection of prestressed girders,
the elastic and time dependent losses shall be as follows:
Release 1 day (lifting of girders from casting beds)
1 month 4 months (transportation and erection of girders)
After 4 months
2.
computed losses
35 ksi
computed losses
Strand Patterns
Standard strand patterns are shown in Appendix 6.5-A1 through A7.
D. Design Procedure
1.
General
The WSDOT Prestressed Girder Design computer program uses a trial and error method to
arrive at solution for stress requirement and is the preferred method for final design of length
and spacing. Some publications suggest various direct means for determining stress and position,
but the procedures are generally quite complex.
2.
Stress Conditions
The stress limits as described in Table 6.2.3-2 must be met for the girder and its prestress. One
or more of the conditions described below may govern design. Each condition is the result of
the summation of stresses with each load acting on its appropriate section (such as girder only,
composite section). Precast girders shall also be checked during lifting, transportation, and
erection stages by the designer to assure that girder delivery is feasible. Impact during the lifting
stage shall be 0 percent and during transportation shall be 20 percent of the dead load of the
girder. Impact shall be applied either upward or downward to produce maximum stresses.
6.2-4
July 2000

Criteria
Precast Sections
Prestressed Girder Strand Locations

Figure 6.2.3-3
Note:
Fo may be increased in 1-inch increments to keep slope of harped strands below the slope limit.
Fb may be increased in 1-inch increments in order to reduce tension at the top of the girder at
harping point at time of strand release.
July 2000
6.2-5

Criteria
Precast Sections
Condition
Stress
Location
Temporary Stress
at Transfer
Tensile
In areas other than

Precompressed
Tensile Zone
3 fci <=0.2 psi
Precompressed
Tensile Zone
6 fci
Temporary Stress
at Lifting
Tempoary Stress
at Shipping
Final Stresses at
Service Load
Allowable Stress
0.6 fci
Compression
All Locations
Tensile
In areas other than

Precompressed
Tensile Zone
6 fci
Precompressed
Tensile Zone
6 fci
0.6 fci
Compression
All Locations
Tensile
In areas other than

Precompressed
Tensile Zone
6 fci
Precompressed
Tensile Zone
6 fci
Compression
All Locations
0.6 fc
Tensile
Precompressed
Tensile Zone
0.0 psi
Compression
All Locations due to:

Permanent loads
and effective
Prestressing Load
0.45 fc
Live load, one-half

permanent loads
and effective
prestressing load
0.4 fc
All load combinations
0.6 fc
Allowable Concrete Stresses

Table 6.2.3-2
6.2-6
July 2000

Criteria
Precast Sections
E. Prestressing Strands
1.
Straight Strands
The position of the straight strands in the bottom flange and temporary strands for shipping and
handling in top flange has been standardized for each size of flange. Those strand positions and
the girder flange size are summarized in Appendix 6.5-A1 through A7.
2.
Harped Strands
The harped strands are bundled at the 4/10 points of the span for series W83G, W95G, WF74G
and W58G and at the 1/3 points at the girders for series W50G and W42G. The harped strands
are bundled at the harping points. Bundles are limited to 12 strands each. Twelve (12) and fewer
harped strands are placed in a single bundle with the centroid normally 3 inches above the bottom
of the girder. Strands in excess of 12 are bundled in a second bundle with the centroid 6 inches
above the bottom of the girder. At the girder ends, the strands are splayed to a normal pattern.
The centroid of strands at both the girder end and the harping point may be varied to suit girder
stress requirements.
3.
Stirrups
Shear for computation of stirrup requirements is computed at a point 1/2 of the girder depth from
the end of the girder and at the harping point. Ultimate shear is computed at these points based on
1.3 DL + 2.17 (L.L. + Impact). The portion of this shear which is carried by the concrete is given
in section 9.20.2 of AASHTO. The stirrup spacing is then calculated using the formula:
S=
Av fy(d)
Vs
where Vs = Vu / 0.85 Vc and
d is the distance from the extreme compressive fiber to the centroid of the prestressing force.
For precast girders made continuous for live load, d shall be the distance from the extreme
compressive fiber to the centroid of the negative moment reinforcement, i.e., d = h + A - 4.5",
where h = height of the girder; A as defined in Subsection 6.3.4 A(3).
Shear reinforcement are furnished by two vertical bars. Maximum spacing is taken to be 1 foot
6 inches The point where 1-foot 6-inch spacing starts is found by interpolating between the point
1/2 of the girder depth from the end of the girder and the harping point to find the location where
the portion of the shear carried by the stirrups (Vs) yields 1 foot 6 inches Vs for 1-foot 6-inch
Avfy(dmin)
stirrup spacing can be found by using Vs (18) =
where dmin is the smallest of the
18
d values found for the point 1/2 of the girder depth from the end of the girder and the harping
point. The 1-foot 6-inch stirrup spacing is used throughout the rest of the girder.
If the stirrup spacing at the point 1/2 of the girder depth from the end of the girder is smaller than
about 1 foot 2 inches, further interpolation may be done to obtain a multiple step increment of
stirrup spacing.
4.
End Section Reinforcement

The Washington State Standard Prestressed Concrete Girders are not provided with a thickened
end block section, but have constant thickness webs. The end section reinforcement is detailed
on the Office Standard Plans. This reinforcement is based on the requirement to resist bursting
forces due to strand force development in this area. If the stirrup spacing required at the end of
July 2000
6.2-7

Criteria
Precast Sections
the girder is less than shown on the Office Standard Plans, end section stirrups spacing on the
Standard Plans should be altered to show this spacing. For a distance of 1.5d from the end of the
girder, reinforcement shall be placed to confine the p/s steel in bottom flange. The spacing of
confinement reinforcement shall not exceed 6 inch and shall be shaped to enclose the strands.
F. Development of Prestressing Strand
1.
General
In determining the resistance of pretensioned concrete components in their end zones, the gradual
buildup of the strand force in the transfer and development lengths shall be taken into account.
The prestress force may be assumed to vary linearly from 0.0 at the point where bonding
commences to a maximum at the transfer length.
Between the transfer length and the development length, the strand force may be assumed
to increase in a parabolic manner, reaching the tensile strength of the strand at the end of
development length.
For the purpose of this article, the transfer length may be taken as 60 strand diameters and the
development length shall be taken as specified in Article 6.2.3F2.
The effects of debonding shall be considered as specified in Article 6.2.3F3.
2.
Bonded Strand
Pretensioning strand shall be bonded beyond the critical section for development length, in
inches, taken as:
Ld
(f*
su
2
3
fse D
where:
D
= nominal strand diameter (in)
fse = effective stress in prestressing steel after all losses (ksi)

fsu
* = in the prestressing steel at nominal strength (ksi)
3.
Partially Debonded Strands

Where a portion or portions of a pretensioning strand are not bonded and where tension exists
in the precompressed tensile zone, the development length specified in Article 6.2.3F2 shall
be doubled.
The number of partially debonded strands should not exceed 25 percent of the total number
of strands.
The number of debonded strands in any horizontal row shall not exceed 40 percent of the strands
in that row.
Debonded strands shall be symmetrically distributed about the centerline of the member.
Debonded lengths of pairs of strands that are symmetrically positioned about the centerline of
the member shall be equal.
Exterior strands in each horizontal row shall be fully bonded.
6.2-8
July 2000

Criteria
4.
Precast Sections
Unbonding Strands
Where it is necessary to prevent a strand from actively supplying prestress force near the end
of a girder, it may be unbonded. This can be accomplished by taping a close fitting pvc tube to
the stressed strand from the end of the girder to some point where the strand can be allowed to
develop its load. Since this is not a common procedure, it should be carefully detailed on the
plans. It is important when this method is used in construction that the taping of the tube be
done in such a manner that grout cannot leak into the tube and provide an undesirable bond of
the strand.
5.
Strand Development Outside of Girder

For girders made continuous for live load, extended bottom prestress strands are used to carry
positive live load, creep, and other moments from one span to another. Usually four strands per
girder will provide an adequate resistance. Strands used for this purpose must be developed in the
short distance between the two girder ends. This is normally accomplished by requiring strand
chucks and anchors as shown in Figure 6.2.3-4. The nominal development length is normally
2 feet. For wide crossbeams, the strands may be extended straight and a 1 foot 0 inch splice used.
At back walls, which are connected to the superstructure, the extended strands may be used to
withstand earthquake forces and, in this case, should be developed accordingly. The number
of strands to be extended cannot exceed the number of straight strands available in the girder.
Designer shall calculate the exact number of extended straight strands needed to develop the
required moment capacity at the end of girder. This calculation shall be based on the tensile
strength of the strands, the stress imposed to the anchor, and concrete bearing against the
projected area of the anchor.
The appropriate strand stress available to resist ultimate load (fgu*) at this section shall be no
greater than [(Ld / D -2/3 fse] where:
Ld is the developed length available
D is the diameter of the strand
fse is the effective prestress in steel after all losses.
Strand Development
Figure 6.2.3-4
July 2000
6.2-9

Criteria
Precast Sections
G. Fabrication and Handling

1.
Shop Plans
Fabricators of prestressed girders are required to submit shop plans which show specific details
for each girder that they construct. These shop plans are checked and approved by the Project
Engineers office for conformance with the Contract Plans and specifications.
2.
Special Problems for Fabricators

a.
Strand Tensioning
The method selected for strand tensioning may affect the design of the girders. The strand
arrangements shown in the office standard plans and included in the Prestressed Girder
Design computer program are satisfactory for tensioning methods used by fabricators in this
state. Harped strands are normally tensioned by pulling them as straight strands to a partial
tension. The strands are then deflected vertically as necessary to give the required harping
angle and strand stress. In order to avoid overtensioning the harped strands by this procedure, the slope of the strands is limited to a maximum of 6:1 for 1/2 strands and 8:1 for
0.6 strands. The straight strands are tensioned by straight jacking.
b.
Hold Down Forces

Forces on the hold-down units are developed as the harped strands are raised. The hold-down
device provided by the fabricator must be able to hold the vertical component of the harping
forces. Normally a two or more hold-down unit is required. Standard commercial hold-down
units have been preapproved for use with particular strand groups.
Numbers of Strands
Since the prestressing beds used by the girder fabricators can carry several girders in a line,
it is desirable that girders have the same number of strands where practical. This allows
several girders to be set up and cast at one time and saves both time and strand material.
3.
Handling and Hauling of Long Prestressed Girders

a.
General
Considerations for handling and shipping long prestressed girders relate primarily to weight,
length, height, and lateral stability. The effect of each variable differs considerably depending on where the handling is taking place: in the plant, on the road, or at the jobsite.
b.
In-Plant Handling
The primary considerations for in-plant handling are weight and lateral stability. The
maximum weight that can be handled by precasting plants in the Pacific Northwest is
200 kips. Pretensioning lines are normally long enough so that the weight of a girder
governs capacity, rather than its length. Headroom is also not generally a concern for the
deeper sections.
Lateral stability can be a concern when handling long, slender girders. When the girder is
stripped from the form, the prestressing level is higher and the concrete strength is lower
than at any other point in the life of the member.
6.2-10
July 2000

Criteria
Precast Sections
The WSDOT prestressed girder sections are relatively wide and stiff about their weak axes
and, as a result, exhibit good stability, even at their longer pretentioned lengths. The simplest
method of improving stability is to move the lifting devices away from the ends. This
invariably increases the required concrete release strength, because decreasing the distance
between lifting devices increases the concrete stresses at the harp point. Stresses at the
support may also govern, depending on the exit location of the harped strands.
Alternatively, the girder sections may be braced to provide adequate stability. Temporary
prestressing in the top flange can also be used to provide a larger factor of safety against
cracking.
Other types of bracing have also been used successfully for many years. These systems
are generally based on experience rather than theory. Other methods of improving lateral
stability, such as raising the roll axis of the girder, are also an option.
For stability analysis of prestressed girder during in-plant handling in absence of more
accurate information, the following parameters shall be used:
Height of pick point above top of girder = 0.0 in
Lifting loop or lifting bars placement tolerance = 0.25 in
Maximum girder sweep tolerance = 0.00052 in/in
c.
Pick Up Points
The office standard plans show pick-up points for the girders. These points are critical since
the girder is in its most highly stressed condition just after strand release. In some cases,
fabricators may request to move the pick-up points toward the center of the girder. The
request must be reviewed carefully since a decrease in girder dead load moment near
centerline span may cause overstressing of the girder. Similarly, the girders must never be
supported at any point other than the centerline of bearing during storage. The girders are
also very sensitive to lateral loads and accordingly must be stored in a true vertical position.
d.
Girder Lateral Bending

Long prestressed girders are very flexible and highly susceptible to lateral bending. Lateral
bending failures are sudden, catastrophic, costly, pose a serious threat to workers and
surroundings, and therefore must be guarded against. The office standard plans state that
girders over certain given lengths must be laterally braced and that all girders must be
handled carefully. It is the fabricators responsibility to provide adequate bracing and
provide suitable handling facilities. On unusually long girders, however, the designer should
give this matter additional consideration. Published material on girder lateral bending should
be consulted and used to assure the constructability of the girder design chosen (14, 17,
18, 19).
e.
Shipping
The ability to ship deep girder sections can be influenced by a large number of variables,
including mode of transportation, weight, length, height, and lateral stability. Some variables
have more influence than others. As such, the feasibility of shipping deep girders is strongly
site-dependent. It is recommended that routes to the site be investigated during the preliminary design phase. To this end, on projects using long, heavy girders, WSDOT can place an
advisory in their special provisions including shipping routes, estimated permit fees, escort
vehicle requirements, Washington State Patrol requirements, and permit approval time.
July 2000
6.2-11

Criteria
f.
Precast Sections
Mode of Transportation
Three modes of transportation are commonly used in the industry: truck, rail, and barge.
In Washington State, an overwhelming percentage of girders are transported by truck, so
discussion in subsequent sections will be confined to this mode. However, on specific
projects, it may be appropriate to consider rail or barge transportation.
Standard rail cars can usually accommodate larger loads than a standard truck. Rail cars
range in capacity from approximately 120 to 200 kips. However, unless the rail system runs
directly from the precasting plant to the jobsite, members must be trucked for at least some
of the route, and weight may be restricted by the trucking limitations.
For large number of girders construction, barge transportation is usually most economical.
Product weights and dimensions are generally not limited by barge delivery, but by the
handling equipment on either end. In most cases, if a product can be made and handled in
the plant, it can be shipped by barge. Of course, this applies only if both the plant and jobsite
are fully accessible by barge.
g.
Weight Limitations
Girders shipped in some states have weighed in excess of 200 kips. The net weight limitation
with trucking equipment currently available in Washington State is approximately 167 to
180 kips, if a reasonable delivery rate (number of pieces per day) is to be maintained.
Product weights of up to 200 kips can be hauled with currently available equipment at a
limited rate.
Local carriers should be consulted on the feasibility of shipping heavy girders on specific
projects. Some girders can be fabricated and shipped in two or more segments to reduce the
weight and assembled and post-tensioned at the bridge site. However, it is more economical
to fabricate and ship a single-piece pretensioned girder whenever possible.
h.
Length Limitations
Length limitations are generally governed by turning radii on the route to the jobsite.
Potential problems can be circumvented by moving the support points closer together (away
from the ends of the girder), or by selecting alternate routes. A rule of thumb of 130 feet
between supports is commonly used. The support points can be moved away from the ends
while still maintaining the concrete stresses within allowable limits. Length limitations are
not expected to be the governing factor for most project locations.
i.
Height Limitations
The height of a deep girder section sitting on a jeep and steerable trailer is of concern when
considering overhead obstructions on the route to the jobsite. The height of the support is
approximately 6 feet above the roadway surface. When adding the depth of the girder,
including camber, the overall height from the roadway surface to the top of concrete can
rapidly approach 14 feet. Overhead obstructions along the route should be investigated for
adequate clearance in the preliminary design phase. Obstructions without adequate clearance
must be bypassed by selecting alternate routes.
6.2-12
July 2000

Criteria
Precast Sections
Expectations are that, in some cases, overhead clearance will not accommodate the vertical
stirrup projection on deeper WSDOT standard girder sections. Alternate stirrup configurations can be used to attain adequate clearance, depending on the route from the plant to
the jobsite.
j.
Lateral Stability During Shipping

Long, slender members can become unstable when supported near the ends. However, the
stability of girders sitting on flexible supports is governed by the rotational stiffness of the
support rather than the girder. Recommended factors of safety 1.0 against cracking, and
1.5 against failure (rollover of the truck) should be used.
The control against cracking the top flange is obtained by introducing the number of temporary top strands, jacked to the same load as the permanent strands, required to provide a
factor of safety of 1.0. This variable depends on the combination of girder dead load, prestressing, and tension in the top flange induced by the girder tilt. The calculated tilt includes
both the superelevation and its magnification based on the trucks rotational stiffness.
For stability analysis of prestressed girders during shipping, in absence of more accurate
information, the following parameters shall be used:
k.
Roll stiffness of truck/trailer = 40500 kip-in/rad

Height of girder bottom above roadway = 72 in
Height of truck roll center above road = 24 in
Center to center distance between truck tires = 72 in
Maximum expected roadway superelevation = 0.06
Maximum girder sweep tolerance = 0.001042 in/in
Support placement lateral tolerance = 1 in
Increase girder C.G. height for camber by 2%
Erection
A variety of methods are used to erect precast concrete girders, depending on the weight,
length, available crane capacity, and site access. Lifting long girders during erection is not as
critical as when they are stripped from the forms, particularly when the same lifting devices
are used for both. However, if a separate set of erection devices are used, the girder should
be checked for stresses and lateral stability. In addition, once the girder is set in place, the
free span between supports is usually increased. Wind can also pose a problem. Consequently, when long girders are erected, they should immediately be braced at the ends.
Generally, the temporary support of the girders is the contractors responsibility.
l.
Construction Sequence for Muli-Span Prestressed Girder Bridges

For multi-span prestressed girder bridges, the sequence and timing of the superstructure
construction has a significant impact on the performance and durability of the bridge. In
order to maximize the performance and durability, the construction sequence details
shown on the attached sheets shall be followed for all new WSDOT multi-span prestressed
girder bridges. Particular attention shall be paid to the timing of casting the lower portion of
the pier diaphragms/crossbeams (30 days minimum after release of prestress) and the upper
portion of the diaphragms/crossbeams (10 days minimum after placement of the roadway
slab). The requirements apply to multi-span prestressed girder bridges with monolithic and
hinge diaphragms/crossbeams.
July 2000
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Criteria
4.
Precast Sections
Repair of Damaged Girders

This section pertains only to girders which have been damaged before becoming part of a final
structure. Repair of damaged girders in existing bridges is covered in Section 6.3.6.
a.
Repairs to Girders Prior to Strand Release

When girders suffer defects during casting or damage prior to strand release, the repair
procedures are documented in reference 6.99.7. Normally, no designer action is required.
In prescribing repairs for unusual situations not covered in reference 6.99.7, the designer
must ensure that the required strength and appearance of the girder can be maintained. Since
stressing will occur after the repair is made, normally no test loading is required; however,
such a test should be considered.
6.2.4
Precast Prestressed (Short Span Bridges)

General To expedite scheduling and promote economy in building short span bridges, the WSDOTs
Bridge Design Office developed standards for short span bridges (range 12 to 70 feet for length of spans).
A small bridge program was developed in 1983. A National Cooperative Highway Research Program
Report (NCHRP) No. 287, entitled Load Distribution and Connection Design for Precast Stemmed
Multibeam Bridge Superstructures was utilized to obtain the most effective keyway geometry between
adjacent beam for shear transfer and live load distribution to the girders. These type of bridges are used
only for low ADT roads.
A. Precast Prestressed Slabs
The slab sections utilize low relaxation prestressing strands and are connected together permanently
with transverse weld tie and keyway. The following are recommendations for the type of precast slab
sections to be used for various span lengths:
1.
12-inch depth precast section (see Appendixes 6.6-A1-1 and 2). This section is capable of
spanning between 15 to 35 feet.
2.
18-inch depth voided precast section (see Appendixs 6.6-A2-1 and 2). This section is capable of
3.
26-inch depth voided precast section (see Appendixs 6.6-A3-1 and 2). This section is capable of
Layout, end abutment, and Intermediate Pier standards have been developed for use with the slab
sections noted above (see Appendix 6.6-A4 through A6).
B. Precast Prestressed Tri-Beam
Tri-Beam sections are available as an option to the slab spans. Low relaxation prestressing strands are
utilized which enable these sections to span 25 to 70 feet.
Two standards have been developed; one for a 4 foot 0 inch minimum to 6 foot 0 inch maximum
wide section (see Appendix 6.7-A1-1 and 2). Standard sheets for abutment and Intermediate pier for
tri-beam sections are shown in Appendix 6.7-A3.
6.2-14
July 2000

Criteria
Precast Sections
C. Precast Prestressed Deck Bulb-Tee Girders

Deck bulb-tee girders are also available as an option to the slab sections. Precast fabricators often
prefer deck bulb-tee girders because voided slabs are less efficient sections. We have developed four
standard sections while working closely with local fabricator requirements or constraints. 65-inch,
53-inch, 41 inch, and a 35-inch deep bulb-tee girders are used by the state of Washington 4-foot,
5-foot, and 6-foot wide or variable width deck. For deck bulb tee girders, diaphrams and
miscellaneous details, see Appendix 6.8-A1 through A5.
6.2.5
Precast Box Girders

For moderate bridge spans of up to 160 feet, and where girder depth is critical, precast box girders are
generally used. These are generally in the form of U-sections called bath-tubs and joined together with
wet joint and post-tensioning.
P65:DP/BDM6
July 2000
6.2-15

Criteria
6.3
Precast Girder Bridges

The precast prestressed girder bridge is an economical and rapid type of bridge construction. This section
discusses the design of precast prestressed girder bridges.
6.3.1
Criteria for Girder Design

The following criteria is described for simple span bridges. Present practice is to use simple span girder
designs in continuous prestress bridges. Effects of creep and shrinkage are not considered. This is a
somewhat conservative procedure, but it minimizes engineering time. For continuous structures consisting of a large number of girders, a more exact analysis could be used, as directed by the design supervisor. Additional comments concerning special problems in design of continuous bridges are added below.
The design criteria for P/S girders may be summarized in Table 6.3.1-1.
A. Support Conditions
The prestressed girders are assumed to be supported on rigid permanent simple supports. These
supports can be either bearing seats or elastomeric pads. The design span length is the distance center
to center of bearings for simple spans. For continuous spans erected on falsework (raised crossbeam),
the effective point of support for girder design is assumed to be the face of the crossbeam. For
continuous spans on crossbeams (dropped or semi-dropped crossbeam), the design span length is
usually the distance center to center of temporary bearings. See Figure 6.2.3-1.
B. Composite Action
1.
General
The sequence of construction and loading is extremely important in the design of prestressed
girders. The composite section has a much larger capacity than the basic girder section but it
cannot take loads until the slab has obtained adequate strength. For assumptions used in
computing composite section properties, see Figure 6.3.1-1.
2.
Load Application
The following sequence and method of applying loads is used in girder analysis:
a.
Girder Dead Load

The dead load of the girder is applied to the girder section.
b.
Diaphragm Dead Load

The dead load of the diaphragms is applied to the girder section.
c.
Slab Dead Load

The dead load of slab is applied to the girder section. Temporary strands shall be removed
prior to slab casting.
d.
Barrier, Overlay Dead Load, and Live Load

Dead load of one traffic barrier is divided among a maximum of three girders and this
uniform load is applied to the composite section. The dead load of any overlay and live load
plus impact is applied to the composite section.
July 2000
6.3-1

Criteria
Design Specifications
AASHTO Standard Specifications and WSDOT Bridge Design Manual
Design Method
Prestressed girder are designed for service load stresses and checked for
the requirements of load factor design.
All other elements are designed in accordance with the requirements of
load factor design.
Design Assumption
Prestressed girders are designed as simple span for both simple and
continuous span superstructures.
Load and Load

Combinations
BDM Articles 4.2 and 4.3

Service load
Load factor design
Allowable Stresses
BDM Table 6.2.3-2
Prestress Losses
BDM Article 6.1.5 and Table 6.1.5-1
Shear Design
Shear Design may be based on one of the following:
Group I
Group I
Shear design per AASHTO Standard Specifications 9.20

Predesigned for shear Standard Prestressed Girder plans
Shipping and
Handling
BDM Article 6.2.3G-3
Design Criteria for Prestressed Girder Superstructures

Table 6.3.1-1
3.
Composite Section Properties

Minimum deck slab thickness is specified as 7 1/2 inches by office practice, but may be thicker
if girder spacing dictates. This slab forms the top flange of the composite girder in prestressed
girder bridge construction. The properties of this slab-girder composite section are affected by
specification and by physical considerations. Figure 6.3.1-1 shows some standard values to
be used for design and detailing.
a.
Flange Width
The effective width of slab on each side of the girder centerline which can be considered to
act as a compressive flange shall not exceed any of the following:
One-eighth of the span length.
Six times the thickness of slab plus one-fourth of the girder flange width.
One-half the distance to the next girder.
The actual distance to the edge of slab.
For effective tension flange widths, see AASHTO.
6.3-2
July 2000

Criteria
b.
Flange Position
For purposes of calculating composite section properties, the bottom of the slab shall be
assumed to be directly on the top of the girder. This assumption may prove to be true at
center of span when excess girder camber occurs.
For dimensioning the plans, an increased dimension from top of girder to top of slab is used
at centerline of bearing. This is called the A dimension. This dimension accounts for the
effects of girder camber, vertical curve, slab cross slope, etc. See Appendix 6.1-A1 for
method of computing.
c.
Flange Thickness
For purposes of computing composite section properties, the slab thickness shall be reduced
by 1/2 inch to account for wearing. Where it is known that a bridge will have an asphalt
overlay applied prior to traffic being allowed on the bridge, the full slab thickness can be
used as effective slab thickness. The effective slab width shall be reduced by the ratio Es/Eg.
The effective modulus of composite section is then Eg.
d.
Section Dead Load

The slab dead load to be applied to the girder shall be based on full thickness plus any
overhang. The full effective pad (A-t) weight shall be added to that load. This assumed
pad weight is applied over the full length of the girder.
4.
Shear Transfer
Transfer of shear forces in prestressed girder bridge design is critical in three areas. The first has
been previously discussed; the section through the web at the point 1/2 of the girder depth from
the end of the girder. The other two critical areas for shear transfer are between slab and girder
and at the end connection of the girder to the crossbeam for girders in continuous bridges. Shear
in these areas will normally be resisted by reinforcement extending from the girder.
a.
Shear Between Slab and Girder

This shear represents a rate of change of compression load in the flange of simple span
girders or a rate of change of tension load in the flange near the piers of continuous girders.
For a simple span girder as represented by Figure 6.3.1-2, the top flange stress is the factored
centerline moment divided by the section modulus of the composite girder at the centerline
of the slab. The slab load is this stress times the area of the slab. The factored centerline
moment can be taken as total factored moment less 1.0 times dead load applied to girder.
July 2000
6.3-3

Criteria
Composite Prestressed Girder Section

Figure 6.3.1-1
6.3-4
July 2000

Criteria
Shear in Simple Girder

Figure 6.3.1-2
The design composite section slab modulus is used for this shear calculation However, a
full slab width should be used to compute force. As an alternate and for a more accurate
analysis, a composite section can be calculated using the full slab width, but this is usually
not necessary. Further explanation of this calculation and a solved example are available in
reference 5.99.4, PCA Notes on Load Factor Design.
This shear is resisted by the girder stirrups which extend up through the interface between
the girder and the slab. The top surface of the girder top flange must be roughened. The force
may be assumed to be carried uniformly over the entire girder top surface from centerline
of bearing to centerline of span. All stirrups in this area can be assumed to be acting in
accordance with the shear friction theory as described in Subsection 5.2.1 C.
For continuous girders, the span, shear, and moment relationships are shown in Figure
6.3.1-3. Similar methods are used to analyze slab to girder shear. For positive moment
resistance, only those stirrups within length Lc are considered effective in resisting the slab
force due to moment. Likewise, only those stirrups within one continuous length Le are used
to resist the negative moment slab force (tension) in that area.
July 2000
6.3-5

Criteria
For illustrative purposes, a single concentrated load has been shown. In actual practice, the
point of factored maximum moment of the actual moment diagram would be used.
Other flange shear problems are described in Section 5.4. These problems also need to be
considered for prestressed girder bridges.
Shear in Continuous Girder

Figure 6.3.1-3
b.
Shear at Girder End

A continuous prestressed girder will nearly always be required to carry end reaction shears at
the surface of the end of the girder. An exception to this is girders with notched crossbeams
where loads must be carried across the connections which act as hinges. See Chapter 5.
6.3-6
July 2000

Criteria
End Connection for a Continuous Prestressed Girder

Figure 6.3.1-4
The usual end condition is similar to that shown in Figure 6.3.1-4. The shear which must be
carried along the interface A-A is the actual factored dead load and live load shear acting on
the section. The girder end is required by the plans to be roughened. The sawtoothed shear
key shown on the office standard girder plans may be assumed to provide a friction factor of
1.0. Shear resistance must be developed using shear friction theory and assuming the G5 bars
and the extended strands to be actively participating. The main longitudinal slab reinforcement is already fully stressed by girder bending moments and thus cannot be considered for
shear requirements. All bars, including the extended strands, must be properly anchored in
order to be considered effective. This anchorage requirement must be clearly shown on
the plans.
Note that similar requirements exist for connecting the end diaphragm at bridge ends where
the diaphragm is cast on the girders. In this case, however, loads consist only of the factored
diaphragm dead load, approach slab dead load, and those wheel loads which can distribute to
the interface.
C. Prestressed Girder Camber
1.
General
The computer program PGSDEF is used to determine the amount of girder camber for
prestressed girder bridges. This program computes the deflections due to prestress, girder dead
load, slab dead load, and live load.
July 2000
6.3-7

Criteria
2.
Calculation
Figure 6.3.1-5 shows a typical pattern of girder deflection with time at centerline span. Portions
of this characteristic curve are described below. The subparagraph numbers correspond with
circled numbers on the curve.
a.
Elastic Deflection Due to Prestress Force

The prestress force produces moments in the girder tending to bow the girder upward.
Resisting these moments are girder section dead load moments. The result is a net upward
deflection. In addition, a shortening of the girder occurs due to axial prestress loading.
b.
Creep Deflection
The girder continues to deflect upward due to the effect of creep. This effect is computed
using the equation stated in Subsection 6.1.2C.2.
c.
Diaphragm Load Deflection

The load of diaphragm is applied to the girder section resulting in an elastic downward
deflection.
d.
Deflection Due to Removal of Temporary Strands

Removal of temporary strands results in an elastic upward deflection.
e.
Slab Load Deflection

The load of the slab is applied to the girder section resulting in an elastic downward
deflection. It is this deflection which is offset by the screed camber that is to be applied to
the bridge deck during construction.
f.
Final Camber
It might be expected that the above slab dead load deflection would be accompanied by
a continuing downward deflection due to creep. Many measurements of actual structure
deflections have shown, however, that once the slab is poured, the girder tends to act as
though it is locked in position. To obtain a smooth riding surface on the deck, the deflection
indicated on Figure 6.3.1-5 as Screed Camber is added to the profile grade elevation of the
deck screeds. The actual position of the girder at the time of the slab pour has no effect on
the screed camber.
6.3-8
July 2000

Criteria
Prestressed Girder Camber

Figure 6.3.1-5
July 2000
6.3-9

Criteria
6.3.2
Framing
A. Girder Selection and Spacing
Cost of the girders is a major portion of the cost of prestressed girder bridges. Much care is therefore
warranted in the selection of girders and in optimizing their position within the structure. The
following general guidelines should be considered.
1.
Girder Series Selection

All girders in a bridge will normally be of the same series. If vertical clearance is no problem,
a larger girder series, utilizing fewer girder lines, may be a desirable solution. This must be
balanced with considerations such as appearance. At the present time, the following relative
girder series cost factors may be used as a guide for this decision:
Series
W42G
W50G
W58G
W74G
WF74G
W83G
W95G
Relative
Cost Factors
0.89
0.93
0.96
1.00
1.05
1.10
1.25
Note that the small marginal cost factors between series tends to make the larger series more
economical.
The wider spacings expected when using larger series girders may result in extra reinforcement
and concrete but less forming cost. These items must also be considered.
2.
Girder Concrete Strength

Higher girder concrete strengths should be specified where that strength can be effectively used
to reduce the number of girder lines. See Subsection 6.1.2 A.1. When the bridge consists of a
large number of spans, consideration should be given to using a more exact analysis than the
usual design program in an attempt to reduce the number of girder lines. This analysis should
take into account actual live load, creep, and shrinkage stresses in the girders.
3.
Girder Spacing
Consideration must be given to the slab cantilever length to determine the most economical
girder spacing. This matter is discussed in Subsection 6.3.2.B. The slab cantilever length should
be made a maximum if a line of girders can be saved. The spacing of the interior girders must
be considered at the same time. Once the positions of the exterior girders have been set, the
positions and lengths of interior girders can be established. The following guidance is suggested.
a.
Straight Spans
On straight constant width roadways, all girders should be parallel to bridge centerline and
girder spacings should be equal.
6.3-10
July 2000

Criteria
b.
Tapered Spans
On tapered roadways, the minimum number of girder lines should be determined as if all
girder spaces were to be equally flared. As many girders as possible, within the limitations of
girder capacity should be placed. Slab thickness may have to be increased in some locations
in order to accomplish this.
c.
Curved Spans
On curved roadways, normally all girders will be parallel to each other. It is critical that the
exterior girders are positioned properly in this case, as described in Subsection 6.3.2.B.
d.
Geometrically Complex Spans

Spans which are combinations of taper and curves will require especially careful consideration in order to develop the most effective and economical girder arrangement. Where
possible, girder lengths and numbers of straight and harped strands should be made the same
for as many girders as possible in each span.
e.
Number of Girders in a Span

Usually all spans will have the same number of girders. Where aesthetics of the underside of
the bridge is not a factor and where a girder can be saved in a short side span, consideration
should be given to using unequal numbers of girders. It should be noted that this will
complicate crossbeam design by introducing torsion effects and that additional reinforcement
will be required in the crossbeam.
B. Slab Cantilevers
The selection of the location of the exterior girders with respect to the curb line of a bridge is a
critical factor in the development of the framing plan. This location is established by setting the
curb distance, which is that dimension from centerline of the exterior girder to the adjacent curb
line. For straight bridges, the curb distance will normally be no less than 1-6 for W42G, W50G,
and W58G; 2-0 for W74G; and 2-6 for WF74G, W83G, and W95G. Some considerations
which affect this are noted below.
1.
Appearance
In the past, some prestressed girder bridges have been designed by placing the exterior
girders directly under the curb (traffic barrier). This gives a very poor bridge appearance and
is uneconomical. Normally, for best appearance, the largest slab overhang which is practical
should be used.
2.
Economy
Fortunately, the condition tending toward best appearance is also that which will normally
give maximum economy. Larger curb distances may mean that a line of girders can be
eliminated, especially when combined with higher girder concrete strengths.
3.
Slab Strength
This is one of the governing conditions which limits the maximum practical curb distance.
Chapter 5 Appendix, gives some guidance for cantilever design. It must be noted that for
larger overhangs, the slab section between the exterior and the first interior girder may be
critical and may require thickening. In some cases, live load moments which produce
transverse bending in the exterior girder should be considered.
July 2000
6.3-11

Criteria
4.
Drainage
Where drainage for the bridge is required, water from bridge drains is normally piped across
the top of the girder and dropped inside of the exterior girder line. A large slab cantilever
length may severely affect this arrangement and it must be considered when determining
exterior girder location.
5.
Bridge Curvature
When straight prestressed girders are used to support curved roadways, the curb distance
must vary. Normally, the maximum slab overhang at the centerline of the long span will be
made approximately equal to the overhang at the piers on the inside of the curve. At the
point of minimum curb distance, however, the edge of the girder top surface should be no
closer than 6 inches from the slab edge. Where curvature is extreme and the difference
between maximum and minimum curb distance becomes large, say 1 foot 6 inches, other
types of bridges should be considered. Straight girder bridges on highly curved alignments
have a poor appearance and also tend to become structurally less efficient.
C. Diaphragm Requirements
1.
General
Diaphragms used with prestressed girder bridges serve two purposes. During the construction stage, the diaphragms provide girder stability for pouring the slab. During the life of the
bridge, the diaphragms act as load distributing elements, and are particularly advantageous
for distribution of large overloads. Standard diaphragms and diaphragm spacings are given in
the office standards for prestressed girder bridges. Diaphragms that fall within the limitations
stated on the office standards need not be analyzed. Where large girder spacings are to be
used or other unusual conditions exist, special diaphragm designs should be performed.
2.
Design
Diaphragms shall be designed as transverse beam elements carrying both dead load and
live load. Wheel loads for design shall be placed in positions so as to develop maximum
moments and maximum shears.
3.
Geometry
Diaphragms shall normally be oriented parallel to skew (as opposed to normal to girder
centerlines). This procedure has the following advantages:
a.
The build-up of higher stresses at the obtuse corners of a skewed span is minimized.
This build-up has often been ignored in design.
b.
Skewed diaphragms are connected at points of approximately equal girder deflections

and thus tend to distribute load to the girders in a manner which more closely duplicates
design assumptions.
On curved bridges, diaphragms shall normally be placed on radial lines.
6.3-12
July 2000

Criteria
D. Skew Effects
Skew in prestressed girder bridges affects structural behavior and member analysis and
complicates construction.
1.
Analysis
Normally, the effect of skew on girder analysis is ignored. It is assumed that skew has little
structural effect on normal spans and normal skews. For short, wide spans and for extreme
skews (values over 50 degrees), the effect of the skew on structural action should be
investigated. All short span prestressed slabs, tri-beams, and bulb-tee girders have a skew
restriction of 30 degrees.
2.
Detailing
To minimize labor costs and to avoid stress problems in prestressed girder construction, the
ends of girders for continuous spans shall normally be made skewed. When girder ends are
skewed, the angle of the girder end should be rounded to the nearest 5 degrees. If this causes
problems where the girder extends into the crossbeam, the angle can be specified to the
nearest degree. See Standard Specifications for girder tolerances.
E. Grade and Cross Slope Effects

Large cross slopes require an increased amount of girder pad dimension (A dimension) necessary to ensure that the structure can be built. See Appendix 6.1-A1. This effect is especially
pronounced if the bridge is on a horizontal or vertical curve. Care must be taken that deck
drainage details reflect the cross slope effect (see Subsection 6.3.2 B). Girder lengths may need
to be modified to correct for added length along slope. Remember that the girder is a rectangle in
elevation; thus, the position of the girder top corner is affected by grade, girder camber, and
tolerances. Details must account for this.
F. Curve Effect and Flare Effect
Curves and tapered roadways each tend to complicate the design of straight girders. The designer
must determine what girder spacing to use for dead load and live load design and whether or not
a refined analysis, that considers actual load application, is warranted. Normally, the girder
spacing at centerline of span can be used for girder design, especially in view of the conservative
assumptions made for the design of continuous girders.
G. Always skew ends of prestressed girders shall match the piers they rest on at either end.
6.3.3
Reinforcement
This section discusses reinforcement requirements for resistance of longitudinal moments in continuous
multi-span precast girder bridges and is limited to reinforcement in the top slab since capacity for resisting
positive moment is provided by the prestressing of the girders.
A. Simple Spans
For simple span bridges, longitudinal slab reinforcement is not required to resist negative moments
and therefore the reinforcement requirements are nominal. Figure 6.3.3-1 defines longitudinal
reinforcement requirements for these slabs. The bottom longitudinal reinforcement is defined by
AASHTO requirements for distribution reinforcement. The top longitudinal reinforcement is based
on current office practice. The requirements of Distribution of Flexural Reinforcement do not apply
to these bars.
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Criteria
Nominal Longitudinal Slab Reinforcement for Prestressed Girder Bridges

With Main Reinforcement Perpendicular to Traffic
Figure 6.3.3-1
B. Continuous Spans
1.
General
Longitudinal reinforcement of continuous spans at intermediate support is dominated by
the moment requirement. Where these bars are cut off, they are lapped by the nominal top
longitudinal reinforcement described in Subsection 6.3.3A. Typical arrangement of transverse
and longitudinal reinforcement is shown in Figure 6.3.3-1.
2.
Distribution of Flexural Reinforcement

The provision of AASHTO specifications dealing with this subject is provided to limit crack
width. At service load, the value of z for the equation fs = z/ (dc A)1/3 shall be taken as
130 k/inch regardless of whether or not a deck seal or overlay is used. Figure 6.3.3-2 shows
the area to be used for computing A. For unevenly spaced bars, this area can be computed
as: Total Flange Area/Number of Bars.
3.
Distribution Reinforcement
Figure 6.3.3-3 shows typical arrangement of main reinforcement in the slab. Distribution
reinforcement shall be accounted for in the bottom longitudinal layer as follows:
a.
Prestressed Girder Bridges with Girders Designed as Simple Spans

For bridges designed using the Prestressed Girder Design program, distribution
reinforcement need not be added to the area of steel required to resist the negative
moments. The bars in the bottom layer, however, shall provide an area not less than that
required for distribution reinforcement.
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July 2000

Criteria
Placement of Longitudinal Reinforcement for Negative Moment Over Piers

Figure 6.3.3-2
b.
Other Prestressed Girder Bridges

On bridges where the effect of continuity is taken into account to reduce moments for
girder design, additional longitudinal steel shall be provided as distribution reinforcement.
The sum of the areas in both layers of longitudinal bars shall be equal to the area required to
resist negative moments plus the area required by the AASHTO specification for distribution reinforcement. Equal area of reinforcement shall be used in the top and bottom layers
throughout the negative moment region. See Figure 6.3.3-2. The total area of steel required
in the bottom longitudinal layer shall not be less than that required for distribution
reinforcement. (For distribution reinforcement, see Figure 6.3.3-1.)
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Criteria
The minimum clearance between top and bottom bars should be 1-inch . Table 6.3.3-1 shows
required slab thickness for various bar combinations.
Minimum Slab Thickness = 7 Inches
Slab Thickness (Inches)
Transv. Bar
Longit. Bar
#5
#6
#7
#4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
14
18
7 /2
1
7 /2
1
7 /2
3
7 /4
8
1
8 /2
3
8 /4
----
-1
7 /2
3
7 /4
8
1
8 /2
3
8 /4
-----
-3
7 /4
8
1
8 /4
3
8 /4
9
-----
Minimum Slab Thickness for Various Bar Sizes

(Slab Without Overlay)
Table 6.3.3-1
Note: Deduct 1/2-inch from slab thickness shown in table when asphalt overlay is used
and 1 inch when concrete overlay is used. However, the minimum slab thickness shall
be 7 inches when overlay is used.
3.
Bar Patterns
Figure 6.3.3-3 shows two typical top longitudinal reinforcing bar patterns. Care must be
taken that bar lengths conform to the requirements of Chapter 5. Note that the reinforcement is distributed over a width equal to the girder spacing according to office practice
and does not conform to AASHTO.
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July 2000

Criteria
Staggered Bar Pattern

Figure 6.3.3-3
The symmetrical bar pattern shown should normally not be used when required bar
lengths exceed 60 feet. If the staggered bar pattern will not result in bar lengths within
the limits specified in Chapter 5, the method shown in Figure 6.3.3-4 may be used to
provide an adequate splice. All bars shall be extended development length beyond the
point where the bar is required.
Bar Splice Within Moment Envelope

Figure 6.3.3-4
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6.3-17

Criteria
In all bar patterns, the reinforcement shall be well distributed between webs. Where this
cannot be done without exceeding the 1-foot 0-inch maximum spacing requirement,
the nominal longitudinal bars may be extended through to provide the 1-foot 0-inch
maximum.
Normally, no more than 20 percent of the main reinforcing bars shall be cut off at one
point. Where limiting this value to 20 percent leads to severe restrictions on the reinforcement pattern, an increase in this figure may be considered. Two main reinforcement bars shall be carried through the positive moment area as stirrup hangers.
6.3.4
Roadway Slab
Requirements for longitudinal reinforcement of roadway slabs for prestressed girder bridges have been
given in Subsection 6.3.3. The following information is intended to provide guidance for slab thickness
and transverse reinforcement.
Information on deck deterioration prevention systems is provided in Chapter 8.
A. Slab Thickness
1.
General
Slab thickness for prestressed girder bridges shall be controlled by the following limitations:
a.
Seven inches minimum thickness when overlay is used; Seven and one-half inches minimum
without overlay.
b.
The requirements for proper reinforcement clearances.
c.
The requirements of strength.
The 7-inch or 71/2 inch minimum thickness is established in order to ensure that overloads on the
bridge will not result in premature slab cracking.
The requirement of adequate reinforcement clearances: 2 inches clear to top transverse
reinforcement for slabs with overlay and 21/2 inches clear to top transverse reinforcement for
slabs without overlay; 1-inch clear to bottom transverse reinforcement.
2.
Computation of Slab Strength

The thickness and reinforcement requirements for usual slabs are shown in Chapter 5. The slab
design span is defined Figure 6.3.1-1 (Composite Prestressed Girder Section).
The thickness of the slab and reinforcement in the area of the cantilever may be governed by
traffic barrier loading. See appendix sheet in Chapter 5. Wheel loads plus dead load shall be
resisted by the sections shown in Figure 6.3.4-1.
Cantilever loads may govern the slab thickness just inside the exterior girder as shown by Z
in Figure 6.3.4-1.
Design of the cantilever is normally based on the expected depth of slab at centerline of girder
span. This is less than the dimensions at the girder ends. See Subsection 6.3.4A.3.
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July 2000

Criteria
Depths for Slab Design at Centerline of Girder Span

Figure 6.3.4-1
3.
Computation of A Dimension
The distance from the top of the slab to the top of the girder at centerline bearing (A dimension) is calculated in accordance with the guidance of Appendix 6.1-A1. This ensures that
adequate allowance will be made for effects of excess camber, superelevation vertical curve,
and horizontal curvature. Ideally the section at centerline of span will have the final geometry shown in Figure 6.3.4-2. This must be modified to account for excess camber which
may be present in the girders when the slab is poured. Where temporary prestressing strands
at top of girder are used to control the girder stresses due to shipping and handling, the A
dimension shall be adjusted accordingly.
Geometry for A Dimension

Figure 6.3.4-2
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Criteria
B. Transverse Reinforcement
The size and spacing of transverse reinforcement may be governed by interior slab span design,
cantilever design, or the requirements of traffic barrier load. Where traffic barrier load governs,
short hooked bars may be added at the slab edge to increase the reinforcement available in that
area. Top transverse reinforcement is always hooked at the slab edge unless a traffic barrier is not
used. Top transverse reinforcement is preferably spliced at some point between girders in order
to allow the clearance of the hooks to the slab edge forms to be properly adjusted in the field.
Usually, the slab edge hooks will need to be tilted in order to place them. On larger bars, the
clearance for the longitudinal bar through the hooks should be checked. Bottom transverse slab
reinforcement is normally carried far enough to splice with the traffic barrier main reinforcement.
The appendix in Chapter 5 can be used to aid in selection of bar size and spacing.
For skewed spans, the transverse slab reinforcement is placed parallel to the skew for skew
angles of 10 degrees or less. Where skew angles exceed 10 degrees, the transverse bars are
placed normal to bridge centerline and the areas near the expansion joints and bridge ends are
reinforced by partial length bars. For raised crossbeam bridges, the bottom transverse slab
reinforcement is discontinued at the crossbeam.
The spacing of bars over the crossbeam must be detailed to be open enough to allow concrete to
be poured into the crossbeam. For typical requirements, see Subsection 6.3.5.
For slabs with a crowned roadway, the bottom surface and rebar of the slab should be flat, as
shown in Figure 6.3.4-3 below.
Bottom of Top Slab at Crown Point

Figure 6.3.4-3
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July 2000

Criteria
6.3.5
Crossbeam Design
A. General
Crossbeam shall be designed in accordance with the requirements of Load Factor Design, LFD, and
shall satisfy the serviceability requirements for crack control.
B. Loads
For concrete box girders, prestressed giders with hinged or fixed diaphragms, the superstructure dead
load shall be considered as uniformly distributed over the crossbeam. For prestressed girders or other
type of girders sitting on the bearings, the superstructure dead load shall be considered as concentrated loads to the crossbeam at girder on web locations.
For concrete box girders, prestressed girders with hinged or fixed diaphragms, the live load shall be
considered as the truck load directly to the crossbeam from the wheel axles. Truck axles shall be
moved transversely over the crossbeam to obtain the maximum design forces for the crossbeam and
supporting colums. For prestressed girders or other type of girders sitting on the bearings, the live
load shall be considered as concentrated loads to the crossbeam at girder locations.
C. Geometry and Construction Requirement
The crossbeam section consists of rectangular section with overhanging deck and bottom slab if
applicable. The overhang length of the crossbeam shall be taken as the lesser of 6 times slab thickness, 1/10 of column spacing, or 1/20 of crossbeam cantilever. The rectangular section of the
crossbeam shall have a minimum width of column dimension plus 6 inches.
Geometry and Construction Requirements

Figure 6.3.5-1
July 2000
6.3-21

Criteria
Crossbeam is usually cast to the fillet below the top slab. To avoid cracking of concrete on top of the
crossbeam, construction reinforcement shall be provided at approximately 3 inches below the
construction joint. The design moment for construction reinforcement shall be the factored negative
dead load moment due to the weight of crossbeam and adjacent 10 feet of superstructure. The total
amount of construction reinforcement shall be adequate to develop an ultimate moment at the critical
section at least 1.2 times the cracking moment Mcr.
Ig
Where,
Mcr = 7.5 fc
Yt
Mu > = 1.2 Mcr
D. Skin Reinforcement
If the depth of crossbeam exceeds 3 feet, longitudinal skin reinforcement shall be provided on both
sides of the member for a distance of d/2 nearest the flexural reinforcement. The area of skin reinforcement per foot of height on each side shall be Ask >= 0.012 (d-30)
The maximum spacing of skin reinforcement shall not exceed d/6 or 12 inches whichever is less.
6.3.6
Repair of Damaged Bridge Girders

A. General
This section is intended to cover repair of damaged girders on existing bridges. For repair of newly
constructed girders, see Section 6.2.3G. Overheight loads are a fairly common source of damage to
prestressed girder bridges. The damage may range from spalling and minor cracking of the lower
flange of the girder to loss of a major portion of a girder section. Occasionally, one or more strands
may be broken. The damage is most often inflicted on the exterior or first interior girder.
B. Repair Procedure
The determination of degree of damage of a prestressed girder is largely a matter of judgment.
Where the flange area has been reduced or strands lost, calculations can aid in making this judgment
decision. The following are general categories of damage and suggested repair procedures.
1.
Minor Damage
If the damage is slight and concerns only spalling of small areas of the outside surface of the
concrete, repair may be accomplished by replacing damaged concrete areas with concrete grout.
The area where new concrete is to be applied shall first be thoroughly cleaned of loose material,
dried, and then coated with epoxy.
2.
Moderate Damage
If damage is moderate, consisting of loss of a substantial portion of the flange and possibly loss
of one or more strands, a repair procedure must be developed using the following guidelines. It is
probable that some prestress will have been lost in the damaged area due to reduction in section
and consequent strand shortening or through loss of strands. The following repair procedure is
recommended to assure that as much of the original girder strength as possible is retained:
a.
Determine Condition
Sketch the remaining cross section of the girder and compute its reduced section properties.
Determine the stress in the damaged girder due to the remaining prestress and loads in the
damaged state. If severe overstresses are found, action must be taken to restrict loads on the
6.3-22
July 2000

Criteria
structure until the repair has been completed. If the strand loss is so great that AASHTO
prestress requirements cannot be met with the remaining strands, consideration should be
given to replacing the girder.
b.
Restore Prestress If Needed

If it is determined that prestress must be restored, determine the stress in the bottom fiber
of the girder as originally designed due to DL + LL + I + Prestress. (This will normally be
about zero psi). Determine the additional load (P) that, when applied to the damaged girder
in its existing condition, will result in this same stress. Take into account the reduced girder
section, the effective composite section, and any reduced prestress due to strand loss. Should
the damage occur outside of the middle one-third of the span length, the shear stress with the
load (P) applied should also be computed. Where strands are broken, consideration should be
given to coupling and jacking them to restore their prestress.
c.
Prepare a Repair Plan

Draw a sketch to show how the above load is to be applied and specify that the damaged area
is to be thoroughly prepared, coated with epoxy, and repaired with grout equal in strength to
the original concrete. Specify that this load is to remain in place until the grout has obtained
sufficient strength. The effect of this load is to restore lost prestress to the strands which
have been exposed.
d.
Test Load
Consideration should be given to testing the repaired girder with a load equivalent to 1.0DL
+ 1.5(LL + I).
3.
Severe Damage
Where the damage to the girder is considered to be irreparable due to loss of many strands,
extreme cracking, etc., the girder may need to be replaced. This has been done several times, but
involves some care in determining a proper repair sequence.
In general, the procedure consists of cutting through the existing slab and diaphragms and
removing the damaged girder. Adequate exposed reinforcement steel must remain to allow
splicing of the new bars. The new girder and new reinforcement is placed and previously cut
concrete surfaces are cleaned and coated with epoxy. New slab and diaphragm portions are then
poured.
It is important that the camber of the new girder be matched with that in the old girders.
Excessive camber in the new girder can result in inadequate slab thickness. Girder camber can be
controlled by prestress, curing time, or dimensional changes.
Pouring the new slab and diaphragms simultaneously in order to avoid overloading the existing
girders in the structure should be considered. Extra bracing of the girder at the time of slab pour
should be required.
Methods of construction should be specified in the plans that will minimize inconvenience and
dangers to the public while achieving a satisfactory structural result. High early strength grouts
and concretes should be considered.
July 2000
6.3-23

Criteria
C. Miscellaneous References
Some of the girder replacement contracts which have been completed are:
C-9593 Columbia Center 1C Brs. 12/432 Repair (Simple Span)
C-9593 16th Avenue IC-Br. 12/344 Repair (Continuous Span)
C-9446 Mae Valley U-Xing (Simple Span)
KD-2488 13th Street O-Xing 5/220 (Northwest Region)
KD-2488 SR 506 U-Xing 506/108 (Northwest Region)
SR 12 U-Xing 12/118 (Northwest Region)
C-5328 Bridge 5/411 NCD (Continuous Span)
KD-2976 Chamber of Commerce Way Bridge 5/227
KD-20080 Golder Givens Road Bridge 512/10
KD-2154 Anderson Hill Road Bridge 3/130W
These and other similar jobs should be used for guidance.
P65:DP/BDM6
6.3-24
July 2000

Criteria
6.4
Cast-in-Place Bridges
6.4.1
Design Parameters
A. General
Post-tensioning is generally used for cast-in-place construction since pretensioning is generally
practical only for fabricator-produced structural members. The Post-Tensioned Box Girder Bridge
Manual published by the Post-Tensioning Institute in 1978 is recommended as the guide for design.
This manual discusses longitudinal post-tensioning of box girder webs and transverse post-tensioning
of box girder slabs, but the methods apply equally well to other types of bridges. The following
recommendations are intended to augment the PTI Manual and the AASHTO Code and point out
where current WSDOT practice departs from practices followed elsewhere.
The AASHTO criteria for reinforced concrete apply equally to bridges with or without posttensioning steel. However, designers should note certain requirements unique to prestressed concrete
such as special f-factors, load factors (see Chapters 4 and 9 of this manual), and shear provisions.
B. Bridge Types
Post-tensioning has been used in various types of cast-in-place bridges in this state with box girders
predominating. See Appendix 6.4-B1 for a comprehensive list of box girder designs. The following
are some examples of other bridge types:
Kitsap County
Multi-Span Slab
C-9788
Covington Way to 180th Avenue SE Widening
Two-Span Box Girder
Longitudinal Post-Tensioning
C-4919
Snohomish River Bridge
Multi-Span Box Girder
Longitudinal Post-Tensioning
C-4444
Chapter 2 of this manual should be consulted when selecting the structure type. In general, a
prestressed cast-in-place bridge can have a smaller depth-to-span ratio than the same bridge with
conventional reinforcement. This is an important advantage where minimum structure depth
is desirable.
1.
Slab Bridge
Structure depth can be quite shallow in the positive moment region when post-tensioning is
combined with haunching in the negative moment region. However, post-tensioned cast-in-place
slabs are usually more expensive than when reinforced conventionally. Designers should proceed
with caution when considering post-tensioned slab bridges because severe cracking in the decks
of bridges of this type has occurred. See reference 6.99.9 of the Bibliography.
July 2000
6.4-1

Criteria
2.
T-Beam Bridge
This type of bridge, combined with slope-leg columns, can be structurally efficient and
aesthetically pleasing, particularly when the spacing of the beams and the columns are the same.
A T-Beam bridge can also be a good choice for a single-span simply-supported structure.
3.
Box Girder Bridge

This type of bridge has been a popular choice in this state. The cost of a prestressed box girder
bridge is practically the same as a conventionally-reinforced box girder bridge, however, longer
spans and shallower depths are possible with prestressing.
C. Section Requirements
1
Slabs
The Olalla Bridge (Contract 9202) has spans of 41.5 feet - 50 feet - 41.5 feet, a midspan structure
depth of 15 inches, and some haunching at the piers.
2.
T-Beams
When equally spaced beams and columns are used in the design, the width of beam webs should
generally be equal to the width of the supporting columns. See SR 16, Union Avenue OXings,
for an example. Since longitudinal structural frame action predominates in this type of design,
crossbeams at intermediate piers can be relatively small and the post-tensioning tendons can be
placed side-by-side in the webs, resulting in an efficient center of gravity of steel line throughout.
For other types of T-Beam bridges, the preferred solution may be smaller, more closely spaced
beams and fewer, but larger pier elements. If this type of construction is used in a multispan,
continuous bridge, the beam cross-section properties in the negative moment regions need to be
considerably larger than the properties in the positive moment regions to resist compression.
Larger section properties can be obtained by gradually increasing the web thickness in the
vicinity of intermediate piers or, if possible, by adding a fillet or haunch. The slab overhang
over exterior webs should be roughly half the web spacing.
3.
Box Girders
The superstructure shall be designed as a unit. The entire superstructure section (traffic barrier
excluded) shall be considered when computing the section properties.
Web spacing should normally be 8 to 11 feet and the slab overhang over exterior girders should
be approximately half the girder spacing unless transverse post-tensioning is used. The apparent
visual depth of box girder bridges can be reduced by sloping all or the lower portion of the
exterior web. If the latter is done, the overall structure depth may have to be increased (for
clearance requirements see Subsection 2.3.1D). Web thickness should be 12 inches minimum,
but not less than required for shear and for concrete placing clearance. Providing 21/2-inches of
clear cover expedites concrete placement and consolidation in the heavily congested regions
adjacent to the post-tensioning ducts. Webs should be flared at anchorages. Top and bottom slab
thickness should normally meet the requirements of Subsection 5.3.1B, but not less than required
by stress and specifications. Generally, the bottom slab would require thickening at the interior
piers of continuous spans. This thickening should be accomplished by raising the top surface of
the bottom slab at the maximum rate of 1/2-inch per foot.
For criteria on distribution of live loads, see Subsection 4.1.2 B. All slender members subjected
to compression must satisfy buckling criteria.
6.4-2
July 2000

Criteria
D. Strand and Tendon Arrangements

The total number of strands selected should be the minimum required to carry the service loads at all
points. Duct sizes and the number of strands they contain vary slightly, depending on the supplier.
Chapter 2 of the PTI Post-Tensioned Box Girder Bridge Manual, and shop drawings of the recent
post-tensioned bridges kept on file in the Construction Plans Section offer guidance to strand selection. In general, a supplier will offer several duct sizes and associated end anchors, each of which will
accommodate a range of strand numbers up to a maximum in the range. Present WSDOT practice is
to indicate only the design force and cable path on the contract plans and allow the post-tensioning
supplier to satisfy these requirements with tendons and anchors. The most economical tendon
selection will generally be the maximum size within the range. Commonly-stocked tendons include 9,
12, 19, 27, and 31 1/2-inch strands, and the design should utilize a combination of these commonlystocked items. For example, a design requiring 72 strands per web would be most economically
satisfied by two standard 27-strand tendons and one standard 19-strand tendon containing 18 strands.
A less economical choice would be three standard 27-strand tendons containing 24 strands each.
Tendons should not be larger than (31) 1/2-inch strand units or (22) 0.6-inch strand units, unless
specifically approved by the Bridge Design Engineer and the Design Unit Supervisor. The duct area
should be at least 2.5 times the net area of the prestressing steel. In the regions away from the end
anchorages, the duct placement patterns indicated in Figure 6.4.1-1 through -4 should be used.
Although post-tensioning steel normally takes precedence in a member, sufficient room must be
provided for other essential mild steel and placement of concrete, in particular near diaphragms and
cross-beams.
More prestress may be needed in certain portions of a continuous superstructure than elsewhere, and
the designer may consider using separate short tendons in those portions of the spans only. However,
the savings on prestressing steel possible with such an arrangement should be balanced against the
difficulty involved in providing suitable anchoring points and sufficient room for jacking equipment
at intermediate locations in the structure. For example, torsion in continuous, multigirder bridges on
a curve can be counter-balanced by applying more prestress in the girders on the outside of the curve
than in those on the inside of the curve.
Some systems offer couplers which make possible stage construction of long bridges. With such
systems, forms can be constructed and concrete cast and stressed in a number of spans during stage 1,
as determined by the designer. After stage 1 stressing, couplers can be added, steel installed, concrete
cast and stressed in additional spans. To avoid local crushing of concrete and/or grout, the stress
existing in the steel at the coupled end after stage 1 stressing should not be exceeded during stage 2
stressing (see Figure 6.4.1-5).
E. Layout of Anchorages and End Blocks
Consult industry brochures and shop plans for recent bridges before laying out end blocks.
To encourage bids from a wider range of suppliers, try to accommodate the large square bearing
plate sizes common to several systems.
July 2000
6.4-3

Criteria
Tendon Placement Patterns

Box Girder Bridges
Figure 6.4.1-1
6.4-4
July 2000

Criteria

Box Girder Bridges
Figure 6.4.1-2
July 2000
6.4-5

Criteria

Box Girder Bridges
Figure 6.4.1-3
6.4-6
July 2000

Criteria

Box Girder Bridges
Figure 6.4.1-4
July 2000
6.4-7

Criteria
Figure 6.4.1-5
6.4-8
July 2000

Criteria
Plan at Exterior Girder

(Roadway Slab Not Shown)
Figure 6.4.1-6
July 2000
6.4-9

Criteria
Sufficient room must be allowed inside the member for mild steel and concrete placement and outside
the member for jacking equipment. The size of the anchorage block in the plane of the anchor plates
should be large enough to provide a minimum of 1-inch clearance from the plates to any free edge.
In general, the end block dimensions must meet the requirements of the AASHTO Code. Note that in
long-span box girder superstructures requiring large bearing pads, the end block should be somewhat
wider than the bearing pad beneath to avoid subjecting the relatively thin bottom slab to high bearing
stresses. When the piers of box girder or T-beam bridges are severely skewed, the layout of end
blocks, bearing pads, and curtain walls at exterior girders become extremely difficult (see Figure
6.4.1-6). Note that if the exterior face of the exterior girder is in the same plane throughout its entire
length, all the end block widening must be on the inside. To lessen the risk of tendon break-out
through the side of a thin web, the end block should be long enough to accommodate a horizontal
tendon curve of 200 feet minimum radius. For a discussion of the radial component of force in a
curved cable, see Chapter 4-7 of reference 6.99.1.
F. Superstructure Shortening
Whenever members such as columns, crossbeams, and diaphragms in bridges without prestressing
steel are appreciably affected by post-tensioning of the main girders, those effects should be included
in the design. This will generally be true in structures containing rigid frame elements. For further
discussion, see Chapter 2.6 of reference 6.99.8 and Subsection 9.3.2.
Past practice in the state of Washington regarding control of superstructure shortening in posttensioned bridges with rigid piers can be illustrated by a few examples. Single-span bridges have been
provided with a hinge at one pier and longitudinal slide bearings at the other pier. Two-span bridges
have been detailed with longitudinal slide bearings at the end piers and a monolithic middle pier. On
the six-span Evergreen Parkway Undercrossing structure, the center pier (pier 4) was built monolithic
with the superstructure, and all the other piers were constructed with slide bearings. After posttensioning, the bearings at piers 3 and 5 were converted into fixed bearings to help resist large
horizontal loads such as earthquakes.
Superstructures which are allowed to move longitudinally at certain piers are typically restrained
against motion in the transverse direction at those piers. This can be accomplished with suitable
transverse shear corbels or bearings allowing motion parallel to the bridge only. See Subsection
9.3.2E of this manual. The casting length for box girder bridges shall be slightly longer than the
actual bridge layout length to account for the elastic shortening of the concrete due to prestress.
6.4.2
Analysis
The procedures outlined in Section 2.1 through 2.5 of reference 6.99.8 for computation of stress in single
and multispan box girders can be followed for the analysis of T-beams and slab bridges, as well.
The BDS program available on the WSDOT system will quickly perform a complete stress analysis of a
box girder, T-beam, or slab bridge, provided the structure can be idealized as a plane frame. For further
information, see the program user instructions.
The STRUDL program is recommended for complex structures which are more accurately idealized as
space frames. Examples are bridges with sharp curvature, varying superstructure width, severe skew,
or slope-leg intermediate piers. An analysis method in Chapter 10 of reference 6.99.1 for continuous
prestressed beams is particularly well adapted to the loading input format in STRUDL. In the method,
the forces exerted by cables of parabolic or other configurations are converted into equivalent vertical
linear or concentrated loads applied to members and joints of the superstructure. The vertical loads are
6.4-10
July 2000

Criteria
considered positive when acting up toward the center of tendon curvature and negative when acting down
toward the center of tendon curvature. Forces exerted by anchor plates at the cable ends are coded in as
axial and vertical concentrated forces combined with a concentrated moment if the anchor plate group is
eccentric. Since the prestress force varies along the spans due to the effects of friction, the difference
between the external forces applied at the end anchors at opposite ends of the bridge must be coded in at
various points along the spans in order for the summation of horizontal forces to equal zero. With correct
input (check thoroughly before submitting for computation), the effects of elastic shortening and secondary moments are properly reflected in all output listings, and the prestress moments printed out are the
actual resultant (total) moments acting on the structure. For examples of the application of STRUDL to
post-tensioning design, see the calculations for SR 90 West Sunset Way Ramp (simple), SR 5 Nalley
Valley Viaduct (complex), and the STRUDL manuals.
A. Section Properties
As in other types of bridges, the design normally begins with a preliminary estimate of the superstructure cross-section and the amount of prestress needed at points of maximum stress and at points of
cross-section change. For box girders, See Figure 2.0 through 2.5 of Reference 6.99.8. For T-beam
and slab bridges, previous designs are a useful guide in making a good first choice.
For frame analysis, use the properties of the entire superstructure regardless of the type of bridge
being designed. For stress analysis of slab bridges, calculate loads and steel requirements for a 1-foot
wide strip. For stress analysis of T-beam bridges, use the procedures outlined in the AASHTO
specifications.
Note that when different concrete strengths are used in different portions of the same member, the
equivalent section properties should be calculated in terms of either the stronger or weaker material.
In general, the concrete strength should be limited to the values indicated in Subsection 6.1.2A of
this manual.
B. Preliminary Stress Check
In accordance with AASHTO, flexural stresses in prestressed members are calculated at service load
levels. Shear stresses, stirrups, moment capacities vs. applied moments are calculated at ultimate load
levels.
During preliminary design, the first objective should be to satisfy the allowable flexural stresses in the
concrete at the critical points in the structure with the chosen cross-section and amount of prestressing
steel, then the requirements for shear stress, stirrups, and ultimate moment capacity can be readily
met with minor or no modifications in the cross-section. For example, girder webs can be thickened
locally near piers to reduce excessive shear stress.
In the AASHTO formulas for allowable tensile stress in concrete, bonded reinforcement should be
interpreted to mean bonded auxiliary (nonprestressed) reinforcement in conformity with Article 8.6
of the 1995 ACI Code for Analysis and Design of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Structures. Normal
practice is to use the time-dependent prestress loss from Table 6.1.5-1. The long-hand formulas for
computing time-dependent losses in steel stress given in the code should be used only when a more
thorough investigation is deemed necessary. To minimize concrete cracking and protect reinforcing
steel against corrosion for bridges, the allowable concrete stress under final conditions in the
precompressed tensile zone should be limited to zero in the top and bottom fibers.
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Criteria
In all cases where tension is allowed in the concrete under initial or final conditions, extra mild steel
(auxiliary reinforcement) should be added to carry the total tension present. This steel can be
computed as in the following example (also see Chapter 9-5 of Reference 6.99.1):
Figure 6.4.2-1
In case of overstress, try one or more of the following remedies: Adjust tendon profiles, add or
subtract prestress steel, thicken slabs, revise strength of concrete of top slab, add more short tendons
locally, etc. Then repeat calculations as necessary.
C. Tendon Layout
After a preliminary estimate has been made of the concrete section and the amount of prestressing
needed at points of maximum applied load, it may be advantageous in multispan bridges to draw a
tendon profile to a convenient scale superimposed on a plot of the center of gravity of concrete
(c.g.c.) line. The most efficient tendon profile from the standpoint of steel stress loss will normally be
a series of rather long interconnected parabolas, but other configurations are possible. For continuous
bridges with unequal span lengths, the tendon profile (eccentricity) shall be based on the span
requirement. This results in an efficient post-tensioning design. The tendon profile and c.g.c. line plot
is strongly recommended for superstructures of variable cross-section and/or multiple unsymmetrical
span arrangements, but is not necessary for superstructures having constant cross- section and
symmetrical spans. The main advantages of the tendon profile and c.g.c. plot are:
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Criteria
1.
The primary prestress moment curves (prestress force times distance from c.g.c. line to center of
gravity of steel (c.g.s.) lines) at all points throughout all spans are quickly obtained from this plot
and will be used to develop the secondary moment curves (if present) and, ultimately, to develop
the resultant total prestress moment curve.
2.
Possible conflicts between prestressing steel and mild steel near end regions, crossbeams, and
diaphragms may become apparent.
3.
Possible design revisions may be indicated. For example, camber in bridges with unequal spans
can be balanced by adjusting tendon profiles.
The tendon profile and c.g.c. line diagram should also contain a sketch of how the end bearing
plates or anchors are to be arranged at the ends of the bridge. Such a sketch can be useful in
determining how large the end block in a girder bridge will have to be and how much space will
be required for mild steel in the end region. In general, the arrangement of anchor plates should
be the same as the arrangement of the ducts to which they belong to avoid problems with duct
cross-overs and to keep end blocks of reasonable width.
D. Prestress Losses
Friction losses occurring during jacking and prior to anchoring, depend on the system and materials
used. For purposes of design, this office has specified a rigid spiral galvanized ferrous metal duct
system for which shall be 0.20 and K = 0.0002. This system is at present available from several
large suppliers. To avoid the substantial friction loss caused by sharp tendon curvature in the end
regions where the tendons flare out from a stacked arrangement towards the bearing plates, use
0.10 times the span length or 20 feet as the minimum flare zone length. The recommended minimum
radius (horizontal or vertical) of flared tendons is 200 feet. In the special cases where sharp curvature
cannot be avoided, extra horizontal and vertical ties should be added along the concave side of the
curve to resist the tendency to break through the web. See stirrup calculations for SR 2, EU-Line
OXing, for a suggested method of calculating this additional steel.
When summing the angles for total friction loss along the structure, horizontal curvature of the
tendons as well as horizontal and vertical roadway curvature should be included in the summation.
All other losses (those due to shrinkage, elastic shortening, creep, and relaxation of steel) shall be as
indicated in Subsection 6.1.5.
E. Steel Stress Curve
Steel stresses may be plotted either as the actual values or as a percentage of the jacking stresses.
A steel stress diagram for a typical two-span bridge is shown below. Spans are symmetrical about
pier 2 and the bridge is jacked from both ends. All values are in ksi and pertain to 270 ksi either
stress relieved or low relaxation strands. Fs denotes ultimate strength of strands in ksi.
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6.4-13

Criteria
Losses due to creep, shrinkage, and relaxation of prestressing steel are 33.30 ksi for
structures of usual design and normal weight concrete.
Yield Stress for Stress-Releive Strands = 0.85
Yield Stress for Low-Relaxation Strands = 0.90
Figure 6.4.2-2
Accurate plotting of steel stress variation due to local curvature is normally not necessary, and
straight lines between intersection points on the diagram are usually sufficient. When tendons are
continuous through the length of the bridge, the stress for design purposes at the jacked end should be
limited to 0.75 x fs or 202 ksi for 270 ksi stress relieved strands or 0.79 x fs or 213 ksi for 270 ksi
low relaxation strands. This would permit the post-tensioning contractor to jack to the slightly higher
value of 0.77 x fs for stress relieved strands or 0.81 x fs for low relaxation strands as allowed by the
AASHTO Code in case friction values encountered in the field turn out somewhat greater than the
standard values used in design. Stress loss at jacked end should be calculated from the assumed
anchor set of 1/4 inch, the normal slippage during anchoring in most systems. At the high points on the
initial stress curve, the stress should not exceed 0.70 x fs for stress relieved strands or 0.75 x fs low
relaxation strands after sealing of anchorage. If these values are exceeded, the jacking stress can be
lowered or alternately the specified amount of anchor set can be increased.
When the total tendon length (L) is less than the length of cable influenced by anchor set (x) and the
friction loss is small, as in short straight tendons, the 0.70 x fs value governs. In these cases, the
maximum allowable jacking stress value of 0.75 x fs for stress relieved or 0.78 x fs for low relaxation strands cannot be used and a slightly lower value should be specified. See the following sketch:
6.4-14
July 2000

Criteria
Figure 6.4.2-3
In single-span, simply supported superstructures friction losses are so small that jacking from both
ends is normally not warranted. In the longer multispan bridges where the tendons experience greater
friction losses, jacking from both ends will usually be necessary. Jacking at both ends need not be
done simultaneously, since final results are virtually the same whether or not the jacking is simultaneous. If unsymmetrical two-span structures are to be jacked from one end only, the jacking must be
done from the end of the longest span.
F. Prestress Moment Curves
1.
Single-Span Bridges, Simply Supported

The primary prestress moment curve is developed by multiplying the initial steel stress curve
ordinates by the area of prestressing steel times the eccentricity of steel from the center of gravity
of the concrete section at every tenth point in the span. The primary prestress moment curve is
not necessary for calculating concrete stresses in single-span simply supported bridges. Since
there is no secondary prestress moment developed in the span of a single span, simply supported
bridge which is free to shorten, the primary prestress moment curve is equal to the total prestress
moment curve in the span. However, if the single span is rigidly framed to supporting piers, the
effect of elastic shortening should be calculated. The same would be true when unexpected high
friction is developed in bearings during or after construction.
2.
Multispan Continuous Bridges

The primary prestress moment curve for all spans is developed as in 1. above for single span
bridges.
With the exception of T.Y. Lins equivalent vertical load method used in conjunction with the
STRUDL program, none of the methods described in the following take into account the elastic
shortening of the superstructure due to prestressing. To obtain the total prestress moment curve
used to check concrete stresses, the primary and secondary prestress moment curves must be
added algebraically at all points in the spans. As the secondary moment can have a large absolute
value in some structures, it is very important to obtain the proper sign for this moment, or a
serious error could result.
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6.4-15

Criteria
A discussion of methods for calculating secondary prestress moments follows:

WSDOT BEAMDEF Program
If the primary prestress moment values at tenth points are coded into this program, span
stiffness factors, carry-overs, and fixed-end moments will be obtained. Distribution of the
fixed-end moments in all spans will yield the secondary moments at all piers. The secondary
moments will be zero at simply supported span ends and cantilevers.
Equivalent Vertical Load
See discussion in Subsection 6.4.2 of this manual.
Table of Influence Lines
See Appendix A.1 of Reference 6.99.8 for a discussion. This method is similar to T. Y. Lins
equivalent vertical load method and is a relatively quick way to manually compute prestress
moments in bridges of up to five spans. Since the secondary moment effect due to vertical
support reactions is included in the coefficients listed in the tables, the support moment
computed is the total moment at that point.
Slope Deflection
See Section 2.5 of Reference 6.99.8 for a discussion. The method, though straightforward, is
time consuming.
G. Flexural Stress in Concrete
Stress at service load levels in the top and bottom fibers of prestressed members should be checked
for at least two conditions that will occur in the lifetime of the members. The initial condition occurs
just after the transfer of prestress when the concrete is relatively fresh and the member is carrying its
own dead load. The final condition occurs after all the prestress losses when the concrete has gained
its full ultimate strength and the member is carrying dead load and live load. For certain bridges,
other intermediate loading conditions may have to be checked, such as when prestressing and
falsework release are done in stages and when special construction loads have to be carried, etc.
The concrete stresses shall be within the AASHTO allowables except as amended in Subsection
6.4.2.B of this manual.
In single-span simply supported superstructures with parabolic tendon paths, flexural stresses at
service load levels need to be investigated at the span midpoint where moments are maximum, at
points where the cross-section changes, and near the span ends where shear stress is likely to be
maximum (see Subsection 6.4.2.I, Shear). For tendon paths other than parabolic, flexural stress
should be investigated at other points in the span as well.
In multispan continuous superstructures, investigate flexural stress at service load should be at points
of maximum moment (in the negative moment region of box girders, check at the quarter point of
the crossbeam), at points where the cross section changes, and at points where shear is likely to be
maximum. At points of maximum moment, the ultimate moment capacity of the section should
exceed or equal the applied ultimate moment. Normally, mild steel should not be used to supplement
the ultimate moment capacity. It may be necessary, however, to determine the partial temperature and
shrinkage stresses that occur prior to post-tensioning and supply mild steel reinforcing for this
condition.
In addition, maximum and minimum steel percentages and cracking moment should be checked.
See Subsection 2.3.8 of Reference 6.99.8.
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Criteria
H. Temperature Effects*
Most specifications for massive bridges call for a verification of stresses under uniform temperature
changes of the total bridge superstructure. Stresses due to temperature unevenly distributed within the
cross-section are not generally verified. In reality, however, considerable temperature gradients are
set up within the cross-section of superstructures. Such temperature differences are mostly of a very
complex nature, depending on the type of cross-section and direction of solar radiation.
Solar radiation produces uniform heating of the upper surface of a bridge superstructure which is
greater than that of the lower surface. An inverse temperature gradient with higher temperatures at the
lower surface occurs rarely and involves much smaller temperature differences. In statically indeterminate continuous bridge beams, a temperature rise at the upper surface produces positive flexural
moments which cause tensile stresses in the bottom fibers. When the temperature gradient is constant
over the entire length of a continuous beam superstructure, positive flexural moments are induced in
all spans. These moments are of equal constant magnitude in the interior spans and decrease linearly
to zero in the end spans. The most critical zones are those which have the lowest compressive stress
reserve in the bottom fibers under prestress plus dead load. Normally, these are the zones near the
interior supports where additional tensile stresses develop in the bottom fibers due to (1) a concentrated support reaction and (2) insufficient curvature of prestressed reinforcement.
Studies have shown that temperature is the most important tension-producing factor, especially in
two-span continuous beams in the vicinity of intermediate supports, even when the temperature
difference is only 10C between the deck and bottom of the beam. In practice, a box girder can
exhibit a DT=30C. The zone at a distance of about 0.3 to 2.0d on either side of the intermediate
support proved to be particularly crack-prone.
Computation of stresses induced by vertical temperature gradients within prestressed concrete bridges
can become quite complex and are ignored in typical designs done by WSDOT. It is assumed that
movements at the expansion devices will generally relieve any induced stresses. However, such
stresses can be substantial in massive, deep bridge members in localities with large temperature
fluctuations. If the structure being designed falls within this category, a thermal stress investigation
should be considered. See Reference 6.99.10 and the following temperature criteria for further
guidance.
1.
A Mean temperature 50F with Rise 45F and Fall 45F for longitudinal analysis using one-half
of the Modulus of Elasticity. (Maximum Seasonal Variation.)
2.
The superstructure box girder shall be designed transversely for a temperature differential
between inside and outside surfaces of 15F with no reduction in Modulus of Elasticity
(Maximum Daily Variation).
3.
The superstructure box girder shall be designed longitudinally for a top slab temperature increase
of 20F with no reduction in modulus of elasticity. (In accordance with Post-Tensioning Institute
Manual, Precast Segmental Box Girder Bridge Manual, Subsection 3.3.4.)
The coefficient of thermal expansion used is 0.000006.
Modulus of Elasticity Wc1.5 33
fc (W=weight of concrete in lbs. per cubic foot).
*From Conclusions Drawn from Distress of Prestressed Concrete Bridges by Dr. Fritz Leonardt.
July 2000
6.4-17

Criteria
I.
Shear
Concrete box girder and T-beam bridges with horizontal construction joints (which result from webs
and slabs being cast at different times) should be checked for both vertical and horizontal shear
capacity. Generally, horizontal shear requirements will control the stirrup design.
Vertical concrete shear capacity for prestressed or post-tensioned structural members is calculated as
the lesser of Vci or Vcw as outlined in Section 9.20.2 of the AASHTO Standard Specifications for
Highway Bridges. Minimum stirrup area, maximum stirrup spacing, and maximum stirrup capacity,
Vs, are further subject to the limitations presented in Section 9.20.3. For further explanation, refer to
Section 11.4 of the ACI 318-95 Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete and Commentary. Chapter 27 of Notes on ACI 318-95 Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete with
Design Applications presents two excellent example problems for vertical shear design. The use of
an electronic spreadsheet simplifies the repetitive and detailed nature of these calculations.
Horizontal shear stress acts over the contact area, of width bv, between two interconnected surfaces
of a composite structural member. The moment gradient produced by vertical shear causes this
horizontal stress. At elastic stress levels, this shear stress is generally expressed as t=VQ/(Ibv).
Because the concrete section is generally cracked at the full factored load level, VQ/(Ibv), based
upon Q and I of the uncracked section, does not apply. Instead, the moment gradient is, essentially,
developed as a couple; the steel reinforcement being in tension and the concrete slab being in compression. The distance between these two forces approximately equals the structural depth d. Hence,
the resulting horizontal shear stress at the interface can be shown to approximately equal Vu/(bvd).
This stress can be resisted by a combination of 1) interlock of the two concrete surfaces and 2) shearfriction resulting from stirrups being placed across the interface. The vertical shear capacity corresponding to the concrete horizontal resistance is Vnh-c. The vertical shear capacity corresponding to
the horizontal resistance of the stirrup steel is Vnh-s. The post-tensioning force does not subject the
horizontal interface to compression along the full span length. Therefore, the horizontal concrete
shear capacity should not be augmented by Vp, as is done when calculating the vertical concrete
shear capacity Vcw.
Horizontal shear design is relatively straightforward. However, the presentation in Section 9.20.4 of
the AASHTO specifications is somewhat confusing in that it deviates from the standard load factor
format. The AASHTO procedure differs somewhat from the ACI 318-95 procedure which refers
directly to shear-friction design.
When the concrete interface is clean, free of laitance, intentionally roughened, and has a minimum
quantity of stirrup reinforcement of 50bvs/Fy, the AASHTO specifications allow a concrete ultimate
horizontal shear stress of 350 psi, where s is the longitudinal spacing between adjacent stirrups.
This corresponds to a concrete vertical shear capacity, Vnh-c, of (350 psi) bvd.
Additional stirrups in a quantity exceeding the specified minimum provide additional vertical shear
capacity, Vnh-s. It is shown below that the equation in Section 9.20.4.3(d) of the AASHTO specifications for additional shear capacity provided by these stirrups is equivalent to designing for the
additional horizontal shear force by mobilizing shear friction using a m value of 0.4.
bvs = Vnh-sbvs/(bvd)
= [(160Fybvd/40000)Av/(.01bvs)]bvs/(bvd)
= 0.4FyAv
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July 2000

Criteria
The total stirrup quantity required is the sum of the minimum 50 bv s/Fy and the additional required
amount to mobilize shear friction.
In load factor notation, these relationships can be expressed as follows:
Vu Vnh = Vnh-c + Vnh-s
Vnh-s Vu/ - Vnh-c
Vnh-c = (350 psi)bvd
Vnh-s = 0.4AvFyd/s
(Av/s)total 50bv/Fy + Vnh-s/(0.4Fyd)
50bv/Fy + 2.5Vnh-s/(Fyd)
50bv/Fy + 2.5(Vu/ - Vnh-c)/(Fyd)
The horizontal shear requirements of the AASHTO specifications can be satisfied using either of two
methods: (1) Stirrup spacing is designed to satisfy the shear capacity requirement at each and every
point along the span (AASHTO Section 9.20.4.3), or (2) Stirrup spacing is designed to transfer the
change in flange axial force over a segment length not exceeding one tenth of the span (AASHTO
Section 9.20.4.4). The second method permits the designer to average the stirrup spacing over one
tenth the span, resulting in an increased minimum stirrup spacing. Again, the use of an electronic
spreadsheet can simplify these repetitive computations.
For cast-in-place sloped outer webs, increase inside stirrup reinforcement and bottom slab top
transverse reinforcement as required for the web moment locked-in during construction of the top
slab. This moment about the bottom corner of the web is due to tributary load from the top slab
concrete placement plus 10 psf form dead load. See Figure 5.3.2 for typical top slab forming.
For precast tub outer webs, increase the stirrup and bottom slab steel as required by moment induced
by falsework overhang brackets supporting concrete plus 10 psf overhang deck load.
J.
End Block Stresses

The highly concentrated forces at the end anchorages cause bursting and spalling stresses in the
concrete which must be resisted by vertical and horizontal reinforcement. For a better understanding
of this subject, see Chapter 7 of Reference 6.99.1, 6.99.3, and Section 2.82 of Reference 6.99.8.
Note that the procedures for computing horizontal bursting and spalling steel in the slabs of box
girders and T-beams are similar to those required for computing vertical steel in girder webs, except
that the slab steel is figured in a horizontal instead of a vertical plane. In box girders, this slab steel
should be placed half in the top slab and half in the bottom slab. See Appendix 6.4-A1 for typical box
girder end block reinforcement details. The anchorage zones of slab bridges will require vertical
stirrups as well as additional horizontal transverse bars extending across the width of the bridge.
The horizontal spalling and bursting steel in slab bridges shall be placed half in a top layer and half
in a bottom layer.
July 2000
6.4-19

Criteria
K. Anchorage Stresses
The average bearing stress on the concrete behind the anchor plate and the bending stress in the plate
material should satisfy the requirements of the AASHTO Code. In all sizes up to the 31-strand
tendons, the square anchor plates used by three suppliers (VSL, AVAR, Stronghold) meet the
AASHTO requirements, and detailing end blocks to accommodate these plates is the recommended
procedure. In the cases where nonstandard (rectangular) anchor plates must be specified because of
space limitations, assume that the trumpet associated with the equivalent size square plate will be
used. In order to calculate the net bearing plate area pressing on the concrete behind it, the trumpet
size can be scaled from photos in supplier brochures. Assume for simplicity that the concrete bearing
stress is uniform. Bending stress in the steel should be checked assuming bending can occur across a
corner of the plate or across a line parallel to its narrow edge.
See Appendix 6.4-A3 for preapproved anchorages for post-tensioning.
L. Camber
The camber to be shown on the plans should include the effect of both dead load and final prestress
and may be taken as given in Table 6.1.8-1.
M. Expansion Bearing Offsets
Figure 6.4.1-6 indicates expansion bearing offsets for the partial effects of elastic shortening, creep,
and shrinkage. The initial offset shown is intended to result in minimal bearing eccentricity for the
majority of the life of the structure. The bearing should be designed for the full range of anticipated
movements: ES+CR+SH+TEMP.
N. Post-Tensioning Notes
The design plans shall contain the following information for use by the post-tensioner and state
inspector: Strength of concrete in superstructure, tendon jacking sequence, friction coefficients, duct
type, elastic and time-dependent losses, anchor set, prestress forces, strand elongations, deviation of
7 percent between measured and theoretical elongations, false work construction and removal. If
jacking is done at both ends of the bridge, the minimum strand elongation due to the specified jacking
load for the end jacked first as well as the end jacked last should be indicated. When calculating
strand elongation, use Es = 28,000 ksi. The calculated strand elongations at the ends of the bridge are
compared with the measured field values to ensure that the friction coefficients (and hence the levels
of prestressing throughout the structure) agree with the values assumed by the designer.
The tendons shall be jacked in a sequence that avoids causing overstress or tension in the bridge.
The following notes for the sequence of stressing of longitudinal tendons should be shown in
the plans:
1.
The final prestressing force shall be distributed with an approximately equal amount in each web
and shall be placed symmetrically about the centerline of the bridge.
2.
No more than one half of the prestressing force in any web may be stressed before an equal force
is stressed in the adjacent webs. At no time during the stressing operations will more than 1/6 of
the total prestressing force be applied eccentrically about the centerline of the structure.
Sidewalks and traffic barriers are normally cast after post-tensioning.

See Appendix 6.2-B1 for typical post-tensioning notes for plans.
6.4-20
July 2000

Criteria
6.4.3
Review of Shop Plans

See also section on Review of Shop Plans in Chapter 1 of this manual as well as Section 6.2.8 of the
Construction Manual.
A. Check that the manufacturer provides a lift off force as required in Standard Specifications.
B. Check that the number of PT strands in a tendon proposed by the contractor do not exceed the number
allowed by the contract (i.e., 31-1/2 inch diameter or 22-0.6 in diameter).
C. Check that the allowable tendon stress at anchorages and along the tendon are not exceeded.
D. The maximum size of a post-tensioned tendon should be 31-1/2 inch strands or 22-0.6 inch strands.
Use of a larger tendon requires the approval of the Bridge Design Engineer and the Design Unit
Supervisor.
E. If the post-tensioning shop drawings show a PT tendon larger than the size specified in contract
plans, review should mark Not Approved with a note indicating that the tendon size exceeds the
maximum tendon size specified in the contract plans.
F. Temporary strands may be required for shipping, reducing camber, and lower the release strength.
These strands may be pretensioned or post-tensioned and are bonded only for the end 10 feet of the
girder, or may be post-tensioned prior to lifting the girder from the form. These strands must be cut
before the deck slab concrete is placed, and preferably after the diaphragms are cast and cured.
P65:DP/BDM6
July 2000
6.4-21

Criteria
6.99
Bibliography
Bibliography
1.
Prestressed Concrete Structures

T. Y. Lin
Wiley
2.
Prestressed Concrete Design and Construction

F. Leonhardt (in WSDOT Library)
3.
Prestressed Concrete Vol. I and II

Guyon
Wiley
4.
Designing for Effects of Creep, Shrinkage, and Temperature

ACI SP 27 620.1 Design 1 1971 (WSDOT Library)
5.
Post-Tensioned Bridges - Design & Construction Manual of WCRSI

1499 Bayshore Highway, Burlingame, California
Copyright 1969
6.
Analysis & Design of Reinforced Concrete Bridge Structures

ACI Committee 443 Report 71-14
ACI Journal, April 1974
7.
Preapproved Repair Procedures

WSDOT Manual for Repair of Concrete
8.
Post-Tensioned Box Girder Bridge Manual

Post-Tensioning Institute
301 West Osborn, Phoenix, Arizona
9.
Cracking of Voided Post-Tensioned Concrete Bridge Decks

Ministry of Transportation and Communications
Toronto, Ontario, Canada
10. Design of Concrete Bridges for Temperature Gradients

ACI Journal, May 1978
11. Transportation Research Board Report No. 226 titled, Damage Evaluation and Repair Methods for
Prestressed Concrete Bridge Members.
12. Transportation Research Board Report No. 280 titled, Guidelines for Evaluation and Repair of
Prestressed Concrete Bridge Members.
13. AASHTO, LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials, Washington, D.C.
14. Seguirant, S.J., New Deep WSDOT Standard Sections Extend Spans of Prestressed Concrete
Girders, PCI JOURNAL, V. 43, No. 4, July-August 1998, pp. 92-119.
15. PCI Bridge Design Manual, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL, 1997.
16. PCI Design Handbook, Precast and Prestressed Concrete, Fifth Edition, Precast/Prestressed Concrete
Institute, Chicago, IL, 1999.
17. Mast, R.F., Lateral Stability of Long Prestressed Concrete Beams, Part 1, PCI JOURNAL, V. 34,
No. 1, January-February 1989, pp. 34-53.
July 2000
6.99-1

Criteria
Bibliography
18. Mast, R.F., Lateral Stability of Long Prestressed Concrete Beams, Part 2, PCI JOURNAL, V. 38,
No. 1, January-February 1993, pp. 70-88.
19. Imper, R.R., and Laszlo, G., Handling and Shipping of Long Span Bridge Beams, PCI JOURNAL,
V. 32, No. 6, November-December 1987, pp. 86-101.
20. Standardization of Shear Reinf. for WSDOT Standard Prestressed Girders.
21. AASHTO LRFD Specifications. Second Edition 1998.
P65:DP/BDM6
6.99-2
July 2000

Appendix A
A Dimension for
P.S. Concrete Bridges

(For Simple Span or Continuous P.S. Bridges)
Definitions:
S =
L =
G =
R =
W=
m =
Span length (ft.)

Vertical curve length (ft.)
Algebraic diff. in profile tangent grades (%)
Horizontal curve radius to girder per next sheet (ft.)
Girder top flange width (inches)
Deck crown or super slope (ft./ft.)
Note: The following assumes that sag breaks in curb line profiles due to super transitions will occur @ Piers so as
not to require any increase A.
A Dimension (At Piers only)

Slab Thickness + 3/4) fillet
1 Excess Girder Camber Allowance
m
Top Flange Width Effect = W 2
2
Horiz. Curve Effect = 1.5 S m
R
2
GS
Vert. Curve Effect =
100L
=+
(Normally 81/4)
=+ *
=+
=+
= {+ for Sag Vert. or - for Crown Vert.)
Round A to nearest 1/4
Total A
(See minimums below) May make shorter span critical.

A = (Slab thickness + / ) + Top Flange Width Effect) Min.
{ Use
Use A = 9 Min. where Drain Type 5 crosses girder.
3
The basic attempt is to have the top of girder not higher than 3/4 below the bottom of slab at the center of the span.
This provides that the actual girder camber could exceed the calculated value by 13/4 before the top of the girder
would start interfering with the slab steel.
1
Allowance for the amount the girder camber, at time of slab pour, exceeds the screed camber.
* Use 2.50 @ preliminary plan stage to determine vertical clearance. Note in left margin of Layout:
A Dimen. = X (not for design).
Use value from deflection program results to determine A Dimen. to use for design.
July 2000
6.1-A1-1

Appendix A
A Dimension for

Horizontal Curve Effect:
= 5,730 S m
400
R
tan = 5,730Sm 0.01746

400R (approx.)
tan 1
H = 573Sm 0.01746 S 12
4R
2
1.5 S2
R
(approx.)
H
m (inches)
Vertical Curve Effect:

Algebraic difference in profile tangent grades = G (%)
Vertical curve length = L (ft)
Span Length = S (ft)
K = 100G
2L
a = 1.5
6.1-A1-2
a=K
S2 12 = G S2 12
400
2L
40,000
G S2 (inches)
100 L
July 2000

Appendix A
A Dimension for
Check for excess pad at CL span

For bridges which are on sharp crowned vertical curves, the pad at CL span can become excessive to the point
where the girder and diaphragm stirrups (based on the A dimension) are too short to bend into the proper
position. This is a problem on bridges with spans in excess of 100 feet and a total grade change of 10 percent
on a 900-foot vertical curve. The effect of girder cambers which are less than the calculated values tends to add
to this error.
Pad at CL span (A CL = top of slab to top of girder at CL span)

A CL = A + a + C - G
where a is the vertical curve effect as calculated on Appendix 6.1-A1-1, C is the screed camber, and G is the
girder camber at the time of slab pour. A value for G of 1 inch less than that shown on the deflection program
output should probably be used to accommodate the worst case of camber variation.
A correction should be made to the stirrup lengths if the value of A CL exceeds A by more than 2 inches.
P65:DP/BDM6
July 2000
6.1-A1-3

Appendix A
W95G and W83G
Notes to Designer for Pretensioned Deep Standard Girders W95G and W83G
Section Dimensions and Properties
1.
Girder section dimensions and properties of the W95G and W83G are based on hard metric units as shown
on the metric version of the Washington Standard Girders sheet in Appendix A. The U.S. Customary unit
dimensions of the W95G and W83G are conversions from metric units.
2.
Girder section dimensions and properties of other standard girders are based on U.S. Customary units as
shown on the U.S. Customary version of the Washington State Girder sheet in Appendix A. Metric versions
of other standard girders are conversions from U.S. Customary units.
Design Assumptions and Requirements

1.
These design assumptions and requirements apply to pretensioned girders only.
2.
Design is to be in accordance with the current edition of the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications13,
and the following requirements:
Deck thickness is to be 9 inches minimum unless a thinner deck can be justified by analysis or by the
space necessary to place the deck reinforcement with the required clearances and cover.
Deck wearing surface is to be assumed as 1/2 inch.
Concrete Strengths:
Deck strength fc shall be 4.0 ksi (Class 4000D Concrete).
Girder strength at transfer of pretension force fci shall be 3.50 ksi minimum and 7.50 ksi maximum.
Girder transfer strength shall be determined by analysis (see section on girder handling), rounded up
to the nearest 0.10 ksi. Transfer strengths less than or equal to 7.00 ksi can be achieved on a daily turn
around schedule. Transfer strengths between 7.00 ksi and 8.50 ksi can be achieved with extended
curing time. For transfer strengths between 7.50 ksi and 8.50 ksi, the girders shall be designed as
pretensioned, but the substructure shall be designed for the heavier post-tensioned, segmental sections
(W83PTG and W95PTG) to allow for alternate bid proposals. Transfer strengths higher than 8.50 ksi
shall not be specified.
Girder design strength fc shall be 7.00 ksi minimum and 10.00 ksi maximum. The design strength
shall be specified as the calculated maximum of 1) the required transfer strength, 2) the strength
required at shipping (see section on girder shipping) and, 3) the strength required in service. The
maximum calculated value shall be rounded up to the nearest 0.10 ksi. For design strengths less than
or equal to 9.00 ksi, the age at cylinder testing shall be specified at 28 days. For design strengths
between 9.00 ksi and 10.00 ksi, the age at cylinder testing shall be specified at 56 days. The design
strength shall not be specified higher than 10.00 ksi.
Prestressing:
The prestressing strand shall be 0.6 inch diameter, AASHTO M 203, 270 ksi, low-relaxation strand.
Temporary strands in the top flange of the girder will most likely be required for shipping (see section
on girder shipping). These strands may be pretensioned and bonded only for the end 10 feet of the
girder, or may be post-tensioned prior to lifting the girder from the form. These strands shall be
considered in the design to reduce the required transfer strength, to provide stability during shipping,
and to reduce the A dimension. These strands must be cut before the cast-in-place deck is placed,
and preferably after the diaphragms are cast and cured.
July 2000
6.2-A1-1

Appendix A
W95G and W83G
The maximum number of harped strands is 22, harped at 0.40 of the span length.
The maximum number of straight strands is 46 in the bottom flange of the girder.
The center to center strand spacing is 2 inches.
The jacking stress fpi = 0.75fpu = 202.5 ksi.
The slope of the harped strands shall not be steeper than 8 horizontal to 1 vertical.
The harped strand exit location at the girder ends shall be held as low as possible while maintaining
the concrete stresses within allowable limits.
Allowable Stresses:
At Service:
Tension
Sustained compression
Total compression
= zero (0)
fc = 0.45 fc
fc = 0.60 fc
At Release:
Tension
Compression
ft = 7.5 fc (psi)
fci = 0.60 fci
For flexural strength, it has been determined14 that AASHTO LRFD Article 5.7.3 underestimates the
strength of the composite deck-girder system. The strain compatibility method given in Section 8.2.2.5 of
the PCI Bridge Design Manual15 is recommended for this analysis. In addition to the effective area of the
deck, the top flange of the girder and the mild reinforcement in the deck and the top flange of the girder
should be included in the analysis.
Simple spans shall be assumed for positive moment flexural design.
The W83G and W95G girders shall not be used for bridges with skew angles that exceed 30o.
3.
The W95G and W83G sections are high performance girders. They generally rely on high strength concrete
to be effective for the spans expected as a single piece. Maximum girder length is based on a single piece
weight not to exceed 200 kips. The approximate range of maximum span lengths for practical minimum
and maximum girder spacings are as follows:
Girder
Spacing (ft)
Span (ft)
Girder Length (ft)*
W83G
185 (maximum)
W83G
10
155
W95G
172 (maximum)
W95G
10
164
*Design may be controlled by 200 kips maximum hauling weight.
6.2-A1-2
July 2000

Appendix A
W95G and W83G
Handling
The designer shall specify the lifting device locations and the corresponding concrete transfer strength that
provides an adequate factor of safety for lateral stability. The calculations shall conform to Article 5.2.9 of the
PCI Design Handbook, Precast and Prestressed Concrete, Fifth Edition16, or other approved methods. Other
references14,15,17,18,19 provide the derivation of the theory and design examples. Temporary top strands may be
used to improve the stability of the girder during handling, and to reduce the required concrete transfer strength.
Shipping
1.
The designer shall assure that the girders can be reasonably delivered to the site as part of the preliminary
design. The girder weight shall not exceed 200 kips. Vertical and horizontal clearances along the selected
delivery route shall be verified.
2.
The designer shall check the lateral stability of the girder during shipping14,18,19. Temporary top strands shall
be used to provide a minimum factor of safety against cracking of 1.0. In the absence of more accurate
information on the properties of the truck, the following may be used: 1) the truck rotational spring stiffness
Kq = 41,000 kip-in./radian, 2) the height of the roll center above the road hr = 24 in., 3) the height of the top
of the truck support above the road = 6 ft, 4) the distance from the center of truck to the center of dual tires
zmax = 36 in. and, 5) the maximum distance between truck supports = 130 ft. The maximum superelevation
along the selected route shall be used in the analysis.
Shear Reinforcement in End Region

1.
The end region is considered to be about 1.5 times the depth of the girder, h, from the end of the girder.
2.
The vertical reinforcement shown on the standard plans provides for the maximum bursting (splitting) demand
at the end of the girder for the maximum number of straight and harped strands plus six temporary strands in
the top flange of the girder (46 + 22 high + 6 respectively). This need not be changed unless the number of
strands is increased. Generally the maximum number of strands is limited to 68 plus 6 temporary by the
maximum concrete transfer strength of 8.50 ksi. The vertical bursting (splitting) reinforcement is located
within approximately h/5 from the end of the girder and closely approximates 4 percent of the applied
prestressing force at transfer (AASHTO LRFD 5.10.10).
3.
Other reinforcement shown in the end region accounts for vertical shear for the span configurations above and
four (4) support conditions,
Lifting with no reaction at the end region, i.e. lifting devices located interior from the end of the girder,
Girder plus three intermediate diaphragms plus 20 psf supported on oak bunking block,
Bridge reactions on elastomeric bearings introducing compression into the end region, and
Bridge reactions at the end face of the girder (End Types C and D).
The designer shall investigate any additional vertical reinforcement for reaction forces, in the direction of the
applied shear, along the vertical end face of the girder. This applies to girder End Types C and D, where all
loads are eventually transferred to the face of the hinge diaphragm or crossbeam. Adequate vertical shear
reinforcing is required to take the reaction back up to the top of the girder near the diaphragm interface.
July 2000
6.2-A1-3

Appendix A
W95G and W83G
Shear Reinforcement Beyond End Region

1.
Shear reinforcement size and spacing beyond the end region of the girder shall be determined by the designer.
The variation in reinforcing demand for the entire range of span and spacing configurations is considerable.
The shear reinforcement is likely to be light, or nominal, for the longest single piece spans with a narrow
girder spacing, whereas the demand will be significant well out into the span for shorter spans with wide
girder spacing.
2.
The minimum angle theta, , for calculating shear reinforcement should be 25 degrees to avoid excessive
horizontal tension demand through the bottom corner of the girder by the AASHTO LRFD modified
compression field theory.
Girder Sheets
1.
There are four end types shown on the girder sheets. Due to the extreme depth of the W83G and W95G
girders, and possible end of girder tilt at the piers for profile grades, the designer will need to pay particular
attention to details to assure the girders will fit and perform as intended. The four end types are identified
with pertinent detailing dimensions as follows:
End Type A is for cantilever end piers with an end diaphragm cast on the end of the girders.
End Type A has a recess at the bottom of the girder near the end for an elastomeric bearing pad. The
maximum bearing pad size expected for the W95G and W83G girders is 18 inches long x 35 inches
wide. The recess at the centerline of bearing is 3/4 inch deep to accommodate an elastomeric pad length
of 18 inches. This recess is to be used for profile grades up to and including 4 percent. The recess is to
be replaced by an embedded steel plate flush with the bottom of the girder for grades over 4 percent.
A tapered bearing plate, with stops at the edges to contain the elastomeric pad, can be welded or bolted
to the embedded plate to provide a level bearing surface.
6.2-A1-4
July 2000

Appendix A
W95G and W83G
Reinforcing bars and pretensioned strands project from the end of the girder. The designer shall assure
that these bars and strands fit into the end diaphragm. Embedment of the girder end into the end diaphragm shall be a minimum of 3 inches and a maximum of 6 inches. For girder ends where the tilt would
exceed 6 inches of embedment, the girder ends shall be tilted to attain a plumb surface when the girder is
erected to the profile grade. Embedment into the end wall shall be 3 inches.
The gap between the end diaphragm and the stem wall shall be a minimum of 21/2 inches or 1/2 inch greater
than required for longitudinal direction.
July 2000
6.2-A1-5

Appendix A
W95G and W83G
End Type B is for L type abutments. End Type B also has a recess at the bottom of the girder for an
elastomeric bearing pad. Notes regarding the bearing recess on End Type A also apply to End Type B.
End Type B is the only end type that does not have reinforcing or strand projecting from the girder end.
Note that the centerline of the bearing is not coincident with the centerline of the diaphragm. For girders
on a grade, dimensions for each bearing, P1 and P2, from the ends of the girder will be different. Typically the centerline of bearing will be 1-3 minimum from the end of the girder to fit the bearing and
provide adequate edge distance. The designer may want to locate the diaphragm such that it is equal
distance from the centerline of the bearing, and the centerline of the bearing is equal distance from the
face of the back wall of both abutments. This should create consistency in dimensions and make it easier
to calculate girder lengths.
6.2-A1-6
July 2000

Appendix A
W95G and W83G
End Type C is for continuous spans and an intermediate hinge diaphragm at an intermediate pier. There
is no bearing recess and the girder is temporarily supported on oak bunking blocks. This detail is generally
used only in low seismic areas. This end type is generally used for bridges east of the Cascade Mountains.
The designer shall check the edge distance and provide a dimension that prevents edge failure, or spalling,
at the top corner of the supporting cross beam for load from the oak bunking block.
July 2000
6.2-A1-7

Appendix A
W95G and W83G
End Type D is for continuous spans fully fixed to columns at intermediate piers. There is no bearing
recess and the girder is temporarily supported on oak bunking blocks.
The designer shall check the edge distance and provide a dimension that prevents edge failure, or spalling,
at the top corner of the supporting cross beam for load from the oak bunking block.
6.2-A1-8
July 2000

Appendix A
W95G and W83G
Summary of Checks Required by Designer

1.
Shear reinforcing size and spacing beyond the end region of the girder shall be determined by the designer.
It is uneconomical to provide a standard pattern to cover all span and girder spacing arrangements.
2.
Determine lifting location and required concrete transfer strength to provide adequate stability during
handling. The lifting bar location, concrete release strength, and A dimension should be based on six (6)
temporary strands in the top flange. Generally the temporary strands provide additional stability for lifting
and transportation, and reduce the camber. Less camber allows for less A dimension and concrete pad dead
weight on the structure. Temporary strands are assumed to be cut after all intermediate diaphragms are cast
and cured, but before the cast-in-place deck is placed.
3.
Attention to detail: Due to the extreme depth of the W83G and W95G girders, and possible tilt at the piers
for profile grades, the designer will need to pay particular attention to details to assure the girders will fit and
perform as intended. Girder data required to be placed in the table on Girder Details 2 of 2 include the girder
identifiers, A dimension, end types, girder geometric data, and strand forces and pattern required.
4.
Check edge distance of supporting cross beam.
5.
For continuous bridges, design girders as simple spans for live load (Do not deduct negative moments from
maximum simple beam positive moments).
6.
Provide reinforcement for negative moments at intermediate piers due to live loads and superimposed dead
loads from traffic barrier, pedestrian walkway, utilities, etc.
P65:DP/BDM6
July 2000
6.2-A1-9

Appendix A
Prestressed Girder
Intermediate Hinge Diaphragm
Notes to Designer for Prestressed Girders Intermediate Hinge Diaphragms

1.
All girders in each bridge shall be of the same depth.
2.
Design girders as simple span (do not deduct negative moments from maximum simple beam positive
moments).
3.
Provide reinforcement for negative moments at intermediate piers due to live loads and superimposed dead
loads from traffic barrier, pedestrian walkway, utilities, etc.
4.
Include reinforcement on this sheet in the bar list you prepare.
5.
Check hinge bars for minimum embedment in crossbeam. See hinge bar table for size when girders exceed
6.0 ksi. Check hinge bar size.
Design Assumption Saw Tooth Shear Key

Design criteria based on AASHTO LRFD { Vn = c*Acv + mu*(Auf*fy + Pc) }
1.
Creep and shrinkage not considered due to simple span design
2.
c = 0.100 ksi, and mu = 1.0*lambda, where lambda = 1.0 for normal weight concrete
3.
Assume Pc = 0.0
4.
Maximum ultimate shear stress = 0.800 ksi (on sawtooth area only)
5.
fy = 60 ksi
Maximum Ultimate Shear = 1.25(DC) + 1.75 (L + IM)

W95G
W83G
W74G
W58G
W50G
W42G
Vu = 629 kips
Vu = 588 kips
Vu = 291 kips
Vu = 241 kips
Vu = 215 kips
Vu = 170 kips
Minimum Crossbeam Width

In order to have room for placing oak blocks with required clearances on cross-beams, the cross-beams must be
designed with a minimum width of 4-6 for W95G and W83G, 4-2 for W74G, and 4-0 for all other girders.
Designer is to check edge distance of oak blocks to top outside corner of cross-beam for reaction from girder
weight + diaphragms + (20 psf) construction load. Adjust minimum width of cross-beam as necessary to prevent
corner support failure.
P65:DP/BDM6
July 2000
6.3-A1

Appendix B
Preapproved Anchorages for Post-Tensioning

The following are the anchorages approved by the Washington State Department of Transportation (WSDOT).
(Note: The majority of these anchorages have been approved and accepted by WSDOT on the bases of tests done
by suppliers for various state and local jurisdictions outside the state of Washington.
VSL Corporation (Owned by DYWIDAG Systems International)

Anchorage
Type
Maximum Number of Strands
E5-31
Bearing Plate
31 1/2-inch strands
E5-22
Bearing Plate
22 1/2-inch strands
E6-22
Bearing Plate
22 0.6-inch strands
E5-19
Bearing Plate
19 1/2-inch strands
E6-19
Bearing Plate
19 0.6-inch strands
E5-12
Bearing Plate
12 1/2-inch strands
E6-12
Bearing Plate
12 0.6-inch strands
EC5-31
Casting With External and Intermediate Flange
31 1/2-inch strands
EC5-27
27 1/2-inch strands
EC5-19
19 1/2-inch strands
EC5-12
12 1/2-inch strands
SO6-4
Casting With External Flange (for Bearing)
4 0.6-inch strands used for dock

(or slab) post-tensioning
ACS-28.5
Bearing Plate
28 1/2-inch strands
ACS-24.5
Bearing Plate
24 1/2-inch strands
ACS-22.5
Bearing Plate
22 1/2-inch strands
C-22.5
22 1/2-inch strands
Prescon Corporation (Owned by Freyssinet International)

Anchorage
Type
Remarks
19 KD 5
19 1/2-inch strands
27 KD 5
27 1/2-inch strands
July 2000
6.1-B1-1

Appendix B
AVAR Post-tensioning Systems

Anchorage
Type
Minimum Number of Strands
SP 12.5
Single Plane System
12 1/2-inch strands
SP 19.5
Single Plane System
19 1/2-inch strands
SP 27.5
Single Plane System
27 1/2-inch strands
MP 12.5
Multiple Plane System
12 1/2-inch strands
MP 22.5
Single Plane System
22 1/2-inch strands
C 12.5
Single Plane System
12 1/2-inch strands
C 19.5
Single Plane System
19 1/2-inch strands
C 27.5
Single Plane System
27 1/2-inch strands
Bar Anchorages
DYWIDAG Systems International
1-inch thread bars through 13/8 at fu of 150 ksi only.
(Note: For anchorages not shown, contact supervisor.)
P65:DP/BDM6
6.1-B1-2
July 2000

Appendix B
Notes to Designers
Post-Tensioning
Post-Tensioning Notes
1.
The cast-in-place concrete in superstructure shall be Class _____. The minimum compressive strength of
the cast-in-place concrete at the time of post-tensioning shall be _____. ksi.
2.
The minimum prestressing load after seating for each web shall be _____. ksi. Each web shall have a
minimum of _____ strands.
3.
The design is based on _____ inch diameter low relaxation strands with a jacking load of _____ ksi each web,
an anchor set of 1/4 inch, a friction curvature coefficient, m=0.20, and a friction wobble coefficient, k=0.0002.
The actual anchor set used by the contractor shall be specified in the shop plans and included in the transfer
force calculations.
4.
The design is based on the estimated prestress loss of post-tensioned prestressing strands of _____. ksi due to
steel relaxation, elastic shortening, creep and shrinkage of concrete.
5.
The contractor shall submit the stressing sequence and elongation calculations to the engineer for approval.
All losses due to tendon horizontal curvature must be included in elongation calculations. The stressing
sequence shall meet the following criteria:
A. The prestressing force shall be distributed with an approximately equal amount in each web and shall be
placed symmetrically about the center line of bridge.
B. No more than one-half of the prestressing force in any web may be stressed before an equal force is
stressed in the adjacent webs. At no time during stressing operation will more than one-sixth of the total
prestressing force be applied eccentrically about the center line of the bridge.
6.
The maximum outer diameter of the duct shall be _____ inches. The area of the duct shall be at least 21/2 times
the net area of the prestressing steel in the duct.
7.
All tendons shall be stressed from pier _____.
Note to Designers:
1.
Small changes in thickness of web (up to 1 inch) shall not require redesign of structure on the part of the
contractor.
2.
Commonly used stress levels in note number 1 are 3000 psi and 3500 psi.
3.
Use of a tendon with more strands than the maximum noted above requires the approval of the Bridge Design
Engineer and the Design Unit Supervisor.
4.
Post-tensioning shop drawings detailing a tendon with more strands than the maximum specified by the
contract shall be returned Not Approved with a note stating the number of strands per tendon exceeds the
maximum specified in the contract.
P65:DP/BDM6
July 2000
6.2-B1

Appendix B
P.T. Box Girder Bridges
Single Span
Contract
No.
Name
County
Award
Date
Span
Width
Curb
Curb (ft.)
Span/
Depth
Skew
Deg.
9215
AR Line Oxing
Spokane
12/71
112
38
28.9
Curved
6000R
9150
Sunset I/C SR 2 Oxing*
Spokane
8/71
150
38
21.4
52
9664
W-Line Oxing
Chelan &
Douglas
12/73
130
59
21.7
9900
W. Snoqualmie I/C Oxing

WB
EB
King
4/75
165
135
68
52
22.0
22.5
45
40
Euclid Avenue I/C Oxing

WB
Chelan &
Douglas
158
38
19.8
158
50
19.8
Curved
2200R
Curved
2200F
0839
Remarks
Limited available
structure depth.
5 sidewalk on
one side.
10/77
EB
0902
Allen Street I/C Oxing*
Cowlitz
2/78
132
52
22.0
Curved
3274R
2156
14 E Line Uxing (N&S)*
Clark
11/81
112
26
21.3
Curved
625R
*Twin bridges.
July 2000
6.3-B1

Appendix B
Two Span
Contract
No.
Name
County
Award
Date
Span
Width
Curb
Curb (ft.)
Span/
Depth
Skew
Deg.
Remarks
8569
Brickyard Road Uxing
King
2/69
137
155
38
22.2
45
9122
NE 50th Avenue Uxing
Clark
7/71
124
124
44
24.8
12
9122
NE 69th Avenue Uxing
Clark
7/71
130
130
84
23.6
9289
SE 232nd Street Uxing
King
3/72
141
133
55
23.5
51
9448
NE 18th Street Uxing
Clark
1/73
138
138
44
22.8
17
6 sidewalk on
each side.
9737
Mill Plain Road I/C Uxing
Clark
5/74
167
172
84
22.2
5 sidewalk on
each side.
0862
East Zillah I/C Uxing
Yakima
10/77
178
158
40
23.0
44
0862
Hudson Road Uxing
Yakima
10/77
151
151
30
22.6
37
1219
Johnson Road Uxing
Yakima &
Benton
8/78
156
161
34
22.7
45
1366
Donald Road Uxing
Yakima
12/78
142
155
55
23.8
45
1764
148th Avenue NE Uxing
King
12/79
168
157
60
21.9
41
1788
Gap Road Uxing
Yakima
1/80
131
131
30
22.1
37
July 2000
6.3-B2-1

Appendix B
Two Span
Contract
No.
Name
County
Award
Date
Span
Width
Curb
Curb (ft.)
Span/
Depth
Skew
Deg.
Remarks
2156
14-H Line Uxing
Clark
11/81
114
114
60
22.8
2156
14-D Line Uxing (North)
Clark
11/81
196
196
26
21.8
Curbed
600R
2217
SR 12 Uxing
Benton
2/82
147
147
55
23.3
2217
Keene Road Uxing
Benton
2/82
150
150
34
21.4
Curved
11,459R
25 counterweighted
cantilever spans at
each end. Transv. P.T.
2207
G Line Uxing
Benton
4/82
162.4
180.6
Varies
78.6-84.6
20.5
30 counterweighted
cantilever spans at
2207
N-S Line Uxing
Benton
4/82
155
155
38
22.1
2207
SR 240 Connection Uxing

(R-Line)
Benton
4/82
163.5
163.5
72
20.4
2236
Road 68 I/C Uxing
Franklin
4/82
191
191
64
23.2
35
2236
Road 100 I/C Uxing
Franklin
4/82
183
167
55
21.5
15
2236
SR 14 I/C Uxing (Eastbound)
Franklin
4/82
170
156
26
22.4
Curved
1600R
2236
SR 14 I/C Uxing (Westbound)
Franklin
4/82
159
148
38
21.8
Curved
1500R
6.3-B2-2
25 counterweighted
cantilever spans at
July 2000

Appendix B
Multiple Span
Contract
No.
Name
8759
Kalama River Bridge

SB
County
Award
Date
Cowlitz
2/70
NB
2/70
Span
40
200
200
40
Width
Curb
Curb (ft.)
Span/
Depth
Varies
46-53
Skew
Deg.
40
200
200
40
Varies
46.5
Varies
8761
Valley View Road Oxing
Snohomish
2/70
88
170
88
38
25.2
9102
Columbia River Bridge

at Olds**
Chelan &
Douglas
7/71
190
260
190
74
Varies
26
Varies
47
100.5
145
145
114
114
87.5
9749
Evergreen Parkway
Thurston
9840
W Sunset Way Ramp Uxing
King
12/74
160
159
100
26
22.9
Curved
500R &
600R
1193
24F Over MD Line
Clark
8/78
129
201
129
26
Varies
3794
Sen. Sam C. Guess Memorial

(Division St. 2/644)
5/90
126
182
126
77
Varies
12
Remarks
6 sidewalk
on one side.
6 sidewalk
on one side.
Hourglass columns.
Replaced arch, built

in two stages.
**Middle 3 spans of 7-span bridge are post-tensioned.
July 2000
6.3-B3-1

Appendix B
Multiple Span
Contract
No.
Name
Skew
Deg.
3/79
63.5
133
63.5
42
24.2
40
8/79
167
5@172
167
26
25.1
Curved
1200R
8/79
137
6@172
166
38
25.1
Curved
1200R
140+
161
161
215
147
Varies
48-100
Varies
Curved
6000R
Transverse posttentioning.
140+
161
161
215
147
38
Varies
Curved
5900R
Transverse posttensioning.
10 bicycle and
pedestrian path
on one side.
SR 516 Oxing
King
1580
Ahtanum Creek Oxing

SB
Yakima
NB
Yakima River Bridges

North Bridge
Span/
Depth
County
1439
1950
Width
Curb
Curb (ft.)
Award
Date
Benton
Span
10/80
South Bridge
2156
14-I Line
Clark
11/81
163
145
82
38
22.2
Curved
600R
2156
14 D Line (South)
Clark
11/81
128
171
128
26
24.4
Curved
625R
2207
GE Line Over G Line
Benton
4/82
90
188
90
38
23.5
Curved
1400R
6.3-B3-2
Remarks
July 2000

Appendix B
Multiple Span
Contract
No.
Name
County
Award
Date
Span
Width
Curb
Curb (ft.)
Span/
Depth
Skew
Deg.
2207
RA Line Over ER Line
Benton
4/82
47
104
47
55
17.3
20
2245
Pearl Street Oxing
Pierce
4/82
49
159
49
54
22.7
Curved
1400R
2245
6th Avenue Oxing
Pierce
4/82
43
125
43
Varies
87.4102
22.7
Curved
1400R &
400R
2327
Spokane River Bridge

Stage 1
Spokane
6/82
175
255
175
76
Varies
***
Green River Bridge
King
118
150
99
74
Varies
22
3794
Sen. Sam C. Guess Memorial

(Division St. 2/644)
77
Varies
(depth 5.5 to
8.5 at piers)
12
5/90
126
182
126
Remarks
Replaced arch, built

in two stages.
***Not yet to contract.
P65:DP/BDM6
July 2000
6.3-B3-3

Criteria
Structural Steel
Contents
Page
7.0
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.99
Structural Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.2 Girder Depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.3 Girder Spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.4 Estimating Structural Steel Weights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.5 Types of Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.6 Available Plate Sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.7 Girder Segment Sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.8 Computer Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.9 Fasteners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Girder Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.2 I Girders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Design I Girders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.2 Composite Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.3 Flanges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.4 Webs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.5 Transverse Intermediate Stiffeners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.6 Longitudinal Stiffeners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.7 Bearing Stiffeners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.8 Crossframes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.9 Bottom Laterals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.10 Bolted Field Splice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.11 Camber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.12 Roadway Slab Placement Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.13 Bridge Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.14 Surface Roughness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.15 Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.16 Fabrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Plan Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.2 Structural Steel Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.3 Framing Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.4 Girder Elevation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.5 Typical Girder Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.6 Crossframe Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.7 Camber Curve and Bearing Stiffener Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.8 Roadway Slab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.9 Safety Cable Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Shop Plan Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
July 2000
7.0-1
1
1
7.1-1
1
2
2
2
3
3
3
4
7.2-1
1
1
7.3-1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
3
5
5
7
7
7
9
10
7.4-1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
7.5-1
7.99-1
7.0-i

Criteria
Structural Steel
Appendix A
7.0-A1
7.4-A1
7.4-A2
7.4-A3
7.4-A4
7.4-A5
7.4-A6
7.4-A7
7.4-A8
7.4-A9
7.4-A10
7.4-A11
7.4-A12
7.4-A13
7.4-A14
7.4-A15
7.4-A16
Contents
Steel Plate Girder Design Flow Chart

Girder Framing Plan and Elevation View
Part Longitudinal Girder Elevation
Primary Stiffeners
Transverse Intermediate Stiffeners
Splices
Optional Web Splices
Fillet Weld Termination Detail
Field Splice Detail
Drip Plate Details
Crossframes
Crossframe Attachment Details
Lateral Plate Detail
Camber Curve and Bearing Stiffener Camber Details
Roadway Slab-Plan View
Roadway Slab-Section View
Safety Cable Details
P65:DP/BDM7
7.0-ii
July 2000

Criteria
Structural Steel
7.0
Structural Steel
7.0.1
Introduction
Structural Steel
The most common type of steel superstructure used on bridges in Washington State is the built-up steel
I girder. Rolled beams have been used on a very limited basis but much of the following is applicable.
Because of their uniqueness and limited application, other types of steel superstructures (box girders,
trusses, arches, suspension, etc.) are not addressed.
Use English units for all widening and rehabilitation on existing English designed and detailed steel
bridge projects. Metric units are acceptable for new previously designed steel bridge projects.
P65:DP/BDM7
July 2000
7.0-1

Criteria
Structural Steel
7.1
Design Considerations
7.1.1
General
Use the Strength Design Method Load Factor Design of Section 10 Structural Steel of AASHTO
Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges to design steel girders. Bridges on horizontal curves shall
also meet the requirements of the AASHTO Guide Specifications for Horizontally Curved Highway
Bridges, as applicable. The information provided in this chapter is intended to help apply these AASHTO
specifications and to define office practice.
Typical construction is nonshored steel girders acting compositely with a reinforced concrete roadway
slab. This is discussed in more detail in Section 7.3.2. Since plate stock of M 270 grade 50W and M 270
grade 50 are close in price, office practice is to specify grade 50W for plate girders.
The use of nonredundant load path structures should be avoided. Nonredundant loadpath structures are
structures where the failure of a single load carrying member, or a component thereof, could cause a total
collapse. An example would be a twin plate girder structure.
Nonredundant structures are generally not used because of the extensive ongoing annual maintenance
inspections required by FHWA. Also, nonredundant structures increase fabrication costs and require
greater attention to detail during design. Even so, the use of nonredundant structures may be approved
by the Bridge Design Engineer, however, approval shall be obtained by the designer prior to beginning
the design.
Steel girder bridges typically require a paint system to provide protection against corrosion. The paint
system for girder bridges is defined in the Special Provisions and is a three-part system. The first coat is
an inorganic zinc shop primer. This is a sacrificial protection system. The second coat is an epoxy seal
normally applied after the slab has been placed. This is a barrier protective system but in combination
with the zinc primer, is considered a composite protective system. The third and final coat is a urethane
which protects the epoxy from UV attack and provides color for the bridge. The color is specified in the
Special Provisions. This paint system will normally require repainting in approximately 30 years.
Unpainted weathering steel should be considered for locations deemed appropriate. See NCHRP Report
314. Approval for its use must be obtained from the Bridge Design Engineer. Careful attention to details
is required for proper weathering. Accumulation of debris, staining of substructure, and water from
expansion joints can pose considerable problems and add to life cycle costs. Provisions to sand blast
erected steel and apply controlled wet-dry cycles are required to produce a sound protective coating with
good appearance. Recommendations for using weathering steel are contained in Uncoated Weathering
Steel Bridges, Vol. I, Chapter 9 of AISCs Highway Structures Design Handbook. A more comprehensive
treatment is found in NCHRP Report 314 Guidelines for the Use of Weathering Steel in Bridges. Surfaces
to be embedded in concrete, such as top flanges, should be shop painted.
7.1.2
Girder Depth
The superstructure depth is initially determined during preliminary plan development and is based upon
the span/depth ratios provided in Chapter 2 of this manual. The designer will have to verify this depth by
meeting live load deflection requirements and by meeting stress requirements. It is office practice to limit
live load deflections to L/800 for HS-25 or L/1000 for HS-20. Live load deflection is calculated on a per
bridge basis with reduction for multiple lanes.
The superstructure depth is typically the distance from the top of the concrete roadway slab to the bottom
of the web. This distance is in multiples of 6 inches for shorter span bridges, and 1 foot 0 inches for
longer span bridges, and should be consistent throughout the length of the bridge.
July 2000
7.1-1

Criteria
Structural Steel
Other features such as notching at hinges (combined with notching for expansion joint system), vertical
clearances, etc., should be considered in selecting the superstructure depth.
7.1.3
Girder Spacing
For simplicity of design, girders should be spaced such that each is designed for the same load; that is
basically, girders will be identical. Spacing should be such that slab dead load is equally distributed on
all girders and the distribution of wheel loads on the exterior girder is close to that of the interior girder.
Barrier weights shall be equally distributed to a maximum of two I girders. The least number of girders
should be used that is consistent with a reasonable deck design.
In general, live load distribution to girders shall be in accordance with AASHTO Section 3, Part C for
I girders. When these bounds are exceeded, a rational live load distribution method should be used.
7.1.4
Estimating Structural Steel Weights

For the preliminary quantities or preliminary girder design, an estimate of steel weights for built-up plate
composite I girders can be obtained from Figures 7.1.4-1 through 7.1.4-3. These figures are based upon
previous designs with HS-20 live loads with no distinction between service load designs and load factor
designs. These charts provide a good double check on final quantities.
The weights shown include webs, flanges, and all secondary members (web stiffeners, diaphragms,
crossframe, lateral systems, gusset plates) plus a small allowance (usually 5 percent or less) for weld
metal, bolts, and shear connectors.
7.1.5
Types of Steel
The most common types of steel used for bridges are now grouped in ASTM A 709 or AASHTO M 270
specifications. The following table shows equivalent designations. Grades of steel are based on minimum
yield points.
ASTM
ASTM A 709
AASHTO
AASHTO M 270
A 36
A 572 gr 50
A 588
A 852
A 514
Grade 36
Grade 50
Grade 50W
Grade 70W
Grade 100
Grade l00W
M 183
M 223 gr 50
M 222
M 313
M 244
Grade 36
Grade 50
Grade 50W
Grade 70W
Grade 100
Grade l00W
Plates and rolled sections are available is these specifications and grades. Rolled sections include beams
(W, S, and M shapes), H-piles, tees, channels, and angles. These materials are prequalified under the
Bridge Welding Code.
Use AASHTO M 270 grade 50W for plate girders. The fabricated costs of structural carbon and structural
low alloy steel plate girders are about equal. The use of M 270 grade 100, 100W requires approval by the
Bridge Design Engineer.
Availability of weathering steel can be a problem for some sections. For example, steel suppliers do not
stock angles or channels in weathering steel. Weathering steel wide flange and tee sections are available
but difficult to locate. Also, AASHTO M 270 steels are not stocked by local suppliers. The use of M 270
steel should be restricted to large quantities such as found in typical plate girder projects.
7.1-2
July 2000

Criteria
Structural Steel
Structural tubes and pipes are covered by other specifications. See Table 1-4 of AISC Manual of Steel
Construction for selection and availability. These materials are not considered prequalified under the
Bridge Welding Code. They are covered under the Structural Welding Code AWS D1.1. Structural
tubing ASTM A 500 is not recommended for dynamic loading applications.
7.1.6
Available Plate Sizes

Readily available lengths and thicknesses of steel plates should be used to minimize costs. Tables of
standard plate sizes have been published by various steel mills and should be used for guidance. These
tables are available through the steel specialist.
In general, an individual plate should not exceed 14 feet in width, including camber requirements, or a
length of about 60 feet. If either or both of these dimensions are exceeded, a butt splice is required and
should be shown or specified on the plans.
Plate thicknesses of less than 5/16 inches should not be used for bridge applications.
7.1.7
Girder Segment Sizes

Locate bolted field splices so that individual girder segments can be handled, shipped, and erected
without imposing unreasonable requirements on the contractor. Crane limitations need to be considered
in congested areas near traffic or buildings. Transportation route options between the girder fabricator
and the bridge site can effect the size and weight of girder sections allowed. The region should help
determine the possible routes, and the restrictions they impose, during preliminary planning or early in
the design phase.
I girder segment lengths should be limited to 150 feet depending upon their cross section. Weight is
seldom a controlling factor. However, 40 tons is a practical limit for some fabricators. Long, slender
segments can be difficult to handle and ship due to their flexibility. Horizontal curvature of girder
segments may increase handling and shipping concerns.
Consider the structures span length and the above factors when determining girder segment lengths.
7.1.8
Computer Programs
The designer should consult the design supervisor to determine the computer program currently being
used for analyses. Instruction manuals for the programs are available in the Bridge Office Computer
Section.
Office practice and good engineering principles require that the results of any computer program should
be independently verified for accuracy. Verification is necessary to identify input errors which renders
erroneous output. Also, programs with built-in code checks must be checked for default settings. Default
settings may reflect old code or office practice may supercede the code that the program was written for.
July 2000
7.1-3

Criteria
Structural Steel
7.1.9
Fasteners
All bolted connections shall be friction type. Design is based on Class B coating on fraying surfaces.
The term slip critical implies a friction type connection.
Properties of High-Strength Bolts
Material
Bolt Diameter
AASHTO
M 164
(ASTM A325)
ASTM A 449
(No AASHTO
equivalent)
AASHTO
M 314
ASTM F 1554
Grade 105
AASHTO
M253
(ASTM A 490)
Tensile
Strength
ksi
/2 - 1 inc.
11/8 - 1 inc.
Over 11/2
120
105
92
81
Not Available
/4 - 1 inc.
11/8 - 11/2 inc.
13/4 -3 inc.
Over 3
120
105
90
92
81
58
Not Available
/4 - 3 inc.
125-150
105
/2 - 11/2 inc.
150-170
130
Over 11/2
ASTM A 354
Grade BD
(No AASHTO
equivalent)
/2 - 21/2 inc.
3 - 4 inc.
Over 4
7.1-4
Yield
Strength
ksi
Not Available
150
130
140
115
Not Available
July 2000

Criteria
Structural Steel
General Guidelines for Steel Bolts

1.
M 164 (A325)
High strength, headed structural steel bolts for use in structural joints. Suitable
heavy hex nuts and plain hardened washers are covered by this specification.
These bolts may be hot-dip galvanized. Do not specify for anchor bolts.
2.
A449
High strength steel bolts and studs for general applications including anchor
bolts. Recommended for use as anchor bolts where strengths equivalent to
A325 bolts are desired. These bolts may be hot-dip galvanized.
3.
M 314 (F1554)
Grade 105 Higher strength anchor bolts to be used for larger sizes (11/2 to
3). These bolts are not covered in the Standard Specifications so they require
coverage in the Special Provisions when called for.
4.
M 253 (A490)
High strength alloy steel headed bolts for use in structural joints. These
bolts should not be galvanized, because of the high susceptibility to hydrogen
embrittlement. In lieu of galvanizing, the application of two or three coats
of an approved zinc rich paint may be specified. Suitable heavy hex nuts and
plain hardened washers are covered by this specification. Do not specify for
anchor bolts.
5.
A354
Grade BD high strength alloy steel bolts and studs. These bolts are suitable
for use as anchor bolts where strengths equal to A490 bolts are desired. Nuts
and washers are covered by this specification.
These bolts should be treated in the same manner as A490 bolts in regard
to galvanizing.
July 2000
7.1-5

Criteria
Composite Welded Steel Plate I Girder Simple Span

Figure 7.1.4-1
Structural Steel
7.1-6
July 2000

Criteria
Composite Welded Steel Plate I Girder Two Continuous Spans

Figure 7.1.4-2
Structural Steel
July 2000
7.1-7
Composite Welded Steel Plate I Girder Three or More Continuous Spans

Figure 7.1.4-3
Criteria
Structural Steel
7.1-8
July 2000

Criteria
Structural Steel
Equivalent ASTM and AASHTO Specifications

ASTM Designations
AASHTO Designations
ASTM Designations
AASHTO Designations
A 6/A 6M ............................................ M 160/M 160M
A 500 ...................................................... No Equivalent
A 27/A 27M ....................................... M 103/M 103M
A 501 ...................................................... No Equivalent
A 36/A 36M ....................................... M 183/M 183M
A 502 ...................................................... No Equivalent
A 48 ................................................................... M 105
A 514/A 514M .................................... M 244/M 244M
A 53 ...................................................... No Equivalent
A 525 ...................................................... No Equivalent
A 108 ................................................................. M 169
A 525M .................................................. No Equivalent
A 109 .................................................... No Equivalent
A 536 ...................................................... No Equivalent
A 109M ................................................. No Equivalent
A 563 ................................................................... M 291
A 123 ................................................................. M 111
A 563M ........................................................... M 291M
A 153 ................................................................. M 232
A 572/A 572M .................................... M 223/M 223M
A 252 .................................................... No Equivalent
A 588/A 588M .................................... M 222/M 222M
A 307 .................................................... No Equivalent
A 618 ...................................................... No Equivalent
A 325 ................................................................. M 164
A 668 ................................................................... M 102
A 325M .......................................................... M 164M
A 673/A 673M ....................................... T 243/T 243M
A 328/A 328M ................................... M 202/M 202M
A 709/A 709M .................................... M 270/M 270M
A 354 .................................................... No Equivalent
A 852/A 852M .................................... M 313/M 313M
A 370 .................................................................. T 244
A 898/A 898M ....................................... No Equivalent
A 435/A 435M ..................................... No Equivalent
B 695 ................................................................... M 298
A 446/A 446M ..................................... No Equivalent
F436 .................................................................... M 293
A 449 .................................................... No Equivalent
F436M .................................................... No Equivalent
A 486/A 486M ................................... M 192/M 192M
F606 ....................................................... No Equivalent
A 490 ................................................................. M 253
F 606M ................................................... No Equivalent
A 490M .......................................................... M 253M
F 959M ................................................... No Equivalent

F 1554 ................................................................. M 314
Figure 7.1.5-1
July 2000
7.1-9

Criteria
Structural Steel
7.2
Girder Bridges
7.2.1
General
Girder Bridges
Once the material of choice, steel has been eclipsed by concrete. Numerous graphs and charts are
available to demonstrate the falling percentage of steel bridges and the rising percentage of concrete
bridges being constructed. Corrosion and fatigue cracking have contributed to unanticipated life cycle
costs. Fabrication and material costs have also contributed to steels relative cost disadvantage. These
trends may be compensated for by simplification of fabrication details, elimination of expansion joints
and hinges, and the lowering of steel prices due to the advent of mills that recycle scrap iron.
The specifications allow a combination of plastic design in positive moment regions and elastic design
in negative moment regions. Plate girders, of the depths typically built in this state, have traditionally
been designed to elastic limits or lower. Newer design methods may help reduce steel weight and narrow
the cost gap between steel and concrete bridges. Steel girders can also be shallower than the same span
prestressed girders.
7.2.2
I Girders
As stated in the introduction, welded plate I girders constitute the majority of steel girders designed by
WSDOT. The I girder represents an efficient use of material for maximizing stiffness. Its shortcoming
is inefficiency in resisting shear. Office practice is to maintain constant web thickness for short to medium
span girders. Weight savings is achieved by minimizing the number of webs used for a given bridge. This
also helps minimize fabrication, handling, and painting costs. Current office practice is to use a minimum
of three girders to provide redundant load path structures. Two girder superstructures are considered
non-redundant and hence, fracture critical.
Steel plate girder design is complicated by buckling behavior of relatively thin elements. Most strength
calculations involve buckling in some form. Either a minimum thickness condition must be met to achieve
a given stress state, or strength is reduced by some amount to account for buckling. Buckling can be a
problem in flanges as well as webs if compression is present. Also, stability needs to be insured for all
stages of construction, with or without a roadway deck. The art of designing these girders is to minimize
material and fabrication expense while ensuring adequate strength and stiffness.
I girders are an excellent shape for welding. All welds for the main components are easily accessible
and visible for welding and inspection. The plates are oriented in line with the rolling direction so as to
make good use of strength, ductility, and toughness of the structural steel. The web is attached to the top
and bottom flanges with continuous fillet welds. Usually, they are made with automatic submerged arc
welders. These welds are loaded parallel to the longitudinal axis and resist horizontal shear between the
flanges and web. Minimum size welds based on plate thickness controls design in most cases. The flanges
and webs are fabricated to full segment length with full penetration groove welds. These welds are
inspected by ultrasound (UT) 100 percent. Tension welds, as designated in the plans, are also radiographed (RT) 100 percent. Office practice is to have flanges and webs fabricated full length before they
are welded into the I shape. Weld splicing built-up sections results in poor fatigue strength and zones
that are difficult or impossible to inspect.
P65:DP/BDM7
July 2000
7.2-1

Criteria
Structural Steel
7.3
Design I Girders
7.3.1
General
Design I Girders
Composite girders may be used for continuous and simple spans. As mentioned in Section 7.1.1, office
practice is to use nonshored girders. The girder section must carry the weight of the fluid (wet) concrete
deck as well as its own dead load. After the concrete has cured, the composite section becomes effective
in carrying all superimposed loads. Shear connectors are provided over the full length of the top flange of
the structure or continuous portions of the structure. The stiffness analysis is performed for superimposed
dead loads and live load plus impact, assuming the section acts compositely over the total length of the
structure or continuous portion thereof.
The fatigue truck shall be HS-20 for LFD design. When designing by the LRFD method, the fatigue truck
shall be applied without neglecting axles that do not contribute to the extreme force effect. Assume Case I
road type when determining the number of stress cycles for design.
7.3.2
Composite Section
Short-term primary loading live load plus impact is applied to the composite section transformed using
ES/EC, commonly denoted n. Long-term loading (dead load of barriers, signs, luminaries, overlays, etc.)
is applied to the composite section transformed using 3 ES/EC. The moments resulting from the stiffness
analysis are applied to the composite section in the positive moment region.
The negative moments from the analysis are applied to the steel girder section including longitudinal
reinforcing (negative moment composite section).
Longitudinal reinforcing steel shall be used in negative moment regions of composite, continuous spans.
Refer to AASHTO Section 10.38.4.3.
7.3.3
Flanges
When determining girder section at locations of maximum positive and negative moment, try to use a
constant top and bottom flange width throughout the length of the bridge. If a width change in the top
flange is necessary, it is best made at a field splice. The cross sectional areas of the top and bottom flanges
may be varied by changing thickness. Generally two changes in girder section located within the negative
moment region, one each side of maximum moment and between field splices, will be most economical.
Flange thickness changes at field splices are easily accomplished. One girder section change in end spans
between maximum positive moment and end bearing may be justified.
As a general rule, a welded splice may be justified if more than 500 pounds of steel can be saved.
7.3.4
Webs
Maintain constant web thickness throughout the structure. Except for extremely deep superstructures,
maintain webs full depth without longitudinal splices. Vertical web splices for girders should be shown on
the plans in an elevation view with additional splices made optional to the fabricator. All welded web
splices on exterior faces of exterior girders and in tension zones elsewhere shall be ground smooth. Like
splices on interior girders need not be ground in compression zones.
7.3.5
Transverse Intermediate Stiffeners

These stiffeners shall be used in pairs at crossframe locations on interior girders and on the inside of webs
of exterior girders. They shall be welded to the top flange, bottom flange and web at these locations. This
detail is considered fatigue stress category C. Stiffeners used between crossframes shall be located on one
July 2000
7.3-1

Criteria
Structural Steel
Design I Girders
side of the web, welded to the compression flange, and cut short of the tension flange. Stiffeners located
between crossframes in regions of stress reversal shall be welded to one side of the web and cut short of
both flanges. Alternatively, they may be welded to both flanges if fatigue Category C is checked.
7.3.6
Longitudinal Stiffeners
On long spans where web depths exceed 12 feet, comparative web evaluations shall be made to determine
whether the use of longitudinal stiffeners will be more economical. Fabrication costs indicate the use of
longitudinal stiffeners is not economical on webs 12 feet deep or less.
7.3.7
Bearing Stiffeners
Stiffeners are required at all bearings to enable the reaction to be transmitted from the web to the bearing.
These stiffeners are designated as columns, therefore, must be vertical under total dead load. The connection of the bearing stiffener to the girder consists of full penetration groove welds to the bottom flange and
fillet welding to the top flange and web. These connection details limit the design stress to Category C for
all girder sections at points of maximum negative moment.
In the case of severe horizontal curvature on structures where girders and crossframes are subjected to
large transverse forces resulting in considerable lateral flange bending, full penetration welds at top and
bottom flanges may be necessary. Full penetration welds are expensive and should be used only where
necessary.
7.3.8
Crossframes
The primary function of intermediate crossframes is to distribute vertical loads transversely and give
torsional rigidity to the superstructure. Together with the bottom laterals they stabilize the superstructure
during erection, pouring, and curing of the roadway slab. On curved bridges, the crossframes also resist
lateral flange bending. Pier crossframes are subjected to lateral loads that originate primarily from wind,
earthquake, and curvature and are transmitted from the roadway slab to the bearings.
Crossframes are generally patterned as K-frames or as X-frames. Typically the configuration selected is
based on the most efficient geometry. The members should closely approach a slope of 1:1 or 45. Avoid
conflicts with utilities passing through the girders.
On K-frames like the following, avoid connection congestion at bottom laterals:
K-frames like the following may be better for utilities, however, create some congestion at the bottom
lateral connection:
7.3-2
July 2000

Criteria
Structural Steel
Design I Girders
X-frames like the following, where girder depth approaches girder spacing, are more efficient
geometrically:
Intermediate crossframes for straight girders with little or no skew should be designed as secondary
members. Choose a section which satisfies
kL
140 and design connections only for anticipated loads,
r
not for 75 percent strength of member. This should result in greater economy but still meet the intent of
AASHTO specifications.
In general, crossframes should be installed parallel to piers for skew angles of 0 to 10. For greater skew
angles, other arrangements may be used. Consult with the design unit supervisor or the steel specialist for
special requirements.
Intermediate crossframes for curved I-girders require special consideration. Curved girder systems should
be designed according to AASHTO Guide Specifications for Horizontally Curved Highway Bridges.
Use Table 1.4A of the guide specifications to distinguish between straight and curved girders.
Crossframes at piers must be designed to transmit transverse loads due to wind or earthquake from the
roadway slab to the bearings or transverse stops. Design and detail pier crossframes separately from
intermediate crossframes.
Bolted connections for crossframes are favored because they allow adjustment during fit up and erection.
Connections of crossframes to web stiffeners require careful attention to detailing to minimize fabrication
difficulties and most importantly increase fatigue resistance. Web stiffeners at crossframes shall be
welded to top and bottom flanges. This practice minimizes out-of-plane bending of the girder web.
The resulting detail must be checked for Category C stress range.
7.3.9
Bottom Laterals
The primary function of a bottom lateral system is to stabilize the girders against lateral loads before the
deck hardens and stabilize the steel portion of the superstructure while the roadway slab is placed.
On straight bridges, office practice is to design the diagonal members in bottom laterals as secondary
members. X-framing may be designed in tension only. K-framing must be designed as compression and
tension members. One hundred fifty percent of the allowable service load design stress is permitted in the
laterals for the temporary construction condition. Consult AASHTO for further guidance. Determine one
size of diagonal member to be used throughout the structure. Partial loading (total panels less one-half of
the end panel) yields maximum shear in the end panel.
Also, on curved structures, the bottom laterals are effective in resisting live load plus impact thereby
becoming primary members and must be modeled in the structure to determine the actual forces the
members experience.
Lateral patterns are formed depending on number of girder lines, girder spacing, and crossframe
spacing. Cost considerations should include geometry, repetition, number, and size of connections.
See Figure 5.1.2-1. Consideration should be given to limiting bottom laterals to one or two bays on
straight bridges.
July 2000
7.3-3

Criteria
Structural Steel
Design I Girders
Examples of Lateral Bracing

Figure 7.3.9-1
7.3-4
July 2000

Criteria
Structural Steel
Design I Girders
Note: Where lateral gusset plates are welded to girder webs, the design stress level in the girder, at the
web, is governed by the Category E detail.
For widening projects, bottom laterals are not needed since new can be braced against existing construction. Framing which is adequately braced should not require bottom laterals.
7.3.10 Bolted Field Splice

Office practice is to use bolted field splices. Splices are usually located at the dead load inflection point to
minimize the design bending moment. The latest USS Highway Structures Design Handbook should be
consulted for examples of splice designs. See AASHTO Section 10.18 for splice design requirements.
Splices should be designed for the greater of:
1.
75 percent of the moment capacity of the smaller section.
2.
The average of the required moment due to factored loads and the moment capacity of the smaller
section.
Web splice bolts are designed to resist a shear force due to:
1.
Total factored shear force plus;
2.
Shear force due to moment resulting from the above shear force times the eccentricity of the distances
from the centerline of the splice to the center of gravity of the bolt group on one side of the centerline
of the splice plus;
3.
Shear force due to the portion of the design moment resisted by the web, which is:
I WEB
design moment at centerline of splice

I SECTION
The outer most bolt in the bolt group is the most highly stressed. The shear force can be determined by
using the elastic moment of inertia method.
The flange splice is designed to resist the portion of the design moment not resisted by the web.
Split splice plates are used at the bottom of the bottom flange to allow moisture to pass through the splice.
Fill plates are used to maintain constant flange splice plate thickness across the splice.
Allow fabricators to use steel sheet (ASTM A 715) for fill plates less than
inch thick.
Fill plates are not subject to tension and therefore a charpy V-notch toughness test should not be required
for them. Mark splice plates that carry tensile stress.
Allow fill plates to be fabricated from AASHTO M183, if steel is painted.
7.3.11 Camber
Permanent girder deflections shall be shown in the contract plans in the form of camber diagrams.
The traditional format for detailing these diagrams should be adhered to for the benefit of construction.
Camber curves are used by shop plan detailers, girder fabricators at the shop assembly stage, girder
erectors, and field personnel. Most, if not all, phases of girder fabrication and erection involve potential
sources of error in camber. Also, the Standard Specifications provide for adjustments at the time of slab
forming. Therefore, the slab design should reflect the possibility of reduced slab depths.
July 2000
7.3-5

Criteria
Structural Steel
Design I Girders
Girder camber is accomplished at three stages of construction. First, girder webs are cut from plates so
that the completed girder segment will assume the shape of camber superimposed on profile grade. The
fabricated girder segment will incorporate the as-cut web shape and some degree of welding distortion.
Next, the girder segments are brought together for shop assembly. Field splices are drilled as the segments
are placed in position to fit profile grade plus total dead load camber. Finally, the segments are erected,
sometimes with supports at field splices. There may be slight angle changes at field splices, resulting in
altered girder profiles. Errors at mid-span can be between one to two inches at this stage.
The following is a general outline for calculating camber and is based on girders having shear studs the
full length of the bridge.
Two curves will be required, one for total dead load plus slab shrinkage and one for girder self-weight
(steel only).
Girder dead load deflection is determined by using various computer programs. Girder self-weight is
assumed to include the basic section plus stiffeners, crossframes, welds, shear studs, etc. These items
may be accounted for by adding an appropriate percentage of basic section weight. Fifteen percent of
total girder weight, distributed evenly along the bridge, should suffice. This loading is applied to the
steel section only.
Total dead load camber shall consist of:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Steel weight.
Slab weight.
Traffic barriers and overlays.
Slab shrinkage.
Slab dead load deflection will require the designer to exercise some judgment concerning degree of
analysis. A two-span bridge of regular proportions, for example, should not require a rigorous analysis.
The slab may be assumed to act instantaneously on the steel section only. Therefore, the calculation would
be performed as above. For long structures, unusual girder arrangements, and especially structures with
hinges, an analysis coupled with a slab pour sequence may be justified. This would require an incremental
analysis where previous slab pours are treated as composite sections and successive slab pours are added
on noncomposite sections. Each slab pour requires a separate deflection analysis. The total effect of slab
construction is the superposition of each slab pour. A note must accompany the camber diagram explaining the relation between camber and the slab pour sequence. The contractor should be required to submit
a new camber diagram if a different slab pour sequence is proposed.
Traffic barriers, overlays, and other items constructed after the slab pour should be analyzed as if applied
to a composite section full length of the bridge. The modulus of elasticity of the slab concrete should be
reduced to one third of its short term value. For example, if fc = 5000 psi, then use a value of n = 21.
Slab shrinkage has a varying degree of effect on superstructure deflections. Again, the designer must use
some judgment in evaluating this effect on camber. Slab shrinkage should be the smallest portion of the
total camber (approximately 20 percent).
In addition to girder deflections, show girder rotations at bearing stiffeners. This will allow shop plan
detailers to compensate for rotations so that bearing stiffeners will be vertical in their final position.
Camber tolerance is governed by the Bridge Widening Code AWS D1.5. A note of clarification is added
to the plan camber diagram: For the purpose of measuring camber tolerance during shop assembly,
assume top flanges are embedded in concrete without a designed haunch. This allows a high or low
deviation from the theoretical curve. In the past, no negative camber tolerance was allowed.
7.3-6
July 2000

Criteria
Structural Steel
Design I Girders
7.3.12 Roadway Slab Placement Sequence

The roadway slab is placed in a prescribed sequence allowing the concrete in each sequence to shrink
freely. This minimizes cracking of the slab due to shrinkage. Furthermore, placing the slab sequentially
allows the contractor to place manageable volumes of concrete at a time.
For the first sequence, concrete is placed on the dead load positive moment region of end spans and in the
positive moment regions of alternate interior spans.
For the second sequence, concrete is placed on the dead load positive moment region of the remaining
spans after the concrete in the first sequence has attained a minimum specified tensile strength. Check
tensile stresses in the first sequence slab pour due to the second sequence slab pour.
For the third sequence, concrete is placed on the dead load negative moment region over each interior
pier. Generally, slab placement in negative moment regions does not cause cracking in previously placed
concrete.
7.3.13 Bridge Bearings

Office practice and design criteria for bridge bearings can be found in Chapter 8 of this manual.
7.3.14 Surface Roughness

The standard measure of surface roughness is the microinch value. It is specified by the symbol xxx and
shall be shown on the plans for all surfaces for which machining is required unless covered by the
Standard Specifications or Special Provisions. When used, this symbol means that the average value of
the depth of the surface grooves shall not exceed xxx millionths of an inch. The lower the number (xxx),
the smoother the surface.
Following is a brief description of some finishes:
500 A rough surface finish typical of as rolled sections. Suitable for surfaces that do not
contact other parts and for bearing plates on sheet lead or grout.
250 A fairly smooth surface. Suitable for connections and surfaces not in moving contact
with other surfaces. This finish is typical of ground edges in tension zones of flanges.
125 A fine machine finish resulting from careful machine work using high speeds and taking
light cuts. It may be produced by all methods of direct machining under proper conditions. Suitable for steel to steel bearing or rotational surfaces including rockers and pins.
63
A smooth machine finish suitable for high stress steel to steel bearing surfaces including
roller bearings on bed plates.
32
An extremely fine machine finish suitable for steel sliding parts. This surface is
generally produced by grinding.
16
A very smooth, very fine surface only used on high stress sliding bearings. This surface
is generally produced by polishing.
For examples, see Figure 7.3.14.
For stainless steel sliding surfaces, specify a #8 mirror finish. This is a different method
of measurement and reflects industry standards for polishing. No units are implied.
July 2000
7.3-7

Criteria
Structural Steel
Design I Girders
Surface Finish Examples

Figure 7.3.14
7.3-8
July 2000

Criteria
Structural Steel
Design I Girders
7.3.15 Welding
All structural steel and rebar welding shall be in accordance with the WSDOT Standard Specifications,
amendments thereto and the special provisions. The Standard Specifications currently calls for welding
structural steel according to the AASHTO/AWS D1.5-96 Bridge Welding Code (BWC) and the latest
edition of the AWS D1.1 Structural Weld Code. The designers should be especially aware of current
amendments to the following sections of the Standard Specifications, 6-03.3(25) Welding and Repair
Welding and 6-03.3(25)A Welding Inspection.
Exceptions to both codes and additional requirements are shown in the Standard Specifications and the
special provisions.
Standard symbols for welding, brazing, and nondestructive examination can be found in the
ANSI/AWS A 2.4 by that name. This publication is a very good reference for definitions of
abbreviations and acronyms related to welding.
The designer must consider the limits of allowable fatigue stress, specified for the various welds used to
connect the main load carrying members of a steel structure. See Chapter 10 of AASHTO.
The minimum fillet weld size shall be as shown in the following table. Weld size is determined by the
thicker of the two parts joined unless a larger size is required by calculated stress. The weld size need not
exceed the thickness of the thinner part joined.
Base Metal Thickness of
Thicker Part Joined
Inches (mm)
To
Minimum Size of
Fillet Weld
Inches (mm)
1
(20 mm) inclusive
Over
(20 mm)
The minimum size seal weld shall be
16
(6 mm)
16
(8 mm)
inch (5 mm) fillet weld.
In general, the maximum size fillet weld which may be made with a single pass is 5 16 inch for submerged
arc, gas metal arc, and flux-cored arc welding processes. The maximum size fillet weld made in a single
pass is 1 4 inch for the shield metal arc welding process.
The major difference between AWS D1.1 and D1.5 is the welding process qualification. The only process
deemed prequalified in D1.5 is shielded metal arc. All others must be qualified by test. Qualification of
M 270 grade 50W (A709 grade 50W) in Section 5 of D1.5 qualifies the welding of all AASHTO approved
steels with a minimum specified yield of 50 Ksi or less. Bridge fabricators generally qualify to M 270
grade 50W (A709 grade 50W).
All welding procedure specifications (WPS) submitted for approval must be accompanied by a procedure
qualification record (PQR), a record of test specimens examination and approval except for SMAW
prequalified. Some handy reference aids in checking WPS in addition to PQR are:
Matching filler metal requirements are found in BWC Section 4.
Prequalified joints are found in BWC Section 2.
AWS electrode specifications and classifications are obtained from the structural steel specialist.
Lincoln Electric Arc Welding Handbook.
Many of Lincoln Electrics published materials and literature are available through those designers and
supervisors who have attended their seminars.
July 2000
7.3-9

Criteria
Structural Steel
Design I Girders
WSDOT Standard Specifications for preheat and Interpass temperatures.

Notes: Electrogas and electroslag welding processes are not allowed in WSDOT work. Narrow gap
improved electroslag welding will be allowed on a case-by-case basis.
Often in the rehabilitation of existing steel structures, it is desirable to weld, in some form, to the inplace
structural steel. Often it is not possible to determine from the contract documents for the structure whether
or not the existing steel is weldable. WSDOT fabrication inspectors in the Northwest Region contract with
a company which can make that determination economically. Coupons from the steel must be furnished
for a spectrographic examination. Contact these inspectors to verify that the service is still available
before making preparations.
7.3.16 Fabrication
In most cases, a one girder line progressive longitudinal shop assembly is sufficient to assure proper fit of
subsections, field splices, and crossframe connections, etc., in the field. Due to geometric complexity of
some structures, progressive transverse assembly, in combination with progressive longitudinal assembly
may be desirable. The designer shall consult with the supervisor and the steel specialist to determine the
extent of shop assembly and clarification of the Standard Specifications. The desired method of assembly
shown in the Standard Specifications will then be required in the special provisions.
P65:DP/BDM7
7.3-10
July 2000

Criteria
Structural Steel
7.4
Plan Details
7.4.1
General
Plan Details
Detailing practice should follow industry standards. Designations for structural steel can be found in
Table 2-1 of AISC Detailing for Steel Construction. Old plans are a good reference for traditional
detailing practices. Radical or even modest changes in detailing practice can result in misinterpretation
of plans. Innovation is best reserved for content, not presentation of steel detailing.
Actual details for plate girders are continually being revised or improved. Cost benefits for individual
details vary from shop to shop and even from time to time. For these reasons, previous plan details can
be guides but should not be considered standards.
In general, office practice is to favor field bolted as opposed to field welded connections. In addition,
members of cross frames are shop bolted to give some degree of field adjustment. Welded assemblies
tend to be less adjustable when it comes time to install them.
7.4.2
Structural Steel Notes

Due to their dynamic nature, the structural steel notes are not shown in this manual. The designers
attention is directed to the Bridge and Structures Office Book of Knowledge (BOK) which contains the
most current version of the structural steel notes in their entirety. These notes must be edited based on
the requirements unique to each project and additions and deletions made accordingly.
7.4.3
Framing Plan
Define girders and component parts not shown on the girder elevation view such as jacking stiffeners.
Locate panel points (crossframe locations). Show general arrangement of bottom laterals. Provide
geometry, bearing lines, and transverse intermediate stiffener locations. Show field splices and detail
the general configuration of crossframes in a section through framing plan.
For geometrically complicated structures, a rather detailed framing plan should be made to help guide
the shop detailer and the shop plan reviewer.
7.4.4
Girder Elevation
Define flanges, webs, and components thereof. Show shear connector spacing, location, and number
across the flange. Show shear connectors in the girder details also. Locate transverse intermediate
stiffeners and show requirements for clearance from tension flange. Define those components of the
girder subject to the Charpy V-notch requirements shown in the Standard Specifications. Define full
penetration welds X or portions thereof subject to tension for which Radiographic (x-ray) examination
is required. See Standard Specifications. V and X are mentioned also in the Structural Steel Notes,
Section 7.4.2. Permissible welded web splices may show, however, the optional welded web splice
shown elsewhere in the plans permits the fabricator to add splices subject to the approval of the engineer.
7.4.5
Typical Girder Details

One or two plan sheets should be devoted to showing typical details to be used throughout the girders.
Such details include the weld details, various stiffener plates and weld connections, locations of optional
web splices, and drip plate details. Include field splices here if only one type of splice will suffice for
the plans. An entire sheet may be required for complicated bridges with multiple field splice designs.
See Appendix 7.4-A1 to A9. Note: Do not distinguish between field bolts and shop bolts. A solid bolt
symbol will suffice.
August 1998
7.4-1

Criteria
Structural Steel
7.4.6
Plan Details
Crossframe Details
Typical crossframe and bottom lateral details are shown on Appendix 7.4-A10 to A12. Actual lengths
of members and dimensions of connections will be determined by the shop plan detailer. Details should
incorporate actual conditions such as skew and neighboring members so that geometric conflicts can be
minimized. Tee sections are preferred over double angles for easier painting. If double angles are used,
leave a minimum of 1 inch between legs and include fillers as needed for stability.
7.4.7
Camber Curve and Bearing Stiffener Details

Camber curves should be detailed using conventional practices. Dimensions given at tenth points has
been office practice in the past. In lieu of tenth points, dimensions may also be given at crossframe
locations which are more useful in the field. See Appendix 7.4-A13.
7.4.8
Roadway Slab
The roadway slab is detailed in section and plan views. For continuous spans, add a section showing
negative moment longitudinal reinforcing to the typical section shown at mid-span. If possible, continue
the positive moment region reinforcing pattern from end-to-end of the slab with the negative moment
region reinforcing superimposed on it. The plan views should detail typical reinforcing and cutoff
locations for negative moment steel. Avoid termination of all negative moment steel at one location.
See Appendix 7.4-A14 and A15.
The pad dimension for steel girders is treated somewhat differently than for prestressed girders. The
pad dimension is assumed to be constant throughout the span length. Ideally, the girder is cambered to
compensate for dead loads and vertical curves. However, fabrication and erection tolerances result in
considerable deviation from theoretical elevations. The pad dimension is therefore considered only a
nominal value and is adjusted as needed along the span once the steel has been erected and profiled.
The screed for the slab is to be set to produce correct roadway profile. The plans should reference this
procedure contained in Standard Specification 6-03.3(39). The pad dimension is to be noted as nominal.
As a general rule of thumb, use 11 for short span rolled beam bridges, 12 for short span plate girder
bridges (150 to 180), 13 for medium spans (180 to 220) and 14 to 15 for long spans (over 220).
These figures are only approximate. Use good engineering judgment when detailing this dimension.
7.4.9
Safety Cable Details

Safety cables for maintenance crews are standardized details. If room permits, include safety cables with
typical girder details. Cable locations may be adjusted to avoid conflicts with other details such as large
gusset plates. See Appendix 7.4-A16.
P65:DP/BDM7
7.4-2
August 1998

Criteria
Structural Steel
7.5
Shop Plan Review
Shop Plan Review

Shop plans must be checked for agreement with the Contract Plans, Standard Specifications, and the
special Provisions. The review procedure is described in Section 1.3.5 of this manual.
Welding procedure specifications and procedure qualification records should be submitted with shop
plans. If not, they should be requested and received before shop plans are approved.
Most shop plans may be stamped:
GEOMETRY NOT REVIEWED
BY THE BRIDGE & STRUCTURES OFFICE
However, the reviewer should verify that lengths, radii, and sizes shown on shop plans are in general
agreement with the contract. The effects of profile grade and camber would make exact verification
difficult. Some differences in lengths, between top and bottom flange plates for example, are to be
expected.
The procedures to follow in the event changes are required or requested by the fabricator can be
found in Section 1.3.6 of this manual. In the past, shop plans with acceptable changes have been so
noted and stamped.
STRUCTURALLY ACCEPTABLE, BUT DOES NOT
CONFORM TO THE CONTRACT REQUIREMENTS
P:DP/BDM7
August 1998
7.5-1

Criteria
Structural Steel
7.99
Bibliography
Bibliography
The following publications can provide general guidance for the design of steel structures. Some of this
material may be dated and its application should be used with caution.
1.
U.S. Steel Highway Structures Design Handbook, Volumes I and II.

This is a detailed design reference for I girders and box girders, both straight and curved, utilizing
either service load design or load factor design. Guidance for the design of wide flange beams is also
included.
2.
Design of Welded Structures by Omer H. Blodgett.

This publication is quite helpful in the calculation of section properties and the design of individual
members. There are sections on bridge girders and many other welded structures.
3.
Curved Girder Workshop produced by the Federal Highway Administration.

This publication is helpful in the design of curved I girders and box girders with explanation of the
associated lateral flange bending, torsional, and warping stresses.
P:DP/BDM7
August 1998
7.99-1

Criteria
Structural Steel
August 1998
Girder Framing Plan

and Elevation View
7.4-A1

Criteria
Structural Steel
August 1998
Part Longitudinal
Girder Elevation
7.4-A2

Criteria
Structural Steel
August 1998
Primary Stiffeners
7.4-A3

Criteria
Structural Steel
August 1998
Transverse Intermediate Stiffener
7.4-A4

Criteria
Structural Steel
August 1998
Splices
7.4-A5

Criteria
Structural Steel
August 1998
Optional Web Splice
7.4-A6

Criteria
Structural Steel
August 1998
Fillet Weld Termination Detail
7.4-A7

Criteria
Structural Steel
August 1998
Field Splice Detail
7.4-A8

Criteria
Structural Steel
August 1998
Drip Plate Details
7.4-A9

Criteria
Structural Steel
August 1998
Crossframes
7.4-A10

Criteria
Structural Steel
August 1998
7.4-A11-1

Criteria
Structural Steel
7.4-A11-2
August 1998

Criteria
Structural Steel
August 1998
7.4-A11-3

Criteria
Structural Steel
August 1998
Lateral Plate Detail
7.4-A12

Criteria
Structural Steel
August 1998
Camber Curve and Bearing

Stiffener Camber Details
7.4-A13

Criteria
Contents
Page
8.
8.1
8.1.1
8.1.2
8.1.3
8.1.4
8.1.5
8.1.6
8.1.7
8.1.8
8.2
8.2.1
8.2.2
8.2.3
8.2.4
8.3
8.3.1
Miscellaneous Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Other Bridge Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Timber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Railroad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Movable Bridge and Machinery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cable Stayed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Floating Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Suspension Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tunnels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Cut and Cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Bored . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Elevated Railways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sign and Luminaire Supports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Deadloads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Wind Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Live Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E. Ice Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F. Snow Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
G. Load Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bridge-Mounted Signs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Vertical Clearance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Geometrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Aesthetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Sign Placement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E. Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F. Dimensioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sign Bridges Mounted on Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Design Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Vertical Clearance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Geometrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Miscellaneous Highway Structures Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Impact Attenuator Supports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. General Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Push Force on Back-Up Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Pulling Force from Restraining Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Ground Mounted Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E. Factored Load Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F. Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
8.2-1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
3
3
4
6
6
7
7
7
7
7
7
8
8.3-1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
August 1998
8.0-i

Criteria
Contents
Page
8.3.2
8.3.3
8.3.4
8.3.5
8.3.6
8.4
8.4.1
8.4.2
8.4.3
8.4.4
8.4.5
8.4.6
Traffic Barriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Bridge Railing Performance Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Available Bridge Rail Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. At Grade Cast-in-Place Barriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bridge Rail Rehabilitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. WSDOT Bridge Inventory of Bridge Rails . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Available Retrofit Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bridge Approach Slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Utility Installation on Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Confined Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. General Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Criteria for Utility Installation on New Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E. Special Considerations for Various Districts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F. Type of Conduit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
G. Types of Supports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
H. Utility Review Procedure for Existing Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I. Utility Review Checklist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Structural Plate Arches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bridge Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Expansion Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Specifications for Bridge Deck Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Reviewing Shop Plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Other Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Drainage Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Geometrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. On Bridge Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E. Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bridge Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Forces to Be Resisted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Movements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Bearing Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E. Orientation of Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F. Bearing Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bridge Railing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ladders, Stairs, Grates, Etc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Surface Treatments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3.2-1
1
1
2
5
8.3.3-1
1
1
1
2
*
8.3.5-1
1
1
1
2
3
4
5
5
8
*
8.4.1-1
1
1
10
10
11
8.4.2-1
1
1
1
1
1
8.4.3-1
1
1
2
4
15
15
*
*
*
8.0-ii
August 1998

Criteria
Contents
Page
8.4.7
8.5
8.5.1
8.5.2
8.5.3
8.5.4
8.99
Deck Protective Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.4.7-1

A. System Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1
B. System 1 (Epoxy Coated Bars) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2
C. System 2 (Dense Concrete or Latex Modified Concrete Overlay) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3
D. System 3 (Asphalt Overlay with Waterproof Membrane) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4
E. System Selection for New Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5
F. System Selection for Bridge Deck, Widening, and Rehabilitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5
Lighting and Electrical Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
*
*
Illumination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
*
Navigation Lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
*
Electrical Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
*
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.99-1

8.2-A1
Sign Structure Foundation Material Quantities
8.2-A2
Vacant
8.2-A3
Notes to Designers for Truss Sign Bridge Foundations
8.2-A4
Double Faced Barrier Foundation Types 1, 2, and 3 for Truss Sign Bridge
8.2-A5
Notes to Designers for Monotube Sign Bridge Foundations
8.2-A6
Doubled Faced Barrier Foundation Types 1, 2, and 3 for Monotube Sign Bridge
8.2-A7
Notes to Designers for Monotube Sign Structures
8.2-A8
Monotube Sign Structures Member and Sign Criteria
8.2-A9
Monotube Sign Structures Sign Bridge Layouts
8.2-A10 Monotube Sign Structures Cantilever Layouts
8.2-A11 Monotube Sign Structures Structure Details
8.2-A12 Monotube Sign Structures Structure Details
8.2-A13 Monotube Sign Structures Foundation Details Types 1, 2, and 3
8.3-A1
General Notes and Design Criteria for Utility Installation to Existing Bridges
8.3-A2
Guide for Utility Installations Existing Bridges
8.3-A3
Bridge Railing Type BP
8.3-A4
Bridge Railing Type BP-B
8.3-A5
Notes to Designers for Bridge Railing
8.3-A6
Traffic Barrier
8.3-A7
Traffic Barrier w/Fractured Fin Finish
8.3-A8
Pedestrian Barrier
8.3-A9
Pedestrian Barrier w/Fractured Fin Finish
8.3-A10 Notes to Designers for Traffic Barrier
8.3-A11 Utility Hanger Details
8.3-A12 Utility Hanger Details
August 1998
8.0-iii

Criteria
8.4-A1
8.4-A2
8.4-A3
8.4-A4
8.4-A5
Contents
Expansion Joint Details

Standard Drain Modifications
Bridge Drains Types 7 and 8
Bridge Grate Inlet
Bridge Grate Inlet Type 2
Appendix B Examples
8-B1
Notes to Designers Pin Bearings
8-B2
Notes to Designers Spherical Bearings
8-B3
Notes to Designers General
8-B4
Notes to Designers Post-Tensioning
8-B5
Notes to Designers Structural Steel (Box Girder)
8-B6
Notes to Designers Structural Steel (Plate Girder)
8-B7
Notes to Designers Strip Seal Expansion Joint
8-B8
Notes to Designers Modular Expansion Joint
8-B9
Notes to Designers Rail Rehabilitation
8.4-B1
Compression Seal Design Example
8.4-B2
Strip Seal Design Example 1
8.4-B3
8.4-B4
8.4-B5
Gmin and Gmax for Modular Joints
8.4-B6
Modular Joint Design Example 1
8.4-B7
8.4-B8
8.4-B9
Elastomeric Bearing Pad Example for P.S. Girder (Prestressed)
8.4-B10
Vacant
8.4-B11
Vacant
8.4-B12
Girder Stop Bearing Pads Example
8.4-B13
Elastomeric Bearing Pad Design Chart
8.4-B14
Girder Stop Bearing Pads Spacing Chart
8.4-B15
Girder Stop Bearing Pads Pad Thickness Chart
P:DP/BDM8
9807-0802
8.0-iv
August 1998

Criteria
8.2
Sign and Luminaire Supports
8.2.1
Loads
A. General
The reference used in developing the following office criteria is the 1975 AASHTO Standard
Specifications for Structural Supports for Highway Signs, Luminaires, and Traffic Signals, and shall
be the basis for analysis and design.
B. Deadloads
3.25 lbs./ft.2
60 lbs./each
3.0 lbs./ln. ft
60 lbs./each
6.0 lbs./ln. ft
Calc.
Calc.
60 lbs./ln. ft.
28 lbs./ln. ft.
Sign (incl. stiffeners)

Luminaire
Fluorescent Lighting
Standard Signal Head
Mercury Vapor Lighting
Sign Brackets (No Maintenance Walkway)
Structural Members
5-foot-wide maintenance walkway (incl. sign mounting brackets)
11/2-foot-wide maintenance walkway between signs
C. Wind Loads
Type of Structure
Roadside Sign Support Round
Roadside Sign Support Square
Roadside Sign Support Octagonal
Standard Plan G-2
Standard Plan G-3 Chords
Standard Plan G-3 Post
Monotube
Signs
Square Luminaires
Round Luminaires
Signal Heads
Mean
Recurrance
Interval
Velocity
(MPH)*
Drag
Coeff
(Cd)
10
10
10
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
25
80
80
80
80
80
80
80
80
80
80
80
1.10
1.45
1.20
1.20
1.10
.45
1.45
1.30
1.20
.50
1.20
*When designing structures on the Olympic Peninsula or south of Olympia and west of Interstate 5
consideration should be given to using a wind velocity between 80 mph and 100 mph, see Isotach
figure (Appendix A). Local topography may also dictate the use of higher wind velocities.
April 1991
8.2 - 1

Criteria

Wind Pressure **
for 80 MPH Wind
P (psf)
Height above
Ground (FT)
0
14
29
49
99
149
199
<
<
<
<
<
<
<
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
<
<
<
<
<
<
<
14
29
49
99
149
199
299
22
28
31
35
39
42
44
**Values in this table were computed using Cd = 1.00; design pressures must be corrected by using the
specified value for Cd.
Wind Combination
1
2
Normal Comp.
Trans. Comp.
1.0 BL
.6 BL
0.2 BL
0.3 BL
BL is a wind force and is equal to P times the exposed area of the sign and support system. BL is
then applied to the centroid.
D. Live Load
500 lbs. applied as a concentrated load at 3 feet from sign face (only where maintenance walkways
are used).
E. Ice Loads
3 psf applied around all the surfaces of structural supports, horizontal members, and luminaires, but
applied to only one face of sign panels.
F. Snow Loads
The above stated ice load shall be considered to include any snow load for the commonly used
structural support systems.
G. Load Groups
Sign, luminaire, and signal structures are designed using the maximum of the following three load
groups:
Loads
Group I DL
Group II DL + W
Group III DL + Ice + 1/2 (W**)
Percent of *
Allowable Stress
100
140
140
*No load reduction factors shall be applied in conjunction with these increased allowable stresses.
**W to be computed on the basis of the wind pressure formula, 25 psf minimum for W Group III.
8.2 - 2
April 1991

Criteria
8.2.2
Bridge-Mounted Signs
A. Vertical Clearance
The bottom of the sign lighting bracket should be placed a minimum of 17 feet 6 inches and a
maximum of 21 feet 0 inches above the lower roadway (see Figure 8.2.2-1). The minimum clearance
is a requirement of the current electrical code. Greater or lesser clearance may be approved by
Roadway Development on an individual project basis.
Sign Vertical Clearance

Figure 8.2.2-1
April 1991
8.2 - 3

Criteria
B. Geometrics
1.
Signs should be installed at approximate right angles to approaching motorists. For structures
above a tangent section of roadway, signs may be installed parallel to the structure provided the
structure skew does not exceed 10. If the structure skew exceeds 10, support brackets should be
designed to provide a sign skew of no more than 10 from perpendicular to the lower roadway
(see Figure 8.2.2-2).
Sign Skew on Tangent Roadway

Figure 8.2.2-2
8.2 - 4
April 1991

Criteria
2.
For structures located on or just beyond a horizontal curve of the lower roadway, signs may be
installed parallel to the structure provided the structure chord-skew does not exceed 10. If the
structure chord-skew exceeds 10, support brackets should be designed to provide a sign chordskew of no more than 10 from perpendicular to the chord-point determined by the approach
speed (see Figure 8.2.2-3).
3.
The top of the sign shall be level.
Sign Skew on Curved Roadway

Figure 8.2.2-3
April 1991
8.2 - 5

Criteria
C. Aesthetics
1.
Preferably, the top of the sign and its support should not project above the bridge rail (see Figure
8.2.2-4).
2.
Whenever possible, the support structure should be hidden from view of traffic.
3.
The sign support shall be detailed in such a manner that will permit the sign and lighting bracket
to be installed level.
4.
When the sign support will be exposed to view, special consideration is required in determining
member sizes and connections to provide as pleasing an appearance as possible.
Sign Vertical Location

Figure 8.2.2-4
D. Sign Placement
1.
Whenever possible, the designer should avoid locating signs under bridge overhangs. This causes
partial shading or partial exposure to the elements. Also avoid placing the sign directly under the
drip-line of the structure. These conditions may result in uneven fading, discoloring, and
difficulty in reading (see Figure 8.2.2-5).
2.
Whenever it is necessary to place a sign under a bridge due to structural or height requirements,
the installation should be reviewed by Roadway Development.
Sign Horizontal Location

Figure 8.2.2-5
8.2 - 6
April 1991

Criteria
E. Installation
1.
Consideration shall be given to the method of installing the sign support and sign on the
structure. For example, a sign located underneath the overhang can cause problems in lifting the
material into position and making the required connections.
2.
When locating sign support brackets on the structure, a minimum of 2 inches of clearance shall
be provided between the edge of the required sign lighting zee-bar bracket and edge of the
vertical sign support members.
3.
An expansion-type concrete anchor is undesirable for attaching sign support brackets to the
structure. This is because the nature of the loads imposed on the anchors can cause vibration and
pull-out. The Hilti HVA, Molly Parabond, Kelken-Gold Keli Bond, or ITW/Redhead EPCON
Ceramic 6, or approved equal with AASHTO M164 anchor bolts should be used for existing
structures and cast-in-place anchor bolts (ASTM A307) for new structures. When Hilti HVA,
Molly Parabond, or Kelken-Gold, or ITW/Redhead systems are specified, the following should
be included:
(a) Anchor bolt system is to be installed using manufacturer recommendations in dry conditions.
(b) Torque anchor bolt nuts to proof load.
F. Dimensioning
Where show on the plans, the sign size shall be expressed in terms of horizontal by vertical
dimension, i.e., X x Y, where X = horizontal dimension and Y = vertical dimension.
8.2.3
Sign Bridges Mounted on Bridges

A. Design Loads
Design loads for the supports of the sign bridges should be calculated based on assuming a 12-foot
deep sign over the entire roadway width, under the sign bridge. This will account for any signs that
may be added in the future. The design loads should follow the same criteria as described in
Section 8.2.1. Loads from the sign bridge should be included in the design of the structure.
B. Vertical Clearance
Vertical clearance for sign bridges follow the same requirements as Bridge-Mounted Signs as stated
in Section 8.2.1A.
C. Geometrics
Sign structures should be placed at approximate right angles to approaching motorists. Dimensions
and details of sign structures are shown in the Standard Plans, Sheets G-2, G-2a, G-3, and
Appendix A of this chapter. When maintenance walkways are included, refer to Standard Sheet G-6.
April 1991
8.2 - 7

Criteria
8.2.4
Foundations
The most efficient foundation design for sign, luminaire, and signal supports is the Caisson Foundation.
Standard foundations have been designed; see Standard Plans G-2b, G-3a, J-1b, and Appendix A of this
chapter.
The headquarters Materials Lab should be consulted as to which foundation type is to be used. Foundation
type 1 and 2 are designed for a lateral bearing pressure of 2,500 psf. Type 2 is the alternate to type 1
when drilled shafts are not suitable. The type 3 foundation is designed for poor soil conditions where the
lateral bearing pressure is between 2,500 psf and 1,500 psf.
The standard foundations have been modified for placement under traffic barrier, see Appendix A of this
chapter.
8-2:V:BDM8
8.2 - 8
April 1991

Criteria
8.3
Miscellaneous Highway Structures Design
8.3.1
Impact Attenuator Supports
A. General Concept
This criteria is concerned with the support design of the Hi-Dro Cushion attenuator (liquid-filled cells
with cable guides and side panels), which is one of the two FHWA qualified energy-absorbing
systems to protect occupants of highway vehicles from fixed objects within the highway system. For
other systems, similar design procedures should be followed.
B. Push Force on Back-Up Wall
1.
Vehicle Force Limitation

G loads for varying speeds and number of bay units can be found on page 2 of the Design
Data Hi-Dro Cushion Reusable Systems brochure. These values have good correlation with
calculated deceleration.
It is desirable that the average vehicle deceleration be limited to a maximum of 10 Gs. If this
value is higher than 10 Gs, we should recommend to the district that more units should be used.
2.
Design Speed
Design speed shall be per highway Design Manual.
3.
Design Force
The design force shall be determined from other values given in the above-mentioned table or
1.8 x 4k x G, whichever is greater. The table is based on the results of full scale tests.
C. Pulling Force from Restraining Cables

If the attenuator is impacted at an angle, the restraining cables will exert a pulling force on the
back-up wall and the front cable anchorage. The ultimate strength of the 7/8-inch restraining cables is
56 kips each. To avoid a complicated dynamic analysis, design the back-up wall and front cable
anchorage for a symmetrical load of 112 kips and also for unsymmetrical load of 56 kips acting
through one restraining cable only. Provide flexure, shear and torsion reinforcement in the back-up
wall as required by these two loading conditions.
D. Ground-Mounted Units
It is recommended that the back-up wall and anchor block foundations for ground-mounting units be
combined into an integral unit. By this means, the stability of the structure in enhanced. Sliding and
overturning should be checked. The service loads should be used in establishing factors of safety.
A minimum of 1.5 for overturning and W + Pp > 1.3 for sliding, where:
=
H
W = Weight of Support
= Friction Coefficient
H = Horizontal Force
h2 (1 + Sin )
Pp = Passive Pressure =
2
(1 - Sin )
= Angle of Internal Friction
= Unit Weight of Soil
April 1991
8.3 - 1

Criteria
E. Factor Load Design

The loads previously determined due to impacting or pulling of cables shall be multiplied by a factor
of 1.5 for Ultimate Load condition because it is an impulse loading. The dead load of the support
shall be multiplied by the usual factor of 1.3. The resultant of these loads should lie in the middle half
of the support footing. Minimum steel requirements of AASHTO Reinforced Concrete Design should
be checked except where a construction joint makes it impossible for tension to develop in the
concrete.
F. Details
For details of scale anchorages and attenuator hardware required for the back-up wall, see the
manufacturers brochure or shop drawings of previous installations.
8.3 - 2
October 1993

Criteria
8.3.2
Bridge Traffic Barriers

A. Guidelines
1.
The design criteria for bridge traffic barriers on structures shall be in accordance with Section 2
of the Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges adopted by AASHTO.
2.
The standard approach for new bridge rails is a 32 inch high safety shape (F Shape) concrete
barrier on all interstate and major highway routes. Use a Single Slope concrete bridge rail when
there are Single Slope concrete barriers on grade in the median for approaches to bridges or for
continuity within a corridor. (See Design Manual Section 710 for additional background and
criteria.) The Standard Single Slope bridge rail is 34 inches high to be consistent with the heights
being used on grade applications.
3.
Use taller 42 inch high safety shape or single slope bridge rails on interstate or freeway routes in
the following circumstances:
When accident history suggests a need.
When roadway geometrics increase the possibility of larger trucks hitting the barriers at
a high angle (such as on ramps for freeway to freeway connections with sharp curvature in
the alignment).
4.
In addition, the Guide Specifications for Bridge Railings have been adopted by AASHTO to
give specific requirements for crash testing of bridge barriers prior to their use on all new
bridge structures. The AASHTO Guide Specifications differentiate crash test criteria for various
performance levels depending upon in part traffic volume, design speed, vehicle mix, and other
factors that produce a vast variation in traffic railing performance needs from one site to another.
5.
Guardrail approach transitions to bridge railing shall also be crash tested and consistent with the
performance level dictated by the bridge site. The criteria for its use shall be in accordance with
the Highway Design Manual, Section 710.10 and the appropriate standard plans.
B. Bridge Railing Performance Levels

It must be recognized that bridge railing performance needs differ greatly from site to site over our
highway network and that railing designs and costs should match facility needs. This concept is
embodied within the Guide Specifications for Bridge Railing. Three bridge railing performance levels
and associated crash test/performance requirements are given in these guide specifications along with
guidance for determining the appropriate performance level for a given bridge.
1.
Performance Level 1 (PL1)

On low-volume roads with little accident history, the concrete traffic barrier may not be
warranted with concurrence of roadway geometrics. Crash tested breakaway guardrail systems
and otherwise semi-rigid guardrail systems have shown that they can effectively contain vehicles
on the bridge without undue damage to the bridge deck.
Other semi-rigid guardrail systems also qualify for this performance level due to geometric
features such as height. Examples of these semi-rigid and weak post guardrail systems are shown
in Section 8.3.2C.1.
July 2000
8.3.2-1

Criteria
2.

This performance level is defined as a rigid rail system that generally meets AASHTOs strength
requirements of 10 kips lateral impact capacity. The concrete New Jersey barrier and F shape
configuration would qualify under this performance level. Rail systems under this category have
to be capable of resisting not only compacts and passenger cars but also 18,000 lb. single unit
trucks (see Table G2.7.1.3A in the Guide Specification).
3.

Higher capacity bridge rails are sometimes required for cases of high traffic volume with
large truck or bus percentage. High accident rates with these trucks or buses may warrant this
performance level. The crash test matrix for this performance category includes a 50,000 lb.
tractor trailer.
C. Available Bridge Rail Designs

1.
Performance Level 1
a.
Service Level 1 Weak Post Guardrail

This bridge railing is a crash tested weak post rail system that was developed by NCHRP
Report 239 for low-volume rural roadways with little accident history. We have utilized this
design on some of our short concrete spans and on our timber bridges. A failure mechanism
is built into this rail system such that upon impact the post will break away with the thrie
beam guardrail containing the vehicle by virtue of its ribbon strength. This failure mechanism assures minimum damage, if any at all, to the bridge deck and stringers. The estimated
cost for this system as a retrofit to existing structures is $75 to $85 per linear foot. Details for
some examples of retrofitted weak post systems are shown in Figures 8.3.2-1 and 8.3.2-2.
This system could be used by cities and counties on new structures in which the cost can be
estimated at $40 to $50 per linear foot. The appropriate guardrail approach transition shall be
a Case 14 placement as shown on Standard Plan C-2h.
b.
Oregon Side Mounted Guardrail

This thrie beam guardrail system is an approved crash tested rigid rail which will require
a Type 4B transition leading up to the bridge (see Standard Plan C-3 2 of 2). This system
is ideally suited for cast-in-place and precast slab superstructures with at least 15-inch
minimum slab depth (see Figure 8.3.2-3).
c.
California Side Mounted Guardrail

This thrie beam guardrail system is a crash tested rigid rail system which again requires a
Type 4B transition. This rail system is suited to slab superstructures of 12-inch minimum
depth (see Figure 8.3.2-4).
d.
Glu-Lam Timber Rail on Wood Deck

This is a crash tested treated timber rail system that may be used for low performance level
facilities (see Figure 8.3.2-5).
8.3.2-2
July 2000

Criteria
e.
Texas T-202 Concrete Beam and Post

This crash tested rail system offers a combination of low maintenance and low profile
see-through characteristics. A Type 1 guardrail transition as shown by Standard Plan C-3
1 of 2 is required (see Figure 8.3.2-6).
f.
Nebraska Concrete Beam and Post

This is a similar rail system to the Texas T-202 rail with more opening at the base. Again a
Type 1 guardrail approach is required at bridge ends (see Figure 8.3.2-7).
g.
California Type 115 Tubular Steel Rail

This crash tested system offers a see-through low profile steel rail option to the thrie beam
guardrail. A Type 1 guardrail approach transition would be required at the bridge ends (see
Figure 8.3.2-8).
h.
Texas T-411 Aesthetic Concrete Baluster

Texas developed this standard for a section of highway that was considered to be a historic
landmark. So in response to this fact, the existing deficient concrete baluster rail was
replaced with a much stronger concrete baluster that satisfactorily passed the crash test
performance criteria set forth by the NCHRP Report 230 (see Figure 8.3.2-9).
i.
Texas Guardrail Fence for Box Culverts

Texas developed this semi-rigid standard for the many box culvert situations that face all
highway engineers. W-Beam guardrail is attached to steel posts that is mounted to the top of
the concrete deck for fill depths of 0 inches to 37 inches. A disadvantage of this is that when
this rail system is hit the repair sometimes requires the replacement of the steel post thereby
necessitating excavation of the fill. Washington has developed a take off from this design
that addresses this point by introducing a stiffer steel post in the fill that will hopefully never
need replacement. This detail is shown in Standard Plan C-10. The required guardrail
transition is shown in Standard Plan C-2i.
2.
Performance Level 2
a.
32-Inch New Jersey (NJ) Shape Concrete Traffic Barrier

This rail treatment is preferred for most higher volume state highway facilities because of
its past performance as far as the redirection capability and its low maintenance costs. If an
overlay is contemplated either at the time of construction or within one year after the project,
the vertical lip at the base shall be 3 inches plus the overlay depth. Otherwise this lip depth
shall be allowed to vary from 0 inch to 3 inch max. Under no circumstances shall this
depth exceed 3 inches. Any additional barrier height adjustments due to camber shall be
accommodated at the top of the barrier (see Figure 8.3.2-10).
A tapered traffic barrier end section is used to allow a snow plow to approach the bridge
using the guardrail as a guide without damaging the toe of the barrier. The vertical face
of the barrier end section allows for an easy thrie beam guardrail Terminal Design F
connection.
July 2000
8.3.2-3

Criteria
b.
32-Inch F Shape Concrete Traffic Barrier

This configuration was crash tested in the late 1960s along with the NJ Shape and then again
recently at this performance level. This more vertical shape actually tested better than the NJ
face which had more of an inclination to roll vehicles over upon impact. Oregon DOT
currently uses this configuration (see Figure 8.3.2-11).
An alternate precast barrier with the F shape configuration is now available for use
adjacent to bridges near the Oregon border (see Standard Plan C-8d).
c.
32-Inch Vertical Face Concrete Barrier

This crash tested rail system offers a simple to build concrete alternative to the NJ and
F shape traffic rail configurations (see Figure 8.3.2-12).
d.
Illinois 2399 Tubular Steel Rail

This crash tested model offers a light weight and open rail alternative to the concrete traffic
barriers outlined above. A rigid thrie beam guardrail transition would be required at the
bridge ends (see Figures 8.3.2-13 and 8.3.2-14).
e.
New York Thrie Beam Guardrail

This crash tested rail system can be utilized at the top of a raised concrete sidewalk to
separate pedestrian traffic from the vehicular traffic as shown in Figure 8.3.2-15 or can be
mounted directly to the top of the concrete deck. A Type 4B guardrail transition shall be
employed at the ends of the bridge.
f.
Oregon 2 Tube and 3 Tube Curb Mounted Rail

This is another crash tested model offering a light-weight, see-through option. A rigid thrie
beam guardrail transition would be again required at the bridge ends. A cross-section of this
rail is offered in Figure 8.3.2-16.
A three tube rail system is also available for sidewalk use without vehicular traffic. This has
not been crash tested satisfactorily to be utilized as a vehicular rail. This rail is shown in
Figure 8.3.2-17.
3.
Performance Level 3
a.
42-Inch F Shape Concrete Barrier

This barrier is very similar to the 32 inch F shape concrete barrier in that the slopes of the
front surface are identical except for its height. This barrier and all remaining options within
this section have been crash tested for a 50,000 lb. tractor trailer.
This barrier was used on a portion of the Seattle Access project in Seattle due to the large
vehicular mix of intercity buses and the fact that there was a building below that needed to
be protected. Another application of this barrier was utilized on the SR101 to Southbound
SR5 structure where there were an unusually large amount of truck accidents with debris
thrown to the structure below (see Figure 8.3.2-18).
8.3.2-4
July 2000

Criteria
b.
42-Inch Vertical Concrete Parapet

This crash tested option offers a simple to build alternative to the F shape configuration
4.
Special Higher Performance Level

a.
Texas Type HT
This crash tested rail employs a combination New Jersey Traffic Barrier and a special steel
rail mounted to the top with an overall height of 50 inches. This and other options listed
within this section have been crash tested for a 80,000 lb. truck (see Figure 8.3.2-20).
b.
Texas C202 Bridge Rail

This rail system offers a combination open concrete beam/post and a metal rail with an
overall height of 54 inches (see Figure 8.3.2-21).
D. At Grade Cast-in-Place Barriers

1.
Median Barriers
a.
Cast-in-Place barriers (Type 2) at grade are sometimes required in median areas with
different roadway levels at each side (see Figure 8.3.2-22). A Cast-in-Place barrier with
1 foot 0 inch or less difference in elevation has been crash tested successfully with a 10-inch
embedment depth. No foundation such as a footing is required. If this difference in elevation
is greater than 1 foot, the barrier shall be designed as a wall with AASHTOs barrier loading
and will require a footing.
Design criteria for allowable distribution width for impact on barriers with greater than
1 foot of elevation difference is as follows:
(1) For stability calculations: distribution width for impact load shall be 16 feet for walls
under 16 feet high.
(2) For reinforcing steel design in the stem and footing: distribution shall be the smaller of
2H or 16 feet where H is the height of the wall.
Additional design data is given on Standard Plan D-2e.
2.
Shoulder Barriers
Cast-in-Place shoulder barriers at grade are sometimes desired adjacent to bridge sidewalk
barriers in lieu of standard precast Type 2 barriers (see Figure 8.3.2-23). This barrier cross
section has equivalent mass and resisting moment for stability considerations to that of the
embedded double face New Jersey Traffic Barrier which has been satisfactorily crash tested.
A wire rope and pin connection shall be made at the bridge barrier end section per Standard
Plan C-8. If a connection is made to an existing traffic barrier or parapet on the bridge, 15 inches
long holes shall be drilled for the wire rope connection and shall be filled with an adhesive resin.
P65:DP/BDM8
July 2000
8.3.2-5

Criteria
Figure 8.3.2-1
8.3.2-6
September 1992

Criteria
Figure 8.3.2-2
September 1992
8.3.2-7

Criteria
Oregon Side Mounted Guardrail

Figure 8.3.2-3
8.3.2-8
September 1992

Criteria
California Side Mounted Guardrail

Figure 8.3.2-4
September 1992
8.3.2-9

Criteria
Glu-Lam Timber Rail

Figure 8.3.2-5
8.3.2-10
September 1992

Criteria
Texas T-202 Rail

Figure 8.3.2-6
September 1992
8.3.2-11

Criteria
Nebraska Concrete Beampost Rail

Figure 8.3.2-7
8.3.2-12
September 1992

Criteria
California Type 115 Rail

Figure 8.3.2-8
September 1992
8.3.2-13

Criteria
Texas T-411 Aesthetic Concrete Baluster

Figure 8.3.2-9
8.3.2-14
September 1992

Criteria
32-Inch New Jersey Shape

Figure 8.3.2-10
September 1992
8.3.2-15

Criteria
32-Inch F Shape
Figure 8.3.2-11
8.3.2-16
September 1992

Criteria

Figure 8.3.2-12
September 1992
8.3.2-17

Criteria
Illinois 2399R Tubular Steel Rail

Figure 8.3.2-13
8.3.2-18
September 1992

Criteria
Illinois 2399R Tubular Steel Rail

Figure 8.3.2-14
September 1992
8.3.2-19

Criteria
New York Thrie Beam

Figure 8.3.2-15
8.3.2-20
September 1992

Criteria
Oregon 2 Steel Tube Rail

Figure 8.3.2-16
September 1992
8.3.2-21

Criteria
Oregon 3 Steel Tube Rail

Figure 8.3.2-17
8.3.2-22
September 1992

Criteria
42-Inch F Shape
Figure 8.3.2-18
September 1992
8.3.2-23

Criteria

Figure 8.3.2-19
8.3.2-24
September 1992

Criteria
Texas Type HT Rail

Figure 8.3.2-20
September 1992
8.3.2-25

Criteria
Texas C202 Bridge Rail

Figure 8.3.2-21
8.3.2-26
September 1992

Criteria
CIP Median Barrier

Figure 8.3.2-22
CIP Median Barrier

Figure 8.3.2-23
September 1992
8.3.2-27

Criteria
8.3.3
Bridge Rail Rehabilitation

A. Policy
The bridge rail retrofit policy is To systematically improve or replace existing deficient rails within
the limits of 3R resurfacing projects by (1) utilizing an approved crash tested rail system that is
appropriate for the site or (2) designing up to the strength requirements set forth by Section 2 of
AASHTO.
B. Guidelines
Strength and geometric review, using the latest AASHTO Specifications, is required for all bridge rail
rehabilitation projects. If the strength of the existing bridge rail is found to be less than 10 Kips or has
not been crash tested, then modifications or replacement will be required to improve its redirectional
characteristics and strength.
C. WSDOT Bridge Inventory of Bridge Rails
The Bridge Condition Unit maintains an inventory of all bridges in the state on the State of
Washington Inventory of Bridges and Structures (SWIBS) program. Bridge rail types are indicated by
a code from 1 to 8 depending upon type of rail. The coded rail types are shown in Figure 8.3.3-1.
1.
This Timber Post and Rail system has been used on timber trestle structures. The rail is structurally deficient and requires a retrofit with thrie beam guardrail (see Section 8.3.2C.1a).
2.
This combination steel post and flex beam guardrail system generally includes steel posts with
spacing between 9 feet and 12 feet 6 inches, which is in excess of the required 6 feet 3 inches.
Generally, additional steel posts are required as well as thrie beam guardrail or other approved
rail system to bring this system up to standards.
3.
This combination steel post and tubular guardrail system was used in a limited way for a short
period of time. It is normally adequate but, if damaged, it is very difficult to repair because the
sections of guardrail are welded back to back.
4.
Concrete balusters are deficient in lateral load capacity, having approximately 3 kips while
10 kips is required. These rails are normally retrofitted with thrie beam guardrail (see Section
9.3.3D.1).
5.
New Jersey shaped traffic barriers have been used by WSDOT since 1970 and meet the current
code requirements.
6.
This combination low-base concrete pedestal and metal rail is considered deficient and should be
replaced with Type 1, 1A, and 2 metal rails.
7.
This combination high-base concrete parapet and metal rail may or may not be considered
adequate depending upon the rail type. Metal rail Type R, S, and SB are considered capable of
resisting the required 5 kips of lateral load. Types 3, 1B, and 3A are considered inadequate. See
Highway Design Manual, Section 710.09 for replacement criteria.
8.
A combination metal rail and New Jersey Traffic Barrier has been used rarely by WSDOT but is
considered to be adequate.
September 1992
8.3.3 - 1

Criteria
D. Available Retrofit Designs

1.
Washington Thrie Beam Retrofit of Concrete Balusters

This system consists of thrie beam guardrail stiffening of existing concrete baluster rails with
timber blockouts (see Figure 8.3.3-2). Southwest Research Institute conducted full-scale crash
tests of this retrofit in 1987. Results of the tests were satisfactory and complied with criteria for a
Performance Level 1 (PL1) category in the Guide Specifications. Bids over the last several years
have shown that this retrofit can be estimated at $25 per linear foot.
2.
Thru Truss Rail Retrofit

High priority is placed upon retrofitting thru truss span bridges, not only because of the possibility of serious injury accidents, but also because severe damage may occur to the main structural
elements of the bridge. Design details which accommodate a rigid guardrail system have been
developed. The design both alleviates the problems mentioned and provides redirectional capabilities (see Figures 8.3.3-3 through 8.3.3-8). The thrie beam and post system on the curb side are
designed for a 10 kip lateral load as described by AASHTO. The thrie beam and steel post on the
sidewalk side is the New York crash tested system as described in Section 8.3.2-C.
3.
New Jersey Traffic Barrier

This is our preferred treatment for replacing deficient rails and parapets on high volume
highways with a large truck percentage. All interstate highway bridges shall use this type (see
Figures 8.3.3-9 through 8.3.3-11).
8-3-3:V:BDM8
8.3.3 - 2
September 1992

Criteria
WSDOT Bridge Inventory Bridge Rail Types

Figure 8.3.3-1
September 1992
8.3.3 - 3

Criteria
Washington Thrie Beam

Figure 8.3.3-2
8.3.3 - 4
September 1992

Criteria
Rail Retrofit PL2 Thru Truss Span

Figure 8.3.3-3
September 1992
8.3.3 - 5

Criteria
Figure 8.3.3-4
8.3.3 - 6
September 1992

Criteria
Rail Retrofit PL2 Approach Span Thru Truss

Figure 8.3.3-5
September 1992
8.3.3 - 7

Criteria
Rail Retrofit Truss Span

Figure 8.3.3-6
8.3.3 - 8
September 1992

Criteria
Figure 8.3.3-7
September 1992
8.3.3 - 9

Criteria
Rail Retrofit Approach Spans

Figure 8.3.3-8
8.3.3 - 10
September 1992

Criteria
Typical Section Traffic Barrier Without Overhang

Figure 8.3.3-9
September 1992
8.3.3 - 11

Criteria
Typical Section Traffic Barrier With Overhang

Figure 8.3.3-10
8.3.3 - 12
September 1992

Criteria
Traffic Barrier Retrofit

Figure 8.3.3-11
September 1992
8.3.3 - 13

Criteria
8.3.4 - 1

Criteria
8.3.5
Utility Installation on Bridges

A. Confined Spaces
A confined space is any place having a limited means of exit which is subject to the accumulation of
toxic or flammable contaminants or an oxygen deficient environment. Confined spaces include but are
not limited to pontoons, box girder bridges, storage tanks, ventilation or exhaust ducts, utility vaults,
tunnels, pipelines, and open-topped spaces more than 4 feet in depth such as pits, tubes, vaults, and
vessels. The designer should provide for the following:
A sign with Confined Space Authorized Personnel Only.
In the Special Provisions Check List, alert and/or indicate that a special provision might be
needed to cover confined spaces.
B. Guidelines
The utilities which are to be considered under this guideline are power and telephone lines, natural
gas, volatile fluid pipes, water pipes, and sewer pipes. Each utility has its unique installation
problems.
Most utility installations will be initiated by the utility company or the district, and the Bridge
Management Section will review the design. In some cases, such as new projects, certain original
designs are done by the Bridge Division, such as hanger details for water lines.
The following subjects are covered below:
General Concepts
Criteria for Utilities Installation on New Bridges
special Considerations for Various Utilities
Type of Conduit
Types of Supports
Utility Review Procedure for Existing Bridges
Utility Review Checklist
C. General Concepts
On new construction, the utility installation shall be located so as to minimize the effect on the
appearance of the structure. In most cases, this will mean installing the utility between girders or in
curbs. Utilities and supports shall not normally extend below the bottom of the superstructure. When
the utility is located between girders, it shall be installed no lower than 1 foot 0 inches above the
bottom of the girders. In some cases when appurtenances are required (such as air release valves),
care should be taken to provide adequate space.
When the bridge is to receive pigmented sealer, consideration shall be given to painting any exposed
utility lines and hangers to match the bridge. When pigmented sealer is not required, steel utility lines
and hangers shall be painted or galvanized for corrosion protection. This special provisions shall specify cleaning and painting procedures.
On existing structures, proposed utility attachments are normally reviewed by the Bridge Management
Section and either approved or returned for correction. A current file for most utility attachments is
maintained in the Bridge Management Section. See Utility Review Procedure For Existing Bridges
and Utility Review Checklist (Sections 8.3.5G and 8.3.5H).
July 1994
8.3.5 - 1

Criteria
D. Criteria for Utilities Installation on New Bridges

1.
All pipelines carrying volatile fluids shall be encased throughout the length of the structure. A
sleeve approximately 3 inches larger than the outside diameter of the carrying pipe shall be used.
The space between the carrying pipe and the encasing sleeve shall be effectively vented beyond
the structure at each end and at high points.
2.
Utilities shall not be attached above the bridge deck nor attached to the railings or posts. They
may be placed in the concrete traffic barrier no higher than 16 inches above the top of the deck.
3.
Utilities shall not extend below the bottom of the superstructure.
4.
The utilities shall be provided with suitable expansion devices at bridge expansion joints or
expansion methods as required to prevent longitudinal temperature forces from being transferred
to bridge members. Longitudinal restraint may often be considered to be the bridge end fill. For
telephone and power conduit, this restraint may be considered to be the cable itself. Where long
runs of water pipe are used, care must be taken that expansion joints in the pipe are properly
spaced with longitudinal load-carrying supports.
5.
Rigid conduit shall extend 10 feet minimum beyond the ends of the structure in order to reduce
effects of embankment settlements on the utility and provide protection in case of future work
involving excavation near the structure. This requirement shall be stated on the plans. Utilities off
the bridge must be installed prior to paving of approaches. This should be stated in the Special
Provisions.
6.
Utility supports shall be designed so that neither the conduit, the supports, nor the bridge
structure or members are overstressed by any loads imposed by the utility installation.
Provide longitudinal and transverse support for loads from gravity, earthquakes, temperature,
inertia, etc. It is especially important to provide transverse and longitudinal support for Grinnell
inserts and other similar inserts which cannot resist moment.
7.
Utility locations and supports shall be designed so that a failure will not result in damage to the
bridge, the surrounding area, or be a hazard to traffic.
8.
All conduit shall be steel pipe or rigid PVC pipe.
*(Items 1 through 8 may be cross-referenced with Design Criteria of General Notes and Design
Criteria in Appendix A of this chapter or Chapter 1 Examples of the Utilities Manual.)
9.
Utilities installed in the cells of box girder bridges shall be embedded in concrete where
structurally and economically feasible. Where utilities, other than telephone and power conduit,
are not embedded in concrete, access shall be provided in each cell. Such access can be from
manholes in the shoulder of the roadway or in the sidewalk. Current practice for access to box
girder cells is to locate a hatch in the bottom of the box girder at the end piers. Where access is
provided into the cells, the Special Provisions must call for removal of the top slab formwork in
those cells.
10. Telephone and power conduit may be installed in the cells of box girder bridges without
provision for embedment or access provided that conduit is galvanized steel pipe, or Schedule
80 PVC rigid or heavier.
8.3.5 - 2
May 1995

Criteria
E. Special Considerations for Various Utilities

1.
Gas Lines or Volatile Fluids

Gas lines or lines carrying volatile fluids shall be of steel pipe (usually Schedule 40) designed in
accordance with CFR Part 192, Transportation of Natural and Other Gas by Pipeline: Minimum
Safety Standards (see WAC 480-93-010). Volatile fluids shall be encased in a steel encasement
pipe as noted in C Criteria. Gas lines are not required to be encased in a steel encasement pipe.
Contact the District Utilities Engineer for guidance on whether or not the utility uses encasement
pipe. If it does not, provide the transverse insert as if there will not be encasement and blockouts
in the structure as if they will be encasement (BDM 8.3.5-D). All gas lines shall be transversely
braced. District Utility Engineers shall be contact by the S&E (Specifications and Estimates)
office for additional design requirements that may be stipulated in the utility agreement. Normally, the utility will make provision to electrically insulate the gas line from its support. Lines
carrying other volatile materials shall be supported, as required by the utility, with due care taken
to protect the structure and traffic.
Access and ventilation shall always be provided in box girder cells containing gas lines.
2.
Water Lines
Water lines shall be galvanized steel pipe or ductile iron pipe. Where freezing may be
encountered, consideration should be given to the use of insulation on the pipe. Insulation shall
be jacketed and saddles shall be galvanized to avoid electrolysis.
Care shall be taken that all inertia loads due to dynamic action (water hammer, etc.) can be
properly carried. Transverse supports shall be provided for all water lines. Additional temporary
bracing will be required during pressure testing. The design loading of the temporary bracing
along with a note stating See Special Provisions shall be shown on the plans. Pressure test
loading force magnitude shall be obtained from District Utility Engineers by the S&E unit.
Fire control piping is a special case where unusual care must be taken to handle the inertial loads
and associated deflections. Normally, the Hydraulic Section will also be involved in this case.
In box girders, care shall be taken to ensure that a failure of the water line would not flood the
cell with an excess amount of water which may cause consequential structural failure of the
girder. Additional weep holes or open grating shall be used if necessary (see Figure 8.3.5-3).
3.
Sewer Lines
Normally, an appropriate encasement pipe is required for sewer lines on bridges. Sewer lines
must meet the same design criteria as waterlines. See the utility agreement or the Hydraulic
Section for types of sewer pipe material typically used.
4.
Telephone and Power Conduit

Generally, telephone, television cable, and power conduit shall be galvanized steel pipe or a PVC
pipe of a UL approved type and shall be Schedule 40 or heavier. Where such conduit is buried in
concrete curbs or barriers or has continuous support, such support is considered to be adequate.
Where conduit is supported by hangers or brackets at intervals, the distance between supports
shall be small enough to avoid excessive sag between supports (see PVC pipe in E below).
Generally, the conduit shall be designed to support the cable in bending without exceeding working stresses for the conduit material. When the conduit is intended to encase Department of
Transportation electrical wiring and is encased in concrete, only galvanized steel conduit shall be
used. Also, only galvanized steel conduits will be allowed in barriers when slipforming is
July 1994
8.3.5 - 3

Criteria
employed. Stub outs for galvanized steel pipe shall be protected against corrosion as stated in
subparagraph 5.
5.
Rigid Electrical Conduit for Highway Circuits

In the case of all new bridge construction where roadway shoulders have not yet been paved and
where usable shoulder width is 4 feet or greater in width, electrical conduit shall be stubbed-out
and capped 1 foot 6 inches below grade and 3 feet 0 inches horizontally toward roadway centerline from the face of the traffic barrier. Longitudinally, this stub-out location should be near the
back of pavement seat. The conduit in this location should clear any foreseeable obstructions. The
location of the stubbed-out conduit at bridge ends should be clearly shown on the plans. The
galvanized steel conduit stub out shall be wrapped with corrosion resistant tape at least one foot
inside and outside of the concrete structure, and this requirement shall be so stated on the plans.
The corrosion resistant tape shall be 3M Scotch 50, Bishop 5, Nashua AVI 10, or approved equal.
The usual location of the conduit throughout the remainder of the bridge should be in the traffic
barrier.
The number and size of conduits within the traffic barrier shall be minimized to assure proper
concrete consolidation. A maximum of one (1) 4-inch conduit or two (2) 2-inch conduits will be
allowed.
Pull boxes shall be provided at a maximum spacing of 200 feet. Their size shall conform to the
specifications of the National Electric Code or be a minimum of 6 inches by 6 inches by
18 inches to facilitate pulling of wires. Galvanized steel pull boxes (or junctions boxes)
shall meet the specifications of the NEMA Type 4X standard and shall be so stated on the plans.
Stainless steel pull boxes shall be allowed as an option to the galvanized steel.
In the case of existing bridges, an area 2 feet in width shall be reserved for conduit beginning at a
point either 4 feet or 6 feet outside the face of usable shoulder. The fastening for and location of
attaching the conduit to the existing bridge should be worked out on a job-by-job basis.
See Figure 8.3.5-1.
F. Type of Conduit
1.
Steel Pipe
All steel pipe conduits shall be Schedule 40 or greater. All pipe and fittings shall be galvanized
except for special uses.
2.
PVC Pipe
PVC pipe may be used with suitable considerations for deflection, the location and placement of
expansion fittings, and of freezing water within the conduits. Where conduit is to be exposed in
the cells of box girder bridges, PVC should be avoided because of the possibility of damage
occurring when the top slab falsework collapses. If such falsework is specified on the plans to be
removed after construction, this provision does not apply.
PVC pipe should not be placed in concrete traffic barriers due to damage and pipe separation that
often occurs during concrete placement and from temperature variations.
Where conduit is to be supported by hangers or pedestals at intervals, the distance between
supports shall be small enough to avoid excessive sag of the conduit. For recommended support
spacing and tabulated properties of PVC pipe, see Table 8.3.5-1.
8.3.5 - 4
July 1994

Criteria
3.
High Density Polyethylene

This material may be specified by some utilities. Unless other data is available, support as for
PVC. Same restrictions to traffic barriers apply.
4.
Fiberglass Pipe
This material may be specified by some utilities. Unless other data is available, support as for
PVC. Same restrictions to traffic barriers apply.
G. Types of Supports
The following types of supports have been used. Selection of a particular support type should be
based on the needs of the installation and the best economy.
1.
Concrete Embedment This is the best structural support condition and offers maximum
protection to the utility. Its cost may be high for larger conduit and the conduit cannot be
replaced. Special car must be taken to handle expansion joints.
2.
Continuous Support This support condition may be achieved by providing ledge of concrete
to support the conduit. In addition, some type of clamping will be required. The support condition
here is very good, but the cost may be very high.
3.
Concrete Pedestals This consists of concrete supports formed at suitable intervals and
provided with some type of clamping device.
4.
Pipe Hangers This is the most usual type of support for utilities to be supported under the
bridge deck. It allows the use of standard ordered parts (usually Grinnell) and is very flexible in
terms of expansion requirements. It will not normally provide longitudinal support*, and
transverse support must be provided by a second hanger extending from a girder or by placing
bracing against the girder.
*Support at every pipe joint longitudinal restraint of hangers may be necessary with the use of
Grinnell Universal Insert, Figure 282 or similar inserts.
5.
The Figures 8.3.5-2, 3, and 4 depict typical utility support installations and placement at
abutments and diaphragms.
H. Utility Review Procedure for Existing Bridges

It is the responsibility of the District Utilities Engineer to forward any proposed bridge attachments to
the Bridge Office. The Bridge Office is responsible for reviewing only those details pertaining to the
bridge crossing such as attachment details or trenching details adjacent to bridge piers or abutments.
The turnaround time for reviewing the proposals should not exceed two weeks; however, most attachments that have simple connections with epoxy anchors can be reviewed, stamped, and responded to
within one day. This is provided that corrections and additional notes are minimal.
The number of copies to be returned is determined by the district. Most districts send five copies of
the proposed utility attachment. We keep one copy and, if its been approved, return four marked
copies. If it has been returned for correction or not approved, we keep one and return two marked
copies. See the Utility Review Checklist below (Section 8.3.5H).
July 1994
8.3.5 - 5

Criteria
Conduit Location Beyond Bridge End

Figure 8.3.5-1
8.3.5 - 6
July 1994

Criteria
July 1994
8.3.5 - 7

Criteria
Occasionally, a utility company wants a conceptual approval of their proposed attachment before they
invest their time in detailed drawings and calculations. Often they will request this approval by sending a sketch of their proposal directly to the Bridge Office. We will usually respond directly to them
in a letter by concurring with their proposal or by suggesting an alternate. This letter includes instructions for them to resubmit their final proposal through the District Utilities Engineer with a courtesy
copy of this letter sent to the District Utilities Engineer.
Utility attachments which exert moments or large forces at the bridge connection should be accompanied by at least one set of calculations from the utility company. Bridge attachments designed to resist
surge forces should always be accompanied by calculations. The engineer may request calculations
from the utility company for any attachment detail that may be questionable.
The engineer shall check the utility companys design with his own calculations. The connection
detail shall be designed to successfully transfer all forces to the bridge without causing overstress in
the connections or to the bridge members to which they are attached. For large utilities, the bridge
itself shall have adequate capacity to carry the utility without affecting the live load capacity.
For more detailed guidelines, see General Notes and Design Criteria . . . and Guide for Utility
Installations to Existing Bridges in Appendix A of this chapter.
1.
Utility Review Checklist

(For review of all proposed utility attachments to existing bridges.)
1.
Do a cursory check to become familiar with the proposal.
2.
Determine location of existing utilities.
3.
a.
Check Bridge Inspection Report for any existing utilities (available in Bridge Conditions).
b.
Check utility file for any existing utility permits or franchises and possible as-built plans.
(Currently maintained in the Bridge Management Section.)
c.
Any existing utilities on the same side of the structure as the proposed utility should be
shown on the proposal.
d.
Obtain as-built plans from bridge vault if not in an existing utility file.
Review the following with all comments in red:

Layout with directions, SR no. and bridge no.
Adequate spacing of supports.
Adequate strength of supports as attached to the bridge (calculations may be necessary).
Maximum design pressure and regular operating pressure for pressure pipe systems.
Adequate lateral bracing and thrust protection for pressure pipe systems.
Does the utility obstruct maintenance or accessibility to key bridge components. Check with
the Bridge Condition Section if in doubt.
Location (elevation and plan view) of the utility with respect to pier footings or abutments. If
trench limits encroach within the 45 envelope from the footing edge, consult the Materials
Lab.
8.3.5 - 8
July 1994

Criteria
Figure 8.3.5-2
July 1994
8.3.5 - 9

Criteria
Figure 8.3.5-4
8.3.5 - 10
July 1994

Criteria
Force mains or water flow systems may require encasement if they are in excavations below
the bottom of a footing.
4.
Write a preliminary IDC or letter of reply for the supervisor to review before final typing. Upon
his approval, include your initials at the bottom of the IDC or letter so that a copy will be
returned to you indicating that the package has been accepted and sent out.
5.
Stamp and date the plans using the same date as shown on the IDC.
6.
Create a file folder:
7.
a.
Bridge no., name, utility company or type of utility, and franchise or permit number.
b.
One set of approved plans and possibly one or two pages of the original design plans if
necessary for quick future reference. (Previous transmittals and plans not approved or
returned to correction should be discarded to avoid unnecessary clutter of the files.)
c.
The letter of submittal and a copy of the IDC or letter of reply after it has been accepted.
Give the complete package to the section supervisor for review and place the folder in the utility
file after the review.
8-3-5:V:BDM8
July 1994
8.3.5 - 11

Criteria
8.4
Bridge Details
8.4.1
Expansion Joints
Bridge Details
Expansion joints or bridge deck joints are designed to accommodate cyclic and long-term structure
movements, to support and to provide smooth and quiet passage of traffic, to prevent water runoff from
damaging the supporting structural elements, and to have a long service life.
For new construction, the criteria shown below should be followed for expansion joints.
Steel Bridges:
Use L-Abutments with expansion joints at ends for multiple-span bridges.

Expansion joints may be eliminated for single span bridges with the approval
of the Bridge Design Engineer. Whenever the bridge skew exceeds 30 degrees,
consult the Expansion Joint Specialist and the Bridge Design Engineer for
recommendations and approval.
Note: The use of intermediate expansion joints should be avoided,
where possible.
All Concrete Bridges:
Use L-Abutments with expansion joints at ends when the bridge length exceeds 400 feet. Whenever the bridge skew exceeds 30 degrees, consult
the Expansion Joint Specialist and the Bridge Design Engineer for
recommendations and approval.
Note: The use of intermediate expansion joints should be avoided,
where possible.
Expansion joints are not normally designed for seismic movements. The assumption is that damage
will occur after a seismic event; and the joint will be repaired. If seismic isolation bearings are used,
the expansion joints must accommodate the seismic movement so that the bearings perform properly.
The following design, specification, and shop plan review criteria cover the bridge deck joint systems
most commonly used in Washington State.
A. Design
Bridge deck joints are classified as small, medium, or large movement joints. The total movement
to be accommodated at the joint determines the classification:
Small Movement Joint
Medium Movement Joint
Large Movement Joint
1.
Total Movement
1 /4 < Total Movement
5 < Total Movement
3
13/4
5
Small Movement Joints

Compression seals have most frequently been used for small movement range joints.
Compression seals are continuous preformed elastomeric sections, typically with extruded
internal web systems, installed within an expansion joint gap to effectively seal the joint against
water and debris infiltration. Compression seals are held in place by mobilizing friction against
adjacent vertical joint faces. Hence, design philosophy requires that they be sized and installed
to always be in a state of compression.
Silicone sealant joints and asphalt plug joints have both been used as alternatives to compression
seals in recent years, particularly on rehabilitation projects. This office is continuing to monitor
these systems in order to assess their long term performance. Consult the Expansion Joint
Specialist for the current design policy on each of these systems.
August 1998
8.4.1-1

Criteria
Bridge Details
An asphaltic plug joint consists of polymer modified asphalt (PMA) installed within a blockout
over a steel plate. The steel plate spans across the expansion gap to retain the PMA during its
installation. In theory, asphaltic plug joints provide a smooth seamless riding surface for traffic.
This office has used asphaltic plug joints for motion ranges up to 1 inch.
Application guidelines must be carefully followed to assure successful performance of asphaltic
plug joints. They should not be used at joints subjected to differential vertical movements (for
example, longitudinal separation joints). They should not be used for joints having large skew
angles, joints subjected to large rotations, or in situations where the total height of the polymer
modified asphalt above the steel plate is less than 2 inches. The PMA has a tendency to creep
out of the blockout, particularly within wheel lines. This tendency is amplified by any horizontal
loading applied to the asphaltic plug joint. Therefore, asphaltic plug joints should not be used in
situations where the adjacent pavement is subjected to significant acceleration or deceleration
(off ramps, traffic signals). Overall, asphaltic plug joints have demonstrated erratic performance
in Washington State. Consult the Expansion Joint Specialist for current policy and guidelines.
Silicone sealants are generally poured in place directly over a foam backer rod placed in the
expansion gap. A primer may be sprayed onto the vertical faces of the concrete or steel substrate
to enhance bonding of the sealant. Several different chemical variations of silicone sealant are
available depending upon the joint geometry and construction requirements. The primary
differentiating characteristics of the silicone sealants are viscosity and curing time. A commonly
used silicone sealant for rehabilitation projects is the two-part Dow Corning 902 RCS sealant.
This product is self leveling, can bond to itself, and cures very quickly. In situations were the
rapid curing and self leveling properties are not required, less expensive silicone sealants can be
used. The completely cured silicone sealant joint can accommodate tensile movements of up to
100 percent and compressive movements of up to 50 percent of the sealant width at installation.
This office has used silicone sealant joints for motion ranges up to 1 inch. A minimum recess is
required from the top of the pavement to the top of the silicone sealant in order to prevent tire
traffic from contacting and debonding the sealant from the substrate. Consult the Expansion
Joint Specialist for guidelines and example details.
Polymer concrete headers are generally recommended at compression seal joints and at silicone
sealant joints. Polymer concrete provides tensile strength and toughness to resist traffic impact.
Generic and proprietary polymer concrete formulations are available. Proprietary elastomeric
concretes are occasionally used in lieu of polymer concrete to further enhance impact resistance.
Consult the Expansion Joint Specialist regarding patent infringement issues which may result
when generic polymer concrete is used in combination with a Dow Corning silicone sealant.
a.
Design Criteria
(1) When more exact temperature data is not available, use the following design
temperature ranges:
Concrete Structure
Steel Structures (Eastern Washington)
Steel Structures (Western Washington)
0 to 100F
-30 to 120F
0 to 120F
All plan dimensions are based on a normal installation temperature of 64F in

accordance with the WSDOT Standard Specifications.
8.4.1-2
August 1998

Criteria
Bridge Details
(2) Use a shrinkage coefficient 0.0002 for normal weight concrete. The calculated shrinkage
is multiplied by a shrinkage factor, , to account for anticipated future shrinkage that
occurs after the joint is installed.
b.
Compression Seal Size Determination

To function properly, seals must be compressed at all times, otherwise they will fall out.
Generally, the compression range for bridge compression seals is 40 to 85 percent of
the uncompressed width. All movement of the joint must be within this range. It is
recommended that compression seals not be used when the skew exceeds 45 degrees.
To determine the compression seal size (W) required, proceed as follows:
(1) Determine the total movement, Mt, along the bridge centerline:
Mt = Temp + Shrink + Other Movement = Total Movement
(1)
where:
Temp = 12 L T
Shrink = 12 L ,
Other Movement includes all other factors which affect movement.
= Coefficient of thermal expansion: 0.000006 per degree Fahrenheit
for concrete 0.0000065 per degree Fahrenheit for steel
= Shrinkage coefficient for reinforced concrete: 0.0002 ft/ft
= Shrinkage factor: 1.0 for Rat slabs, 0.8 for box girders and T-beams,
0.5 for prestressed-precast girder bridges, and 0.0 for steel bridges
L = Length of structure contributing to movement of the joint in feet
T = Design temperature range
(2) Determine movements parallel to the joint, Mp, and normal to the joint, Mn
(Figure 8.4.1-1):
Mp = Mt Sin
(Movement parallel to the joint)
(2)
Mn = Mt Cos
(Movement normal to the joint)
(3)
where: = skew angle

(3) Define the working range of joint width, A, in terms of required uncompressed seal
width, W:
Width of joint opening, A, shall be:
A min = 0.4W = maximum compression of 40%
(4)
A max = 0.85W = minimum compression of 85%
A movement = 0.85W - 0.4W = 0.45W = movement range
normal lo the seal
February 2000
(5)
(6)
8.4.1-3

Criteria
Bridge Details
Skewed Expansion Joint

Figure 8.4.1-1
Assume a minimum midrange installation width at 64F:
A install = 0.6W
(7)
(4) Determine required compression seal size, W:

Seal width to accommodate movement parallel to the joint, Mp:
W = Mp/0.22
(8)
Seal width to accommodate movement normal to the joint, Mn:

W = Mn/0.45
(9)
Assume the seal is installed at a temperature of 64F and the joint opening at installation
plus the total opening movement does not exceed the maximum permitted joint opening
(0.85W):
A max = A install + Cos [K(Temp) + Shrink + Other Movement]
where:
(10)
K = Temperature drop divided by temperature range:

0.64 (64 to 0F) for concrete bridges,
0.53 (64 to 0F) for western Washington steel bridges, and
0.63 (64 to -30F) for eastern Washington steel bridges.
Temp = Temperature movement previously defined.
Shrink = Shrinkage movement previously defined.
Substituting Eqs. (5) and (7) into (10), and solving for W yields the following formula:
W = 4(Cos )[K(Temp) + Shrink + Other Movement]
(11)
Use a seal size based on the largest value of W from Eqs. (8), (9) and (11).
8.4.1-4
August 1998

Criteria
Bridge Details
(5) Determine width of joint opening at time of construction, A const:

A const = 0.6(W) + Cos [12(L)](64F - Tc)
where:
(12)
Tc = Ambient air temperature during construction of joint,

in degrees Fahrenheit.
(6) When the computed seal size required exceeds the maximum seal widths noted in the
Compression Seal table (see Appendix 8.4-A1), a joint providing greater movement
capacity is required.
(7) See Appendix 8.4-B I for example.
2.
Medium Movement Joints

Strip seals are the first choice for joint movements greater than 13/4 inch and less than 5 inch.
Strip seals are available in whole inch sizes from 2 inches to 5 inches, with 3 inches and 4 inches
as the most widely used.
a.
Design Criteria
(1) In addition to the design criteria for small movement joints, all factors which affect
movements, including rotations, should be considered in dimensioning the joint. These
include: creep, shrinkage, stage construction, construction tolerances, temperature range,
bearing type and direction(s) of permitted movements, skew, and external restraints.
(2) Earthquake movement need not be considered for medium movement joints except
when required for structure performance. For example, when using base isolation
bearings, the superstructure must be allowed to displace without hitting the backwall.
So, to ensure proper functioning of the bearings, a larger size joint than normal may
be required.
(3) When designing for existing joint rehabilitation or joint modifications, the designer
should review as-built plans, past inspection reports for recorded joint movements, and
measure the existing joint opening at several locations (note the structure temperature
when taking field measurements).
(4) Joints with 0 to 30 degree skew should be designed for the movement along the
centerline of the bridge. For skews greater than 30 degrees, consult the Joint Specialist.
The skew angle can influence strip seal performance. At large skews, large size strip
seals can buckle and invert above the top surface of the steel edge rails. Therefore, a
system which provides the most movement capacity at a 0 degree skew angle may not
always provide the most movement capacity at greater skew angles.
(5) The preferred maximum allowable opening, measured in the direction of traffic, for
medium movement expansion joints is 4 inches. This maximum limitation improves the
ride, reduces impact, and reduces the hazard to motorcyclists and bicyclists. The use of
any medium movement joint with an opening greater than 4 inches must be approved by
the Joint Specialist.
(6) Adjustment of the joint to compensate for the temperature at time of installation must be
allowed. Generally, ambient air temperatures, taken in the shade, are used in adjusting
the joint at the time of installation.
August 1998
8.4.1-5

Criteria
Bridge Details
To facilitate installation of the seals, size the joint and position the edge beams so that
the joint opening, normal to the joint, is equal to the minimum installation width at
64F. The seal can now be installed at any temperature below 64F. Generally, all
strip seals have a minimum installation width of 11/2 inch normal to the joint.
(7) Use only steel shapes, plates, reinforcement, and anchors in edge beams. No aluminum
parts shall be permitted.
(8) Use continuous seals for the full width of the bridge including parapets. No splices in
the seals other than one preapproved manufacturers shop vulcanized field splice per
seal is permitted. No welding of shipping clamps, lifting straps, hooks, or temperature
adjusting devices shall be permitted. Temporary threaded studs, used for positioning
and securing the edge beams during placement of concrete in the blockout, may be
tack welded to the edge beams and removed later by grinding.
(9) Carefully detail joints at sidewalks and parapets with respect to leakage, constructibility,
and maintenance. If required by the manufacturer, strip seal extrusions may be split at
the curb or traffic barrier. Do not use steel shapes with horizontal projecting legs in the
curb or barrier region. Steel sliding plates shall be used in sidewalk areas to prevent
seal damage.
(10) Many anchorage systems of bridge joints in the medium movement range have failed
because of high impact from wheel loads. These dynamic impact loads can be as much
as 70 percent greater than a static wheel load. For an HS25 vehicle, the maximum
static wheel load is 20 kips per wheel without impact (1.25 times 16 kips per wheel).
Anchorage systems must resist the rebound effect of the impact wheel loads.
(11) Bolt-down panel elastomeric joints were widely used in the past. When the bolts holding
the panel failed, the panel was no longer restrained and a safety hazard to motorists
(particularly to motorcyclists) was created because of the loose panel in the roadway.
In addition to continued maintenance because of loose hold down bolts, these joints
were subject to snowplow damage. Do not use bolt-down elastomeric expansion joints.
b.
Strip Seal Size Determination

(1) Starting with a temperature of 64F, calculate the total opening movement, using the
length of the bridge along centerline, due to:
(a) Temperature
64F to 0F for concrete superstructures, and
64F to either 0F or -30F for steel superstructure.
(b) Shrinkage
Use a shrinkage coefficient of 0.0002 for normal weight concrete and a shrinkage
factor, pL, to account for anticipated future shrinkage that occurs after the joint is
installed. Shrinkage is not required for rehabilitation projects where shrinkage of
the superstructure has already taken place.
(2) Starting with a temperature of 64F, calculate the total closing movement, along the
bridge centerline, due to:
8.4.1-6
August 1998

Criteria
Bridge Details
(a) Temperature
64F to 100F, for concrete superstructures, and
64F to 120F for steel superstructure.
(b) Minimum Opening Required for Seal Installation at 64F
For calculation purposes, strip seal joints have been classified as either Group 1 or
Group 2 (see Appendix 8.4-A1).
A Group 1 joint requires a 1/2 inch gap between steel supporting elements at full
closure so the seal is not damaged. The minimum opening normal to the joint is
1 inch (e.g., minimum installation width less 1/2 inch minimum gap equals 1 inch).
A Group 2 joint permits full closure between steel supporting elements. Generally,
Group 2 joints use a 11/2 inch minimum opening normal to the joint.
(3) Determine the required strip seal size by adding the total opening movement and the
larger of either the total closing movement or the minimum installation width.
(4) Determine the G dimension at time of edge beam installation
Show the construction width, G, at time of edge beam installation for temperatures
of 40F, 64F, and 80F. Note that the G dimension is normal to the joint and is
measured from face-to-face of edge beams. This helps the Contractor adjust the edge
beams during construction at different temperatures.
(5) See Appendixes 8.4-B2 through 8.4-B4 for typical design calculations.
3.
Large Movement Joints Modulas Expansion Joints

Modular joints are the first choice for movements greater than 5 inches. See the Expansion Joint
Specialist for approved manufacturers and latest plan details.
a.
Design Criteria
(1) Where applicable, the Design Criteria for medium movement joints applies to large
movement joints where the total movement is expected to exceed 5 inches.
(2) All seals must be continuous across the full roadway width, including curb and traffic
barriers. The entire joint shall be shipped completely preassembled to the job site. No
splices in the seals other than one preapproved manufacturers shop vulcanized splice
per seal is permitted.
(3) The expansion joint system must be durable enough to resist the damaging effects of
traffic impact, abrasion, and snowplow damage.
(4) Joints should be designed for the total movement normal to the joint (e.g., the product
of the total movement along the centerline of the bridge and the cosine of the skew
angle) plus a 15 percent factor of safety, which allows for unpredictable non-seismic
movements. Try to avoid skews greater than 30 degrees for modular expansion joints.
(5) The movement allowed per sealing element shall be limited to 3 inch maximum. The
maximum gap between centerbeams or centerbeam and edge beams is 31/2 inches at the
minimum temperature condition. The purpose of limiting the gap is to reduce the wheel
impact on the joint system and subsequent wear on supporting elements.
August 1998
8.4.1-7

Criteria
Bridge Details
(6) All supporting structural members shall be designed for the limit states, wheel loads,
impact percentages, and distribution factors specified in the Special Provision Modular
Expansion Joint System. These requirements are derived from research summarized in
NCHRP Report 402 Fatigue Design of Modular Bridge Expansion Joints, National
Academy Press, Washington, D.C., 1997.
(7) In the past, box seals were used; the current practice is to use factory installed strip
seals. Consideration should be given to using reinforced strip seals.
(8) To allow for replacement of damaged seals or seal installation under stage construction,
all seals shall be removable and replaceable at 64F per manufacturers recommended
procedure. Generally, this is accomplished by jacking the center beams apart or to one
side. This creates a larger gap between center beams for seal removal and reinstallation.
For retrofit or stage construction applications, this procedure may be both time
consuming and expensive. It may be more convenient to oversize the joint so that the
seals can be installed at the minimum manufacturers installation width at 64F. The
designer should work closely with his Supervisor and the Expansion Joint Specialist
to determine the best solution considering the time constraints of stage construction
and increased cost.
(9) Access to the modular expansion joint components shall be provided so that repairs,
adjustments, and replacement of components can be made.
(10) Only manufacturers who have satisfied the prequalification requirements stipulated in
the Special Provisions Modular Expansion Joint System will be permitted to supply
modular expansion joints. This Special Provision includes requirements for fatigue
resistance characterization, testing, and design.
(11) Traffic barrier cover plates should be designed for removability.
b.
Modular Expansion Joint Size Determination

Modular joints are sized according to movement rating (MR) and are in increments of
3 inches beginning with a 6-inch modular system. The movement rating is equal to the
product of the number of seals and the 3 inch maximum allowable movement rating of each
seal. For example, a three seal modular joint with three strip seals, each with a maximum
allowable movement rating of 3 inches, has a total movement rating of 9 inches.
(1) G Dimension and Temperature Setting
The G dimension, face-to-face of edge beams, helps the Contractor adjust the joint
assembly in the field for different temperatures. This dimension is normal to the joint
and is dependent upon two variables:
(a) Flange width of center beams.
(b) Minimum gap per seal permitted by the manufacturer at full closure.
Therefore, Gmin and Gmax can be determined from:
Gmin = (N-l)(B) + (N)(MG)
Gmax = Gmin + MR
8.4.1-8
(13)
(14)
August 1998

Criteria
Bridge Details
where:
B
MR
N
N-1
MG
MS
=
=
=
=
=
=
Center beam flange width

Total movement rating of the joint system
Number of seals = MR/MS
Number of center beams
Minimum gap per seal permitted at full closure
Maximum permitted movement rating per seal = 3 inch maximum
In addition to the Gmin and Gmax dimensions, G dimensions should be shown for
structure temperatures of 40F, 64F, and 80F following the same procedure as used
for strip seals. These dimensions are normal to the joint. For large movement joints,
in concrete bridges, consideration should be given to using structure temperatures in
determining construction openings at 40F, 64F, and 80F, because of the time lag
between ambient air temperature and structure temperature. For long span bridges,
where temperature is not constantly monitored as part of the construction procedure,
temperature movements require more attention. Consideration should be given to using
a two- or three-day running mean temperature for setting joints during construction.
(2) Generally, large movement joints are not designed for earthquake movements. It is felt
that the joint will suffer damage in a seismic event and have to be rebuilt. However,
consideration may be given to accommodating some earthquake movement. The
designer should work closely with his Supervisor and the Expansion Joint Specialist
to determine the best combination of cost versus design movement.
(3) See Appendixes 8.4-B5 through 8.4-B8 for typical design calculations.
4.
Large Movement JointsSteel Finger Joints

Prior to the development of watertight modular joints, finger joints were used to accommodate
large movements. However, these joints do not provide a watertight seal and are not currently
being specified. Consult the Joint Specialist before selecting this type of joint.
These joints are open-type, either cantilever or propped cantilever steel tooth plates. The tooth
plates can be cut from a plate l1/2 inch thick for movements up to 5 inches, but for larger movements, it is preferable for tooth plates to be cast or fabricated by welding. The teeth should have
adequate transverse and longitudinal stiffness to avoid chatter under traffic. The design should
also accommodate differential deflection, rotation, or settlement across the joint. The steel
fingers should have the top surface parallel to the roadway grade, but tapered downward slightly
to prevent snowplow damage. The steel fingers should also be stress relieved to prevent warping.
Additional requirements suggested by the FHWA include:
(a) Limit deck surface openings in finger joints to permit safe operation of motorcycles.
(b) Where narrow bicycle tires are anticipated, use special floor plates in the shoulder area.
(c) Limit the minimum joint opening in the longitudinal direction to 1 inch.
(d) At the maximum joint opening, the teeth should overlap at least 2 inches.
(e) Elastomeric troughs should be provided under the joint to protect the structure below.
Reinforced elastomeric material for troughs should have a low durometer (50 or 60) and
be at least 3/8 inch thick. The troughs should be continuous across the full width of the
bridge including the curb and parapet area and sloped at least 1 inch per foot to prevent
August 1998
8.4.1-9

Criteria
Bridge Details
sedimentation. However, the slope may vary depending on the expected rainfall and debris at
each location. The troughs should be attached in a secure manner with a minimum of 5/8-inch
diameter bolts at 18-inch centers.
The designer should avoid specifying finger joints for new construction. However, they may
be needed where snowplow use is extensive or where widening of an existing structure
precludes the use of any other joint system.
B. Specifications for Bridge Deck Joints
Bridge deck joints shall be specified as follows:
1.
Specify only approved manufacturers that provide good field performance and service. Do not
specify or an approved equal.
2.
A single manufacturer (sole source) may be specified if the designer determines that their system
is the only one that can satisfy the design criteria. Furnish justification to the Specifications
Section and check with the Joint Specialist. Approval will have to be obtained from the FHWA
by the Bridge Design Engineer before a sole source can be specified.
3.
Specify quality assurance requirements, material specifications, design requirements, fabrication

requirements (e.g., welding, personnel requirements, inspection, testing), acceptance criteria,
corrosion protection, and payment.
4.
Specify that the manufacturers of modular joints or finger joints, be certified under the AISC
Quality Certification Program (Simple Steel Bridges). For all joints, specify that welding
inspection shall be done by certified welding inspectors under AWS QC1, Standard for
Qualification and Certification of Welding Inspectors. Personnel performing nondestructive
testing (NDT) shall be certified as NDT Level II under the American Society for Nondestructive
Testing (ASNT) Recommended Practice SNT-TC-1a.
C. Reviewing Shop Plans

1.
8.4.1-10
Review the shop plans to ensure that they conform with the Contract Plans and Special
Provisions regarding the following information
a.
Plan and elevation of the joint.
b.
Complete details of all components and sections showing all materials incorporated in
the joint.
c.
All AASHTO or other material designation and method of corrosion protection.
d.
Movement rating. HS 25 live loading plus impact. Behavior on skew, if present.
e.
Opening dimensions at 40F, 64F, and 80F for setting the joint. Note on the shop plans
whether these temperatures are structure temperatures or ambient air temperatures taken
in the shade.
f.
Installation procedures, including any required services by a manufacturers field

representative.
g.
Consideration of weld details in areas of stress concentration, welding procedures to

include pre- and post-heat, and methods proposed by the manufacturer to prevent weld
induced cracks.
August 1998

Criteria
Bridge Details
h.
Prohibition of temporary lifting, temperature, and construction adjustment devices that are
welded to the centerbeams or edge beams, except for threaded studs used to support strip
seal joints. Threaded studs should be removed by grinding and an appropriate corrosion
protection system applied to the steel affected by grinding.
i.
Manufacturers part numbers, so replacement parts can be easily identified and ordered.
j.
Anchorage details, blockout size to facilitate placement of concrete, method of support

during placement of deck concrete, and all blockout reinforcing steel.
k.
Treatment of curbs, sidewalks, parapets, and traffic barriers (to include the non-traffic side)
with respect to leakage and maintenance.
1.
Ease of removal and handling of traffic barrier cover plates by two persons without special
lifting equipment.
m. Minimum radii permitted by the AISC for cold bending steel traffic barrier cover plates.
n.
2.
Design calculations for all structural elements of modular expansion joints. All calculations
shall satisfy the requirements of the Special Provision Modular Expansion Joint System.
See the Expansion Joint Specialist for sample calculations.
Provide the following information to the Expansion Joint Specialist for performance tracking and
maintenance purposes:
a.
Contract Number/Bridge Number.
b.
Location.
c.
Manufacturer.
d.
Type of Joint.
e.
Type of Extrusion/Steel Shape Designation.
f.
Seal Size/Manufacturers Designation.
g.
Approved By/Date Approved.
D. Other Considerations
1.
Maintenance
During design, consideration should be given to maintenance of the joints. For large movement
joints, parts availability, replaceability, and access provisions should be considered. The designer
should consult with the Expansion Joint Specialist on the maintenance and durability of the
modular joints.
2.
Widening and Rehabilitation of Bridges

a.
For the rehabilitation of bridges, existing joints and structure layout should be studied
to determine if existing joints can be eliminated. It will be necessary to determine what
modifications to the structure are required to provide an adequate and functional system
when existing joints are eliminated.
b.
Consideration should be given to proper anchorage of edge beams for wheel impact loads.
P:DP/BDM8
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August 1998
8.4.1-11

Criteria
8.4.2
Bridge Details
Drainage Design
A. General
Even though it is rare that poor drainage is directly responsible for a structural failure, it still must
be a primary consideration in the design. Poor drainage can cause problems such as ponding on the
roadway, erosion of abutments, and deterioration of structural members. Most of the problems can be
prevented by collecting the runoff and transporting it away from the bridge. Proper geometrics during
the preliminary stage is essential in order to accomplish this. The Hydraulics Section recommends
placing the bridge deck drainage off of the structure. So the Bridge Design Section has adopted the
policy that all expansion joints will be watertight.
B. Geometrics
Bridges should have adequate transverse and longitudinal slopes to allow the water to run quickly
to the drains. A transverse slope of .02/ft. and longitudinal slope of 0.5 percent for minimum valves
are adequate. Avoid placing sag vertical curves and superelevation crossovers on the structure which
could result in hydroplaning conditions or, in cold climates, sheets of ice from melting snow. The use
of unsymmetrical vertical curves may assist the designer in shifting the low point off the structure.
C. Hydrology
Hydrological calculations are made using the rational equation. A 10-year storm event with a
5-minute duration is the intensity used for all inlets except for sag vertical curves where a 50-year
storm intensity is required.
D. On Bridge Systems
In some cases, such as box girder structures, a bridge drainage system is required for the structure.
The first selection is to place 5-inch diameter pipe drains which have no bars and drop straight to
the ground. At other times, such as for steel structures, the straight drop drain is unacceptable and a
piping system with bridge drains (see appendix) is required. The minimum piping diameter should
be 6 inches with no sharp bends within the system.
E. Construction
Bridge decks have a striated finish in accordance with the Standard Specifications listed below,
however, the gutters have an untextured finish (steel trowel) for a distance of 2 feet from the curb.
This untextured area provides for smooth gutter flow and a Manning n value of .015 in the design.
Standard Specification Section 6-02.3(10) Bridge Decks
Standard Specification Section 5-05.3(11) Approach Slabs
P:DP/BDM8
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August 1998
8.4.2-1

Criteria
8.4.2-2
Bridge Details
August 1998

Criteria
8.4.3
Bridge Details
Bridge Bearings
A. Purpose
The purpose of a bridge bearing is to support the superstructure at a constant elevation, to carry all
forces from the superstructure into the substructure, and to allow necessary superstructure movements
to take place.
B. Forces to Be Resisted
Bridge bearing reactions can come from any of the forces associated with bridge loadings. These
forces can be combined into the basic loading vectors described below.
1.
Vertical Force
This force can be considered to act directly through the center of the bearings. It is normally
made up of dead load and live load. This force is resisted by bearing against the concrete of
the pier cap at the reduced stress values specified in AASHTO design specifications for
such bearing.
2.
Transverse Force
This force acts normal to the centerline of the bridge in a horizontal direction at the top of the
bearing. It is made up of wind, earthquake, and other horizontal forces, and must be resisted
by keys, anchor bolts, pintles, or other suitable means. In some cases, girder stops may be used
to resist this force, in which case the bearing itself need not resist it. Friction on the stop may
require a stop bearing. The transverse force will develop a moment within the bearing itself,
which is equal to the product of the force times the height of the bearing. This moment may
be significant for tall bearings and should be included in the analysis. For stop bearings,
see Section 8.4.3D5.e.
3.
Longitudinal Force
This is any horizontal force acting parallel to the centerline of the bridge, including thermal
motion forces and forces due to concrete shrinkage. Longitudinal forces generally will not be
developed in an expansion bearing. Curved bridges require special consideration. Expansion
bearings may, however, develop significant longitudinal forces due Lo sliding or rolling friction,
shear deformation forces in neoprene bearings, and so forth. Where thcse forces may exist, they
must be accounted for in the design.
4.
Uplift Forces
With the exception of elastomeric pads, usual bearings shall be designed for uplift forces due
to earthquake in an amount equal to 10 percent of the vertical dead load reaction of the
superstructure.
5.
Other Forces
Bending moments in each of the three planes may be developed by a particular structure.
The resulting forces induced in the bearings should be considered and accounted for in the
design when they are significant.
August 1998
8.4.3-1

Criteria
Bridge Details
C. Movements
Allowance must be provided in the design of each structure for all anticipated movements. Normally
these movements will be primarily in the longitudinal direction. For extremely wide structures,
transverse movements may also be significant. The following material provides guidance for design.
1.
Temperature
Expansion and contraction due to temperature change will occur throughout the life of the
structure. Proper temperature expansion provisions are essential to ensure that the structure will
not be damaged by restricting such movements Where these movements are restrained due to
poor design or construction, extremely high forces may be imposed on other portions of the
structure. It should be noted for setting bearings that the mean annual temperature throughout the
state of Washington is approximately 50. Standard construction specifications specify a normal temperature of 64, which is the temperature at which it is assumed steel will be fabricated,
expansion joints and bearings set, etc. This means that the plan dimensions are taken to be correct
at 64. Except for elastomeric bearings, bearing setting dimensions should be shown on the plans
for a range of temperatures other than 64. Figure 8.4.3C1-1 gives additional temperature data for
specific areas. The National Weather Service has information on other areas.
30-Year Extreme Temperatures
Olympia
Spokane
Yakima
High
Low
100
108
110
-7
-25
-25
Mean Annual Temperature

Olympia
Spokane
50 1
47.3
Typical Temperature Ranges in Washington

Figure 8.4.3C1-1
October 1975
a.
Steel Structures
In the absence of more exact temperature data, use the following design temperature ranges:
Eastern Washington:
Western Washington:
-30 to 120F
0 to 120F
Center bearings at 50F. Specify bearing setting temperatures about a mean construction
temperature of 64F.
b.
Concrete Structures
Concrete structures possess more thermal mass than steel structures. Consequently, the
temperature extremes to which they are exposed are less than those of steel structures. In
the absence of more exact temperature data, design temperatures for concrete structures
throughout Washington State shall be assured to range from 0 to 100F.
8.4.3-2
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Criteria
Bridge Details
Sample Temperature versus Motion Graph for a Concrete Box Girder Bridge
Figure 8.4.3Clb-l
October 1975
2.
Shrinkage
All concrete tends to shrink during curing unless special additives are used. See 5.1.1A. The
design of bearing elements shall accommodate this shrinkage movement. If the calculated
movements are significant, bearings for concrete structures (except elastomeric bearings) should
be installed in the direction of the hot position (opposite to anticipated shrinkage) in order to
be in the normal position after shrinkage has taken full effect. Such adjustment must be shown
on the plans.
3.
Creep
In certain structures, creep associated with applied loads must be taken into account in the
bearing details. This is particularly true for post-tensioned bridges where the prestressing force
will cause an immediate clastic shortening of the structure and an associated long-term creep
effect. On very unusual structures, this effect could result from dead load sidesway forces.
Similar to the adjustment for shrinkage, bearings should be designed and installed to compensate
for this effect.
August 1998
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Criteria
4.
Bridge Details
Earth Pressure
In several structures which have been designed and constructed, unanticipated earth pressure
movements have resulted in tilted rocker bearings, closed expansion joints, and jammed joint
openings. Where it is anticipated that such action may occur, bearings should be designed so
that they can be readjusted in position, if necessary, to account for such motions. Similar action
should be considered where settlements may cause bearing misalignment. Consideration should
be given to providing jacking pads to minimize the labor involved in making such adjustments.
In any case, bearings should be designed so that if these motions occur, they will not result in
damage to the structure.
5.
Force/Motion Combinations
In the process Of bearing design, the question often arises as to what position of the bearing to
assume for design. Usually the bearing will be designed in the normal position for dead load
and live load. Design will include an analysis of bearing elements at high and low temperature
positions utilizing the load factors normally associated with those temperature conditions.
Similar procedures should be used for other motion conditions.
6.
Replacement Considerations
Whenever possible, bearings shall be detailed, fabricated, and installed to facilitate inspection,
maintenance, and eventual replacement if required. Jacking points shall be identified on the
contract drawings so that bearings can be reset, replumbed, or replaced to mitigate construction
induced displacement.
7.
Construction Tolerances
Care should be taken that the design includes adequate construction tolerance for setting
bearings.
D. Bearing Details
The following are some specific design criteria with discussion for various bearing types and details
(see Figure 8.4.3C-1).
1.
Fixed Bearings
The bearings are called fixed because they do not allow longitudinal motion. They are normally not fixed in the static sense but are actually pinned, in that they allow rotational motion
in the longitudinal direction (see Figure 8.4.3C-1). Base plate pressures on the concrete are
governed by AASHTO Specifications. Bending stress in the base plate of all steel bearings shall
normally not exceed 24,000 psi in order to avoid use of thin plates and the resultant concentration
of loads due to flexural distortions of the plate. Higher plate stresses may be allowed if a more
rigorous analysis is used. The body of the bearing is normally cast steel or a weldment. Normally, castings will be specified only where the bearings will be duplicated several times due
to the high cost of the pattern.
Forces in the longitudinal direction are assumed to act through the center of the pin, and the
moment applied to the base plate is the horizontal force times h. Forces in the transverse direction (along the axis of the pin) may be assumed to act on the bearing in double bending. That is,
the moment applied to the base and to the pin along its length is equal to the force times h/2. The
base plate must be capable of transmitting the horizontal forces to the concrete through positive
8.4.3-4
August 1998

Criteria
Bridge Details
means. This may include anchor bolts, shear lugs, or other suitable devices. Normally, friction
alone will not be considered to be adequate. Webs of the body of the bearing will be designed
taking into account the minimum thickness requirements for steel plates.
Bearing Details
Figure 8.4.3C-l
October 1975
2.
Rocker Bearings
These bearings are intended to allow the end of the structure to move longitudinally along a
horizontal line. They are usually used for movable bearings supporting very large loads. The base
plate of these and of all movable bearings shall be placed level in order to avoid the tendency for
the bridge to move down slope. AASHTO equations are used to select an appropriate line bearing
value and a dimension for the rocker radius. Sufficient clearance must be maintained between the
edges of the top and bottom bearing blocks to allow the bearing to rotate freely at the extremes
of motion. Pintles are always used with thcse bearings to prevent walking of the rocker on the
base plate and to resist transverse horizontal forces. The line bearing force values should be
based on a net contact length, deducting the pintle widths.
The line bearing values should take into account the increase in line pressure due to transverse
loads when the loading combination being considered contains such loads. Moment at the
bearing line of the rocker due to transverse loads can be developed using assumptions similar to
those noted for fixed bearings. Base plate design consists of selecting a plate thickness to satisfy
the strength requirements shown in Figure 8.4.3C-1. The strength of the plate ends beyond the
end of the rocker may require additional investigation. Provision must be made to hold down the
rocker to the base plate for earthquake uplift requirements. The designer should be aware of the
longitudinal horizontal force which may be developed through pin friction. That force is equal to
P w/R, where u is the steel friction coefficient (could be taken as 0.7 for the dry static condition),
P the load, and r and R the radius of the pin and rocker respectively.
Other design provisions are similar to those for fixed bearings.
August 1998
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Criteria
3.
Bridge Details
Roller Bearings
These bearings are simpler than rocker bearings, but due to the smaller radius are suitable for
carrying only moderate loads. These bearings are limited to a maximum of about 7 inches in
roller size due to availability of bar stock. They are normally made from finished roller stock,
but may be manufactured from thick plates (see Figure 8.4.3C-l). Yield points to 70,000 psi
may be specified in order to keep the line bearing values within AASHTO allowables. If bearing
plates and rollers are fabricated from steels with different yield strengths, the line bearing value
will be controlled by the lowest yield strength. Pintles are required at both the top and bottom of
the roller. Office practice is to not allow roller nests (multiple rollers in one bearing) except for
temporary bearings. Roller nests do not allow rotation of the beam end (unless special pins and
guides are used) and are difficult to maintain. For additional criteria, see fixed bearings and
rocker bearings.
4.
Sliding Bearings
These bearings rely on a reduced coefficient of friction between the two contact surfaces to allow
longitudinal bearing motion. These bearings must be used in combination with a device which
will allow beam end rotation. This device can be curved sliding surfaces, neoprene pads, or pins.
Numerous bearing materials and configurations are possible. Sliding materials may be Tronze,
Teflon, Lubrite, stainless steel, or other patented materials. Many combinations of the above
are possible. Sliding bearings will always develop significant horizontal longitudinal forces, and
these forces must be accounted for in the design. Reasonable friction coefficients must be
selected for the particular materials selected.
5.
Elastomeric Bearings
An elastomeric bearing is fabricated wholly or partially from either natural rubber or neoprene.
Steel reinforced elastomeric bearings are reinforced with multiple steel shim plates vulcanized
between adjacent elastomeric layers. Elastomeric bearings rely on their inherent shear flexibility
to accommodate bridge movements in any horizontal direction. This shear flexibility also
enhances their rotational capability. Steel shim plates limit the tendency for elastomer to bulge
laterally. Elastomeric bearings are commonly used on prestressed girder bridges and may be
used on other bridge types. The cost of elastomeric bearings is relatively low compared to
most high-load multi-rotational bearings.
a.
General Design Criteria

Design of elastomeric bearings shall be in accordance with the AASHTO specifications.
Conventional elastomeric bearings are designed using the Method A procedure. High-load
elastomeric bearings are designed using the Method B procedure. The Method B design
procedure allows significantly higher average compressive stresses. These higher allowable
stress levels are justified by an additional acceptance test, specifically a long-duration
compression test. Design criteria for both methods is based upon satisfying fatigue, stability,
delamination, steel reinforcement yield/rupture, and elastomer stiffness requirements. The
design of a steel reinforced elastomeric bearing requires an appropriate balance of compressive, shear, and rotational stiffnesses. The shape factor, as defined by the steel shim spacing,
significantly affects the compressive and rotational stiffness of the bearing. However, it has
no impact on the translational stiffness of the bearing or its translational deformation
capacity. Large rotations and translations generally require taller bearings.
8.4.3-6
August 1998

Criteria
Bridge Details
High-load elastomeric bearings (AASHTO Method B design) can provide economical

alternatives to lightly loaded high-load multi-rotational bearings. Additionally, their
flexibility provides some degree of seismic isolation which may reduce substructure
costs. Designers shall obtain the approval of the Bearings Specialist and the Bridge
Design Engineer in order to use high-load elastomeric bearings on a specific project.
The Standard Specifications states that elastomeric bearing pads shall conform to the
requirements of AASHTO M 251 Plain and Laminated Elastomeric Bridge Bearings and
that internal shims shall be fabricated from ASTM A 570 Grade 36 (A 570M Grade 250)
steel unless noted otherwise on the plans.
The minimum elastomeric bearing length or width shall be 6 inches (except for girder stop
pads). Generally, all pads shall be 60 durometer hardness. Pads shall be laminated in 1/2 inch
elastomeric layers with a minimum total thickness of 1 inch. For overall bearings heights
less than 3 inches, a minimum of 1/8 inch of side clearance shall be provided over the steel
shims. For overall heights between 3 inches and 7 inches, a minimum of 1/4 inch of side
clearance shall be provided. For overall heights greater than 7 inches, a minimum of 1/2 inch
of side clearance shall be provided.
Live load plus impact compressive deflection shall be limited to 1/16 inch. In determining
bearing pad thickness, it should be assumed that slippage will not occur. Bearing pad
thickness shall be no less than twice the maximum lateral deflection (see Figure 8.4.3D5a-1).
The equations shown in b, c, and d below are approximations of this motion.
Section 8.4-B9 of Appendix B presents a reinforced elastomeric bearing pad design example
using the AASHTO Method A design procedure. Electronic spread sheet programs are
available for designing high-load elastomeric bearings using the Method B design procedure.
Reference 5 on page 8.99-1 provides additional guidance for the design of elastomeric
bearings.
b.
Elastomeric Bearings for Precast Concrete Spans

For prestressed or precast concrete girder spans, it should be assumed that the beams may
not be placed at the mean temperature range. In addition, allowance must be made for
half shrinkage.
Minimum Pad Thickness for Prestressed Girders = 2[3/4 ( Temp. Rise + Temp. Fall) +
1/2 Shrink.]
March 2000
8.4.3-7

Criteria
Bridge Details
Figure 8.4.3D5a-l
October 1975
c.
Elastomeric Bearings for Cast-in-Place Concrete Spans

For cast-in-place concrete spans, it should be assumed that the temperature of concrete
at time of casting is the normal temperature. However, allowance must be made for
full shrinkage.
Minimum Pad Thickness for Cast-in-Place Girders = 2 [ Temp. Fall + Shrink.],
where temperature fall is the deflection corresponding to a temperature change of 45.
d.
Elastomeric Bearings for Steel Girder Spans

For steel girder spans, it should be assumed that the beams may not be placed at the mean
temperature and design should provide for 3/4 of the total temperature range. No allowance
is needed for shrinkage.
Minimum Pad Thickness for Steel Girders = 2 [3/4 ( Temp. Rise + Temp. Fall)]
e.
Girder Stop Bearing Pads

Where earth pressure on the back wall (end diaphragm) of skewed bridges or other
transverse loads must be resisted by girder stops, these stops must be capable of allowing the
anticipated motion (see Article 9.3.2D and Figure 8.4.3DSe-l). The following procedure is
recommended for design of stop pads for skewed prestressed girder bridges for loads due to
earth pressure on back walls.
Design Assumptions (Series 80, 100, and 120 Prestressed Girders Only)
Cold Climate
Elastomeric Bearing Pads of 60 Durometer Hardness and 1/2-inch Laminates
T = 2 [3/4 ( Temp. Range) +1/2 (Shrink.)]
Pad Width Equals 5 inches
8.4.3-8
August 1998

Criteria
Bridge Details
Girder Stop Bearing Pad

Figure 8.4.3D5e-l
October 1975
Procedure
The transverse load girder due to earth pressure plus live load surcharge pressure can be
determined from the Spacing Chart on page 8.4-B14 of Appendix B. By entering this chart
with skew angle, girder series, and girder spacing (normal to girder), the transverse load per
girder F(Ep)T may be read on the right-hand side of the chart. Note: If F(Ep)T is less than
2,200 pounds, no girder stop bearing pads are required since the girder bearing pad is
capable of resisting 2,200 pounds with a maximum transverse deflection of 1/8 inch.
If the Spacing Chart indicates that girder stop bearing pads are required, the required
pad thickness can be obtained by entering the Pad Thickness Chart on page 8.4-B15 of
Appendix B on the left side with the bridge length (back to back of pavement seat). The
pad thickness should be rounded lo the next higher half-inch increment. The width of the
girder stop bearing pad is a constant 5 inches for series 80, 100, and 120 girders. The length
of the pad is equal to three times the rounded T.
August 1998
8.4.3-9

Criteria
Bridge Details
By reentering the Pad Thickness Chart on the bottom with the pad thickness (from chart
as rounded), F(Ep)T (from the Spacing Chart), and the number of lines of girders in the
end span, the number of girders in the end span requiring girder stop bearing pads can be
obtained. See the sample problem Appendix B Section 8.4-B12.
6.
Preformed Fabric Pads

These pads can withstand large compression loads. They can provide for rotation. When used
in combination with a PTFE sliding surface, they will allow bridge movements in a horizontal
direction. When a PTFE sliding surface is specified, the PTFE sheet shall be 1/8 inch thick and
shall be recessed 1/16 inch into 1/2 inch-thick steel plate that is bonded to the top of the fabric pad.
They have been used on reinforced and post-tensioned concrete box girder bridges and can be
used on other bridge types. The cost of bearings incorporating preformed fabric pads is relatively
low compared to most steel bearings.
a.
Criteria
Maximum average allowable bearing pressure on the fabric pad is 1,200 psi at service load.
Maximum allowable concrete bearing pressure is determined by 1977 AASHTO Article
1.5.26(3).
Maximum total load on bearing is 500 kips. If the design load exceeds this value, another
type of bearing should be used.
Maximum bearing thickness is 4 inches.
b.
Sample Problem
The following method is used to calculate the required dimensions of a preformed fabric pad
used in combination with a TFE sliding surface:
Maximum Edge Strain = Average Strain + Rotation
Where:
T = Pad Thickness
L = Pad Length (parallel to longitudinal axis of beam)
R = Rotation due to loading plus construction tolerances
Allowance for Rotation = .015 Radians minimum (AASHTO)
0.14 = maximum strain with edge stress of 2,000 psi
At 1,200 psi, strain = 10 percent or 0.10T
Hence:
0.14T = (0.10)T +
L
(R)
2
T = 12.5LR
Given:
DL + LL + I = 260 kips/bearing
Rotation = 0.015 radians
Allowable Bearing Pressure for Fabric Pad = 1,200 psi
fc = 3,000 psi
8.4.3-10
August 1998

Criteria
Bridge Details
Solution:
Pad Area Required = 260,000 lbs./1,200 psi = 216.67 in2
Try a 20-inch-wide by 11-inch-long pad
Area = 220 in2
Check allowable concrete bearing pressure by AASHTO
Al = 20 inches 11 inches = 220 in2
A2
A1 = 1.42 2
A2 = (20+6)(11+6) = 442 in2

Allowable Bearing on loaded area = fb
fb = (0.30fc )
A2
A1
Allowable fb = (.3) (3,000 psi) (1.42) = 1,278 psi

> 1,200 psi
Allowable Bearing on the Fabric Pad Controls
Thickness of Pad:
T = 12.5LR = 12.5(11)(0.015) = 2.06 inches
Use Fabric Pad that is 20 inches by 11 inches by 21/4 inches
7.
Combination Bearings
The bearing types which have been discussed above can be used in many combinations in order
to develop a satisfactory solution for a bearing problem. For instance, an elastomeric bearing may
be used to provide rotational ability when using a sliding bearing.
8.
Patented Bearings
These bearings are available from several sources. They are quite expensive and have seldom
been used to date in Washington. In some cases, they may prove to be a good solution for heavily
loaded bearings. If used, care must be taken to ensure that the bearing actually supplied by the
Contractor meets all of the requirements of specifications.
9.
Bearing Pins
Pins of the type shown schematically in Figure 8.4.3C-I, Fixed Bearings, are commonly used
with many bearing types. Figure 8.4.3D9-1 shows a typical configuration of such a pin. The pin
diameter and strength must be such that vertical loads can be adequately carried. This is normally
not a problem. The critical factor in pin design is the ability to carry transverse loads. Normally,
in the figure shown, Diameter D2 is Y2 inch less than Dl. The transverse loads are carried from
the top bearing plate to the bottom bearing plate by the inner ring of the upper bearing block
bearing against the washer and nut. This causes a bending plus axial tension stress in the threaded
portion of the pin. This stress must not exceed that allowed for tension at the root of the thread.
The position of the acting force may be taken as shown in Figure 8.4.3C8-1 by force H, half of
D2 from centerline pin. This is allowable because any slight bending of the pin will tend to move
the point of application of the force vector closer to the centerline. High strength bar steel should
be used where necessary to keep pin sizes reasonable. It is desirable to have pins fabricated of a
August 1998
8.4.3-11

Criteria
Bridge Details
steel with slightly different composition from the bearing blocks in order to avoid the possibility
of freezing of the bearing surface. Pins of ASTM A-108 grade 1040, 70,000 Y.P. have been
used successfully with A36 bearing blocks. The keeper rings used with such pins must be
adequate to carry required uplift loads.
Typical Bearing Pin

(For Use With Bearing Blocks)
Figure 8.4.3D9-1
October 1977
10. Bearing Blocks
The bearing blocks for use with the typical pin described above are rectangular steel blocks
machined for the pin shaft and the keeper ring (see Figure 8.4.3D10-1).
Bearing Block
Figure 8.4.3D10-1
September 1986
8.4.3-12
August 1998

Criteria
Bridge Details
Design of such blocks is nominal. The dimension T, least thickness to pin, must be large
enough to clear the nut and the weld on the end of the block. It must also be large enough to
ensure that the stress due to vertical pin loads is within allowables. If P is the vertical load
applied to the bearing, R is the pin radius, W is the width of the load applying element, H is the
horizontal component of force developed by the pin curvature, and x and y are the distances
to the reactive forces P/2 and H then; the movement on the section dimensioned at T can be
shown to be:
T + R W
M=P
2 8
This moment tends to fail the bearing block in bending at this section and must be resisted by the
strength of the section at that point.
11. Anchor Bolts
Anchor bolts are used for all except neoprene bearings and perform a variety of functions. These
functions may be:
Hold down uplift loads. Resist transverse loads from bearings. Provide temporary support for
base plate. Hold base plate firmly to erection shims.
Not all of these functions are necessarily needed in each design. Figure 8.4.3C11-1 shows a
section through a typical anchor bolt. AASHTO Specifications give sizes for nominal anchor
bolts. Where uplift loads must be held, the bolts must be adequate in length and the washer nut
must be of sufficient size and strength to engage a mass of concrete as specified in AASHTO
under Uplift. Where reinforcement in the concrete can be engaged, that reinforcement may also
be considered to act to resist uplift Transverse loads cannot be resisted by the anchor bolts unless
the void between the pipe and the bolt has been well grouted. The plans should require that the
contractor grout from the bottom of the pipe before grouting the bearing plate. An arrangement
for doing this must be shown on the plans. See Figure 8.4.3C11-2 for a typical detail. If the
anchor bolt is to provide temporary support for a base plate, sufficient number of shims shall be
used to carry the weight of the plate and other loads applied before grouting the plate. These may
include the weight of erected steel superstructure for structural steel bridges.
Anchor bolts shall be ASTM A 449 where strengths equal to ASTM A 325 are desired, and
ASTM A 354, Grade BD, where strengths equal to ASTM A 490 are desired.
For anchor bolt specifications and properties, see Bridge Instruction 7.1.8, Volume 1.
12. Construction Shims
The Construction Specifications require that bearings for steel bridges be supported on sets of
21/2 inch square shims while the steel is being erected. The plans shall normally show how these
shims are to be placed in order to avoid overstressing the base plate or bearing webs or the
concrete of the pier.
13. Pintles
Pintles are used with rollers and rockers to carry transverse loads and to keep the moving parts
in alignment. They are detailed so that transverse shear is applied at the surface of the parts.
Their size must be such that these shear forces can be adequately resisted by the cross section
of the pintle.
August 1998
8.4.3-13

Criteria
Bridge Details
Typical Anchor Bolt

Figure 8.4.3C11-1
Anchor Bolt as Detailed

Figure 8.4.3C11-2
E. Orientation of Bearings
Movable bearings must be aligned to correspond to the actual direction of motion anticipated in the
structure. On curved and skewed structures, care must be taken that the details clearly show the
bearings set relative to the actual axis of motion. On curved bridges, this axis may correspond with
a chord between the two ends of the span. STRUDL may be helpful in establishing the exact motion
vectors of the structure.
8.4.3-14
August 1998

Criteria
Bridge Details
F. Bearing Selection
Consideration should be given to elimination of bearings by making the superstructure continuous
with the substructure, where feasible. Engineering judgment based on the particular design conditions
should govern bearing in any particular case. The following bridge types and bearings are commonly
used together:
Prestressed Girder Bridges
Slab Bridges
Continuity or Elastomeric Bearings
Concrete Box Girder Bridges
Roller Bearings
Preformed Fabric Pads w/TFE Sliding Surfaces
Steel Girder Bridges
Roller Bearings
Sliding Bearings
Rocker Bearings
Steel Truss Bridges
Rocker Bearings
Occasionally, other devices which act as bearings may be used. These include hinged columns
and bents.
8.4.4
Bridge Railing (Vacant)
8.4.5
Ladders, Stairs, Grates, Etc. (Vacant)
8.4.6
Surface Treatments (Vacant)
P:DP/BDM8
9807-0802
August 1998
8.4.3-15

Criteria
8.4.7
Bridge Details
Deck Protection Systems

A deck protective system is to be included in all projects involving concrete bridge deck construction or
rehabilitation. The type of system to be used shall be determined by the Bridge and Structures Branch
during the preliminary plan stage and shall be shown on the preliminary plan in the left margin. The most
commonly used systems are listed below.
Future overlays for bridges with one of the following systems is unlikely; however, if an overlay becomes
necessary, a layer of concrete shall be removed equal to the weight of the asphalt overlay that will replace
it so that the dead load remains unchanged.
A. System Types
June 1994
1.
System 1: A 21/2-inch concrete cover over an epoxy-coated top mat of reinforcing with no overlay (see Section 8.4.7B). The 21/2-inch cover includes 0.15 feet of depth for traction striations in
the roadway surface and 1/4-inch tolerance of the placement of reinforcing steel.
2.
System 2: A 13/4-inch concrete design cover over an epoxy-coated top map of reinforcing steel
with 11/2 inches of later modified concrete overlay (see Section 8.4.7C). The design concrete
cover includes 1/4-inch tolerance for placement of reinforcing steel and 1/4-inch for scarifying the
concrete deck. The 11/2-inch latex modified concrete overlay is a minimum depth and includes
.015 feet for traction striations. The bridge elevations shown on the layout sheet are to be based
on top of the overlay (3 inches total cover). Deck elevations shown on other plan sheets shall be
top of concrete as constructed (13/4-inch cover).
3.
System 3: A 11/2-inch or 2-inch concrete cover over an epoxy-coated top mat of reinforcing with
a waterproofing membrane and asphalt overlay. Overlay thickness should be .15 feet (see Section
8.4.7D). The 2-inch concrete cover is for cast-in-place construction and includes a 1/4-inch tolerance for the placement of rebar. Because of the high quality of concrete and better control of
reinforcing placement, the concrete cover for the precast prestressed deck members is reduced to
11/2 inches.
4.
Other Systems: The type of systems available for use may change as new products become
available. At present, there are four other systems available, namely thin polymer concrete
overlays, polyester polymer concrete, microsilica modified concrete, and cathodic protection.
Thin polymer concrete overlays can be methyl methacrylate overlay or epoxy concrete overlay.
All of the above systems are considered to be experimental and should not be used without the
approval of the Bridge Design Engineer.
8.4.7-1

Criteria
Bridge Details
B. System 1 (Epoxy Coated Reinforcing Only)

1.
With this system, only the roadway slap top mild reinforcing mat and traffic barrier S1 bars are
coated. This includes the top longitudinal negative moment reinforcing tied to the transverse
deck reinforcing. Indicate the epoxy-coated reinforcing on the plan sheets and with an E in the
Epoxy Coated column of the bar list. Add a note to the traffic barrier sheet to epoxy coat the
S1 bars.
2.
Secure all stirrups for crossbeams, diaphragms, webs, and prestressed girders for the roadway
slab with 135 hooks. Do not epoxy coat stirrups (see Figure 8.4.7-1).
March 1984
Figure 8.4.7-1
8.4.7-2
April 1991

Criteria
Bridge Details
C. System 2 (Latex Modified Concrete Overlay with Epoxy Coated Reinforcing) Note: See System 1
for additional details.
March 1984
Figure 8.4.7-2
April 1991
8.4.7-3

Criteria
Bridge Details
D. System 3 (Asphalt Overlay with Waterproof Membrane and Epoxy-Coated Reinforcing) Note: The
class of asphalt is to be determined by the district. See System 1 for additional details.
March 1984
Figure 8.4.7-3
8.4.7-4
April 1991

Criteria
Bridge Details
E. System Selection for New Structures

1.
System 1: This system will normally be used.
2.
System 2: This system is considered to provide double protection and shall be specified for structures with transverse post-tensioning in the deck. Deterioration of such decks seriously impairs
the structural integrity, and their restoration is complex and costly.
Consideration should also be given to this system for other types of structures. Factors that may
influence the decision are the type and size of structure, ADT, nature of traffic, impact of future
deck reconstruction on traffic flow, and anticipated use of deicing chemicals. The Bridge Design
Engineer should be consulted before considering the use of a double protection system.
3.
System 3: This system is also considered to provide some degree of double protection. However,
the primary use of this system is for decks where a flexible leveling course is needed for joints in
precast deck units. This system is most suitable for bridges with Bulb T girders and precast
slabs.
F. System Selection for Bridge Deck, Widening, and Rehabilitation

Only design widenings for a future overlay when the adjacent existing structure is not overlaid as part
of the widening.
1.
Epoxy-coated reinforcement is to be specified in the widened portion of the bridge.
2.
System 2: This system is preferred since it provides long-term protection. This system will
normally be used when one or more of the following criteria are met:
3.
4.
June 1994
a.
Delaminated and patched areas of the concrete deck exceed 5 percent of the deck area.
b.
A pacometer survey shows concrete cover over reinforcing steel of less than or equal to
1 inch over 15 percent or more of the deck area.
c.
Chloride contamination at the rebar level exceeds 2 pounds per cubic yard for 40 percent or
more of the samples tested.
d.
When removal of an asphalt and membrane system is required. (This requirement will
remain in effect until such time as a removal procedure is developed which will not result in
damage to the underlying concrete.
e.
Concrete in the deck exhibits inferior durability based on visual observation.
System 3: In this system, asphalt concrete is a nonstructural component; it tends to reduce the
load carrying capacity of the bridge by the amount of the overlay added. This system may be
used when all of the following criteria are met:
a.
Delaminated and patched areas of the deck are less than 5 percent of the deck area.
b.
Concrete cover exceeds 1 inch or 90 percent or more of the deck area.
c.
ADT is less than 10,000 and the traffic index is less than 7.5.
d.
Chloride contamination at the rebar level is less than 2 pounds per cubic yard or exceeds
2 pounds per cubic yard for less than 40 percent of the samples tested.
e.
Deck surface must be compatible with the membrane system. A rough or pocked surface will
result in damage to or early failure of the protective membrane.
Other Systems: Thin Polymer Concrete Overlay systems should be considered only in special
cases. They are particular suitable for bridges where weight of the overlay is critical, such as
movable span bridges, or where extended traffic disruptions are intolerable, but due to their
experimental nature should be used only in special cases.
8.4.7-5

Criteria
Bridge Details
Adoption of thin overlays should be coordinated with the district through the Bridge Planning
and Technology Unit. The bridge Planning and Technology Development Unit must be contacted
early in the planning stage for using this system. This is required to coordinate development of
the project with the district and if necessary the FHWA.
Use of a system other than Systems 2 and 3 (stated previously) is considered as an exception and
will require approval of the Bridge Design Engineer for its use.
The Bridge Planning and Technology Unit should be consulted about the latest information on
the new products available and also about the condition of the existing decks.
5.
Deck Replacement: In some cases, deck deterioration will have advanced beyond the point of
cost effective rehabilitation and/or protection. Excessive delamination, high chloride content, reactive aggregate, and freeze-thaw have been the predominant factors contributing to deck deterioration. When deck replacement or bridge replacement becomes necessary, the replacement
scheduled should be coordinated with the districts.
8-4-7:V:BDM2
8.4.7-6
April 1991

Criteria
8.99
Bibliography
Bibliography
1.
E. I. Dupont de Nemours, Inc.

Design of Neoprene Bridge Bearing Pads.
2.
Bridge Drainage System

NCHRPSynthesis of Highway Practice No. 67
Transportation Research Board
National Research Council
Washington, D.C. December 1979
3.
Bridge Deck Drainage Guidelines

Report No. FHWA/RD-87/014
December 1986
4.
Hydraulics Manual
WSDOT M23-03
Olympia, WA 98504
5.
Burke, M. P. Jr., Bridge Deck Joints, NCHRP 141, TRB, National Research Council, Washington,
D.C., 1989, 66 pp.
6.
Puccio, G. S., Extruded Seals for Bridges and Structures, Joint Sealing and Bearing systems for
Concrete Structures, Vol. 2, SP-70, American Concrete Institute, 1982, p. 959.
7.
Bashore, F. J., Price, A. W., and Branch, D. E., Determination of Allowable Movement Ratings for
Various Proprietary Bridge Deck Expansion Joint Devices at Various Skew Angles, Second Testing
Series, Research Report No. R-1245, Michigan Transportation Commission, Lansing, Michigan,
May 1984, 24 pp.
8.
Koster, W., The Principle of Elasticity for Expansion Joints, Joint Sealing and Bearing Systems for
Concrete Structures, Vol. 2, SP-94, American Concrete Institute, 1986, pp. 675-712.
9.
Babaei, K. and Hawkins, N. M., Development of Durable Anchorage Systems for Bridge Expansion
Joints, Final Report WA-RD 181.1, Washington State Transportation Center (TRAC), June 1989,
56 pp.
10. Fatigue Design of Modular Bridge Expansion Joints

NCHRP-Report 402
Transportation Research Board
National Research Council
Washington, D.C. 1997
11. Handbook of Bridge Engineering
Chen, W. F. and Lian Duan, editors
Chapter 25: Expansion Joints
CRC Press 1988
12. Steel Bridge Bearing Selection and Design Guide
National Steel Bridge Alliance
American Iron and Steel Institute, 1996
P:DP/BDM8
9807-0802
August 1998
8.99-1

Appendix A
September 1992
Sign Structure Foundation

Material Quantities
8.2 - A1 - 1

Appendix A
Sign Structure Foundation

Material Quantities
8-2-A1:VP:BDM8
8.2 - A1 - 2
September 1992

Appendix A
Notes to Designers
Truss Sign Bridge Foundations
Notes to designers pertaining to the use of BDM Appendix A, 8.2-A4 (double-faced barrier foundation, Type 1, 2,
and 3, for truss sign bridge).
1.
Indicate type of foundation to be used (Type 1, 2, or 3).
2.
Determine conduit needs. If none exist, delete all references to conduit. If it is needed, verify with district as to
size and quantity needed.
3.
Show sign bridge base elevation, number, D dimension and station.
4.
Modify details if other than a 3-inch curb is required.
5.
Transition section can be 10 feet 0 inches or 12 feet 6 inches.
6.
Note vertical shaft and tie steel No. 1 and No. 2.
7.
Quantities for the barrier as shown:
8.
Class 4000 concrete
.185 CY/LF above foundation cap

.269 CY/LF outside foundation cap
Class 3000 or 3000W

concrete
Varies with type and depth of

foundation. See Standard Plan
G-2b for dimensions.
Gr. 60 Rebar
Varies, depends upon type of

foundation and D dimension.
Mark No. 21 and 22
Constant
Mark No. 24
Maintain 6-inch o.c. spacing

between end posts of truss.
Mark No. 26
Varies with span length and D

dimension
Example contracts:
3345 SR 5 Southbound Add Lane

3393 Interstate VMS Signing
8-2-A3:V:BDM8
September 1992
8.2 - A3

Appendix A
Notes to Designers
Monotube Sign Bridge Foundations
Notes to designers pertaining to the use of BDM Appendix A, 8.2-A6 (double-faced barrier foundation, Type 1, 2,
or 3, for Monotube Sign Bridge).
1.
Indicate type of foundation to be used (Type 1, 2, or 3).
2.
Determine conduit needs. If none, delete. If needed, contact district for number and size.
3.
Determine sections needed to build foundation, transition sections can be 10 feet 0 inches or 12 feet 6 inches.
4.
Show sign bridge :
5.
1.
Base elevation
2.
Station
3.
Number
Modify details if other than 3-inch curb is required.

Approximate quantities for foundation as shown:
Class 4000
.289 CY/LF over shaft foundation.
Class 3000 or 3000W
Varies see typical foundation sheet.
Steel Reinforcing
Gr. 60
372 pounds
Steel AASHOT M222 or M223 GR. 50
6.
60 feet & under
= 1,002 pounds
60 feet to 90 feet
= 1,401 pounds
90 feet to 120 feet
= 1,503 pounds
120 feet to 150 feet
N/A
Example contract
3283 Eastside to Plum
8-2-A5:V:BDM8
September 1992
8.2 - A5

Appendix A
Notes to Designers
Monotube Sign Structures
Notes to designers pertaining to the use of BDM Appendix A, 8.2-A8 through A-13 (Monotube Sign Structures).
1.
Note if view is looking ahead or back on stationing.
2.
Note the bridge sheets on which the structure details are contained.
3.
If not Type 1, 2, or 3, note the average lateral bearing pressure for each foundation.
4.
If some span lengths are not used on a particular project, delete these from lower table to free up room.
5.
Note size and quantity (if any) of conduit to be installed.
6.
If no cantilevers are included, delete detail.
List of contracts with special designs

C-3199
First Hill Lid
C-3334
Third Lake Paving and Systems
C-3502
Seattle Transit Access Phase 1
8-2-A7:V:BDM8
September 1992
8.2 - A7

Appendix A
July 1996
Notes for Utility Installations

to Existing Bridges
8.3 - A1 - 1

Appendix A
8.3 - A1 - 2
Notes for Utility Installations

to Existing Bridges
July 1996

Appendix A
Notes to Designers
for Bridge Railing
1.
Bridge Railing Type BP, Appendix 8.3-A3, is to be used when clear anodic coating is desired.
2.
Bridge Railing Type BP-B, Appendix 8.3-A4, is to be used when bronze anodic coating is desired.
3.
To determine height of railing, use 4-6 measured from the top of the railing to the reference surface (as
defined by AASHTO).
4.
On the final plan sheet, show only one dimension for the height of the metal railing in two different places.
Notes to Designers for Type BP and Type BP-B Bridge Railing
8-3-A5:V:BDM8
September 1992
8.3-A5

Appendix A
Notes to Designers
for Traffic Barrier
1.
Show back of Pavement Seat in Plan Traffic Barrier detail.
2.
At roadway expansion joints, show traffic barrier joints normal to centerline, except as shown in Appendix
8.4-A1.
3.
When an overlay is required, the 3 maximum and 2-8 minimum dimensions shown in Typical Section
Traffic Barrier shall be referenced to the top of the overlay.
4.
Approximate quantities for the Traffic Barrier are as follows:

Class 4000 Concrete
0.100 cu. yds./L.F. with 3 curb

0.110 cu. yds./L.F. with overlay
427 lb./L.F. with 3
470 lb/L.F. with overlay
Steel Reinforcement Bars
15.2 lb/L.F. (Bars R1 to R6)

Bars S1, S2, and S3 (when applicable) should be included in normal
Bar List.
5.
The horizontal leg of S2 should lap the transverse slab bars by 1-0 minimum.
6.
When bridge lighting is a part of the contract, show lighting bracket and conduit details on a separate sheet.
Notes to Dsigners for Cast-in-Place Traffic Barrier
8-3-A5:V:BDM8
September 1992
8.3-A10

Appendix B
Notes to Designers
Pin Bearings
Pin Bearing Notes

(These notes change constantly. For the latest information, check the Bridge Sections Book of Knowledge
(BOK) which is available through your supervisor.)
1.
Anchor bolts shall conform to ASTM A 490, ASTM A 449.
2.
Paint anchor bolts (from top of bolt to 6 inches below top of pier), nuts and washers with two coats of zinc
rich paint, Standard Formula A-9-73.
3.
Anchor bolts shall be pressure grouted from the bottom up utilizing the grout tube. The grout tube shall
extend to the bottom of the pipe. Anchor bolts shall be grouted prior to grouting under the masonry plate.
Pressure grout the masonry plat from the center to the outside edges through a grout tube.
4.
Pin nuts shall conform to AASHTO M291 Grade DH. Pin nuts shall be tightened to a minimum of 200 ft.-lbs.
of torque for a snug fit.
5.
Pin blocks shall conform to AASHTO M102, including supplementary requirement S4 with a minimum
yield point of 50,000 psi.
6.
Bearing pins shall conform to ASTM A 434 with a minimum yield strength of 70,000 psi.
7.
Clean pin and adjoining bearing surfaces and coat these surfaces with grease.
8.
The bearing plate of each expansion bearing shall be centered transversely between the guide bars
immediately prior to grouting of the pipes and grouting under the masonry plates. The bearing plate shall be
positioned longitudinally as shown.
9.
Shim stacks shall be plumb and level. The bottom shim of each stack shall be machine tapered to account for
both transverse and longitudinal top of pier slopes.
10. The 28-day compressive strength of the grout in the grout pad and in the pipes shall be 4,000 psi.
11. Stainless steel screws shall conform to ASTM F 593 Type 304.
12. Do not paint sliding surfaces and bearing pin mated surfaces.
8-B1:V:BDM8
May 1993
8 - B1

Appendix B
Notes to Designers
Spherical Bearing
Spherical Bearing Notes

1.
Bearing elements shall be designed by the manufacturer in accordance with the Special Provisions to resist
the forces given in the Table of Bearing Loads.
2.
Bearing elements and keeper plates shall be sized to fit the geometric limitations shown and to accommodate
girder details.
* 3. Top of grout pad elevations shown on the column sheets are based on an assumed overall bearing height of
__________.
The Contractor shall verify this bearing height after design of the bearing elements and shall provide new
grout pad elevations as necessary. Upon receipt of grout pad elevations, the Engineer will review the affected
pier and girder elements and implement any revisions (i.e., column/pier cap reinforcement). Centerline of
bearing locations are shown on bridge sheets _____.
4.
Bearing elements shall be removable and replaceable.

Shop drawings shall be submitted to the Engineer for approval prior to the manufacture of the bearings. This
submittal shall include a complete set of calculations.
5.
Keeper plates shall be designed for applied bearing pressures resulting from the loads and movement provided
in the table.
6.
Bearing elements shall be sized utilizing Service Load Design methods except for the AASHTO Group VII,
allowable stresses shall be increased by 50 percent.
7.
Anchor bolts as shown shall be used to secure the lower keeper plate and masonry plate where applicable to
the pier. The bearing manufacturer shall determine the weld size connecting the upper keeper plate to the
girder based upon the bearing loads and size of the upper keeper plate required to accommodate the bearing
as per AASHTO.
8.
Full horizontal forces shall be resisted by the external restrainer.
9.
The stainless steel sheet shall completely cover the T.F.E. surface in all operating positions and shall extend
one additional inch in the longitudinal direction.
10. Spherical bearings shall be used at piers _____.

11. Rotational capacity = + _____ degrees minimum.
12. Pressure grout masonry bearing plates after the structural steel has been erected and prior to pouring the
roadway slab. Group bearings from the center to the outside edges of the masonry and lower keeper plate
through the grouting tube.
13. Shim stacks shall be level. The bottom shim of each stack shall be machine tapered to account for both
transverse and longitudinal top of pier slopes.
Reminders:
*Bearing height becomes very important at hinges when the bearings are contractor designed. Hinge gap
should be sized before bearings are designed.
8-B2:V:BDM8
8 - B2
May 1993

Appendix B
Notes to Designers
General
General Notes
1.
All material and workmanship shall be in accordance with the requirements of the state of Washington,
Department of Transportation, Standard Specifications for Road, Bridge and Municipal Construction dated
________.
2.
A. This structure has been designed in accordance with the requirements of the ________ AASHTO
Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges.
All prestressed concrete elements have been designed for service load stresses and checked for the
requirements of load factor design.
All other structural elements are designed in accordance with the requirements for load factor design.
B. This structure has been designed in accordance with the requirements of the _______ AASHTO
All structural elements have been designed in accordance with load factor design.
3.
Seismic design of this structure conforms with the provisions of the AASHTO Guide Specifications for
Seismic Design of Highway Bridges, dated 1983 and interims through __________. An acceleration
coefficient of __________ has been used.
4.
Footing elevations and substructure details are subject to change depending upon foundation material
encountered. Reinforcing steel for footings, abutment walls, and columns shall not be cut until final elevations
have been determined and substructure details have been modified, if necessary.
5.
The concrete in the seals and shafts shall be Class _______. The concrete in the superstructure, including
roadway deck and crossbeams, as well as bridge columns, shall be Class _______. All other cast-in-place
concrete shall be Class _______.
6.
The concrete seals at piers __________ are designed for a water surface elevation of _________. After seals
are poured, cofferdams shall not be dewatered when the water is above elevation _________. Provision shall
be made to flood the cofferdam in the event that water surface is above the design elevation.
7.
The maximum design soil pressure per square foot is _____ tons for piers _____, the maximum design load
for the piles for piers _____ is _____ tons. The maximum design load for the shafts is _____ tons.
8.
Falsework shall be carefully released to prevent impact or undue stress in structure. The traffic barrier and
sidewalk shall not be poured until the falsework has been released.
9.
All steel shall be AASHTO M183 and galvanized after fabrication according to AASHTO M111, unless
noted otherwise.
10. All bolts except as noted shall be ASTM A307 and shall have standard nuts and washers and galvanized
according to AASHTO M232.
All screws and miscellaneous fasteners shall be ASTM A 307 and galvanized according to AASHTO M232.
11. All bolt hole sizes shall be 1/16-inch diameter larger than bolt diameter. Bolt lengths not shown shall be as
required to fit.
12. All dimensions and elevations shall be verified in the field by the contractor.
May 1993
8 - B3 - 1

Appendix B
Notes to Designers
General
13. Unless otherwise shown on the plans, clear concrete cover from top of roadway slab to any reinforcement bar
shall be 21/2 inches, 1 inch from the bottom of the roadway slab, 3 inches from the bottom of footing, and
11/2 inches from all other concrete surfaces.
Reminders:
Normally used concrete mixes in Item #5 above are 4000W, 4000, and 4000 respectively.
Items #9, #10, and #11 may be omitted on steel superstructure bridge designs as they may conflict with
Structural Steel Notes.
Item #12 is normally appropriate for rehabilitation and widening projects.
8-B3:V:BDM8
8 - B3 - 2
May 1993

Appendix B
Notes to Designers
Post-Tensioning
Post-Tensioning Notes
1.
The concrete in superstructure shall be Class 5000 mix, fc = 5000 psi. The minimum compressive strength of
the cast-in-place concrete at the time of post-tensioning shall be _____ psi.
2.
Design is based on a friction curvature coefficient, = 0.2 and a friction wobble coefficient, K = 0.0002. The
loss of stress in post-tensioned prestressing strands due to steel relaxation, elastic shortening, creep and
shrinkage of concrete is estimated to be 32 ksi.
3.
Design is based on _____ 1/2-inch diameter low relaxation strands with an anchor set of 3/8 inch. The actual
anchor set will depend on the jacking equipment used by the contractor and shall be specified in the shop
plans. Each web shall be stressed to a load of _____ kips at jacked end after seating.
4.
The contractor shall submit the stressing sequence, elongation calculations, and force after anchor set to the
engineer for approval. The stressing sequence shall meet the following criteria:
A. Unless otherwise noted, the prestressing force, P-jack shall be distributed with an approximately equal
amount in each web and shall be placed symmetrically about the center line of bridge.
B. Whenever possible, no more than one-half of the prestressing force in any web may be stressed before an
equal force is stressed in the adjacent webs. At no time during stressing operations will more than
one-six of the total prestressing force be applied eccentrically about the center line of the bridge.
5.
The maximum outer diameter of the duct shall be ____ inches. The area of the duct shall be at least twice
the net area of the prestressing steel in the duct.
6.
All tendons shall be stressed _____________________________ (either one end or both ends).
7.
The maximum number of strands permitted in a duct is limited to 34 numbers. Contractor shall obtain
approval of the Engineer for any deviation to the number of strands in a duct as shown on the plans. Any
changes associated to the thickness of the web shall be at contractors expense.
Reminders:
1.
Commonly used stress levels in note number 1 are 3000 psi and 3500 psi.
2.
For tendons made of 19 or less strands of 1/2-inch diameter, adopt web thickness of 101/2 inches.
3.
For tendons made of 20 to 31 strands of 1/2-inch diameter, adopt web thickness of 111/2 inches.
For tendons made of 34 strands of 1/2-inch diameter, adopt web thickness of 12 inches.
5.
Do not use any tendon made of 1/2-inch strand greater than 34 strands.
6.
All longitudinal bars will be placed between vertical stirrups.
8-B4:V:BDM8
May 1993
8 - B4

Appendix B
Notes to Designers
Structural Steel (Box Girder)
1.
All structural steel shall be structural low alloy steel AASHTO M222 or M223 grade 50, except members
marked C may be fabricated from AASHTO M183 steel.
2.
ASTM A 715 may be used for filler plates less than 1/4-inch thickness.
3.
All field and shop connections shall be made with high strength bolts, with the bolt heads toward the outside
and underside of the bridge. High strength bolts shall be to AASHTO M164 and shall be 7/8-inch diameter.
Nuts and washers shall conform to Standard Specifications, Section 9-06.5(3). The minimum center-to-center
dimension shall be 3 inches unless shown otherwise. All connections shown are for field bolting. Shop bolting
may be used where approved in the shop plans.
4.
All welding shall be done with minimal distortion. The welding sequences and procedures to be used shall be
submitted to the Engineer for approval prior to the start of welding. Top flanges, bottom flanges, and webs
shall be fabricated to full length between field splices prior to welding flanges to webs. Welding Sequence:
(1) flange and web splices, (2) flanges to web, (3) stiffeners to webs and flanges, (4) gusset plates to webs,
and (5) shear connectors to top flange.
5.
One butt splice will be permitted for flange and web plates exceeding 60 feet in length. A permissible
location will be shown in the plans. Any proposed butt splice shall be shown on the shop drawings submitted
for approval.
6.
Intermediate transverse stiffeners, web splices, and all intermediate cross frames shall be normal to the flanges.
7.
All dimensions are horizontal and vertical, unless otherwise shown.
8.
All welded shear studs shall be 7/8-inch diameter.
9.
Members marked V are main load carrying tensile members or tension components of flexural members
and shall meet the longitudinal Charpy V-Notch tests as described in the Special Provisions.
10. Members marked FCM are fracture critical members and shall meet the fracture control requirement tests
as described in the Special Provisions.
11. X denotes tension butt weld for flanges or webs.
12. Galvanizing shall be in accordance with AASHTO M111 or M232 as applicable.
13. Bolt holes remaining in girder webs upon removal of deck formwork and temporary bracing shall be treated
in accordance with the Standard Specifications. Deck formwork shall not be supported on top laterals.
14. Remove temporary cross frames between box girders after the entire bridge deck has been placed and reached
a minimum strength of 4,000 psi.
15. The contractor shall provide temporary web bracing and/or stiffening at locations where slab forms are attached
to unbraced or unstiffened webs.
16. The designations V , FCM , and C marked on portions of the bottom flange also apply to stiffeners
attached to or supported by the bottom flange.
17. All structural steel shall be painted.
Reminders:
Remove Note: A 715 for Filler Plates when minimum thickness is > 1/4 inch.
Remove Note Regarding:
May 1993
FCM
when not applicable.
8 - B5 - 1

Appendix B
Notes to Designers
Structural Steel (Box Girder)
Butt splice locations are the contractors option, except, no splice will be permitted within 20 feet of the
centerline of a pier or within 6 inches of an intermediate cross frame stiffener.
Intermediate transverse web stiffeners shall be located a minimum of 6 inches from a welded web or
flange splice.
8-B5:V:BDM8
8 - B5 - 2
May 1993

Appendix B
Notes to Designers
Structural Steel (Plate Girder)
1.
All structural steel shall be structural low alloy steel AASHTO M222 or M223 grade 50, except members
marked C may be fabricated from AASHTO M183 steel.
2.
ASTM A 715 may be used for filler plates less than 1/4-inch thickness.
3.
All field and shop connections shall be made with high strength bolts, with the bolt heads toward the outside
and underside of the bridge. High strength bolts shall be to AASHTO M164 and shall be 7/8-inch diameter.
Nuts and washers shall conform to Standard Specifications, Section 9-06.5(3). The minimum center-to-center
dimension shall be 3 inches unless shown otherwise. All connections shown are for field bolting. Shop bolting
may be used where approved in the shop plans.
4.
All welding shall be done with minimal distortion. The welding sequences and procedures to be used shall be
submitted to the Engineer for approval prior to the start of welding. Top flanges, bottom flanges, and webs
shall be fabricated to full length between field splices prior to welding flanges to webs. Welding Sequence:
(1) flange and web splices, (2) flanges to web, (3) stiffeners to webs and flanges, (4) gusset plates to webs,
and (5) shear connectors to top flange.
5.
One butt splice will be permitted for flange and web plates exceeding 60 feet in length. A permissible
location will be shown in the plans. Any proposed butt splice shall be shown on the shop drawings submitted
for approval.
6.
Intermediate transverse stiffeners, web splices, and all intermediate cross frames shall be normal to the flanges.
7.
All dimensions are horizontal and vertical, unless otherwise shown.
8.
All welded shear studs shall be 7/8-inch diameter.
9.
Members marked V are main load carrying tensile members or tension components of flexural members
and shall meet the longitudinal Charpy V-Notch tests as described in the Special Provisions.
10. Members marked FCM are fracture critical members and shall meet the fracture control requirement tests
as described in the Special Provisions.
11. X denotes tension butt weld for flanges or webs.
12. Galvanizing shall be in accordance with AASHTO M111 or M232 as applicable.
13. Bolt holes remaining in girder webs upon removal of deck formwork and temporary bracing shall be treated
in accordance with the Standard Specifications.
14. The contractor shall provide, if required, temporary web bracing and/or stiffening at locations where slab forms
are attached to unbraced or unstiffened webs.
15. All structural steel shall be painted.
Reminders:
Remove Note: A 715 for Filler Plates when minimum thickness is > 1/4 inch.
Remove Note Regarding:
FCM
when not applicable.
8-B6:V:BDM8
May 1993
8 - B6

Appendix B
Notes to Designers
Strip Seal Expansion Joint
Strip Seal Expansion Joint Notes

1.
See strip seal table for approved manufacturers.
2.
The entire strip seal assembly shall be constructed so that the strip seal may be removed and replaced.
3.
The contractor shall submit details and installation procedure for strip seal assembly to the engineer for
approval. Temporary lifting, temperature, and construction adjustment devices shall not be welded to the
steel shapes. However, threaded studs may be welded to the steel shapes then removed by grinding and a
corrosion protection system applied to the areas affected by the grinding.
4.
The strip seal shall be continuous. One factor vulcanized splice will be permitted per seal.
5.
If the opening between the steel shapes will be less than 11/2 inches at the time of seal installation, the seal may
be installed prior to encasement of the extrusions in concrete.
6.
The shear studs attached to the steel shapes shall be shown on the shop drawings and shall not interfere with
reinforcing in the blockout.
7.
A. (When Class 4000D concrete is used in the deck.)

Class 4000LS concrete shall be placed in the blockout between the expansion joint system and adjacent
roadway slab.
B. (When Class 5000D concrete is used in the deck.)
Class 5000LS concrete shall be placed in the blockout between the expansion joint system and adjacent
roadway slab.
8-B7:V:BDM8
8 - B7
May 1993

Appendix B
Notes to Designers
Modular Expansion Joint
Modular Expansion Joint Notes

1.
The modular expansion joint system shall allow a minimum total movement normal to joint of ____ inches
at pier 1 and ____ inches at pier _____.
2.
Modular expansion joint system shall be as specified in the modular expansion joint table found in the
contract plans.
3.
Aluminum components shall not be used.
4.
Blockout dimensions as shown in the plans shall be verified by the contractor.
5.
Blockout reinforcing steel shall be specified by the expansion manufacturer. The roadway slab reinforcing
steel shown elsewhere is the minimum required.
6.
The contractor shall submit details of the modular expansion joint system to be used together with
installation procedures, and reinforcing steel required to the engineer for approval prior to installation.
7.
The contractor shall not install the modular expansion joint until the entire superstructure, except the traffic
barriers, is completed.
8.
Sealing elements shall be strip seals. Minimum size and strip seal shall be 80 mm.
9.
G dimension is measure from nose to nose of steel edge beams and includes effects of anticipated creep
and shrinkage.
10. Class _____ LS concrete shall be placed in the blockout between the expansion joint system and adjacent
roadway slab.
8-B8:V:BDM8
May 1993
8 - B8

Appendix B
Notes to Designers
Rail Rehabilitation
Rail Rehabilitation Notes

1.
All material and workmanship shall be in accordance with the requirements of the current version of
WSDOT Standard Specifications for Road, Bridge, and Municipal Construction, and admendments.
2.
This structure has been designed in accordance with the requirements of the 1992 AASHTO specifications
for highway bridges and interims through _______. All elements have been designed in accordance with
the requirements for load factor design.
3.
A. The concrete in the traffic barrier shall be Class 4000.

B. All steel shall be AASHTO M183 and galvanized after fabrication according to AASHTO M111, unless
otherwise shown in the plans.
4.
All bolts, unless otherwise shown in the plans, shall be AASHTO M164, and shall be galvanized after
fabrication according to AASHTO M232. All screws and miscellaneous fasteners shall be ASTM A 307 and
galvanized in accordance with AASHTO M232.
5.
All bolt hole sizes shall be 1/4-inch diameter larger than the bolt diameter. Bolt lengths not shown shall be as
required to fit with 1-inch minimum threads exposed beyond nut.
6.
Unless otherwise shown on the plans, the concrete cover measured from the face of the concrete to the
face of any reinforcing steel shall be 21/2 inches at the top of the roadway slab, 1 inch at the bottom of the
roadway slab, 2 inches at the top of footing, 3 inches at the bottom of footing, and 11/2 inches at all other
locations.
8-B9:V:BDM8
8 - B9
May 1993

Appendix B
Compression Seal Design Example
Reinforced concrete box girder bridge with an overall length of 248 feet out to out of pavement seats. End
abutments are L abutments with one foot thick backwalls. Note: Joints at the end piers for this bridge could be
eliminated by using monolithic or integral end abutments.
Skew angle = 28 < 45
Temperature range = 0 to 100F
1.
Determine Compression Seal Width Required

Determine total movement of joint, Mt:
Temperature:
Shrinkage:
L = (248/2) - 1 = 123
12(123)(0.000006)(100F)
12(123)(0.0002)(0.8)
Mt
Total movement parallel to the joint:

Total movement normal to the joint:
= 0.89"
= 0.24
= 1.13"
Mp = 1.13(Sin 28) = 0.53"

Mn = 1.13(Cos 28) = 1.00"
Determine seal width required:

From Eq. (8)
From Eq. (9)
From Eq. (11)
W = 0.53/0.22 = 2.41"
W = 1.00/0.45 = 2.22"
W = 4(Cos 28)[0.64(0.89) + 0.24] = 2.86" <= Controls
Use a 3" wide seal (W = 3").

2.
Determine Width of Joint at Time of Construction: Use Eq. (12)

Construction Width at Tc = 40F:
A const = 0.6(3.0) + Cos 28(12)(123)(0.000006)(64-40) = 1.99"
Use 2"

A const = 0.6(3.0) = 1.80"
Use 13/4"

A const = 0.6(3.0) + Cos 28(12)(123)(0.000006)(64-80) = 1.68"
Use 15/8"
8-4-B1:V:BDM8
September 1992
8.4 - B1

Appendix B
Cast-in-place concrete bridge with an overall length of 400 feet. The structure is symmetrical and has 200 feet (at
64F) between point of zero movement and the end pier joints.
Skew = 30, use movement along bridge centerline
1.
Determine Size of Strip Seal Required

Total opening movement of joint:
Temperature:
Shrinkage:
64 to 0F
(12)(200)(0.000006)(64)
(12)(200)(0.0002)(0.8)
= 0.92"
= 0.38
= 1.30"
(12)(200)(0.000006)(36)
= 0.52"
Total closing movement of joint:

Temperature:
64 to 100F
Set minimum installation width at 64F:

Min. at installation, Group 1: (1.5-0.5)/Cos 30 = 1.15" > 0.52"
(Group 1 joints have a 1/2" gap at full closure)
Min. at installation, Group 2: (1.5-0.0)/Cos 30 = 1.73" > 0.52"
(Group 2 joints have no gap at full closure)
Determine size of joint required using the larger of either the minimum installation width or the total closing
movement:
Group 1:
Group 2:
2.
Add opening and closing 1.30 + 1.15 = 2.45"

Use 3"
Use 3"
Determine Width Calculations for Various Temperatures

Construction Width at 64F for both Group 1 and 2 Strip Seals:
G = Manufacturer's minimum installation width at 64F
Use 11/2"
Construction Width at 40F:

G = 1.50 + Cos 30(12)(200)(0.000006)(64-40) = 1.80"
Use 17/8"

G = 1.50 + Cos 30(12)(200)(0.000006)(64-80) = 1.30"
Use 13/8"
Note: In this case, the minimum seal installation width at 64F is the same for both Group 1 and 2 strip seals,
because the minimum installation width at 64F exceeded the total calculated closing movement of the joint.
This may not be true in all cases as shown in Appendix 8.4-B4.
8-4-B2:V:BDM8
September 1992
8.4 - B2

Appendix B
Cast-in-place concrete bridge with an overall length of 900 feet. The structure is symmetrical and has 450 feet (at
64F) between point of zero movement and the end pier joints.
Skew = 40 > 30 degrees, see Joint Specialist
1.

Temperature:
Shrinkage:
64 to 0F
(12)(450)(0.000006)(64)
(12)(450)(0.0002)(0.8)
= 2.07"
= 0.87
= 2.94"
(12)(450)(0.000006)(36)
= 1.17"

Temperature:
64 to 100F

Min. at installation, Group 1:
1.0/Cos 40 = 1.31" > 1.17"

1.5/Cos 40 = 1.96" > 1.17"
Determine size of joint required using the larger of either the minimum installation width or the total closing
movement:
Group 1:
Group 2:

Use 5"
Use 5"
Watson Bowman ACME (Group 2) has a 2" minimum opening for a 5" seal:
Minimum at installation, Watson Bowman Acme: 2.0/Cos 40 = 2.61"
Add opening and closing for Watson Bowman ACME
2.94 + 2.61 = 5.55" > 5"
Cannot use Watsom Bowman ACME 5" Seal
After consulting with the Joint Specialist on the skew and size of strip seal required, the 5-inch seal cannot
close without possibly buckling and inverting above the roadway surface. Therefore, a modular joint should
be used.
8-4-B3:V:BDM8
September 1992
8.4 - B3

Appendix B
Steel bridge with an overall length of 600 feet. The structure is symmetrical and has 300 feet (at 64F) between
point of zero movement and the end pier joints.
Skew = 20
Temperature range = -30 to 120F (Eastern Washngton)
1.

Temperature:
64 to -30F
12(300)(0.0000065)(94)
= 2.20"
12(300)(0.0000065)(56)
= 1.31"

Temperature:
64 to 120F

1.0/Cos 20 = 1.07" < 1.31"

1.5/Cos 20 = 1.60" > 1.31"
Determine size of joint required using larger of either the minimum installation width or the total closing
movement:
Group 1:
Group 2:
2.

Use 4"
Use 4"
Construction Width Calculations for Various Temperatures

Group 1 Strip Seals:
Use the larger of the manufacturer's minimum installation width at 64F or the total closing movement of
the joint.
G = Manufacturer's minimum installation width at 64F = 11/2"
Total closing movement of the joint:
Cos 20(1.31) + 0.50 = 1.73" > 1.50"
(Group 1 joints have a 1/2" gap at full closure.)
Use 13/4"

G = 1.75 + Cos 20(12)(300)(0.0000065)(64-40) = 2.28"
Use 21/4"

G = 1.75 + Cos 30(12)(300)(0.0000065)(64-80) = 1.40"
Use 13/8"
Group 2 Strip Seals:

G = Manufacturer's minimum installation width at 64F = 11/2"
September 1992
8.4 - B4 - 1

Appendix B
Total closing movement of the joint:

Cos 20(1.31) + 0.0 = 1.23" < 1.50"
(Group 2 joints have no gap at full closure.)
Use 11/2"

G = 1.50 + Cos 20(12)(300)(0.0000065)(64-40) = 2.03"
Use 2"

G = 1.50 + Cos 20(12)(300)(0.0000065)(64-80) = 1.15"
Use 11/8"
8-4-B4:V:BDM8
8.4 - B4 - 2
September 1992

Appendix B
1.
Determine Gmin and Gmax for Modular Joints
D. S. Brown Co., D-241, Modular Joint

B
MR
N
N-1
MG
MS
=
=
=
=
=
=
Center Beam Flange width

Total movement rating
Total No. of seals (= MR/MS)
Number of centerbeams
Minimum gap per seal at full closure
Maximum movement rating per seal
=
=
=
=
=
=
2.213"
9"
3 seals
2 centerbeams
1
/2" per seal
3" max.
Calculate Gmin and Gmax: See Equations (13) and (14) in Section 8.4.1.
Gmin = (N-1)(B) + (N)(MG)
= (2)(2.213) + (3)(1/2) = 5.93"
Gmax = Gmin + MR = 6 + 9 = 15"
2.
Use 6"
Use 15"
Watson Bowman ACME, WABO D-1200, Modular Expansion Joint

B
MR
N
N-1
MG
=
=
=
=
=
2.5"
12"
4 seals
3 centerbeams
0" per seal
From Equations (13) and (14), determine Gmin and Gmax:

Gmin = (3)(2.5) + (3)(0) = 7.50"
Gmax = 7.5 + 12 = 19.5"
Use 71/2"
Use 191/2"
Note: Gmin and Gmax for other modular joint manufacturers are computed in a similar manner.
8-4-B5:V:BDM8
September 1992
8.4 - B5

Appendix B
Steel bridge with 600 ft (at 64F) between the point of zero movement and the end pier joint.
Skew = 20 < 30
Temperature range = -30 to 120F (Eastern Washngton)
1.
Determine Size of Joint Required

Temperature:
64 to -30F
(12)(600)(0.0000065)(94)
= 4.40"
64 to 120F (12)(600)(0.0000065)(56)
= 2.62"

Temperature:
Design movement along bridge centerline:

Add opening and closing (4.40 + 2.62) = 7.02"
Design movement normal to joint + 15 percent:
Cos 20(7.02)(1.15) = 7.59"
Need a modular joint with a 5" movement rating (MR).
2.

a.
D. S. Brown Co., Type D-241, MR = 9"

Gmin = 6"
Gmax = 15"
(See Appendix 8.4-B5 for Gmin and Gmax.)

Set the joint opening (normal to the joint) at 64F and allow a 15 percent safety factor:
G at 64F = Gmin + total closing movement of joint
= 6.0 + Cos 20(2.62)(1.15) = 8.83"
Any setting greater than 8.83" would be adequate. Choose a setting so that the extra capacity is shared
equally between closing and opening of the joint.
Extra capacity = MR - Design Movement = 9 - 7.59 = 1.41"
-30 to 64F: (94F/150F)(1.41) = 0.88"
Therefore, set G at 64F = 8.83 + 0.88 = 9.71"
Use 93/4"

G = 9.75 + Cos 20(12)(600)(0.0000065)(64-40) = 10.81"
Use 107/8"

G = 9.75" + Cos 20(12)(600)(0.0000065)(64-80) = 9.05"
Use 9"
Check spacing between centerbeams at 64F for seal replacement:

Spacing = [9.75 - 2(2.213)]/3 seals = 1.77" > 1.50" ok
September 1992
8.4 - B6 - 1

Appendix B
Therefore, seals can be replaced without jacking the centerbeams apart.

Check spacing between centerbeams at minimum temperature:
G at -30F = 9.75 + Cos 20(4.40) = 13.88" < Gmax = 15" ok
Maximum spacing = [13.88 - 2(2.213)]/3 seals = 3.15" < 31/2" ok
b.
Watson Bowman ACME, WABO D-900, MR = 9"

Gmin = 5"
Gmax = 14"
Note that Gmin and Gmax are 1" less than those computed for D. S. Browns, Type D-241. Therefore, the
temperature setting calculations will also be 1" less than those for D. S. Browns type D-241.
G at 40F = 97/8"
G at 64F = 83/4"
G at 80F = 8"
Check spacing between centerbeams at 64F for seal replacement:
Spacing = [8.75 - 2(2.50)]/3 seals = 1.25" < 1.50"
Since the spacing is less than the 11/2" minimum recommended by the manufacturer for seal installation,
the centerbeam will have to be jacked toward one of the edge rails in order to replace the seals.
Check spacing between centerbeams at minmum temperature:
G at -30F = 8.75 + Cos 20(4.40) = 12.88" < Gmax = 14" ok
Max. spacing = [12.88 - 2(2.50)]/3 seals = 2.63" < 31/2" ok
8-4-B6:V:BDM8
8.4 - B6 - 2
September 1992

Appendix B
Concrete Post-tensioned C.I.P. Box Girder Bridge

Skew = 0
The following calculated movements due to temperature, shrinkage, elastic shortening, and creep were obtained:
Temp Fall 64 to 0F
Shrinkage
Elastic Shortening (ES)
Creep Ct(ES) = 1.5(0.8)
1.
2.1"
1.1"
0.8"
= 1.2"
Temp Rise 64 to 100F
1.2"

The Contractor would like to set the joint assembly 60 days after post-tensioning the structure. The elastic
shortening due to post-tensioning has occurred. Assuming a long term creep factor, Ct, of 1.5, and that half of
the shrinkage has occurred, determine:
Total opening movement of the joint: 2.1 + 0.5(1.1) + 1.2 = 3.9"
Total closing movement of the joint: Temp Rise 64 to 100F = 1.2"
Design Movement = 3.9 + 1.2 = 5.1" > 5"
Use a Modular Joint
Determine Size of Modular Joint: Add 15 percent safety factor

Add opening and closing: (3.9 + 1.2)(1.15) = 5.9"
Need a modular joint with a 6" movement rating (MR)
2.

a.
D. S. Brown Co., Type D-161, MR = 6"

From Eqs. (13) and (14), calculate Gmin and Gmax:
Gmin = (1)(2.213) + (2)(0.5) = 3.21"
Use 31/4"
Gmax = 3.25 + 6 = 9.25"
Use 91/4"

Set the joint opening at 64F and allow a 15 percent safety factor
G at 64F = Gmin + (Total Closing Movement due to Temp. Rise + 15 percent safety factor)
= 3.25 + (1.2)(1.15) = 4.63"
Use 43/4"
The total temperature movement for 100F is 3.3"
G = 4.75 + (24F/100F)(3.3) = 5.54"
Use 51/2"

G = 4.75 - (16F/100F)(3.3) = 4.22"
Use 41/4"
Check spacing between centerbeam and edge rail at 64F for seal replacement:
Spacing = (4.75 - 2.213)/2 seals = 1.27" < 1.50" ok
Therefore, centerbeams will have to be jacked to one side in order to replace the seals.
September 1992
8.4 - B7 - 1

Appendix B

G at 0F = 4.75 + 3.9 = 8.65"
b.

Gmin = 2.5"
Gmax = 8.5"
G at 64F = Gmin + (Closing Movement due to Temperature Rise + 15 percent safety factor)
G at 64F = 2.15 + (1.2)(1.15) = 3.88"
Use 4"
The total temperature movement for 100F is 3.3"

G = 4.0 + (24F/100F)(3.3) = 4.79"
Use 43/4"

G = 4.0 + (16F/100F)(3.3) = 3.47"
Use 33/2"
Check Gmin and Gmax, if G at 64F is 4":

Include the 15 percent safety factor
Total closing = 4.0 - (1.2)(1.15) = 2.62" > Gmin = 2.5" ok
Total opening = 4.0 + [2.1 + 0.5(1.1) + 1.2](1.15)
= 8.42" < 81/2" ok
Check spacing between centerbeam and edge rail at 64F for seal replacement:
Spacing = (4.0 - 2.5)/2 seals = 0.75" < 1.50"
Since spacing is the than the 11/2" minimum recommended by the manufacturer for seal installation, the
centerbeam will have to be jacked toward one of the edge rails in order to replace the seal.
8-4-B7:V:BDM8
8.4 - B7 - 2
September 1992

Appendix B
Two C.I.P. Post-tensioned concrete box girder bridges meet at a hinge adjacent to a pier.
Skew = 0
The following calculated movements due to temperature, shrinkage, elastic shortening, and creep were obtained:
Bridge A
Bridge B
3.0"
1.3"
1.2"
1.8"
1.7"
1.2"
0.6"
0.5"
0.75"
0.7"
Temp Fall 64 to 0F
Shrinkage
Elastic Shortening
Creep, (Ct)(ES) = (1.5)(1.2") =
Temp. Rise 64F to 100F
1.

Determine joint opening 60 days after post-tensioning when the joint will be installed. Assume the elastic
shortening and half of the shirnkage has occurred; assume a long-term creep factor, Ct = 1.5. Remember that
the two bridges move opposite to one another.
Total opening movement of the joint due to Bridge A:
3.0 + (0.5)(1.3) + 1.8 = 5.45"
Total opening movement of the joint due to Bridge B:
1.2 + (0.5)(0.6) + 0.75 = 2.25"
Total opening movement due to Bridge A and B = 5.45 + 2.25 = 7.7"
Total closing movement due to Bridge A and B = 1.7 + 0.7 = 2.4"
Determine size of Modular Joint: Include 15 percent safety factor
Add total opening and closing movements = (7.7 + 2.4)(1.15) = 11.6"
Need a Modular Joint with a 12" Movement Rating (MR)
2.

a.

Gmin = 7.5"
Gmax = 19.5"
G at 64F = Gmin + Closing Movement due to Temperature Rise
= 7.50 + (2.40)(1.15) = 10.26"
Use 103/8"
The total temperature movement for 100F

= 3.0 + 1.7 + 1.2 + 0.7 = 6.6"/100F
G = 10.375 + (24F/100F)(6.6) = 11.96"
Use 12"

G = 10.375 - (16F/100F)(6.6) = 9.32"
September 1992
Use 93/8"
8.4 - B8 - 1

Appendix B
Check if G at 64F is 103/8" (include 15 percent safety factor):

Total Closing = 10.375 - (2.4)(1.15) = 7.16" > Gmin = 7.50" ok
Total Opening = 10.375 + (7.7)(1.15) = 19.23" < Gmax = 19.50" ok
G at 0F = 10.375 + 7.7 = 18.075" < Gmax
b.
D. S. Brown Co.,Type D-321, MR =12"

Gmin = 3(2.213) + 4(0.5) = 8.64"
Gmax = 8.75 + 12 = 20.75"
Use 83/4"
Use 203/4"

G at 64F = Gmin + Closing Movement Due to Temperature Rise
= 8.75 + (2.40)(1.15) = 11.51"
Use 115/8"
By comparison to previous calculations for Watson Bowman ACME, the construction width calculations
for the D. S. Brown Co.s, Type D-321, will be 11/4" greater (11.625" = 10.375") than those computed for
the Watson Bowman ACME, WABO D-1200.
G = 131/4"
G = 105/8"
Check if G at 64F is 115/8" (include 15 percent safety factor):
Total Closing = 11.625 - (2.4)(1.15) = 8.86" > Gmin = 83/4" ok
Total Opening = 11.625 + (7.7)(1.15) = 20.48" < Gmax = 203/4" ok
G at 0F = 11.625 + 7.7 = 19.325"
Max. spacing = [19.325 - 3(2.213)]/4 seals = 3.17" < 31/2" ok
8-4-B8:V:BDM8
8.4 - B8 - 2
September 1992

Appendix B
Reinforced Elastomeric Bearing Pad Design Example

for Prestressed Girder (AASHTO Design Method A)
Standard WSDOT W74G simple span prestressed concrete girder bridge. Span length is 130 feet. Bottom flange
width of the girder is 25 inches. Use a temperature range of 0F to 100F for concrete bridges with
a normal construction temperature of 64F. Use AASHTO Standard Specifications Section 14.4.1 Design
Method A. Bearings shall be installed so that they are horizontal (level) under dead load.
Loading:
Dead Load reaction per bearing:
PDL, Girder = 108 kips
PDL, Slab+Traffic Barrier = 112 kips
Live Load reaction per bearing (excluding impact):
PLL,HS25 = 60 kips
Live Load rotation (calculated from analysis)
LL,x = Live load rotation (excluding impact)
= 0.003 radians (from structural analysis)
Constants:
= Coefficient of thermal expansion for concrete = 0.000006/F
= Shrinkage coefficient for reinforced concrete = 0.0002 in/in
= Shrinkage factor = 0.5
BDM Section 8.4.1A.1.b.(1)
Elastomer Design Parameters:
Durometer Hardness = 60
From AASHTO Table 14.3.1, for a 60 durometer hardness elastomer, the shear modulus varies between
0.130 ksi and 0.200 ksi. Use a value corresponding to the most conservative design.
Internal Steel Reinforcement:
14 gauge plate (thickness = 0.075")
Fy = 36 ksi
Fsr = 20 ksi
The bearing design shall conform to the following additional WSDOT standard requirements:
(a) Design for a 60-durometer elastomer.
(b) Unreinforced (plain) pads shall not be used.
(c) Internal elastomer layers shall be 1/2 inches thick; external elastomer layers shall be 1/4 inches
thick.
(d) Minimum number of internal elastomer layers shall be two.
(e) Maximum overall height of the bearing shall not exceed 5 inches.
(f) Tapered elastomer layers shall not be used.
(g) The shape factor of each layer of any reinforced bearing shall be equal to or greater than 5.0.
August 1998
8.4-B9-1

Appendix B
(h) The average compressive stress from dead load and uplift, if any, shall not be less than 200 psi to
avoid walking of the bearings.
(i) Design loading shall take into account the effect of skew and curvature.
(j) The bearing design movement shall be based upon 75 percent of the total calculated temperature
rise and fall using an assumed normal temperature of 64F plus any other anticipated movements
or translations.
(k) Girders are placed on the elastomeric bearing pads 30 days following casting. The remaining
creep of the girders tributary to each bearing has been calculated to be 0.20".
(l) The design details shall provide access for inspection, maintenance, and future replacement of
each bearing.
(m) For thick bearings, calculate the grout pad elevations using the compressed height of the bearing.
1.
Determine preliminary bearing size

Temperature fall (64 0F):
(0.000006)(64) (65)(12)
= 0.30
Temperature rise (64 100F):
(0.000006)(36)(65)(12)
= 0.17
(0.5)(0.0002)(65)(12)
= 0.08
Shrinkage:
Creep (calculated from girder age of 30 days to infinity):
= 0.20
s = 0.75 (Dfall + Drise)+ Dshrink +Dcreep

= 0.75(0.30 + 0.17) + 0.08 + 0.20 = 0.63
Determine bearing thickness:
Minimum total elastomer thickness 2s
hrt (2)(0.63) = 1.26
(AASHTO Section 14.4.1.3)
Minimum total elastomer thickness required
Use (2) - 1/2 thick interior layers of elastomer and 1/4 thick cover layers.
2 interior layers at 1/2
2 cover layers at 1/4
Total elastomer thickness, hrt
=
=
=
1.0
0.5
1.5 > 1.26
ok
Use (3) - 14 gage steel shims. Sum of shim thicknesses = (3)(0.075) = 0.225
Total bearing thickness = T = 1.50 + 0.225 = 1.725 < 5 maximum
ok
Determine bearing width, W:

Use a width equal to the width of the prestressed concrete girder bottom flange less two 1 chamfers
less an additional 1/2 on each side.
W = 25 in - 2(1) - 2(0.5) = 22
Use W = 22
Determine bearing length, L:

c,TL 1.000 ksi for steel reinforced bearings
(AASHTO 14.4.1.1)
(220 kips + 60 kips) [(L)(22)] 1.000 ksi

L 12.73
Use L = 13
Preliminary bearing size: 13 wide 22 long 1.725 thick
8.4-B9-2
August 1998

Appendix B
2.

Check allowable compressive stress

Determine the Shape Factor, S, of the 1/2 thick interior layers:
S = (L)(W) [2(hri)(L + W)]
(AASHTO 14.2)
= (13)(22) [(2)(0.50)(13 + 22)] = 8.17 > 5.0 minimum

c,TL,allowable= GS/b = (.130)(8.17)/1.0 = 1.062 ksi, but not greater than 1.000 ksi
14.4.1.1)
c,TL= 280 kips [(13)(22)] = 0.979 ksi 1.000 ksi
(AASHTO
ok
Check compressive stress under minimum load only. Keep c,DL > 0.200 ksi to keep bearing from
walking under minimum load. Assume minimum load occurs under dead load and uplift, if any.
c,DL= 220 kips [(13)(22)] = 0.769 ksi 0.200 ksi
3.
ok
Check bearing stability (AASHTO 14.4.1.5)

To ensure stability, the total thickness of the bearing should not exceed the lesser of W/3 or L/3.
W/3 = 22/3 = 7.33 > 1.725
L/3 = 13/3 = 4.33 > 1.725
4.
ok
ok
Check steel reinforcement (AASHTO 14.4.1.6)

Resistance of internal elastomer layer = 1,700hri = 1,700(0.5) = 850 lbs/inch
Pallow = (Fsr)(hs) = (20000 psi)(0.075) = 1500 lbs/inch > 850 lbs/inch
5.
ok
Check if bearing needs to be secured against horizontal movement (AASHTO 14.5):

Determine the design shear force on bearing, H:
H = GAs /hrt = (0.200)(13)(22)(0.63) (1.5) = 24.0 kips
PDL / 5 = 220 / 5 = 44.0 > 24.0 kips Anchorage of the bearing is not required.
6.
Check rotation (AASHTO 14.4.1.4)

Rotation perpendicular to the beams longitudinal axis: TL,x 2c/ L
Rotation parallel to the beams longitudinal axis:
TL,z 2c/ W
Determine the compressive deflection, c, using AASHTO Figure 14.4.1.2B:

Compressive stress = 0.979 ksi and Shape factor = 8.17 Compressive strain = 0.039
c = (.039)[2(0.5) + 2(0.25)] = 0.058
Assume girders are level after placement of slab and traffic barriers.
Therefore, TL,x = LL,x = 0.003 radians and TL,z= 0.000 radians.
qTL,x, allowable = 2c / L
qTL,x,allowable= 2(0.058)/13 = 0.0090 radians > 0.003 radians
August 1998
ok
8.4-B9-3

Appendix B
Summary:
Size:
Length = 13
Width = 22
Overall total thickness = 1.725
Elastomer layers:
2 interior layers at 1/2 thick

2 cover layers at 1/4 thick
Total Thickness = 1.725"
Steel reinforcement:
3 steel shims, 14 gage (0.075 inch thickness)

Provide 1/8 minimum side clearance for the steel shims
P:DP/BDM8
9807-0802
8.4-B9-4
August 1998

Appendix B
July 1996
Elastomeric Bearing Pad Example

for Steel Girder
8.4 - B11

Appendix B
Spacing Chart: Page 8.4-B14

Pad Thickness Chart: Page 8.4-B15
Known:
Skew = 33
Girder = Series 120
Spacing = 8-0 (Normal to Girder)
From Spacing Chart (F(Ep)T 7,500 Lbs. > 22,200 Lbs. Pad Required
Known:
Bridge Length = 420 (Bk-Bk. Pavement Seat)
From Pad Thickness Chart:
T = 2.32
Use T = 21/2 (1/2 Laminates)
Girder Stop Bearing Pad Dimensions

Thickness = 21/2
Length = 3 2.5 = 71/2
Width = 5 (Flange Depth - Chamfer)
(Number of Pads Required):
Pad Thickness = 31/2
Known:
F(Ep)T = 7,500 Lbs. (From Spacing Chart)

Number of Girders = 6
From Pad Thickness Chart:
2.4 Pads Required
Use Girder Stop Bearing Pads on three (3) of the girders in each end span.
Place pads on proper side of girder to oppose lateral component of force from earth pressure.
August 1998
8.4-B12-1

Appendix B
8.4-B12-2
July 1996

Appendix B
July 1996
Elastomeric Bearing Pad

Design Chart
8.4 - B13

Appendix B
July 1996

Spacing Chart
8.4 - B14

Appendix B
July 1996

Pad Thickness Chart
8.4 - B15

Criteria
Substructure Design
Contents
Page
9.
9.1
9.1.1
9.1.2
9.1.3
9.2
9.2.1
9.2.2
9.3
9.3.1
9.3.2
Substructure Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Dead Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Live Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Wind Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E. Earthquake Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F. Prestressing Effects from Superstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Concrete Design for Substructures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Application of Loads to Substructure Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Live Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Earthquake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Piers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Spacing of Piers and Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Section Shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Construction Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Column Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E. Column Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Column Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Slenderness Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. The Moment Magnification Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Second-Order Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E. Resisting Capacities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F. Service Load Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
G. Seismic Design of Multicolumn Bents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Abutments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Size and Construction Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Representative Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Bearing Seats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Bearing Restraints and Girder Stops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Face Slope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E. Sizing Abutments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F. Class of Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
G. Abutment and Retaining Wall Junctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
H. Construction Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I. Drainage and Backfilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
J. Embankment at Bridge Ends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Abutment Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Applicable Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Usual Governing Load Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Special Handling of Lateral Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Loads on Girder Stop Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E. Loads on Girder Stops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
July 2000
9.1-1
1
1
1
1
1
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
9.2-1
1
1
1
1
2
4
11
11
11
15
17
20
21
21
9.3-1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
4
4
4
6
12
12
16
16
19
19
9.0-i

Criteria
Substructure Design
Contents
Page
9.3.3
9.3.4
9.4
9.4.1
9.4.2
9.4.3
9.4.4
9.5
9.5.1
9.5.2
9.0-ii
General Design Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

A. Design for Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Earth Pressure at Front Face . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Design for Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Minimum Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Load and Reinforcement Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Requirements for Pile Cap Abutments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Requirements for Pile Stub Abutments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Requirements for Cantilever Abutments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Requirements for Spill-Through Abutments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E. Requirements for Rigid Frame Abutments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Retaining Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Common Types of Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Cantilevered Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Counterfort Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Gravity Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Cribbing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E. Cylinder Pile Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F. Tieback Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
G. Proprietary Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
H. Slurry Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I. Rock Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
J. Soil Nailing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
K. Wingwall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
L. Noise Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Cantilever Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Diaphragm Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E. Tieback Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Miscellaneous Items . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Drainage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Architectural Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Concrete Fill for Soldier Pile Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E. Detailing of Standard Reinforced Concrete Retaining Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Footings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Spread Footings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Load Distribution Under Footings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Pedestals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Footing Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pile Supported Footings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. General Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Pile Spacings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Horizontal Forces on Pile Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Uplift Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.3-19
19
19
19
19
20
20
20
23
23
23
9.4-1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
9
10
14
29
29
29
29
30
30
9.5-1
1
1
5
5
6
9
9
9
10
10
July 2000

Criteria
Substructure Design
Contents
Page
9.6
9.6.1
9.6.2
9.6.3
9.6.4
9.6.5
9.6.6
9.6.7
9.7
9.7.1
9.7.2
9.7.3
9.7.4
9.8
9.8.1
9.8.2
9.8.3
9.8.4
Piles and Piling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

A. Selection of Pile Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Friction vs. Point Bearing Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Pile Loads and Spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Column Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Uplift Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Lateral Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Other Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Concrete Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Concrete Pile Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Steel Piling (H Piles) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Timber Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sheet Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cylinder Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Seals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Normal High Water Elevation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Seal Vent Elevation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Scour Depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Recommended Foundation Elevation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Spread Footings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Seal Positively Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Seal May Not Be Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pile Supported Footings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Drilled Shafts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Types of Drilled Shafts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Classification by Load Transfer to the Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Classification by Type of Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Advantages and Disadvantages of the Drilled Shaft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Advantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Disadvantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Preliminary Soils Investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Surface Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Subsurface Investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Methods of Investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Subsurface Conditions Affecting Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
July 2000
9.6-1
1
1
1
1
2
2
3
4
4
6
6
6
7
7
7
7
9.7-1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
9.8-1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
9.0-iii

Criteria
Substructure Design
Contents
Page
9.8.5
9.8.6
9.8.7
9.9
9.9.1
9.9.2
9.9.3
9.9.4
9.9.5
9.9.6
9.9.7
9.9.8
9.99
9.0-iv
Design of Drilled Shafts for Axial Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

A. Ultimate Failure vs. Excessive Settlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Factor of Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Spacing, Depth, Diameter Reinforcing, and Concrete Strength of Drilled Shafts . . . . . . . . . .
Design of Drilled Shafts Subject to Lateral Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. General Modeling Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. P-Y Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Analysis by Computer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Shaft Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Construction Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Dry Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Casing Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Slurry Displacement Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Application of LRFD Code to WSDOT Foundation Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Overall Design Process, Roles, and Responsibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Definitions and Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Load Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
LRFD Load Combinations, Basic Equation, and Characteristic Soil/Rock Projects . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. LRFD Basic Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Characteristic Soil/Rock Properties and Their Use in LRFD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Spread Footing Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Loads and Load Factor Application to Spread Footings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Footing Bearing Stress and Capacity Strength and Extreme Event Limit States . . . . . . . . .
C. Sliding Stability for Footings Strength and Extreme Event Limit States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Overturning Stability for Footings Strength and Extreme Event Limit States . . . . . . . . . . .
E. Overall Stability for Footings Service and Extreme Event Limit States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F. Resistance Factors for Footing Design Strength Limit State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
G. Design of Footings at the Service Limit State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
H. What the Geotechnical Branch Will Provide to the Bridge Office for LRFD Footing Design
Loads and Load Factor Application to Deep Foundation Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Drilled Shaft Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Drilled Shaft Capacity Strength and Extreme Event Limit States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Uplift for Drilled Shafts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Lateral Load Analysis for Drilled Shafts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Group Effects for Bearing Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E. Group Effects for Uplift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F. Group Effects for Lateral Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
G. Service Limit State Design for Drilled Shafts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
H. What Geotechnical Branch Will Provide to Bridge Office for LRFD Shaft Design . . . . . . . .
Pile Foundation Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Pile Type, Pile Size, Bearing Capacity, and Estimated Tip Elevation Strength and
Extreme Event Limit States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Determination of Minimum Pile Tip Elevations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Resistance Factors for Pile Foundation Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Determination of Pile Driveability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E. What Geotechnical Branch Will Provide to Bridge Office for LRFD Pile Design . . . . . . . . . .
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4
4
4
5
9.8-6
6
7
8
9
9
9
9
9
9.9-1
1
4
5
7
7
7
9
10
13
14
15
15
16
17
17
19
22
23
24
24
24
26
26
28
28
31
33
37
38
39
39
9.99-1
July 2000

Criteria
Substructure Design
Contents

9.2-A1
24-Inch Diameter Round Column Section Capacity Chart
9.2-A2
9.2-A3
9.2-A4
9.2-A5
9.2-A6
Column Design Flow Chart
9.2-A7
Column Design Effective Length Factors
9.2-A8
Buckling Load Round Columns
9.2-A9
Factor Charts
9.2-A10 Moment Magnification Factor
9.2-A11 Column Design Example
9.3-A1
Wing Wall Notes to Designers
9.3-A2
General Wing Wall Details (applies to 9.3-A1, A-3, A-4, and A-5)
9.3-A3
20-Foot Wing Wall 2:1 Slope
9.3-A4
15-Foot Wing Wall 2:1
9.3-A5
15-Foot Wing Wall 1 3/4:1 Slope
9.4-A1
Earthquake Force Retaining Wall
9.5-A1
Stress on a Rectangular Footing Normal Load Outside Kern
9.7-A1
Thickness of Foundation Seals
9.7-A2
Pile Extension Below Foundation Seals
9.9-A1-1 through 5
Simplified Example for Pile Foundation Design,
Including Resistance Factor Calibration
9.2-B1-1 through 4
Column Shear Example
9.3-B1-1 through 5
L-Abutment Design Example Sheet 1
9.4-B1-1 through 8
Curtain Wall
P65:DP/BDM9
July 2000
9.0-v

Criteria
Substructure Design
9.1
9.1.1
Loads
A. General
1.
Substructure elements shall be designed to carry all of the loads specified in AASHTO, the
Guide Specifications for Seismic Design of Highway Bridges and Chapter 4 of this manual. Good
judgment is needed to select those load conditions which govern in order to minimize calculation
time. Computer programs such as GPLOAD, GROUPLDS, and YIELD tabulate the load
combinations as described in Chapter 4 of this manual.
2.
Consideration shall be given during design to construction loads in order to ensure that stability
and appropriate stresses can be handled during all construction conditions. For example, a single
column pier could be overloaded by placing all of the precast girders on one side of the roadway
before placing those on the other side. In some cases a sequence of construction is shown on the
plans in order to avoid unacceptable loadings.
3.
On curved bridges, the substructure units shall be designed for the eccentricity resulting from the
differences in girder lengths. Where curved girder theory has been used in design of the superstructure, the reactions from such analysis shall be used appropriately as loads to the substructure.
B. Dead Loads
Substructures shall be designed for all anticipated dead load conditions. Sidesway effect shall be
included where it tends to increase stresses.
C. Live Loads
Live load shall be distributed to the substructure by placing the appropriate live load wheel line
reaction in the lane configuration giving maximum stresses in the substructure unit. Liveload impact
is not included in some elements of the substructure. See AASHTO Impact. The loads are considered to act directly on the substructure without further distribution through the superstructure except
as previously noted. No consideration is given to torsional or lateral distribution. (See Figure 9.1.1-1.)
Normally, sidesway effect from live load need not be considered. The computer program
GTSTRUDL will include this effect.
For maximum cantilever moment on the substructure units, the outside vehicle wheel shall be placed
2 feet from the curb. For the design loads in the crossbeam members, the design lanes are to be
loaded to obtain the maximum moment in the member, then loaded again to obtain the maximum
shear in the member. For the design loads in columns, the design lanes are to be loaded to obtain the
maximum transverse moment at the top of the column, then loaded again to obtain the maximum
axial force on the column. In each case, the lane reduction factor as described in AASHTO Article
Reduction in Load Intensity can be applied to the number of lanes actually loaded to obtain the
design loads.
The live load wheel line reaction can be obtained by the computer programs BDS or UCONBRG.
The wheel line reaction will be 1/2 the results for one lane load from BDS or the results for one wheel
load from UCONBRG. For simple span structures, Appendix A of AASHTO can be used. The values
in Appendix A are for one lane. The wheel line reaction will be 1/2 of the values listed.
April 1991
9.1 - 1

Criteria
Substructure Design
9.1 - 2

Criteria
Substructure Design
D. Wind Loads
Wind forces shall be applied to the substructure units in accordance with the loadings specified in
AASHTO Article Wind Loads. Transverse stiffness of the superstructure may be considered, as
necessary to properly distribute loads to the substructure, provided that the superstructure is capable
of sustaining such loads. Uplift wind, per AASHTO Article Overturning Forces, shall be included in
the design where appropriate, for example, on single column piers. Wind loads shall be applied
through shear keys or other positive means from the superstructure to the substructure. Wind loads
shall be distributed to the piers and abutments in accordance with the laws of statics. Transverse wind
can be applied to the piers assuming the superstructure to act as a rigid beam. For large structures, a
more appropriate result might be obtained by considering the superstructure to act as a flexible beam
on elastic supports.
E. Earthquake Loads
Earthquake loads on elements of the substructure are describe in the Guide Specifications for
Seismic Design of Highway Bridges. The resulting loads shall be taken in any horizontal direction to
give maximum design load for the substructure element. Final design acceleration coefficient and site
coefficient will be given in the Foundation Report.
Earthquake uplift forces shall be designed per Guide Specifications Hold-Down Devices. As a minimum, earthquake forces shall be considered to cause a temporary uplift on the substructure equal to
10 percent of the dead load reaction of the superstructure. Where such forces can be developed, the
crossbeam, column and footing shall be designed to carry these temporary loads. For concrete superstructures built integrally with the substructure, the substructure elements shall be designed to carry
their dead load plus all the elements below them including soil overburden as though they were
suspended from the superstructure. (Seal not included). For this condition, the ultimate downward
force shall be 1.0 (EQ + Uplift). For structures carried on elastomeric pads or where there is no
positive vertical connection, the uplift force from the superstructure shall be neglected.
F. Prestressing Effects from Superstructure
When cast-in-place, post-tensioned superstructures are constructed monolithic with the piers, the
substructure design should take into account frame moments and shears caused by elastic shortening
and creep of the superstructure upon application of the axial post-tensioning force at the bridge ends.
Frame moments and shears thus obtained should be added algebraically to the values obtained from
the primary and secondary Pe moment diagrams applied to the superstructure. If the equivalent
uniform vertical load method presented in T. Y. Lins text, Reference 6.99-1, is coded into the
computer program GTSTRUDL along with axial forces (and moments at bridge ends if they exist),
then the output results will represent all of the above mentioned effects.
When cast-in-place, post-tensioned superstructures are supported on sliding bearings at some of the
piers, the design of those piers should include the longitudinal force from friction on the bearings
generated as the superstructure shortens during jacking. When post-tensioning is complete, the full
permanent reaction from this effect should be included in the governing AASHTO load combinations
for the pier under design.
January 1991
9.1 - 3

Criteria
Substructure Design
9.1.2
Concrete Design for Substructure

The class of concrete for substructure units shall normally be as specified below:
Seals
Footings
Pedestals
Massive Piers
Columns
Std. Retaining Walls
Wing Walls
Crossbeams
Retaining Walls
Traffic Barriers
Class 4000W
Class 4000
Class 4000
Class 4000
Class 4000
Class 3000
Class 4000
Class 4000
Class 4000
Class 4000
Where retaining walls are connected directly to the bridge superstructure and color matching is important,
consideration could be given to using Class 4000 in the retaining wall or using pigmented sealer in order
that the concrete color will not vary from adjacent portions of the structure.
9.1.3
Application of Loads to Substructure Units

A. Live Load
For application of live load, see Figure 9.1.1-1.
B. Earthquake
For earthquake loading, the intermediate pier(s) of each unit of a multispan continuous structure shall
be designed to resist the entire longitudinal earthquake force for that unit (unless the end piers are an
integral part of the superstructure). The calculated longitudinal movement shall be used to determine
the shear force developed by the pads at the abutments. The Modulus of Elasticity of Neoprene at
70F (21C) shall be used for determine the shear force. However, the force transmitted through a
bearing pad shall be limited to that which causes the pad to slip. For single-span structures supported
on pads, see Guide Specifications Design Requirements for Single Span Bridges.
9-1:V:BDM9
9.1 - 4
April 1991

Criteria
Substructure Design
9.2
Piers
9.2.1
Columns
Piers
A. Spacing of Piers and Columns

1.
Pier Spacing
Piers normally are spaced to meet the geometric and aesthetic requirements of the site and to
give maximum economy for the total structure. Tall piers will generally justify greater spacing
(longer spans) than short piers. Difficult and expensive foundation conditions will also justify
long spans. Good judgment must be used in determining pier locations on each job.
2.
Multicolumn Spacing
Columns shall be spaced to give maximum structural benefit except where aesthetic considerations dictate a modification. The spacing should be selected so that column moments are minimized for dead load. Multiple columns should be considered if earthquake loads control the
column design.
3.
Changing Spacing
Column and pier spacing is usually set at the preliminary plan stage based on preliminary
analysis.
The designer may, for structural reasons, after column spacing in a multicolumn pier or change
from a single-column pier to a multicolumn pier. Multicolumn piers are generally better suited
for handling lateral loads due to wind and/or earthquake. These changes must be reviewed by the
supervisor, who will determine if the changes need to be reviewed by the Bridge Planning
Engineer or the Bridge Architect.
Pier spacing is usually not changed after the preliminary plan stage. However, if substantial
structural improvement and/or cost savings can be realized, changes can still be made. The
designer should discuss the possibilities of changing the pier spacing or skew with his/her supervisor at the earliest possible time. Changes in pier spacing could affect the Materials Labs soils
investigation.
B. Section Shape
Column section shape shall be selected for strength and aesthetics and shall give proper dimensions
for long column action. Columns should be designed so that construction is as simple and repetitious
as possible. The diameter of circular columns should be a multiple of one foot. Rectangular sections
should have lengths and widths that are multiples of 3 inches. Long rectangular columns are often
tapered to reduce the amount of column reinforcement required for strength. Tapers should be kept to
one plane for ease of construction.
The column shape is determined at the preliminary plan stage. Changes to column size and shape
may be made by the designer. Any changes must be reviewed by the supervisor, who will determine
if the change needs to be reviewed by the Bridge Planning Engineer or the Bridge Architect.
C. Construction Joints
Construction joints in columns are normally placed at the top of the footing or pedestal and the
bottom of the crossbeam. Optional construction joints with roughened surfaces should be provided at
approximately 30-foot vertical spacing.
January 1991
9.2 - 1

Criteria
Substructure Design
Piers
D. Column Reinforcement
1.
The maximum reinforcement ratio (ratio of the steel area to the gross area of the section - As/Ag)
shall be 0.06. The minimum reinforcement ratio shall be 0.01. The reinforcement ratio may be
reduced to 0.005 provided that all loads can be carried on a reduced section of similar shape such that
the selected reinforcement ratio is equal to .01. All dimensions of the section shall be reduced by the
same ratio to obtain the reduced section. The properties of the reduced section should not be used to
compute K1/r ratios for long columns.
Longitudinal reinforcement should extend into the footing and rest on the bottom mat of footing
reinforcement with standard 90 hooks. Embedment must be at least 1.25 1dh (1dh is development
length of a standard hook). Longitudinal reinforcement should extend into the crossbeam at least
1.25 1d. Hooks should be avoided in the crossbeam. If the crossbeam is not deep enough to
develop the bars, 180 hooks generally provide less congestion. A detailed clearance check is
essential at the column/crossbeam connection.
2.
Splicing of Longitudinal Reinforcement

Column reinforcement shall not be spliced at points of maximum moment, plastic hinge locations, and in columns less than 30 feet long between the top of footing and the bottom of crossbeam. Splices of No. 11 and smaller bars shall be made by lapping the bars. When space is
limited, No. 11 and smaller bars can be spliced by welds, an approved mechanical butt splice, or
the top bar can be bent inward (deformed by double bending) to lie inside and parallel to the bars
below. When the bar size exceeds No. 11, welded splices or an approved mechanical butt splice
shall be used. The smaller of the bars being spliced determines the type of splice required. The
appropriate weld details shall be shown on the plans and approved mechanical splices are covered in the Standard Specifications. All splices of No. 7 and larger bars shall be staggered. For
usual practice in splicing, see Figure 9.2.1-1.
Show splice locations on the plans. Where a column is to have an intermediate construction joint,
the shortest bar shall project above the joint 60 bar diameters in the case of lap splicing, or
20 bar diameters in the case of welded splices. If the splice is indicated on the plans as
optional, the method of payment for splice steel shall be defined in the Special Provisions.
The Guide Specifications require that splices fall within the middle one-half of the column. For
extremely tall columns (where a 60-foot bar length cannot reach the middle half), splices should
not be closer than 30 feet from the columns ends.
3.
Ties and Spirals

Ties or spirals are required in all columns to resist shear forces and to maintain the columns
structural integrity after catastrophic forces have severely cracked the outer shell. Two section
views of transverse reinforcing differentiating the column ends and the typical middle sections
should be shown.
The column end section will only be used for the confinement zones, where it must both provide
confinement and resist shear. Hoops and ties in the confinement zones are normally No. 6 bars.
No. 7 bars can be used for hoops and ties, but the concrete cover (1 inch to the tie) must be
maintained using the standard radius for a No. 7 bar. Hoops can be made up of several reinforcing elements with 135 hooks extending into the core a minimum of 10 diameters or 6 inches.
Ties can have a 180 hook on one end and a 90 hook on the other end. The 180 hook is to be
alternated both horizontally and vertically with the 90 hook. The tie is to engage the peripheral
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hoop and be tied to the longitudinal reinforcement. The designer should check that the 180 hook
can fit between adjacent hoops and longitudinal bars.
Where confinement is not required, the transverse reinforcing needs to resist the column shear. Crossties outside the confinement zones are usually No. 4 or No. 5 bars. Cross-ties should be spaced so as
to leave horizontal openings of 18 inches to 21 inches to allow for placing and consolidating concrete.
The area of the transverse reinforcement required to resist the column shear is defined in Article
Column Shear and Transverse Reinforcement of the Guide Specifications and AASHTO
Article Shear. The area of transverse reinforcement required for confinement is determined
from Guide Specifications Article Spacing of Transverse Reinforcement for Confinement for
spirals and ties. The area of transverse reinforcing in the confinement zones is the larger of the
two requirements. Transverse reinforcement may be provided by spirals, hoops, or cross-ties. See
Design Example 9.2B-1 through -5.
The general arrangement for column spirals in circular columns is shown in Figures 9.2.1-1 and
2. Note that spirals are to be used for all circular columns including and less than 8 feet diameter.
Standard sizes for column spiral use are No. 4 or No. 5 deformed bar, 1/2-inch diameter or
5
/8-inch diameter plain steel bar, or W20 or W31 cold drawn wire. Label these spirals with all
three options (for example: No. 4, 1/2-inch diameter or W20 spiral). The pitch shall allow for
1 inch or 11/3 times the maximum coarse aggregate size clearance to allow aggregate to flow
through. Anchor spirals at the top and the bottom with a hook that extends into the core a
distance of 10 inches past the bend. Twelve feet zero inches is the maximum height normally
fabricated. Show full height of the spiral in the bar list; the fabricator will provide required
splices. For diameters larger than 8 feet 0 inches, hoops are to be used.
Constant dimension rectangular columns shall be detailed as shown in Figure 9.2.1-4 with the use
of spirals. The same provisions as a spirally-reinforced circular column apply.
The general arrangement for ties in tapered rectangular columns is shown in Figures 9.2.1-5
through 5. The maximum vertical spacing for hoops and ties in the confinement zones and over
the length of lap splices is 4 inches for Seismic Performance Categories C and D and 6 inches for
Seismic Performance Categories A and B. The vertical opening between layers of confinement
reinforcement should be at least 21/2 inches to allow aggregate to flow through. The spacing at lap
splices should be shown on the splice detail and tied to the splice location.
4.
Location of Confinement Zones

The typical locations of confinement zones for circular columns are shown in Figure 9.2.1-2 and
for tapered rectangular columns in Figure 9.2.1-3. The locations of confinement zones are the
same for columns of any shape.
Column ends that are framed into footings, multicolumn crossbeams, or longitudinal frames must
have confinement reinforcing over the maximum of:
a.
The lesser of:

(1) 1/6 the clear column height, or
(2) The maximum column dimension. For wall type piers where plastic hinging occurs only
along the weak axis, use the short dimension.
b.
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18 inches.
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Confinement reinforcing is required to extend into these framed footings, multicolumn crossbeams, etc., the larger of one-half the maximum column dimension and 15 inches, but not more
than three-quarters the depth of the crossbeam or footing. Crossbeam and footing steel can be
counted as confinement steel as long as it is fully developed at the extended planes of the side
of the column.
5.
Column Hinges
The area of the hinge bars in square inches is as follows:
1/
(Pu)
Pu2
2
+
+ Vu2
2
4
As =
0.85 Fy Cos
Where:
Pu is the factored axial load
Vu is the factored shear load
Fy is the reinforcing yield strength (60 ksi)
is the angle of the hinge bar to the vertical
The development length required for the hinge bars is 1.25 times that described in AASHTO
Article Development of Flexural Reinforcement. Figure 9.2.1-6 shows some typical hinge
details. Space the ties and spirals to satisfy Article Spacing of Transverse Reinforcement for
Confinement of the Guide Specifications, AASHTO Article Shear, or a maximum of
12 inches (6 inches if longitudinal bars are bundled). Premolded joint filler should be used to
assure the required rotational capacity. There should also be a shear key at the hinge bar location.
When the hinge reinforcement is bent, additional confinement reinforcing may be necessary to
take the horizontal component from the bent hinge bars. The maximum spacing of confinement
reinforcing for the hinge is the smaller of that required above and the following:
Av Fy
Smax =
Pu Tan
V
+ s
0.85 lh
d
Where:
Av, Vs, and d are as defined in AASHTO Article Notations and 1h is the distance from the
hinge to where the bend begins.
Continue this spacing one-quarter of the column width (in the plane perpendicular to the hinge)
past the bend in the hinge bars.
E. Column Loads
Loads applied to the columns consist of reactions from loads applied to the superstructure and loads
applied directly to the columns. The load combinations are described in AASHTO Article Combination of Loads and in Chapter 4 of this manual. The Earthquake Load Combination is described in the
Guide Specifications, Article Design Forces for Structural Members and Connections. For long
columns, it may be advantageous to reduce the amount of reinforcement as the applied loads decrease
along the column. In these cases, load combinations need to be generated at the locations where the
reinforcement is reduced. Computer programs such as YIELD, GROUPLDS, and GPLOAD can be
used to combine the loads.
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9.2 - 5

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Spiral Details for Circular or Rectangular Columns

Show splice details on the plans.
Figure 9.2.1-2
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January 1991
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Constant Rectangular Column Section

Figure 9.2.1-4
9.2 - 8
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Tapered Rectangular Column Ties

Figure 9.2.1-5
July 1994
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9.2 - 10
Piers

Criteria
Substructure Design
9.2.2
Piers
Column Design
A. General
Understanding the effects on long columns due to applied loads is fundamental in their design. The
following is intended to give further guidance of long column design.
1.
Modes of Failure
A column subject to axial load and moment can fail in several modes. A short column can fail
due to crushing of the concrete or to failure of the tensile reinforcement. A long column can
fail due to elastic buckling even though, in the initial stages, stresses are well within the normal
allowable range. Failure of a long column is normally a combination of stability and strength
failure which might occur in the following sequence:
2.
a.
Axial load is applied to the column.
b.
Bending moments are applied to the column, causing movement of the center line with
respect to the line of action of the axial loads.
c.
Axial loads act eccentrically to the new column center line producing P- moments which
are additive to applied moments.
d.
The P- moments increase the deflection of the column and lead to higher eccentricities and
moments.
e.
At some curvature (bending strain), failure of the concrete or reinforcement results in sudden
failure of the column.
Peculiarities of Bridge Columns

Unlike building columns, bridge columns are required to resist lateral loads through bending and
shear. As a result, these columns may be required to resist relatively large applied moments while
carrying nominal axial loads. In addition, columns are often shaped to give good appearance.
This results in complicating the analysis problem with non-prismatic sections.
B. Slenderness Effects
The goal of a slenderness analysis is to estimate the additional bending moments in the columns and
the foundations that are developed as a result of axial loads acting upon the deflected structure.
The following is intended to supplement and clarify the provisions of the AASHTO Specifications.
Valuable information is available in the Commentary on Building Code Requirements for Reinforced
Concrete, ACI 318 R-83.
Two primary analysis methods exist:
Method 1:
The approximate moment magnifier method detailed in AASHTO Article Approximate

Evaluation of Slenderness Effects.
Method 2:
A second-order structural analysis which accounts directly for the axial forces.
The decision as to which method to use is based upon a consideration of the slenderness ratio (kLu/r)
of the column(s). Method 1 is allowable if kLu/r 100. Method 2 is recommended (by AASHTO) for
all situations and is mandatory (Article Slenderness Effects in Compression Members) for
kLu/r > 100.
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When compatible assumptions are made, Method 1 is generally more conservative and is easier to
apply. For certain structures, however, use of Method 2 can lead to significant economy in the final
structure.
Determination of (kLu/r) requires an estimate of the value of the effective length factor, k. For
unbraced columns, k 1.2; for braced columns, k 1.0.
1.
Braced or Unbraced Columns

The AASHTO Specifications use the expression compression members braced against sidesway in order to establish an effective column length. In a braced member with loads applied at
the joints, any tendency toward sidesway is resisted by other members.
In building design, bracing is commonly provided by diagonal bracing, shear walls, or similar
elements. Bracing for some columns is provided by other columns within a story. Design procedures developed for these situations are not readily adaptable to bridge design since typical
bridge columns tend to be dominated by lateral loading while building columns are usually
dominated by axial loading.
In the transverse direction, sidesway, due to axial loads may be resisted by lateral flexure of the
superstructure as a result of the connections at the end piers. The usual practice is to consider the
piers as unbraced in the transverse direction.
Normal bridge practices is to provide expansion bearings at the end piers. Thus, the columns must
resist the longitudinal lateral loading and therefore are considered unbraced. The only time a
column can be considered as braced in the longitudinal direction is when it is framed to a bracing
member that does not let the column displace more than L/1500, where L is the total column
length. In this case, the bracing member must be designed to take all of the horizontal forces.
2.
Effective Length Factor, k

The computation of the effective length factor for columns can be readily accomplished by using
the charts shown on Design Aid Sheet 9.2-A7. The effective length factor (k) should be
computed for both axes of the column. These charts are appropriate only for prismatic members.
For nonprismatic columns, k is not used in the column design, a second order analysis is more
appropriate.
G on these charts is the ratio of the sum of the flexural stiffnesses of the columns to the sum of
the flexural stiffnesses of the restraining members.
a.
Gtop
(1) Transverse Direction
When the connection between a single column pier and the superstructure is moment
resisting, the torsional rigidity of the superstructure may be accounted for in the computation of the restraining stiffness. In this case, Gtop can be computed as follows:
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Gtop =
4Ec(1.2Ic)/Lc
9.5EsRs/2(1+s)Ls
where:
Ec is the modulus of elasticity of the column
Ic is the column moment of inertia computed for the gross section
Lc is the column length
Es is the modulus of elasticity of the superstructure
Ls is the average length of the adjacent connecting spans
Rs is the torsional rigidity of the superstructure (the I11 value computed for
the computer program SEISAB)
s is Poissons ratio for the superstructure
(2) Longitudinal Direction
When the connection between the pier and the superstructure is moment resisting, Gtop
can be computed as follows:
Gtop =
4Ec(1.2Ic)/Lc
nEs(0.5Is)/Ls
where:
Ec, Ic, and Lc are as defined above for the column
Es and Ls are for the connecting spans
n = 3 for an end span; n = 4 for an intermediate span with fixity at both ends
Is can be taken as the I33 value computed for the computer program SEISAB
AASHTO Article Approximate Evaluation of Slenderness Effects requires that the
effect of cracking and reinforcement on the relative stiffnesses must be considered when
determining k. The use of 1.2Ic for the column stiffness approximates the effect of the
column reinforcement. The use of 0.5Is and 0.5Rs for the superstructure accounts for the
effects of cracking. More rational approaches may be considered in some cases.
b.
Gbot
By definition, Gbot = Kcol/KR, where:
Kcol = flexural stiffness of the column
Kcol = 4Ec(1.2Ig)Lu for a prismatic column
KR = rotational stiffness constant describing the restraint of the foundation
The rotational stiffness constant, KR, is related to the base fixity, , as follows:
Given KR, =
KR
KR + Kcol
or given , KR , = [ /(1- )]*Kcol

Therefore, Gbot = (1- )/
Note that
January 1991
0
(free)
1.0
(fixed)
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Criteria
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Piers
Procedures for establishing KR and/or will be discussed in Chapter 4, Foundation

Modeling. In most cases, there is a substantial amount of uncertainty involved in the
computation of KR or . Therefore, care must be taken to use conservative values in the
slenderness analysis.
For preliminary design or when detailed foundation information is not available, an approximate, conservative value for base fixity, , should be used. In this case, Gbot should not be
taken 1.0.
(1) Piers on multiple rows of piles are 100 percent fixed at the connections to the piles.
(2) Piers on a single row of piles are pinned at the connection to the piles.
(3) Piers on spread footings:
(a) allowable* soil pressure of 3-6 TSF; = 0.3,
(b) allowable* soil pressure of 6-9 TSF; = 0.4,
(c) allowable* soil pressure 9 TSF (competent rock); = 1.0.
*at service load level
If additional information becomes available, the effective length of the column(s) should be
recalculated. When the new effective length is significantly different, the design should be
checked using the new values.
Lower limits on k values:
k 1.2 for unbraced columns with rotational restraint at both ends,
k 2.1 for unbraced columns with no rotational restraint at one end (i.e., cantilever column).
For braced columns, a value of k = 1.0 will normally be used.
c.
Alternate Procedure for Determining Base Fixity,

The moment induced in columns is dependent on the rotational restraint at the top and the degree
of fixity at the base. In turn, the base fixity is dependent on the connection between the column
and the footing, and the resistance of the soil to footing rotation.
For most cases, it is adequate to assume a base fixity between 0.5 and 1.0, but in some cases a
more detailed analysis is warranted. The degree of fixity between a column and a footing is a
function of several factors including the size and spacing of anchor bolts, thickness of base plate,
grout strength, etc. The degree of fixity or restraint, , between the footing and soil, assuming a
fixity of 1.0 in the column-footing connection, can be calculated from:
=
kIf
kIf + 4EccIc/h
where:
k = Soil modulus, similar to Modulus of Subgrade Reaction, used in paving design.
Where this value is not available, it can be estimated from Figure 9.2.2-2. Because
the equation is not sensitive to values of k, these values will usually be adequate,
psi/in.
If = Moment of inertia of the plan of the footing in the direction of bending, in.4.
Ic = Moment of inertia of the column, in.4.
h = Height of column, in.
Ecc = Modulus of elasticity of concrete in column, psi.
9.2 - 14
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Piers
Figure 9.2.2-2
modulus, k.
Approximate relationship between allowable soil bearing value and subgrade
C. The Moment Magnification Method

This method can lead to rapid column design. The procedure for its use is well defined in the
AASHTO Specifications. Design Aid Sheets 9.2-A1 through 9.2-A6 can be helpful for design by this
method.
1.
General Procedure
The following information is required:
Column geometry and properties: E, I, Lu, and k.
All ultimate group loads and column understrength factors, (see Figure 9.2.2-1), obtained
from conventional elastic analyses using appropriate stiffness and fixity assumptions.
The basic procedure is as follows:
a.
Compute Pc for all columns per AASHTO Article Approximate Evaluation of Slenderness
Effects.
b.
Check Pu* .7Pc. Pu* is the load at the top of the column plus a portion of the column
weight: Pu* = Putop + 1/3 * factored column weight. This ensures that Euler buckling is not
approached.
c.
Compute the moment magnification factors as specified in AASHTO using Pu*. Since may
vary for different columns for the same load group, Equation 8-41a is modified as follows:
s =
d.
April 1991
1
1.0
1-(Pu*/Pc)
Compute the magnified factored moments, Mc, as specified in AASHTO Equation 8-40. M2b
is defined by the specifications as the bending moment due to gravity loads which result in
no appreciable sidesway ( < Lu/1500). Since creep, shrinkage, post-tensioning effects, and
thermal deformations do not result in sidesway of the entire frame, it is considered appropriate to include those moments in the definition of M2b. This provision applies only to those
columns framed together by the superstructure and/or a crossbeam. Note that the use of
Equation 8-40 will generally require that Pc be computed for both the unbraced and the
braced conditions.
9.2 - 15

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Piers
PHI Factor
Figure 9.2.2-1
9.2 - 16
April 1991

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Substructure Design
2.
Piers
Critical Load, Pc
The critical load, Pc, can be readily computed for a prismatic column. For a nonprismatic
column, however, the computation becomes more difficult. Numerical methods are available for
solving this problem accurately; the computer program COLUMN can be used if an estimate of
the effective length factor (k) is made. Other numerical methods require that the rotational
restraint at the column ends be input directly (the effective length is not required).
3.
Biaxial Bending
When using the AASHTO specifications regarding bending about both principal axes, the appropriate values of Pc and moment magnifiers must be computed for each axis separately.
4.
Yield Program
Economy in design time can be achieved by using the program YIELD. The program groups the
AASHTO loads, magnifies the moments, and checks or designs the column steel. Under the
check mode, it will determine the Plastic Hinging Moment Envelope to determine foundation
loads. The moments are all assumed to be acting on an unbraced column; therefore, the results
will be conservative. If magnification factors controlling the column design exceed 1.4, the
designer should use either the more correct method described above or a second-order analysis
described in the following section.
D. Second-Order Analysis
1.
General
A second-order analysis which includes the influence of axial loads on the deflected structure is
required under certain circumstances and may be advisable in others. It can lead to substantial
economy in the final design of many structures.
Performing a second-order analysis can be difficult and time consuming. The designer should
consider all of the options carefully and should discuss the situation with the supervisor before
proceeding with the analysis.
The ACI Building Code Commentary (ACI 318 R-83) discusses some general aspects of carrying
out a second-order analysis. Some additional aspects which should be considered are given here.
Previous practice has been to analyze columns separately. This is appropriate only for those
columns that are isolated structurally from the frame as a whole (with sliding bearings in the
direction of interest).
For columns framed together, the entire frame should be analyzed as a unit. Analyzing individual
columns results in overly conservative results for some columns and nonconservative results for
others. This is a result of redistribution of the lateral loads in response to the reduced stiffnesses
of the compression members. For example, in a bridge with long, flexible columns and with
short, stiff columns both integrally connected to a continuous superstructure, the stiff columns
will tend to take a larger proportion of the lateral loading as additional sidesway under axial
loads occurs.
For a second-order analysis, loads are applied to the structure and the analysis results in member
forces and deflections. It must be recognized that a second-order analysis is non-linear; thus, the
commonly used principle of superposition may not be applicable. The loads applied to the structure should be the entire set of factored loads for the load group under consideration. The analysis must be repeated for each group load of interest. The problem is complicated by the fact that
it is often difficult to predict in advance which load groups will govern.
January 1991
9.2 - 17

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As with a conventional linear elastic frame analysis, various assumptions and simplifications
must be made in regard to member stiffness, connectivity, and foundation restraint. Care must be
taken to use conservative values for the slenderness analysis. For compression members, use of
the equations for EI stated in AASHTO Article Approximate Evaluation of Slenderness Effects
will give an adequately conservative value. For concrete beams, use EI = 0.5EcIg. This is inexact
in that reinforcement, cracking, load duration, and their variation along the members are not
explicitly taken into account. More precise methods may be used. Foundation restraint will often
be modeled as rotational springs (lateral and vertical springs may also be incorporated). A stiffness matrix may be computed to represent the soil-foundation interaction. Procedures to compute
these values will be discussed in Chapter 4, Modeling Foundations.
For certain loadings, column moments are sensitive to the stiffness assumptions used in the
analysis. For example, loads developed as a result of thermal deformations within a structure may
change significantly with changes in column, beam, and foundation stiffnesses. Accordingly,
upper and lower bounds on these stiffnesses should be determined and the analysis repeated
using both sets to verify that the governing load has been found.
The specifications include the strength reduction factor, , in the computation of the moment
magnifiers. No guidance is given with respect to the use of in a second-order analysis scheme.
The following procedure is adopted:
For the lower-bound analysis, use the reduced member stiffnesses discussed earlier and the
lower-bound foundation restraint stiffness values. Multiply the member stiffnesses by the
appropriate reduction factor: = 0.9 for beams, and varies for columns.
For the upper-bound analysis, use stiffness assumptions normally employed for elastic analysis; IB = Ig, IC = 1.2Ig, and the upper-bound foundation restraint stiffnesses. The stiffnesses
for the upper-bound analysis should not be reduced ( = 1.0). E for concrete varies with
loading type; thus, some superposition of results may be required in spite of the non-linearity
of the analysis. In most cases, the non-linear effects will be small for the relatively stiff
upper-bound analysis. Judgment is required.
Note: Computations of effective length factors, k, and buckling loads, Pc, are not required for a
second-order analysis, though they may be helpful in establishing the need for such an analysis.
In general, if magnification factors computed using the AASHTO Specifications are found to
exceed about 1.4, then a second-order analysis may yield substantial benefits.
Methods for satisfying the requirements of a second-order analysis are given as follows:
9.2 - 18
a.
The preferred method for performing a second-order analysis of an entire frame or on

isolated single columns is to use the program GTSTRUDL with appropriate stiffness and
restraint assumptions. The columns are divided into a number of individual segments
(10 gave good results in tests). The factored group loads (including the self-weight of the
columns) are applied to the frame. The model is then analyzed using the nonlinear option
available in GTSTRUDL. The final design moments are obtained directly from the analysis.
Care must be taken in modeling complex structures as the cost of a nonlinear analysis can be
high.
b.
For isolated single columns, the program COLUMN gives the magnified moments directly
(P- moments are added to the applied moments using an iterative process until stability is
reached).

Criteria
Substructure Design
c.
Piers
For isolated single columns, the program LPILE1 can be manipulated to also give the magnified moments directly.
Note: Neither of these programs, COLUMN nor LPILE1, includes the effect of the column
weight; therefore, the axial load must be adjusted as follows: Pu* = Pu + 1/3 * factored
column weight. Care and judgment must be used as they have limitations on the boundary
conditions and configurations that may be analyzed.
d.
For isolated single columns, the iterative hand method is sometimes economical. Loads
affected by column stiffness (temperature, shrinkage, and post tensioning) cannot be
analyzed this way.
The factored load is applied to the column and the deflections are computed along the length
of the member taking into account restraints top and bottom and the effect of variations in
moment and I along the length of the column. The load is adjusted for the P- moment. The
adjusted loads are applied to the column and the deflections are computed again. The deflections usually converge in about five iterations (deflections from last cycle are within 5 percent of the total deflections). If not, the column is too flexible and is unstable for that load.
The program LOTUS can be used to do the repetitious hand calculations. Column EI must
be adjusted according to AASHTO Article Approximate Evaluation of Slenderness
Effects. Pu* including one-third the factored column weight must not exceed .7Pc.
*At service load level.
2.
Special Provisions for Seismic Loading

The following applies to those structures designed according to the AASHTO Guide Specifications for Seismic Design.
The seismic analysis program SEISAB does not include the secondary effects of the axial loads.
Therefore, a modified approach is necessary to perform a second-order analysis for this loading.
The moment magnifier method magnifies the Group VII loads as follows:
Mu = bMDL + s(MEQ/R)
where MEQ is the elastic seismic moment obtained from SEISAB and R is the response modification factor defined in the Guide Specifications.
The design philosophy of the Guide Specifications may be summarized as follows:
The columns are designed to hinge (fail in flexure) at a specified percentage of the computed
fully elastic seismic moment. This will occur at a deflection and shear force corresponding to
sMEQ/R. At this point, inelastic deflection will continue to some unknown maximum, but
bending moments and shear forces in the columns will theoretically not increase.
Therefore, the problem is to come up with an approach to compute the additional design moment
due to slenderness effects, M, such that:
MEQ/R + M = sMEQ/R.
A suggested second-order analysis is given as follows:
Estimate the maximum primary elastic deflection of the frame:
PR = EQ/R
where EQ is the CQC elastic deflection computed from SEISAB.
January 1991
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Apply PR to a GTSTRUDL model of the frame. This will yield a set of primary deflections
and forces, MPR and VPR, corresponding to PR. (Note that for some structures, these forces
may not agree exactly with the SEISAB results.)
Apply the external gravity loadings and the primary lateral force determined above to the
original model. Use the nonlinear option of GTSTRUDL to analyze the structure. The final
moments (MF) obtained are then equal to the sum of the primary moments (MPR) and the
additional moments due to slenderness effects (M).
Thus, the design moments for the columns are given by:
Mu = MDL + MEQ/R + M
where:
M = MF - MPR obtained from the GTSTRUDL analysis.
Note: The response modification factor, R, used for footing or pile design is generally less than
the value used for the columns. Thus, a separate analysis may be required to obtain the footing
design moments.
E. Resisting Capacities
Once magnified moments have been established, the resisting capacity of the column section must be
made adequate to carry this magnified moment. The appropriate capacity reduction factor () must be
used in the computation of this resisting capacity. In addition, the superstructure and the foundation
must also be designed to resist this magnified moment.
1.
Reduction Factor ()
According to AASHTO Article Design Strength, the reduction factor () may be increased
linearly from the value for compression members to the value for flexure as the design axial load
strength, Pn, decreases from .10fcAg or the balanced load strength Pb, whichever is smaller, to
zero. Since moment capacities are based on the factored axial load, Pu, this axial load is equal to
the design axial load strength, or Pu = Pn. The balanced load strength can be less than .10fcAg
when the area of reinforcement in tension of the column exceeds .02Ag. This is rarely the case in
column design but can be the case in pile design.
According to the Guide Specifications Article Flexural Strength, for Seismic Performance
Categories C and D, the value of for Group VII Loading may be increased linearly from .50 to
the value for flexure when the stress due to the maximum axial load decreases from .20fcAg to
zero.
Figure 9.2.2-1 shows a graph of Pn versus . This graph is appropriate unless Pb is less than
.10fcAg. Computer program YIELD computes according to this graph.
2.
Moment Capacity
Computer programs such as YIELD and ULT2AX can be used to compute the moment strength,
Mn. The program YIELD computes the moment strength in the direction of the resultant Mx
and My. The program ULT2AX computes the moment strength in the direction given in the
input; therefore, the Mn curve must be plotted for the axial load strength, Pn. The resultant of
Mux and Muy must fall within the curve.
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Piers
F. Service Load Requirements

When widening bridges originally designed by the allowable stress method, the analysis procedure for
the Moment Magnification Method is as follows.
Compute the capacity of the column by load factor design procedures. The allowable service load
capacity of the column shall be taken as:
Mallow =
0.35 Mn
where:
=
Cm
1 - 2.5P/Pc
and P is the service axial load

G. Seismic Design of Multicolumn Bents
The Guide Specifications require that connections to the superstructure be designed for either the
elastic demand moment (Seisab Load Case 2) at the top of the column using an R of 1, or the
plastic moment capacity of the top of the column, whichever is less. These column moments are to be
carried into the crossbeam and accounted for in the design. (For a center column of a three-column
bent, the moment is distributed to the crossbeam on either side of the column.) The seismic design
moment for the crossbeam would then be the moment at the face of the column or the equivalent
square column.
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9.3
Abutments
9.3.1
Size and Construction Details
Abutments
A. Representative Types
Several representative types of abutments that have been used by the Bridge and Structures Division
are shown in Figure 9.3.1-1. The types shown are intended for guidance only and may be varied to
suit the type of bridge being designed.
B. Bearing Seats
The bearing seats shall be wide enough to accommodate the size of the bearings used with a minimum edge dimension of 3 in. and satisfy the requirements of the Guide Specification for Seismic
Design of Highway Bridges, Article Design Displacements. On L-abutments, the bearing seat
should be sloped away from the bearings to prevent a build up or pocket of water at the bearings. The
superelevation and profile grade of the structure should be considered for drainage protection.
Normally, a 1/4 in. drop across the width of the bearing seat is sufficient.
C. Bearing Restraints and Girder Stops
All structures shall be provided with some means of restraint against lateral displacement at the
abutments due to earthquake, temperature and shrinkage, wind, earth pressure, etc. Such restraints
may be in the form of concrete hinges, concrete girder stops with or without vertical elastomeric
pads, or pintles in metal bearings. Other solutions are possible. Article Connection Design Forces of the
Guide Specifications for Seismic Design of Highway Bridges describe longitudinal linkage force
and hold-down devices required.
To eliminate alignment conflicts between prestressed girders and girder stops, prestressed girders
should be placed in final position before girder stops are cast. Allow 1/8 in. clearance between the
prestressed girder flange and the girder stop to prevent binding. Incorporate details of Figure 9.3.1-2
in bridge plans.
D. Face Slope
A vertical abutment wall or a 1:4 slope is used on the front face of the abutment as shown on Design
Aid Sheets 9.3-A2 through 9.3-A6. On very high abutments, where a 1:4 slope would create an
excessively wide bearing seat, the slope should be adjusted or using the slope only at the exposed
leading edge of the abutment and wing wall while leaving the remaining abutment wall surface vertical. On abutments with fractured fin surface, the front face should be vertical to match the fractured
fins.
E. Sizing Abutments
Other portions of the abutment shall be sized for stress. As indicated in Figure 9.3.1-1, additional
stem width, where required, may be obtained by sloping the back face of the wall.
On extremely high walls (30 feet and above) subjected to large earth pressures, consideration should
be given to using counterfort construction. See Section 9.4.2 B of this manual, Counterfort Retaining
Walls.
F. Class of Concrete
The class of concrete used in abutments and standard wingwalls shall be Class 4000.
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G. Abutment and Retaining Wall Junctions

Vertical expansion joints extending from the top of footings to the top of the abutment are usually
required between abutments and adjacent retaining walls to handle anticipated movements. The
expansion joint is normally filled with premolded joint filler which is not water tight. There may be
circumstances when this joint must be water tight; 1/8 butyl rubber may be used to cover the joint.
The open joint in the barrier should contain a compression seal to create a water tight joint. Figure
9.3.1-3 shows typical details that may be used. Aesthetic considerations may require that vertical
expansion joints between abutments and retaining walls be omitted. This is generally possible if the
retaining wall is less than 60 feet long.
The footing beneath the joint may be monolithic or cast with a construction joint. In addition, dowel
bars may be located across the footing joint parallel to the wall elements to guard against differential
settlement or deflection. For further discussion, see Section 9.4, Retaining Walls.
Particular attention should be given to the horizontal reinforcing steel required at the junction between
abutment and retaining wall. To account for the resistance to rotation found in retaining walls and
cantilever abutment walls rigidly connected to one another in a U-shape (as seen in Plan View), an
equivalent fluid pressure of 45 pcf shall be assumed for design. This increased loading can normally
be reduced to 30 pcf at a distance, from the junction between the abutment and retaining wall, equal
to the average height of the wall under design. At this location, active state soil pressure is assumed
to be developed.
H. Construction Joints
To simplify construction, vertical construction joints are often necessary, particularly between the
abutment and adjacent wing walls. Construction joints should also be provided between the footing
and the stem of the wall. Shear keys shall be provided at construction joints between the footing and
the stem, at vertical construction joints or at any construction joint that requires shear transfer. The
Standard Specifications cover the size and placement of shear keys. The location of such joints shall
be detailed on the plans. Construction joints with roughened surface can be used at locations (except
where needed for shear transfer) to simplify construction. These should be shown on the plans and
labeled Construction Joint With Roughened Surface. When construction joints are located in the
middle of the abutment wall, a pour strip should be used for a clean joint between pours. Details of
the pour strip should be shown in the plans. See Section 5 of this manual and Design Aid Sheets
9.3-A1 through A6 for further guidance on construction joints.
I.
Drainage and Backfilling

Three-inch (3 in.) weep holes shall be provided in all bridge abutment walls. These shall be located
6 inches above the final ground line at about 12 feet on centers. In cases where the vertical distance
between the top of the footing and the bearing seat is greater than 10 feet, additional weep holes shall
be provided 6 inches above the top of the footing. No weep holes are necessary in cantilever wing
walls where a wall footing is not used.
The details for gravel backfill for walls, underdrain pipe and backfill for drains shall be indicated on
the plans. The gravel backfill for walls shall be provided behind all bridge abutments. The underdrain
pipe and gravel backfill for drains shall be provided behind all bridge abutments except abutments on
fills with a stem wall height of 5 feet or less. When retaining walls with footings are attached to the
abutment, a blockout may be required for the underdrain pipe outfall. Cooperation between Bridge
and the district as to the drainage requirements is needed to guarantee proper blockout locations.
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Underdrain pipe and gravel backfill for drains are not necessary behind cantilever wing walls. Threefoot (3 ft.) thickness of gravel backfill for walls behind the cantilever wing walls shall be shown in
the plans.
The backfill for walls, underdrain pipe and gravel backfill for drains are not included in bridge quantities, the size of the underdrain pipe should not be shown on the plans. Figure 9.3.1-4 illustrates
backfill details.
J.
Embankment at Bridge Ends

The minimum clearances for the embankment at the front face of abutments shall be as indicated on
Standard Plan Sheet H-9. At the ends of the abutment, the fill may be contained with wing walls or in
the case of concrete structures, placed against the exterior girders. On stub abutments with the end
diaphragm cast on the superstructure, the open expansion joint must be protected from the fill.
Normally, 1/8 in. butyl rubber is used to seal the opening. Figure 9.3.1-5 and Figure 9.3.1-6 show
typical details using butyl rubber. The bearings must also be protected from the fill. Figure 9.3.1-7
and Figure 9.3.1-8 show typical details to protect the bearings. There are many other different ways to
protect the open expansion joints and bearings than shown in Figures 9.3.1-5 through 8. The method
used should be well detailed in the plans. The Special Provision and Estimates unit can advise as to
what types of materials would or would not require special provisions.
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Open Joint Details End Diaphragm on Girder

Figure 9.3.1-7
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9.3.2
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Abutment Loads
A. Applicable Loads
In general, bridge abutments will be subjected to the following loads:
Dead load reaction of superstructure.
Dead load reaction of approach slab, where applicable, taken as 2 kips per foot of wall applied at the
pavement seat. Live load surcharge on earth pressure shall not be included with this load.
Weight of the abutment itself.
Weight of wing walls where applicable.
Weight of backfill and toe fill usually taken as 125 pcf.
Frame shortening of post-tensioned superstructure where applicable.
Buoyancy where applicable.
Live load reaction from superstructure without impact.
Live load reaction from approach slab, where applicable, taken as 4 kips per foot of wall for HS-20
loading, 3 kips per foot for H-20 and HS-15 loading and 2 kips per foot for H-15 loading applied at
the pavement seat. Live load surcharge on earth pressure shall not be included with this load.
Earth pressure is normally taken at 30 pcf equivalent fluid pressure for group loads I through VI. For
group load VII, an equivalent fluid pressure with a rectangular distribution and a magnitude of 1/2
H(KAE-KA) is added to the earth pressure. Where is the unit weight of the backfill (normally taken
as 125 pcf), H is the height of the wall, KA is the Coulomb active pressure coefficient, and KAE is the
Mononobe-Okabe active pressure coefficient for earthquake as described in the Guide Specifications
for Seismic Design of Highway Bridges.
Live load surcharge on earth pressure where applicable, normally taken as a 2-foot surcharge, causes
a vertical and horizontal reaction. Dead load reaction of approach slab and live load reaction from
approach slab shall not be included with this load.
Earthquake transmitted through bearings, girder stops, or a rigidly attached superstructure.
Seismic inertia force of the substructure, taken as the horizontal acceleration coefficient (1/2
acceleration coefficient) times the weight of the abutment (including footing and soil weight). This
force acts horizontally in the same direction as the earth pressure, at the mass centroid of the abutment. This is described in the Guide Specifications for Seismic Design of Highway Bridges. Seismic
inertia force is only applied for stability and sliding analysis, it is not to be applied to determine the
reinforcement required in the abutment.
Longitudinal live load from superstructure.
Temperature and shrinkage.
Centrifugal force.
Wind load from superstructure.
Figure 9.3.2-1 shows the typical loads applied to an L-abutment and Figure 9.3.2-2 shows the typical
loads applied to a cantilever abutment. Figure 9.3.2-3 shows longitudinal and transverse forces from
the superstructure with a skew.
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B. Usual Governing Load Combinations

The AASHTO Specifications for load combinations supplemented by Bridge Division Criteria shown
in Chapter 4 of this manual apply in the design of abutments. Normally for the design of abutments,
only Group I (Service Load) and Group IV and VII (Load Factor) need to be checked. For abutment
footing design loadings, see Section 9.5. The designer should consider other groups if it appears they
might be critical.
For the typical abutment with wing walls, check the outer 10-foot portion of the abutment with wing
wall and approach slab. Beyond the 10-foot section, check the abutment without applying the
wingwall and approach slab (using the live load surcharge on earth pressure).
In Group I and IV, apply live load surcharge with and without the live load reaction from the superstructure. Both the vertical and horizontal component of live load surcharge on earth pressure should
have the appropriate live load factor applied to it.
C. Special Handling of Lateral Forces
The longitudinal forces from the superstructure is normally transferred to the abutments through the
bearings. The calculated longitudinal movement shall be used to determine the shear force developed
by the bearing pads at the abutments. The Modulus of Elasticity of Neoprene at 70F (21C) shall be
used for determining the shear force. However, the force transmitted through a bearing pad shall be
limited to that which causes the bearing pad to slip. Normally, the maximum load transferred through
a teflon sliding bearing is 6 percent and through an elastomeric bearing pad is 20 percent of the dead
load reaction of the superstructure. For Group VII (Seismic), assume no load transfer through the
bearings because end diaphragm is in contact with abutment wall. The bearing force shall not be
added to seismic earth pressure forces.
The transverse forces from the superstructure is transferred to the abutment through the girder stops
or the bearings.
1.
Special Abutment Loads

a.
Cantilever abutment with end diaphragm cast on superstructure:

For structures without expansion joints, the earth pressure against the end diaphragm is
transmitted through the superstructure.
b.
Cantilever L-abutment:
The compressibility of the expansion joint shall be considered in the design of the abutment
for earthquake, temperature, and shrinkage when these forces increase the design load.
The following cases will illustrate the handling of typical longitudinal forces:
2.
Case A Force in Direction of Span

The intermediate pier(s) of a multi-span continuous structure shall be designed to resist the
entire longitudinal force of the superstructure (unless the end piers are an integral part of the
superstructure).
The calculated movement at the abutments determined from analysis of the superstructure shall
be used to determine the shear force developed by the bearing pads. The limiting bearing pad
force shall be as indicated above. For the earth pressure force, use the E factor (see Section 4.2),
associated with earth pressure tending to decrease stability (cause overturning), except for group
load VII, bE shall be taken as 1.0.
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Case B Force in Direction of Backfill

The force in the bearing pad caused by longitudinal superstructure movements shall be calculated
in a manner similar to Case A. The E factor for this case shall be the one associated with earth
pressure tending to increase stability (resist overturning), except for group load VII, E shall be
taken as 1.0.
4.
Case C Temporary Construction Condition (longitudinal forces in either direction)

a.
Superstructure Built Before Backfill at Abutment

In some cases the superstructure of a bridge may be built and falsework underneath released
before backfill is placed at the end abutments. At this stage the structure may be subjected to
earthquake, wind or other horizontal forces. The factor (see Section 4.2) associated with
these forces shall be taken as 1.1 owing to the temporary nature of the condition, except for
group load VII where the factor shall be taken as 1.0
The force in the bearing pad shall be calculated as in Case A. In some instances, this loading
condition may govern the design and might be severe enough to require very large footings
or excessive amounts of reinforcing steel when compared with loading combinations that
include earth pressure and overburden. Rather than trying to design for severe loading conditions, the designer should consider recommending to the district that backfill be placed before construction of the superstructure. If agreed to, note this in the sequence of construction
on the plans.
b.
Superstructure Built after Backfill at Abutment

If the superstructure is to be built after the backfill is placed at the abutments, the resulting
temporary loading on the abutments will cause them to act like retaining walls. Such walls
require additional tensile reinforcement in the top of the footing heel. The bottom of the
footing will normally require tensile reinforcement extending from the heel to the toe once
the superstructure is completed.
c.
Sequence of Falsework Removal

Another temporary construction condition to be considered is the sequence of falsework
removal. For example, it is usually advantageous in sizing the footing to release the falsework from under the wing walls after some portion of the superstructure load is applied to
the abutment. This item, when applicable, can be covered by a note in the sequence of
construction on the plans.
5.
Special Considerations
When the force transmitted through the bearing pads is very large, the designer should consider
increasing the bearing pad thickness, using TFE sliding bearings and/or utilizing the flexibility of
the abutment as a means of reducing the horizontal design force. When the flexibility of the
abutment is considered, it is intended that a simple approximation of the abutment deformation
be made.
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D. Load on Girder Stop Bearings

For skewed structures with earth pressure against the end diaphragm (see Figure 9.3.2-4), the need for
girder stop bearings shall be investigated. When required, these bearings are placed vertically against
the girder stop to transfer the skew component of the earth pressure to the abutment without restricting the movement of the superstructure in the direction parallel to centerline. The design procedure
for elastomeric girder stop bearing pads for Series 8, 10, and 14 Prestress Girders is shown in
Chapter 8, Appendix A of this manual. In some cases bearing assemblies containing sliding surfaces
may be necessary to accommodate large superstructure movements.
Girder stops are often required to transfer earthquake load from the superstructure to the abutment. In
these cases, all components of the girder stop, including the bearing assembly, shall be designed for
the earthquake loading in addition to the earth pressure described above.
E. Loads on Girder Stops
The loads mentioned in Section 9.3.2 D above apply to girder stops and superstructure restraints.
Girder stops are designed using shear friction theory. The possibility of torsion combined with
horizontal shear when the load does not pass through the centroid of the girder stop shall also be
investigated. Some type of transverse girder stop is required for all abutments.
9.3.3
General Design Procedures

A. Design for Stability
The factors of safety against overturning and sliding shall be as specified in Section 9.3.2 A(d) of this
manual. Special requirements for individual abutments types are covered in Section 9.3.4 A through E.
Also see Section 9.5, Footings.
B. Earth Pressure at Front Face
In the usual case, the earth pressure exerted by the fill in front of the abutment is neglected in
the design. The weight of the fill in front of the abutment should be included in the analysis for
overturning if it adds to overturning.
C. Design for Strength
When the primary structural action is parallel to the superstructure or normal to the abutment face, the
wall shall be treated as a column subjected to combined axial load and bending moment. Compressive
reinforcement need not be included in the design of cantilever walls, but the possibility of bending
moment in the direction of the span as well as towards the backfill shall be considered. A portion of
the vertical bars may be cut off where they are no longer needed for stress. For footing design see
Section 9.5, Footings. In addition, see the special requirements for individual abutment types under
Section 9.3.4 A through E.
D. Minimum Reinforcement
1.
Minimum Wall Steel

The minimum area and maximum spacing of stressed wall reinforcement stipulated in AASHTO
Specifications shall be furnished.
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Minimum Temperature and Shrinkage Steel in Wall

The AASHTO Specifications, Article Shrinkage and Temperature Reinforcement, requires a
minimum temperature and shrinkage steel of 0.125 sq. in. per foot of wall. This is not sufficient
to limit shrinkage cracks in thick walls. A more appropriate minimum temperature and shrinkage
steel is taken from the ACI-83, minimum area of reinforcing steel per foot of the wall, in both
directions on each face of the wall, shall be 0.011 times the thickness of the wall (in inches),
spaced at 12 inches. On abutments that are longer than 60 feet, consideration should be given to
have vertical construction joints to minimize shrinkage cracks.
3.
Minimum Cross Ties in Wall

Ties, no. 4 bars with 180 degree hooks, spaced at approximately 2 feet center to center vertically
and at approximately 4 feet center to center horizontally shall be furnished throughout the abutment stem in all but stub abutments, see Figure 9.3.3-1.
9.3.4
Load and Reinforcement Requirements

A. Requirements for Pile Cap Abutments
Earth pressures on some pile caps are either negligible or very small (when the lateral force on each
pile is less than 6 kips), and vertical dead load and live load are the major effects. The design of this
type of abutment is like that of a crossbeam, and transverse bending as well as shear shall be investigated for the spans between the piles. For the analysis of the pile cap, the wheel loads should be
placed for the maximum moment on the pile cap. For the analysis of the piles, the wheel loads should
be placed unsymmetrically to obtain the largest pile reaction.
For narrow bridges (one-lane ramps and two-lane bridges without skew) the transverse live load
moment on the abutment shall be taken about the center of gravity of the pile group assuming the
abutment to be a rigid beam. The maximum pile reaction from transverse effect will then be P/N +
Mt/S, where P is the total vertical load, N is the total number of piles, Mt is the transverse moment
about the centerline of abutment and S is the transverse pile modulus. This analysis is only valid if
the lateral forces from earth pressure, etc. are less than 6 kips per pile and all the piles have no batter.
For wide bridges (2 lanes with skew and wider) the abutment may be assumed to act as a flexible
beam on knife-edge supports. The maximum pile live load reaction from transverse loading can be
obtained by assuming the abutment acts as a simple beam between piles and each wheel load (in the
design lane or approach lane) is proportionally distributed to the adjacent piles (see Figure 9.3.4-1).
Transverse moments and shears may be found assuming the spans between piles as semi-simply
supported: i.e. maximum positive or negative moment = 0.80 times the simple beam moment. Maximum shear = simple beam shear. This analysis is valid for piles with a stiffness much less than the
pile cap.
For pile caps with lateral loads greater than 6 kips, with battered piles, or for piles with a stiffness
about the same magnitude as the pile cap, such as shafts, the analysis for the pile cap should be as a
crossbeam, see Section 9.2.1, and the analysis for the piles should include the lateral capacity of the
pile, see Section 9.6.
B. Requirements for Stub Abutments
For stub abutment (girder seat to top of footing less than approximately 4 feet), the footing and wall
can be considered as a continuous inverted T-beam. The analysis of this type abutment shall include
investigation into both bending and shear stresses parallel to centerline of bearing. If the superstructure is relatively deep, earth pressure combined with longitudinal forces from the superstructure may
become significant (see Section 9.3.4 C).
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Pile Cap Abutment

Figure 9.3.4-1
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C. Requirements for Cantilever Abutments

If the height of the wall from the bearing seat down to the bottom of the footing exceeds the clear
distance between the girder bearings, the assumed 45 lines of influence from the girder reactions will
overlap, and the dead load and live load from the superstructure can be assumed equally distributed
over the abutment width. The design may then be carried out on a per foot basis as described earlier
under Section 9.3.3 A through C. The primary structural action takes place normal to the abutment,
and the bending moment effect parallel to the abutment may be neglected in most cases. The wall is
assumed to be a cantilever member fixed at the top of the footing and subjected to axial, shear, and
bending loads.
D. Requirements for Spill-Through Abutments
The analysis of this type of abutment is similar to that of an intermediate pier. The crossbeam shall be
investigated for vertical loading as well as earth pressure and longitudinal effects transmitted from the
superstructure. Columns shall be investigated for vertical loads combined with horizontal forces
acting transversely and longitudinally. For earth pressure acting on rectangular columns, assume an
effective column width equal to 1.5 times the actual column width. Short, stiff columns may require a
hinge at the top or bottom to relieve excessive longitudinal moments.
E. Requirements for Rigid Frame Abutments
Abutments which make up parts of rigid frame bridges shall be designed in accordance with service
load criteria. Whenever a preliminary analysis establishes that the effects of vertical loads are far
greater than the effects of horizontal earth pressure loads (generally the case with low abutments and
long horizontal spans), load factor criteria may be used. Earth pressure loading shall be a maximum
of 60 pcf equivalent fluid pressure and a minimum of 30 pcf equivalent fluid pressure to be applied in
any combination except as noted below. The 60 pcf value is to be used for normal rigid frames where
there is a high degree of restraint to the soil mass. Lower figures may be used if lower degree of
restraints exist. The 30 pcf value is equivalent to a normal cantilever retaining wall. Earth pressure
loading of up to 15 pcf may be used to reduce moments in the superstructure provided that such
pressure can be developed. This reduction may also be used for earthquake acting on rigid frame
structures. Earthquake forces from the soil mass need not be applied as loads. The abutment design
should include the live load impact factor from the superstructure. However, impact shall not be
included in the footing design. The rigid frame itself should be considered restrained against sidesway
for live load only.
For requirements for rigid frames with ceramic tile lining, see Section 8.4.6.
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9.4
Retaining Walls
9.4.1
General
Retaining Walls
A retaining wall is a structure built to provide lateral support for a mass of earth or other material, the top
of which is at a higher elevation than the earth or rock in front of the wall.
Retaining walls depend either on their own weight or on their own weight plus an additional weight of
the laterally supported material, or on a tieback system for their stability.
All retaining walls not covered under Standard Walls or Preapproved Proprietary Walls are designed in
the Bridge and Structures Division. The Hydraulics Section should be consulted for any walls that could
be threatened by flood water or are located in a flood plain. The Architectural Section should review
architectural features and visual impacts at the Preliminary Design stage.
For illustrations of different types of walls, see Figures 9.4.2-1 through 9.4.2-4 at the end of this section.
9.4.2
Common Types of Walls

A. Cantilevered Walls
Cantilevered walls are reinforced concrete walls consisting of a base slab footing from which a
vertical stem wall extends. These walls are suitable for heights up to 35 feet. Details for construction
are given in the Standard Plans, along with design criteria. For nonstandard designs, the computer
program RETWAL can be used for analysis. The major disadvantage of these walls is the low
tolerance to post-construction settlement, which may require use of piling to provide adequate
support.
B. Counterfort Walls
Counterfort walls are a type of cantilever wall which have ribs on the backside to strengthen the
junction between footing and stem wall. These walls can exceed heights of 50 feet and generally
become economical for walls having considerable portions exceeding heights of 25 feet.
C. Gravity Walls
Gravity walls can be made from many different materials including plain concrete, rubble masonry,
mortar rubble masonry and gabions. Gravity walls depend on their own weight for stability. They are
generally used for wall heights of 10 feet or less, with the exception of gabion walls, which can
exceed 30 feet in height.
1.
Mortar Rubble Masonry Walls

Basic design and construction standards for these walls are given in the Standard Plans. Use of
masonry walls are quite limited due to the excessive cost of placing the material by hand. They
are primarily used when it is necessary to blend with previously completed projects where a
masonry wall already exists.
2.
Gabion Walls
Gabion walls consist of wire baskets laced together and filled with rock. These walls are flexible
and some post-construction settlement can be tolerated. Details for gabion wall construction are
found in the Standard Plans and Specifications.
D. Cribbing
Cribbing is made of metal bins, precast reinforced concrete or logs. Cribbing height is generally 10 to
30 feet.
January 1991
9.4 - 1

Criteria
Substructure Design
1.
Retaining Walls
Metal Cribbing
There are two types of metal cribbing approved for use in the state of Washington. The details
are shown in the Standard Plans.
2.
Reinforced Concrete Cribbing

Concrete cribbing is similar to metal and can be used as an alternate. It is recommended to use
this type in marine areas for its ability to withstand corrosion.
3.
Log Cribbing
Log cribbing has a rustic aesthetic value which makes it popular for use in locations having a
natural environment, such as parks, national forests, or primitive areas. It is well suited for use on
detours or temporary walls used for stage construction.
E. Cylinder Pile Walls

This wall utilizes a large diameter, 4 to 10 feet, drilled shaft filled with Class 4000 concrete. The
shaft is reinforced with steel beams or steel reinforcing bars. Wall heights, up to 50 feet, have been
built to retain fills. Wall panels made of cast-in-place concrete, precast concrete or timber are
connected to cylinder piles.
F. Tieback Walls
Tieback walls use vertical main load carrying members, such as soldier piles, cylinder piles, sheet
piles, or slurry walls, to resist horizontal forces. The main members are connected to high strength
steel bars or strand anchors, which are fixed into soil or rock with high strength grout and stressed to
counteract the horizontal earth pressure loads. These walls can be built to heights exceeding 50 feet.
The anchors can be incorporated into a permanent wall by the use of a double corrosion protection
system or can be used in a temporary condition for shoring and cribbing. The greatest advantage in
using tiebacks is that it causes minimal disturbance to the soil behind the wall and any structures
resting on this soil. Nonstressed anchors, called deadman anchors, rely on passive pressure of the soil
in front of the deadman panel to resist horizontal forces.
G. Proprietary Walls
A wall specified to be supplied from a single source (patented, trademark, or copyright) is a proprietary wall. These walls can range in heights from 15 to 50 feet. The following is a description of the
most common types of proprietary walls:
1.
Structural Earth Walls

A structural earth wall is a flexible system consisting of concrete face panels that are held rigidly
into place with thin galvanized steel or aluminum strips extending into a select backfill mass.
These walls will allow for some settlement and are best used for fill sections. The walls have
three principal elements:
The backfill or wall mass: a grandular soil with good internal friction (gravel borrow).
The reinforcing metal strips, steel mesh, welded wire, or geotextiles.
The facing: precast concrete panels, welded wire with vegetation, geotextiles, or shotcrete.
9.4 - 2

Criteria
Substructure Design
Retaining Walls
There are several important factors when selecting a structural earth wall. These are as follows:
a.
Height
In fills more than 10 feet high, structural earth walls are generally less costly than other wall
types in fill locations.
b.
Length
Adequate room is needed for earthwork equipment. Short, low walls should be avoided.
c.
Backfill
A granular soil meeting the requirements of gravel borrow is required for the wall mass. In
areas where the wall may become saturated, the backfill shall be free-draining. The Materials
Lab will supply the Special Provisions for the wall mass material.
d.
Excavation
Structural earth walls are typically more costly than other wall types in excavation areas.
Greater excavation is needed to accommodate the wall mass which has a width of about
70 percent of the wall height.
e.
Foundation
These walls perform well in settlement sensitive areas, but are not adaptable to pile support.
f.
Aesthetics
Facing is available in a variety of surface textures, shapes and colors. Welded wire wall
surfaces may have vegetation growing on exposed surfaces to match existing terrain. The
backfill used in this case must be suitable to sustain vegetation growth at the face of the
wall.
2.
Geotextile Walls
Geotextile walls are structural earth walls that use geotextile fabric for the reinforcement and the
facing. The main use of fabric walls is for temporary walls, which can become permanent walls
with a cast-in-place or shotcrete facing. The Materials Lab is responsible for the design and
review of geotextile walls.
3.
Other Proprietary Walls

Other wall systems similar in concept to the standard crib, bin, precast cantilever, or tieback can
offer cost reductions, reduce construction time, and provide special aesthetic features.
A list of preapproved proprietary walls is on file in our office, including height limitations. The
district can select a particular wall type from the list and include it in the contract plans, as an
alternate to a Standard Wall. The Materials Lab and the Preliminary Plans Unit will approve the
concept prior to Ad. The Special Provisions will be written by the Bridge Office with design
criteria, and the Materials Lab will give the soil criteria needed for design and check the soil for
overall stability. Prior to wall construction, the supplier will submit design calculations and shop
drawings for approval. The following is a list of the proprietary wall systems that are
preapproved:
a.
January 1991
Criblock Retaining Walls Northwest Inc. Criblock up to 30 feet.
9.4 - 3

Criteria
Substructure Design
b.
Retaining Walls
Hilfiker Retaining Walls, a cast-in-place concrete face is not allowed with these wall
systems.
(1) Reinforced Soil Wall up to 30 feet.
(2) Welded Wire Wall up to 20 feet.
c.
The Reinforced Earth Co. Reinforced Earth up to 30 feet.
d.
VSL Corporation Reinforced Earth up to 30 feet.
H. Slurry Walls
Slurry wall construction method enables wall placement to precede wall excavation. This is useful
when restricted by tight right-of-way, staging construction, or where ground water is a problem. A
trench is excavated for the wall and simultaneously filled with a bentonite slurry. The bentonite slurry
restricts the ground water flow and holds the trench sides in place. Reinforcing steel is placed in the
slurry-filled trench and concrete is placed by means of a tremie or a concrete pump while displacing
the slurry. After the concrete has cured, the excavation can be completed. With the addition of
tiebacks, these walls can exceed heights of 50 feet. For an aesthetically pleasing appearance, facing is
used in the form of precast panels, cast-in-place concrete, or shotcrete.
I.
Rock Walls
Rock walls are gravity walls made of stacked large rock. They are used primarily in cut sections to
provide erosion protection and limited support. They are generally 15 feet or less in height.
J.
Soil Nailing
Soil nailing is a technique used to stabilize moving earth, such as a landslide, or as a means of
temporary shoring. Soil anchors are used along with the strength of the soil to provide stability. The
Materials Lab will design the system of soil nailing to be incorporated in the bridge contract plans.
K. Wingwall
A wingwall retains the fill beyond the bridge end. It acts like a horizontal cantilevered wall with its
main support from the end abutment. The two Office Standards lengths are 15 feet with 1 3/4:1 and
2:1 fill slope and 20 feet with 2:1 fill slope wingwalls. The standards also show different surface
treatments, e.g., fractured fin finish or plain concrete finish. A separate design is required when using
a nonstandard length. See Design Example 9.4 B1-10 for curtain wall rigidly attached to footing and
abutment wall.
L. Noise Walls
Noise walls are primarily used in urban or residential areas to mitigate noise or to obstruct view of
roadway. Precast wall panels supported by precast pilasters, cast-in-place wall and footing, or wood
fencing are the common types. The Architectural Section is responsible for determining wall type.
Design criteria for noise walls is based on AASHTOs Guide Specifications for Structural Design of
Sound Barriers.
9.4.3
Design
A. General
Refer to AASHTO Specifications and Bridge Design Manual Criteria 9.1.2, 9.3.1F and G, and
9.5.1A2. Service Load Design is used for design of retaining walls and the loading combinations shall
be as described in AASHTO. Service Load Design is used rather than Load Factor Design, because of
its long history of good performance and due to the lack of development of Load Factor Design
criteria for retaining walls.
9.4 - 4
April 1991

Criteria
Substructure Design
January 1991
Retaining Walls
9.4 - 5

Criteria
Substructure Design
9.4 - 6
Retaining Walls

Criteria
Substructure Design
January 1991
Retaining Walls
9.4 - 7

Criteria
Substructure Design
9.4 - 8
Retaining Walls

Criteria
Substructure Design
Retaining Walls
B. Cantilever Walls
In general, concrete for retaining walls shall be Class 3000 Concrete with a 28-day compressive
strength of 3,000 psi. For special retaining wall design, the use of Class 4000 is appropriate.
Earth pressures shall be based on soil weight = 120 lb./cu. ft., the surcharge slope, the coefficient of
internal friction and/or the cohesion of the backfill material. Normally the earth pressure is taken as
30 lb./cu. ft. equivalent fluid pressure when well draining granular backfill material is used. Special
consideration should be given to the design of the U shape abutment without expansion joints
between the abutment and retaining walls. At the junction of the abutment and retaining wall an
equivalent fluid pressure of 45 lb./cu. ft. shall be used. This increased loading can normally be
reduced to 30 lb./cu. ft. at a distance from the junction of the abutment and retaining wall equal to the
average height of the wall under design.
The resultant for Group I loadings (except for walls with traffic barriers having a height (H) of
16 feet or less, see table below) shall be kept within the middle one-third of footing. This can be
expressed as a minimum Factor of Safety (FS) of two against overturning about the toe of the footing
for spread footings or the front row of piles for pile footings (see 9.5.1 for additional criteria regarding pile footings). For all other loading combinations, the resultant shall be kept within the middle
one-half of the footing. To maintain adequate safety against sliding, the following should be observed
for spread footings.
(FS)P
(P = total horizontal force on wall)
0.5
W
(W= total minimum vertical load)
For walls having a height (H) of 16 feet or less, the controlling load is the 10 kip collision load. This
load occurs occasionally and will have a reduced factor of safety.
Wall Height, H
Overturning*
Sliding
Roadway Grade to
Bottom of Footing
M abt. toe resist

M abt. toe loads
Location
of Resultant*
FS(EP + Sur or 10k) < 0.5

Weight
H, 16 feet
or less
for 10K collision load
greater than
1.5
within
middle
1/2 of footing
F.S. = 1.2
H, 17 feet
or more
for all Wall load cases
greater than
2.0
within
middle
1/3 of footing
F.S. = 1.5
Earthquake
Group VII
All Heights
greater than
1.5
within
middle
1/2 of footing
FS(EP + EQ) < 0.5

Weight
FS = 1.1
Factor of Safety (FS) Table

*Both cases shall be met for determining wall stability.
The 10 kip collision load shall be distributed over 16 feet. This is the minimum wall length allowed
for Type 2 Retaining Walls in the Standard Plans. In a special design, the distribution width shall be
the smaller of wall length between expansion joints (24-0 max.) or 5 feet + 2H (assumes AASHTO
traffic barrier distribution plus a 45 degree influence line).
October 1993
9.4 - 9

Criteria
Substructure Design
Retaining Walls
For sliding, the passive resistance in the front of the footing may be considered if the earth is more
than 2 feet deep on the top of the footing and does not slope downward away from the wall. The
design soil pressure at the toe of the footing shall not exceed the allowable soil bearing capacity
supplied by the Foundation Engineer.
For retaining walls resting on foundation piles, refer to Bridge Design Manual Sections 9.5.1, 9.5.2,
and 9.6.
Mononobe-Okabe analysis in AASHTO Guide Specifications for Seismic Design of Highway Bridges
shall be used as a check in the design of the wall. AASHTO article Abutments gives equations to
calculate the earthquake forces. Reduced factors of safety are shown in the preceding table. The
Mononobe-Okabe equation requires the following assumptions:
Kv = 0, vertical acceleration coefficient is zero.
Kh = A/2, A is the acceleration coefficient.
, angle of friction between soil and abutment
i, backfill slope angle
= i, slip is more likely to occur within the backfill than between soil and abutment interface.
The earthquake force will be in the same direction as the slope of the surface of the backfill.
= 0, For cantilever walls, the soil fails in a vertical plane through the footing heel. This results
in = 0 for cantilever walls, regardless of wall batter.
See example in Design Aid 9.4-A1 to determine earthquake load.
C. Diaphragm Walls (Other names: Slurry Wall, Cut-off Wall, or Curtain Wall)
The permanent diaphragm walls include cylinder or tangent pile walls, simple panel slurry walls, and
T-section slurry walls.
1.
2.
9.4 - 10
Advantages of diaphragm walls are:

a.
No formwork required;
b.
No lowering of the ground water table required;
c.
Can form outer wall of structures;
d.
Irregular shapes are possible;
e.
Relatively impervious in comparison with other types of walls, if dry excavation is

necessary;
f.
Construction possible under adverse circumstances, such as unfavorable soils and hydrologic
conditions and where other techniques may have limitations;
g.
Can be constructed to considerable depths ahead of the main excavation;
h.
Relatively free from vibrations and noise during construction.
Disadvantages of diaphragm walls are:

a.
Limited local contractor experience which may result in higher bid prices or unforeseen
construction problems;
b.
The disposal of used slurries in urban areas may pose special problems.
c.
Higher cost.
October 1993

Criteria
Substructure Design
3.
Retaining Walls
Design Criteria
a.
Class 4000 concrete is typically used. Higher strength concrete may be specified for special
cases with approval of the Bridge Design Engineer.
b.
To compensate for the effects of the concrete being cast in a slurry, the assumed concrete
compressive strength shall be fc = 0.85fc. Modulus of elasticity shall be calculated from the
reduced concrete strength.
c.
Use 80 percent of the allowable bond stress (i.e., increase development length by 25 percent)
for deformed bars due to the thin, slippery film coating on the reinforcing steel from the
slurry.
d.
Lap splices shall be 1.5 times normally specified splice length.
e.
To allow for proper placement of concrete, use the following minimum spacing:
Vertical bars at 6 inch spacing, preferably 9 inch spacing.
Horizontal bars at 12 inch spacing.
f.
Concrete cover shall be a minimum of 3 inches;
g.
The wall panel shall be a maximum of 48 inches thick for both simple and T-section
diaphragm walls. The maximum panel width is limited to 8 feet for T-section and 24 feet for
simple diaphragm wall. Use the same thickness for the flange and the stem of a T-section if
possible.
h.
There are tree common types of analysis:

(1) Factored soil strength parameters of Cm, m, and m with full passive coefficient KP
(so-called Duncans method):
m = tan-1 (tan)
F
C
Cm = F
2
m =
3 m
By reducing soil strength parameters, the length of embedment required for wall
stability is used in design.
An approximate correlation between depth factor and factor of safety applied to shear
strength is shown as follows:
Soils
Good
Typical
Bad
Depth
Factor*
Corresponding
Value of F
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.15 ~ 1.17
1.25
1.29 ~ 1.36
*Conventional practice is to use a factor of safety which increases the embedded depth
by 20 to 40 percent above the value required for barely stable equilibrium. The choice
of depth factor is based on engineering judgment.
October 1993
9.4 - 11

Criteria
Substructure Design
Retaining Walls
(2) Unfactored soil parameters use KP/1.5, without adding additional length.
(3) Unfactored soil parameters use KP, when providing 20 ~ 40 percent additional length.
i.
Soil loading due to earthquake is based on Mononobe-Okabe pseudo-static analysis (refer to

Guide Specification, Commentary Foundation and Abutment Design Requirements, FreeStanding Abutments)
KAE = KA + KAE
where
KAE
= the coefficient of total earthquake earth pressure
KAE
= KA (Coulombs static active coefficient), when = 0
KAE = the additional dynamic load

The static loads are triangularly distributed and the additional dynamic loads are uniformly
distributed on the wall.
It is recommended that the horizontal acceleration coefficient Kh for diaphragm walls be the
value of 1.0A, which falls in between the value of 0.5A for yielding walls and 1.5A for
nonyielding walls. (A = acceleration coefficient)
The design seismic passive resistances represent the total resistance during earthquake. The
coefficient of passive resistance can be determined from the Guide Specifications for Seismic Design of Highway Bridges.
Note that if, = 0, then KPE = KP
(Coulombs static passive coefficient)
For the submerged portion of soils, KAE and KPE shall be calculated by replacing with .
( Kh . )
= tan-1
1-Kv
where
= submerged unit weight of soil
Kv = vertical acceleration coefficient
j.
Two different techniques can be used for design of diaphragm walls:

(1) Fixed Earth Support Method So-called Conventional Method (refer to USS Steel
Sheet Piling Design Manual).
(2) Free Earth Support Method So-called Simplified Method. This method uses
active earth pressure on the projecting portions of the wall, and passive pressures on the
front of the wall for the entire embedded length. The required depth of embedment is
determined based on:
(a) Moment equilibrium about the base of the wall;
(b) Overall wall and slope stability using unfactored (or peak) soil strength parameters
and factor of safety 1.5; and
(c) A minimum wall depth below the excavation level depending on engineering
judgment or criteria from the Materials Laboratory.
9.4 - 12
October 1993

Criteria
Substructure Design
Retaining Walls
Due to its simplicity and accuracy, the Free Earth Support Method is
recommended to design diaphragm walls. A computer program name Wall is
available.
k.
The maximum deflection at the top of the wall at service load levels shall be limited to
H/120 or 4 inches, whichever is less, and to about 2 inches at the base, and to about
11/2 inches at the potential deteriorated plane (or slip plane). The calculation of deflection is
based on a value of n = 16 for determining modulus of elasticity of concrete used.
l.
The wall is designed based on Ultimate Strength Design Method (or Load Factored Design
Method). The following procedures should be used.
(1) The minimum reinforcement provided shall be adequate to fulfill the requirements of
AASHTO Article Minimum Reinforcement.
(2) Find the amount of reinforcement (on a trial basis).
(3) Check flexural cracking (see AASHTO Article Distribution of Flexural Reinforcement).
(4) Calculate moment and shear capacity and check if they are larger than the applied
moment and shear based on AASHTO table Table of Coefficients and .
(5) When using the equivalent (or pseudo)-static earthquake loadings and ultimate strength
design methods, the section capacity, U, should be:
U 1.3 (DL + E EP + W)
or
U 1.0 [DL + E (EQ + W)]
where
DL = dead load of the structural element;
EP = static earth pressure acting on the element (plus surcharge);
EQ = earthquake earth pressure acting on the element;
W = hydrostatic water pressure
E = 1.0 when using Duncans Method
1.3 when using Conventional Method with full KP
m. For diaphragm wall with tiebacks:

(1) Recommended embedment is a minimum of at least 10 feet below the proposed
excavation level. Actual embedment may be increased to provide adequate kick-out
resistance through development of passive pressure or for vertical load capacity.
(2) Due to soil-structure interaction, a redistribution of lateral stresses is anticipated,
resulting in reduction of pressure near the center of spans between anchors, and a
concentration of pressure at supports. The design of the wall with regard to moment
capacity, estimate the actual moment in the walls as follows:
Mactual = R Mcalculated
The value of R for clay approaches unity as the compressibility of the soil increases.
The value of R for loose sand is larger than that for dense sand. The typical value of
October 1993
9.4 - 13

Criteria
Substructure Design
Retaining Walls
R for sand is recommended to be 0.8. Also, the values of R for stiff walls are larger than
for flexible walls.
D. Tieback Walls
1.
Principles of Anchor Design

Anchor design includes:
Evaluation of the feasibility of anchors,
Selection of an anchor system,
Estimation of anchor capacity,
Determination of unbonded length, bonded length, and
Selection of corrosion protection.
The engineer should determine whether anchors can be economically used at a particular site
based on the ability to install the anchors and to develop capacity. The presence of
utilities or other underground facilities may govern whether anchors can be installed.
The tendon may consist of bars, wires, or strands. The choice of appropriate type is usually left
to the contractor but may be specified by the designer if special site conditions exist which
preclude the use of certain tendon types. In general, strands and wires have advantages with
respect to tensile strength, limited work areas, ease of transportation, and storage. Bars are more
easily protected against corrosion, easier to stress and transfer load.
A reliable estimate of the safe anchor capacity is required from the soils report recommendations
for each project to determine the feasibility of anchoring. The capacity of each anchor shall be
verified by testing. Testing shall be part of anchor installation and included in the specifications.
Based on previous experience, a range of typical design values is listed as follows:
9.4 - 14
a.
Design loads between 30 and 120 tons.
b.
The anchor wall system must be analyzed to ensure long-term stability. The minimum
unbonded length must be specified in the contract document, and is usually 15 feet for soil
and rock anchors (longer free lengths may be required in plastic soils, consult the Geotechnical Engineer) in order to avoid unacceptable prestress losses due to creep in the steel, soil,
or rock.
c.
Angle of inclination between 10 degrees and 45 degrees. A 15 degree angle is preferred to

simplify grouting and minimize vertical forces imposed on the wall by the anchors. Steeper
angles, up to 45 degrees, are only recommended to reach deep bearing strata or avoid
existing substructures.
October 1993

Criteria
Substructure Design
Retaining Walls
The estimated ultimate load transferred from the bond length to different types of soils is listed as
follows:
Soil Type
Corrected Standard
Penetration No.
N
Estimated
Ultimate Transfer
Load in Kip/ft
Sand & Gravel
Loose (4-10)
Medium Compact (10-30)
Compact (30-50)
10
15
20
Sand
Loose (4-10)
Compact (30-50)
7
10
13
Sand & Silt
Loose (4-10)
Compact (30-50)
5
7
9
Silt-clay mixture
with minimum LL, PI,
and LI restrictions,
or fine micaceous
sand or silt mixtures
Stiff (10-20)
Hard (20-40)
2
4
The maximum allowable anchor design load in soil may be determined by multiplying the bond
length by the ultimate transfer load and dividing by a safety factor of 2.5.
The ultimate load transferred from the bond length to rock deposits may be estimated from the
rock type in the following table.
Rock Type
Granite or Basalt
Dolomitic Limestone
Soft Limestone
Sandstone
Slates and Hard Shales
Soft Shales
Estimated
Ultimate Transfer Load
in Kip/ft
50
40
30
30
25
10
The maximum allowable anchor design load in rock may be determined by multiplying the bond
length by the ultimate transfer load and dividing by a safety factor of 3.
January 1991
9.4 - 15

Criteria
Substructure Design
2.
Retaining Walls
Coefficient of Earth Pressure

Practically, the design should be first considered using active pressure coefficients (KA) unless
structures exist within a lateral distance equal to twice the wall height. For this case, an average
earth pressure coefficient (K) should be computed as follows:
x
K = Ko - 2H (Ko - KA)
where
x =
H =
Ko =
Note:
(1)
distance from structure wall

height of wall
coefficient of at-rest earth pressure
KA allows lower wall design pressure (if small wall displacements) can be tolerated, i.e.,
ground subsidence occurs.
Ko increases wall design pressure but limits wall displacement, i.e., ground subsidence is
limited.
9.4 - 16

Criteria
Substructure Design
January 1991
Retaining Walls
9.4 - 17

Criteria
Substructure Design
Retaining Walls
Typical amount of wall translation (top movement) to develop the active earth pressure.
Soil and Condition
3.
Amount of
Translation
Cohesionless
Dense
(0.1% to 0.2%)H
Cohesionless
Loose
(0.2% to 0.5%)H
Cohesive
Firm
(1% to 2%)H
Cohesive
Soft
(2% to 5%)H
Corrosion Protection
The corrosion protection of anchors can be divided into two categories*:
a.
Simple Protection The use of simple protection relies on Portland cement grout to protect
the tendon, bar, or strand in the bond zone. The unbonded lengths are sheaths filled with
anti-corrosion grease, heat shrink sleeves, and secondary grouting after stressing. Except for
secondary grouting, the protection is usually in place prior to inserting the tendon in the
hole.
b.
Double Protection Complete encapsulation of the anchor tendon is accomplished by a corrugated PVC, high-density polyethlene, or steel tube. The same provisions of protecting the
unbonded length for simple protection are applied to those for double protection.
*Provide simple protection for temporary tieback walls (less than 18 months) and double protection for permanent tieback walls.
4.
Angle of Wall Friction

The wall friction depends on the soil properties, the amount and direction of wall movement, the
wall material, and the surface condition. Values of = 0 or = are generally too low and
high, respectively, for most practical cases. The typical values are between 1 /3 and 2 /3. It is
conservative if assumed = 0.
5.
Determination of Tieback Spacing

The preliminary anchor spacing can be determined from Figure 9.4.3-1.
Suggested temporary test loads are between 75 and 80 percent of Guaranteed Ultimate Tensile
Strength (GUTS). Suggested Limits for design loads, T, are between 0.5 and 0.6 of GUTS
(typically 53 percent).
Therefore,
(S1 + S1)S2 = T
cos q
2
PE
Typical pile spacings (horizontal) of 6 to 10 feet and anchor spacings (vertical) of 8 to 12 feet are
commonly used. The minimum spacing of 4 feet in both directions is not recommended for
considering the effectiveness and disturbance of anchors due to installation.
9.4 - 18

Criteria
Substructure Design
January 1991
Retaining Walls
9.4 - 19

Criteria
Substructure Design
6.
Retaining Walls
Design of Soldier Pile Tieback Walls

a.
Lateral Earth Pressures

Case 1
Cantilever Soldier Piles and Piles with Single Level Tieback
Figure 9.4.3-2
For the submerged portion of soil, KAE and KPE should be calculated by replacing with
in Equations (4) and (5) and replacing with for calculating earth pressure.
9.4 - 20
July 1996

Criteria
Substructure Design
Retaining Walls
Note:
(1) Neglect any passive resistance below the base of excavation in D zone where D is the
largest value of 1.5 times shaft diameter, 0.1 times height of the wall, depth of fascia
wall footing, or anticipated future excavation depth within 20 feet of wall.
(2) Active pressure is assumed to act over pile spacing above base of excavation and over
shaft diameter below base of excavation. Passive pressure is assumed to act over two
times over shaft diameter or pile spacing, whichever is smaller.
(3) For permanent tiebacks, tie back DESIGN LOAD, T, Shall be (1) + (2) or [(1) +
(3)]/1.5, whichever is greater. For temporary tiebacks, tie back DESIGN LOAD, T, shall
be (1) + (2).
(4) Lock-off load is 80 percent of (1) + (2) for permanent wall and 70 percent of (1) + (2)
for temporary wall.
(5) Proof test to 1.5T for permanent tiebacks and to 1.3T for temporary tiebacks.
July 1996
9.4 - 21

Criteria
Substructure Design
Case 2
Retaining Walls
Multiple Level Tieback
Figure 9.4.3-3
9.4 - 22
July 1996

Criteria
Substructure Design
b.
Retaining Walls
Depth of Embedment
For cantilever piles without tieback, the embedment should be determined to satisfy horizontal force equilibrium and moment equilibrium about the bottom of the pile.
For piles with tiebacks, the depth of embedment is determined by moment equilibrium of
lateral force about kpoint 0.
Neglect the moment resistance of soldier pile member at 0.
Depth of embedment, D, must also be sufficient to provide necessary vertical capacity or
adequate kick-out resistance through development of passive pressure.
c.
Design of Timber Lagging

Most commonly, the lagging thickness is determined from past construction experience as
related to depth of excavation, soil condition, and soldier pile spacing. In other cases, soil
pressure distribution recommended by geotechnical engineer is used to determine the thickness of lagging.
The soil pressure distribution equal to 50 percent of the lateral earth pressure diagram is
recommended to design lagging which is simply supported. The 50 percent reduction is due
to the soil arching effect behind the wall. However, this procedure leads to unreasonably
thick lagging for deep excavations with relatively larger soldier pile spacings.
d.
Design of Fascia Wall

Fascia wall shall be reinforced concrete and shall be designed according to the latest
AASHTO Standard and Interim Specifications for Highway Bridges.* The minimum structural thickness of fascia wall shall be 9 inches. Architectural treatment of facing shall be
indicated on the drawing.
Concrete strength shall not be less than 3,000 psi at 28 days. The wall is to extend 2 feet
minimum below the ground line adjacent to the wall.
Permanent drainage systems shall be provided to prevent hydrostatic pressures developing
behind the wall. A cut which slopes toward the proposed wall will invariably encounter
natural subsurface drainage.
Vertical chimney drains, prefabricated drains, or porous engineering fabrics can be used for
normal situations to collect and transport drainage to a weep hole or pipe located at the base
of the wall. Concentrated areas of subsurface drainage may be controlled by installing horizontal drains to intercept the flow at a distance well behind the wall.
*Note:
(1) Most possibilities of load cases governing are:
Group I = 1.3(DL + 1.67LL + 1.3E)
Group VII = 1.0(D + E + EQ)
(2) 50 percent of worse load is used for design.
(3) Check for 10 kips impact load.
January 1991
9.4 - 23

Criteria
Substructure Design
Retaining Walls
e. Design of Soldier Piles

The soldier piles shall be designed for shear, bending, and axial stresses, and according to
the latest AASHTO design criteria. Soldier piles may be steel or concrete with a minimum
yield strength of steel being 36 ksi or the minimum strength of concrete shall be 4,000 psi at
28 days (concrete Class 4000).
Due to soil-structure interaction, a redistribution of lateral stresses is anticipated, resulting in
a reduction of pressure near the center of spans between anchors and a concentration of
pressure at supports. The actual bending moment is recommended to be 80 percent of the
maximum bending moment calculated based on the free-earth method.
f.
Check for Stage Construction

The earth pressure distribution for an anchored wall changes during wall installation. The
procedures for checking the stability of the wall system for temporary construction loadings are
described as follows:
(1) Draw pressure diagrams at various construction stages, each including all pertinent
loads, i.e., surcharge, water, soil, etc.
(a) A triangular diagram for estimating cantilever excavation to first anchor or for walls
with only one anchor row.
(b) A trapezoidal diagram for temporary excavation below first anchor level.
(c) A trapezoidal diagram for final depth excavation.
(2) Find preliminary anchor spacing.
(a) First anchor row Determine the safe cantilever or unsupported excavation height.
Assume the first anchor row is located 3 feet above this level. This distance is
required for anchor installation. Find lateral spacing by dividing anchor allowable
capacity by area of pressure diagram in step 1c.
(b) Subsequent excavation levels must consider increased loads on previous anchor
rows. Necessary embedment of soldier piles must be considered at all stages of
excavation. Diameter of shaft may be increased to reduce penetration.
(3) Estimate required section modulus of soldier piles at all stages of excavation to ensure
structural integrity. Adjust anchor spacing to optimize structural design.
(4) Estimate the permanent vertical loads due to anchor inclination and wall dead weight
and check:
(a) vertical member structural capacity,
(b) bearing capacity of the soil/rock, and
(c) settlement.
(5) Check overall stability of final design.
9.4 - 24

Criteria
Substructure Design
Retaining Walls
(6) Construction checks during design:

(a) Size anchor tendon structurally to resist maximum prescribed test load at less than
80 percent of ultimate strength.
(b) Determine the maximum transfer load for the upper anchor row based on allowable
passive resistance (KP/1.5) at that initial wall height.
g.
Design of Bond Length

The bond length should not be specified in the contract plan.
For design purposes, the required bond length can be approximated with sufficient accuracy
as discussed in other parts of this section to permit cost estimates and right of way acquisitions to be made confidently.
The bond transfer values for soil grout length (or bond length) should be verified by testing
to determine the required bond length.
Some important points are listed as follows:
(1) A minimum bond length should be specified in the contract documents. The recommended values are 10 feet in rock and 15 feet in soils.
(2) The bond lengths exceeding 40 feet in soils or 254 feet in rock do not efficiently increase
the anchor capacity.
(3) At sites with restricted right of way, the maximum bond length is the distance from the
end of unbonded length to within 2 feet of the right of way.
(4) To permit high pressure grouting without damage to existing facilities and to ensure
adequate overburden pressure to mobilize the full friction between soil and grout, a
15-foot minimum overburden cover over the bond zone is recommended for anchors of
average capacity (i.e., 150 kips or less).
(5) Anchors founded in mixed ground condition should be designed assuming the entire
embedment is the weakest deposit.
(6) The bar or strand grout length (or bar bond length) is 15 feet.
July 1996
9.4 - 25

Criteria
Substructure Design
h.
Retaining Walls
Recommended Tieback Wall Configuration

(1) Base of excavation larger than 10 feet above soft soil layer.
Figure 9.4.3-4a
9.4 - 26

Criteria
Substructure Design
Retaining Walls
(2) Base of excavation in or smaller than 10 feet above soft soil layer.
Figure 9.4.3-4b
Note: Stability number n and m are determined based on stability analysis of the project
walls. Consult with Material Laboratory to obtain appropriate values of n and m.
January 1991
9.4 - 27

Criteria
Substructure Design
Retaining Walls
(3) Typical section of solider pile tieback wall.
Figures 9.4.3-5
9.4 - 28
January 1991

Criteria
Substructure Design
9.4.4
Retaining Walls
Miscellaneous Items
A. Drainage
All concrete retaining walls shall have 3-inch diameter weepholes located 6 inches above final ground
line and spaced about 12 feet apart. In case the vertical distance between the top of the footing and
final ground line is greater than 10 feet, additional weepholes shall be provided 6 inches above the
top of the footing. No weepholes are necessary in cantilever wingwalls. Drainage features shall be
detailed on plans.
Weepholes can get clogged up or freeze up, and the water pressure behind the wall may start to build
up. In order to keep the water pressure from building up, it is important to have well draining gravel
backfill and underdrains. Appropriate details must be shown on the plans.
No under drain pipe or gravel backfill for drains is necessary behind cantilever wingwalls. A 3-foot
thickness of gravel backfill shall be shown on the plan behind the cantilever wingwalls. Backfill
material shall not be a part of bridge quantities. If it is necessary to excavate existing material for the
backfill, then this excavation shall be a part of Structural Excavation Class A of bridge quantities.
B. Joints
For cantilevered and gravity walls, joint spacing should be a maximum of 24 feet on centers. For
counterfort walls, joint spacing should be a maximum of 32 feet on centers. For tieback wall, joint
spacing should be 24-32 feet on centers for cast-in-place walls, but for precast units, the length of the
unit would depend on the height and weight of the unit. Odd panels for all types of walls shall
normally be made up at the ends of the walls. Every joint in the wall shall provide for expansion. For
cast-in-place construction, a minimum of 1/2 inch premolded filler should be specified. A compressible back-up strip of closed-cell foam polyethylene or butyl rubber with a sealant on the front face is
used for precast concrete walls. No joints other than construction joints shall be used in footings
except at bridge abutments and where the change from a pile footing to a spread footing occurs. In
these cases, the footing shall be interrupted by a 1/2 inch premolded expansion joint through both the
footing and the wall. The maximum spacing of construction joints in the footing shall be 120 feet.
The footing construction joints should have a minimum 6-inch offset with the expansion joints in the
wall.
C. Architectural Treatment
The type of face treatment for retaining walls is decided on a job-to-job basis according to degree of
visual impact. It should be discussed with the Bridge Architect at the time of preliminary plan preparation. The wall should blend in with its surroundings and complement other structures in the vicinity.
Top of walls are usually smooth flowing curves as seen in elevation. See Retaining Wall Standard
Sheets for top of wall and ground line relationship and also for cambering of front of cantilevered
retaining walls.
January 1991
9.4 - 29

Criteria
Substructure Design
Retaining Walls
D. Concrete Fill for Soldier Pile Walls

1.
Soldier Pile Walls With No Tieback Anchors

For this type of soldier pile wall, use lean concrete for the entire soldier pile embedment length.
For a wet hole, use a special designed lean concrete. Typically, the contractor designs and submits this special design lean concrete for approval.
2.
Soldier Pile Walls With Tieback Anchors

For this type of soldier pile wall, use lean concrete for the portion of the soldier pile above final
grade (above the cut line in front of the soldier pile wall). Below final grade, where transfer of load
for the vertical component of the sloping tieback(s) is resisted, use concrete Class 4000P. Concrete
Class 4000P is permissible in a wet hole (placed by tremie).
E. Detailing of Standard Reinforced Concrete Retaining Walls

1.
In general, the H dimension shown on retaining wall plans should be in foot increments. Use
the actual design H reduced to the next lower even foot for dimensions up to 3 inches higher
than the even foot.
Examples:
Actual height 15-3, show H = 15 on design plans

Actual height > 15-3, show H = 16 on design plans
For walls which are not of a uniform height, H should be shown for each segment of the wall
between expansion joints or at some other convenient location. On walls with a steep slope or
vertical curves, it may be desirable to show 2 or 3 different H dimensions within a particular
segment. The horizontal distance should be shown between changes in the H dimensions.
The value for H shall be shown in a block in the center of the panel or segment. See Example,
Figure 9.4.4-1.
2.
Follow the example format shown in Figure 9.4.4-1.
3.
Calculate approximate quantities using the Standard Plans.
4.
Wall dimensions shall be determined by the designer using the Standard Plans.
5.
Do not show any details given in the Standard Plans.
6.
Note on the plans any deviation from the Standard Plans.
7.
Do not detail reinforcing steel, unless it deviates from the Standard Plans.
8.
For pile footings, use the example format except revise the footing size, detail any additional
steel, and show pile locations.
9-4:V:BDM9
9.4 - 30
May 1995

Criteria
Substructure Design
January 1991
Retaining Walls
9.4 - 31

Criteria
Substructure Design
Footings
9.5
Footings
9.5.1
Spread Footings
A. General
The provisions given in this section pertain to both spread footings and pile supported footings except
as noted in 9.5.2, Pile Supported Footings.
1.
Footing Shape and Location

Footings shall normally be rectangular in plan for both square and skewed bridges. Footing depth
will normally be set at the minimum required to assure adequate bearing pressure and cover. On
stream crossings, additional cover depth may be required as protection against scour. The
Hydraulic Section should be consulted on this matter. Unnecessary footing depth results in large
increases in cost. The end slope on the bridge approach fill is usually set at the preliminary plan
stage but affects the depth of footings placed in the fill. Figure 9.5.1-1 illustrates some items to
consider when developing footing positions.
2.
Retaining Wall Footings

Retaining wall footings shall be designed using working stress methods for reasons stated in
Subsection 9.4. The resultant of forces shall be kept within the middle one-third of the footing for
Group I loadings and within the middle one-half of the footing for all other service load conditions, including impact collision load for walls under 16 feet. See AASHTO Working Strength
Loading Combinations.
3.
Design Loadings for Spread or Pile Footings

Footings will normally be designed by load factor methods. The factored loads shall be in
accordance with Section 4, as modified below. Where the footing is being used to support a long
column, the magnified moments shall be used for footing design. See Section 9.2.1E for guidance
on computing magnified moments. See Figures 9.5.1-2 and 9.5.1-3 for modes of failure for
spread and pile footings.
Allowable soil bearing capacities and pile loads are given in terms of service loads as they are
obtained from the Foundation Engineer or, in the case of piles, specified on the plans. When
factored loads are applied to the footing, the following maximum soil or pile loading shall apply.
This value includes any capacity reduction factor.
a.
Basic Load Combination

Using Group I Working Stress Design, the soil or pile loading shall not exceed 1.0 times the
allowable, and for spread footings, the resultant shall fall within the middle one-third of the
footing area. In the case of a pile footing:
(1) No uplift shall be used for Group I loading.
(2) Stability requirements shall be met without mobilizing the piles.
(3) Stability check against overturning shall be taken about the front row of piles.
b.
Factored Load Combinations

(1) Soil Pressure or Pile Reactions
For any factored load combination, the soil loading shall not exceed twice the allowable.
Maximum pile loading shall be in accordance with the following:
October 1993
9.5 - 1

Criteria
Substructure Design
Footings
Guidelines for Footing Location

Figure 9.5.1-1
9.5 - 2
October 1993

Criteria
Substructure Design
Footings
Modes of Failure for Spread Footings

Figure 9.5.1-2
October 1993
9.5 - 3

Criteria
Substructure Design
Footings
Modes of Failure for Pile Footings

Figure 9.5.1-3
9.5 - 4
October 1993

Criteria
Substructure Design
Footings
Groups I-IV, 1.5 x allowable pile bearing capacity
Groups V-IX, 1.75 x allowable pile bearing capacity
Soil pressure or pile reaction is computed considering that it is not possible to develop
any tension between the footing and the soil or pile below. In some special cases,
tension in piles may be allowed as explained in Section 9.6.2B2.
c.
Stability Load Combination

The following criteria have been developed for design of footings for stability:
When dead load tends to increase stability, use D = 0.75 in the AASHTO Load Factor
Combinations. The resultant shall fall within the middle two-thirds (or uplift on not
more than one-half of the area of the footing or one-half of the piles).
d.
Sliding
An adequate factor of safety against sliding based on factored loads shall be maintained
under all conditions. Defining Pu as the total minimum factored vertical load on the footing
and Hu as the total factored horizontal load on the footing, the ratio between these values
shall be such that:
1.1 Hu 0.5
Pu
B. Load Distribution Under Footings

1.
Force Distribution
A straight line force distribution shall be assumed for resisting forces. Where appropriate, a
suitable bi-axial analysis shall be used which accounts for the shape of the actual positive
pressure area under the footing. Design Aid sheet 9-5A-1 Stress on a Rectangular Footing,
Normal Load Outside Kern can be used to calculate true soil pressures. The Bi-Axial Stress
Analysis computer program will also compute this condition. Negative footing reactions will not
be allowed except in the case of friction piles with appropriate reinforcement provided at the
connection between the pile and the footing. See 9.5.2.
2.
Footings With Seals

For establishment of seal size for footings with seals, see 9.7. The footing size shall normally be
set as 2- 0 less than seal size in rectangular dimensions.
Where there is a good possibility that the seal may be eliminated at the time of construction, an
alternate footing design with no seals should be detailed on the plans. See Section 9.7 for method
of establishing footing elevation in this case.
C. Pedestals
A pedestal is sometimes used as an extension of the footing in order to provide additional depth for
shear near the column. Its purpose is to provide adequate structural depth while saving concrete. For
proportions of pedestals, see Figure 9.5.1-5. Since additional forming is required to construct
pedestals, careful thought must be given to the trade off between the cost of the extra forming
involved and the cost of additional footing concrete. Also, additional foundation depth may be needed
for footing cover.
October 1993
9.5 - 5

Criteria
Substructure Design
Footings
Whenever a pedestal is used, the plans shall note that a construction joint will be permitted between
the pedestal and the footing. This construction joint should be indicated as a construction joint with
roughened surface.
D. Footing Design
1.
Footing Thickness and Shear Design

The minimum footing thickness shall be 1 foot 6 inches or, for pile supported footings, 2 feet
0 inches. The minimum plan dimension shall be 4 feet 0 inches. Footing thickness may be governed by the development length of the column dowels, or by concrete shear requirements, with
or without reinforcement. If concrete shear governs the thickness, it is the Engineers judgment,
based on economics, as to whether to use a thick footing unreinforced for shear or a thinner
footing with shear reinforcement. Generally, shear reinforcement should be avoided but not at
excessive cost in concrete, excavation, and shoring requirements. Where stirrups are required,
place the first stirrup at d/2 from the face of the column or pedestal. For large footings, consider
discontinuing the stirrups at the point where vu = vc. For proportions of footings and pedestals
and footings on rock, see Figure 9.5.1-5.
Shear strength requirements are stated in AASHTO Specifications. They are summarized in
Figure 9.5.1-4.
2.
Reinforcement
a.
Column Dowels
Column dowels shall be anchored into the footing in such a manner as to adequately transfer
loads to the footing. Column dowels shall be hooked in order to facilitate placing, prevent
their insertion into wet concrete, and to minimize footing thickness. Bars in tension shall be
developed using length, 1.25 Lb, as shown in Chapter 5 of this manual. Bars in compression
shall develop a length, 1.25 Ld, prior to the bend, as shown on Sheet 5-164. Where bars are
not fully stressed, lengths may be reduced in proportion, but shall not be less than 3/4 Ld.
The concrete strength used to compute development length of the bar in the footing shall be
the strength of the concrete in the footing. The concrete strength to be used to compute the
section strength at the interface between footing and column concrete shall be that of the
column concrete. This can be allowed because of the confinement effect of the wider
footing.
b.
Bottom Reinforcement
Reinforcement shall be designed in accordance with AASHTO provisions and current office
practice shown on Figure 9.5.1-4. However, reinforcement shall not be less than #6 bars at
12-inch centers to account for uneven soil conditions and shrinkage stresses.
9.5 - 6
October 1993

Criteria
Substructure Design
January 1991
Footings
9.5 - 7

Criteria
Substructure Design
9.5 - 8
Footings

Criteria
Substructure Design
c.
Footings
Top Reinforcement
Top reinforcement shall be used in any case where tension forces in the top of the footing
are developed. Where columns and bearing walls are connected to the superstructure, sufficient reinforcement shall be provided in the tops of footings to carry the weight of the
footing and overburden assuming zero pressure under the footing. This is the uplift earthquake condition described under Superstructure Loads. This assumes that the strength of
the connection to the superstructure will carry such load. Where the connection to the superstructure will not support the weight of the substructure and overburden, the strength of the
connection may be used as the limiting value for determining top reinforcement. For these
conditions, the AASHTO requirement for minimum percentage of reinforcement will be
waived. Regardless of whether or not the columns and bearing walls are connected to the
superstructure, a mat of reinforcement shall normally be provided at the tops of footings. On
short stub abutment walls (4 feet from girder seat to top of footing), these bars may be
omitted. In this case, any tension at the top of the footing, due to the weight of the small
overburden, must be taken by the concrete in tension.
Top reinforcement for column or bearing wall footings designed for two-way action shall not
be less than #6 bars at 12-inch centers, in each direction while top reinforcement for bearing
wall footings designed for one-way action shall not be less than #5 bars at 12-inch centers in
each direction.
9.5.2
Pile Supported Footings

A. General Requirements
Design of pile footings shall follow the general requirements set forth in 9.5.1 for spread footings.
Steel H-Pile or timber piles shall be embedded a minimum of 12 inches into the footing where a
moment or tension connection is not required. Cast-in-place concrete piles with reinforcing extending
into footings shall be embedded a minimum of 6 inches. There shall be 11/2 inches of clearance
between the bottom mat of footing reinforcement and the top of pile (see Figure 9.5.2.1). In determining the proportion of pile load to be used for calculation of shear stress on the footing, any pile with
its center 6 inches or more outside the critical section shall be taken as fully acting on that section.
Any pile with its center 6 inches or more inside the critical section shall be taken as not acting for
that section. For locations between, the pile load acting shall be proportioned between these two
extremes. For calculation of moment on the footing, any pile with its center outside of the section
shall be taken at full load. Any pile with its center inside of the section shall not be assumed to
contribute to that amount. All piles shall have an embedment in the soil sufficient to resist lateral
forces and develop axial loads.
B. Pile Spacings
Generalized pile spacings are shown in Section 9.6 for each type of pile. Be aware that the action of
the pile group for friction piles may be quite different than for point bearing piles, in that the group
can fail as a unit at a lower load than the summation of the individual pile capacities. This effect is
accounted for in Chapter 4, Modeling Pile Foundation.
For point bearing piles, the spacing is a minimum of 3 feet, except for timber piles where the
minimum spacing is 3 feet 3 inches. Where the load distribution of the pile is partially point bearing
and partially friction, consider using an intermediate spacing value. Distance from center of pile to
footing edge for all pile types shall be a maximum of 1.5 times the pile diameter or 1 foot 6 inches.
April 1993
9.5 - 9

Criteria
Substructure Design
Footings
Typical Pile Footing Reinforcing Placement

Figure 9.5.2-1
C. Horizontal Force on Pile Groups
Piles resist horizontal forces by a combination of internal strength and the passive pressure resistance
of the surrounding soil. The pile is modeled like a beam on an elastic foundation or by the use of
computer programs, i.e., LPILE1. LPILE1 requires soil properties supplied from the Materials Lab in
order to generate P-Y curves. P-Y curves represent the force required to deflect a pile a unit length.
Forces and moments are applied to the pile and LPILE1 calculates the deflections along its length.
The results can also be used to determine pile lateral and rotational springs. For more information on
modeling individual piles or pile groups, see Chapter 4 Foundation Modeling.
D. Uplift Forces
When piles are subject to uplifting forces or a built in condition is needed at the top of the pile, the
pile must be adequately connected to the footing by means of extended reinforcement, welded bars,
or other means. No uplift capacity is allowed due to the bond between pile and embedment into
footing. Uplift pile capacities shall be determined by Materials Lab. Construction methods used for
jetted or spudded piles reduce uplift capacity.
9-5:V:BDM9
9.5 - 10
October 1993

Criteria
Substructure Design
Piles and Piling
9.6
Piles and Piling
9.6.1
A. Selection of Pile Type
Piles should not be used where spread footings can be used at allowable basic bearing pressures of
approximately 2 to 3 ton/sq. ft. or greater. Where heavy scour conditions may occur, pile foundations
should be considered in lieu of spread footings. Where large amounts of excavation may be necessary
to place a spread footing, pile support may be more economical. The following is a general summary
of comparative pile properties.
Pile
Type
Penetrat.
ofHard
Strata
Laetral
Force
Resist.
Ease
of
Splice
Moderate
High.
High
Cost
Capacity
Steel
HP
High
High
Conc.
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
(CIPGood)
w/tip
Moderate
Good
High
CIPHigh
Precast
Low
Timber
Low
Low
Poor
Moderate
Poor
Low
Low
Cylinder
High
Very
High
Good
Moderate
Moderate
Very
High
Precast
Low
Very
Good
Frci toi n
Easeof
Connect.
toStruct.
High
B. Friction vs. Point Bearing Piles

Piles may be of friction type or point bearing or a combination of both. AASHTO Load Capacity of
Piles shall pertain for the design of piling, except as noted herein. Normally in the absence of a soil
layer which can offer adequate resistance to develop full point bearing, the pile shall be considered to
be acting as a friction pile. The Materials Laboratory will provide information as to the ability of the
soil to support the pile load.
The conditions of support of the pile in the soil may affect several structural properties. These may
be: rate of pile elastic shortening, effect of group action and hence spacing, column stability of the
pile, and ability to resist lateral forces.
C. Pile Loads and Spacings
The loads allowed and spacing of piles in groups are usually as tabulated below. Many other
combinations are possible; however, their use should be predicated on suitable analysis and
concurrence of the Bridge Design Engineer and the Foundation Engineer.
Pile selection shall be made to give maximum economy combined with adequate load capacity and
ability of the pile to be driven into the particular material.
January 1991
9.6 - 1

Criteria
Substructure Design
Capacity*
Piles and Piling
Peli
Materail
Spacingof
FrictionPiles
Spacingof
PointBearing
Pelis
Edge
Distance**
PileSize
40 T
Timber
3-3
3-3
1-6
Spec.
55 T
Concrete
Steel
4-0
3-0
1-6
HP 12 x 53
70 T
Concrete
Steel
4-6
4-6
3-3
3-3
1-9
1-6
+
HP 12 x 53
Table 9.6.1B
August 1974
10 BP 42 may be used if the pile is point bearing for this capacity.
12-inch diameter min. for Concrete Filled Casing.
13-inch diameter min. for Precast or Precast Prestressed.
14-inch diameter min. Butt for Tapered.
10-inch or 12-inch Square Precast Prestressed.
12-inch diameter min. for Hollow Prestressed Spun Piles.
+ 14-inch diameter min. for Concrete Filled Casing.
16-inch diameter min. for Precast or Precast Prestressed.
* Capacity shown is rated Basic (working) load value and includes the effect of any downdrag forces.
The Converse-Labare Formula (AASHTO Group Pile Loading) need not be applied to pile values
shown here. This formula reduces the vertical load carry capacity of a pile group. See Foundation
Modeling, Chapter 4, for lateral load capacity reduction for pile groups.
** Center of pile to footing edge.
The above table is a guide to usual practice and is not intended to restrict the use of other capacities
and spacings where needed.
Maximum pile spacings should be limited to about 10 feet. With spacings beyond this, the shear
between the footing and column or wall may become a problem.
9.6.2
A. Column Action
Consideration shall be given to the pile acting as a column. Piles which extend above the ground
surface shall be analyzed by the appropriate column design procedures. Piles which are driven
through very weak soils should be designed for reduced lateral support, using information from the
Materials Laboratory as appropriate. Piles driven through firm material normally can be considered to
be fully supported for column action (buckling not critical).
9.6 - 2
April 1993

Criteria
Substructure Design
Piles and Piling
B. Uplift Capacity
1.
Introduction
The ability of a pile to carry uplift loads is highly dependent upon the strata into which it
is driven. Unless detailed knowledge of that strata is available at the time of design, the pile
should not be relied on to carry uplift loads. In all cases where uplift loads are to be carried, the
connection between the pile and the footing must be carefully detailed. The bond between the
pile and the seal may be considered as contributing to the uplift resistance. This bond value shall
be limited to 10 psi.
2.
Computation of Uplift Capacity

Appropriate values of uplift should be those values recommended by the Materials Lab. If the
information is not available, the following will give guidance on uplift capacity. Pile uplift may
be considered to act to assist in carrying factored loads within the limits specified below. When
pile uplift is considered to carry a portion of the factored loads, a check shall be made to ensure
that no tension on the piles is necessary to carry any basic combination (factor of 1.0) of DL, LL,
Wind, or Stream Flow.
Where pile tension is used, it shall be computed as follows:
Ro = B
50
Where B is the average blow count from the test hole log in blows/foot and Ro is the resistance of
the pile surface in Ton/Ft.2, the total resistance of the pile to pull out is then Rp = Ro(1p)P
where 1 is the effective pile length and P is the perimeter of the pile. Consider P to be
2 X (Flange width plus depth) for H Piles. The above computed value for Ro gives essentially an
ultimate pull out value. To give usable values, use a factor of safety of 3 for working stress
design on a capacity reduction factor of 2/3 for load factor design. Do not use more than 40 percent of the pile downward load capacity, however. For calculation, use a length of pile 5 feet
shorter than minimum tip elevation.
3.
January 1991
Cautions to be Exercised with Respect to Pile Uplift

a.
The pile must be a friction pile and over 10 feet in length. Whenever uplift is to be used in
the design, the Foundation Engineer shall be consulted. Do not use for full point bearing
piles.
b.
The tension connection between the pile and the structure must be adequate.
c.
The pile must be adequate to carry tension throughout its length. For example, a timber pile
with a splice sleeve could not be used.
d.
Preboring, jetting, or spudding must not be used to aid in driving the pile and must be so
noted in the plans or special provisions.
e.
The use of pile load tests to verify the uplift capacity of the piling should be considered.
9.6 - 3

Criteria
Substructure Design
Piles and Piling
C. Lateral Resistance
Lateral forces applied to piles must be carried either by passive soil resistance and bending or by
battered piles.
1.
The capacity of the pile to carry horizontal loads should be investigated using beam on elastic
foundation theory. A computer program (LPILE) is available to assist in this calculation. Soil
modules can be obtained for each soil layer from the Materials Laboratory.
For material such as fill compacted to specification requirements, a soil modulus value of 40 tons
per cubic foot, constant variation, might be used. This means that the elastic modulus of the soil
at one foot depth is 40 T/sq. ft., at 2-foot depth is 80 T/sq. ft., etc. For other types of soil, the
modulus may not vary from top to bottom. The limitation on soil stress is, at the same time,
3.0 tons (working stress) per square foot. Again, some deflection (about of 0.5 inch) will usually
be associated with this resistance and that deflection must be acceptable in the total design.
2.
Passive Resistance of Piles

In lieu of the above analysis, a maximum passive resistance of 3 tons (ultimate capacity 6 tons)
may be assumed for each foundation pile provided the footing is built directly on the soil and
that the soil below the footing is capable of carrying this load. This figure is to be used for
12-inch diameter or 12-inch square piles and larger only. For 10-inch square piles, use half of
this amount. For this condition, the bending in the pile is neglected and assumed to be within the
capacity of the pile to resist. It should be noted that a horizontal deflection will be associated
with the development of this resistance.
3.
Pile Bents
Piles which support footings or pile caps that are not in contact with the soil below them, must be
treated as columns, subject to bending and axial load. The calculation of lateral resistance must
follow a procedure similar to the one mentioned above.
4.
Battered Piles
Where passive pressures will not carry the imposed lateral loads, or where horizontal rigidity is
required, battered piles must be used. The lateral force which can be resisted by a single battered
piles is limited by a function of applied vertical load, and this must not be exceeded. Maximum
batter shall be 41/2:12.
D. Other Considerations
1.
Driving stresses are calculated by the Materials Lab. Additional information such as recommended pile type, wall thickness, bearing stresses, etc., can be requested from their office.
2.
Elastic Settlement
The effect of elastic settlement should not be used to develop factors for normal frame moment
distribution. It is valuable when evaluating forces developed by deflection of piers where these
forces must be carried by the structure. Actual footing rotation, due to applied loads on a pile
supported footing, may be computed using the elastic shortening of the piles in the group and
using the usual PL/AE equation. The problem then is to establish an appropriate L value. For
fully point bearing piles, this length can be taken to be the full length to the bearing strata. For
fully friction piles, half of the estimated pile length might be appropriate with intermediate
lengths being used for piles which will be partially point bearing.
9.6 - 4
July 2000

Criteria
Substructure Design
3.
Piles and Piling
Pile Splices
Pile splices shall be avoided where possible. If splices may be required in timber piling, a splice
shall be detailed on the plans. Splices between treated and untreated timber shall always be
located below the permanent water line. Concrete pile splices shall have the same strength as
unspliced piles.
4.
Driving Considerations
The conditions required for driving shall be considered in all designs. Some of the conditions are
as follows:
a.
Soil Character
The type of soil governs the pile type and may require the use of points or shoes. Timber
piles cannot ordinarily be driven through hard gravel layers, and such layers may require the
use of concrete or steel piles.
When cobbles, boulders, or rock fills exist at the site, a drilled pile or shaft should be used.
b.
Preboring
Preboring is used when an intermediate hard layer must be penetrated in order to reach
bearing layers below, when the amount of driving must be limited to avoid disturbance to
buildings, or when precise placement of the piles is required. Preboring will normally be
carried as a separate bid item. On widenings, driving piles through existing fills often
requires spudding or jetting to assist in pile driving. These are contractor options and are not
pay items. See Standard Specifications for contractor requirements.
c.
Clearances
It is the designers responsibility to ensure that sufficient room is available for driving piling.
This is a problem when working on widenings adjacent to existing structures and in urban
areas. Normally 20 feet of minimum headroom is necessary. Timber piles can be driven two
feet horizontally from a vertical surface, but additional clearance is desirable. Occasionally,
driving the piling from the existing structure is the only alternative. In such a case, the
ability of the supporting structure to support the pile driver and the dynamic forces must be
analyzed and shall be noted in the Special Provisions.
Access room for the driver to enter the site must be assured.
d.
Maximum Batter
The batter on piles shall not exceed 41/2 to 12. Piles with batters in excess of this become
very difficult to drive and the bearing values become difficult to predict.
Ensure that battered piling do not intersect piling from adjacent footings within the maximum length of the piles.
e.
Pile Load Tests

Pile load testing is used when doubt exists as to whether or not the driving formula actually
represents the capacity of the pile. Where such tests are used, they are conducted by the
Materials Laboratory. On large jobs, consideration should be given to pile load tests in the
design stage in order to reduce foundation costs.
January 1991
9.6 - 5

Criteria
Substructure Design
f.
Piles and Piling
Estimate Pile Length

Pile length quantity calculations are determined from the estimated tip elevation given in the
Soils Report.
A 40-ton timber pile in granular material will usually develop full load by the time it is well
into a layer of 25 to 30 blow count.
9.6.3
Concrete Piles
A. Specifications
When concrete piles are specified, the Standard Specifications Section 6-05 allow the contractor to
select the pile type, i.e., precast or cast-in-place and describes the network of construction. Reinforcement for 55- and 70-ton piles is specified in the Standard Specifications. Where bearing values are
specified on the plans other than 55- and 70-ton piles, or if the standard reinforcement is inadequate
for the application, the details or Special Provisions must provide for the reinforcement. The following criteria shall be used for cast-in-place concrete piles:
1.
The wall thickness will be determined by Materials Lab analysis of pile driving formula. Unless
otherwise specified, the design shall be based on a steel shell thickness of 1/4 inch for piles less
than 14 inches in diameter, 3/8 inches for piles 14 to 18 inches in diameter, and 1/2 inch for larger
piles.
2.
Piles shall be embedded into the footing a minimum of 6 inches. The reinforcing mat shall have
11/2 inches of cover to the top of the pile.
3.
Class 4000 LS Concrete shall be specified for inside the pile. The top 10 feet of concrete in the
pile is to be vibrated.
4.
The full cross section of the steel shell, minus 1/16 inch for corrosion, is to be used in determining
the pile stiffness and foundation modeling. It can also be considered as confinement reinforcement for the internal cage except at pile/footing interface. The moment of inertia of the pile is to
be computed by adding the components I pile = Iconc + (n)(Ishell) + (n)(Ireinf).
5.
A steel reinforcing cage shall be used to tie the pile to the footing. The reinforcement, alone,
shall be sufficient to resist the total moment throughout the length of pile without considering the
shell. The minimum reinforcement shall be 0.5 percent of the gross concrete area for Seismic
Performance Categories A and B, and 0.75 percent for Category C as required per AASHTOs
Seismic Guideline Specifications, Chapter 6. No less than four No. 5 bars shall be used. The
reinforcement shall extend above the pile into the footing a distance equal to 1.25 1d (tension).
6.
Above the top of the pile, the vertical steel reinforcing bars shall be tied together with closely spaced
hoops or spirals as required by the seismic guide specifications. Inside the pile, No. 4 hoops at
12-inch centers is minimum required for Category B and 9-inch centers for Category C.
B. Concrete Pile Types

The following types of concrete piles have been commonly used:
1.
Cast-in-Place Concrete Piles Utilizing Driven Steel Pipe Casings

The casing diameter and thickness is called for in the specifications. The bottom of the casing is
capped with a suitable flat plate before driving. Special tips are sometimes used when difficult
driving is expected.
9.6 - 6
April 1993

Criteria
Substructure Design
2.
Piles and Piling
Precast Concrete Piles

These piles may be of various cross-sectional shapes and are reinforced for handling stresses. A
good knowledge of the in-place length is required since splicing is difficult. Due to handling
requirements, only short lengths can be used. See Standard Plan Sheet E-4 for precast concrete
piles, 13-inch diameter.
3.
Precast Prestressed Concrete Piles

These piles are hexagonal, square, or circular in cross-section and are prestressed to allow longer
handling lengths. Again, close length determination at time of driving the test pile is important.
Precast prestresed concrete piles are usually specified in accordance with Standard Plans such as
Sheet E-4 for 13-inch diameter piles and Sheet E-4a for 16- and 18-inch diameter piles.
9.6.4
Sheet Piling (H Piles)

Steel piles are normally used where there are hard layers which must be penetrated in order to reach an
adequate point bearing stratum. Steel stress should be limited to 9.0 ksi (working stress) on the tip.
H piling can act efficiently as friction piling due to its large surface area. Do not use steel H piling where
the soil consists of only moderately dense material. In such conditions, it may be difficult to develop the
friction capacity of the H piles and excessive pile length may result. The bridge layout will denote steel
piles with capacity and size, e.g., steel pile 70-ton HP 12 x 53.
9.6.5
Timber Piles
Timber piles have the lowest cost per foot of any of the pile types. Timber piles may be untreated or
treated. Untreated piles are used only for temporary applications or where the entire pile will be permanently below the water line. Composite piles, treated and untreated, may be used if the pile length is long
and a splice will be required. Where composite piles are used, the splice must be located below the
permanent water table. If doubt exists as to the location of the permanent water table, treated timber piles
shall be used.
Where dense material exists, consideration should be given to allowing jetting (with loss of uplift
capacity), use of shoes, or use of other pile types.
9.6.6
Sheet Piles
Sheet piles are normally used for cofferdam and shoring and cribbing, but are usually not made a part of
permanent construction.
9.6.7
Cylinder Piles
Large diameter cylinder piles are used because of their high allowable bearing and bending strength
capacity.
Cylinder piles are commonly cast-in-place concrete and the shaft is formed by drilling. See Drilled
Shafts Section 9.8.
9-6WORK:V:BDM3
January 1991
9.6 - 7

Criteria
Substructure Design
9.7
Seals
9.7.1
Purpose
Seals
A concrete seal is used within the confines of a cofferdam to permit construction of the pier footing and
column in the dry. This type of underwater construction is practical to a water depth of approximately
50 feet.
Seal concrete must be placed underwater. This is usually accomplished with the use of a tremie. A tremie
is a long pipe that extends to the bottom of the excavation and permits a head to be maintained on the
concrete during placement. After the concrete has been placed and has obtained sufficient strength, the
water within the cofferdam is removed. The weight of the seal concrete resists the hydrostatic pressure
exerting force at the base of the seal. In Figure 9.7.1-1, some of the factors that must be considered in
designing a seal are illustrated.
*Usually 1 foot 0 inches for design (use 1 foot 0 inches greater than design seal dimensions for quantity
calculations).
Figure 9.7.1-1
9.7.2
General
A. Normal High Water Elevation
The Normal High Water Elevation is defined as the highest water surface elevation that may normally
be expected to occur during a given time period. This elevation, which appears on the Hydraulics
Data Sheet, is obtained from discussions with local residents or by observance of high water marks at
the site. The normal high water is not related to any flood condition.
March 1993
9.7 - 1

Criteria
Substructure Design
Seals
B. Seal Vent Elevation

The headquarters Hydraulics Section recommends a seal vent elevation in accordance with the following
criteria:
1.
Construction time period not known.

If the time period of the footing construction is not known, the vent elevation reflects the normal
high water elevation that might occur at any time during the year.
2.
Construction time period known.

If the time period of the footing construction can be anticipated, the vent elevation reflects the
normal high water elevation that might occur during this time period. (If the anticipated time
period of construction is later changed, the Hydraulics Section shall be notified and appropriate
changes made in the design.)
C. Scour Depth
The depth of the anticipated scour is determined by the Headquarters Hydraulics Section. The bottom
of the footing, or bottom of seal, if used, shall be no higher than the scour depth elevation. After
preliminary footing and seal thicknesses have been determined, the designers shall review the anticipated scour elevation with the Hydraulics Section to ensure that excessive depths are not used.
D. Recommended Foundation Elevation (from Soils Report)
Based on the results obtained from test boring made at the site, the Soils Engineer determines a
foundation elevation and accompanying soil pressure that will not result in excessive settlement of the
structure. If other factors control, such as scour or footing cover, the footing elevation may have to be
lower than determined by the Soils Engineer.
9.7.3
Spread Footings
A. Seal Positively Required
When there is little possibility of the seal being eliminated during construction, the following
procedure shall be used for design:
1.
Preliminary Sections
The bottom of the seal elevation shall be the lower of the scour elevation or the foundation
elevation as recommended by the Soils Engineer. Footing cover requirements of Section 9.5
apply when the top of footing is exposed to view.
The size of the seal is selected based on the following:
a.
Allowable Soil Pressure

The size of the seal required in order to meet the allowable soil pressure shall be calculated
using column moments at the base of the footing and vertical load applied at the bottom of
the seal.
b.
Stability
Stability need only be checked at the base of the footing.
2.
Final Design
After preliminary sections are determined, the final design is made based on the criteria outlined
in Section 9.5.
9.7 - 2
March 1993

Criteria
Substructure Design
3.
Seals
Unusual Conditions
At times, unusual conditions are encountered such as rock formations or deep foundations that
require special considerations in order to arrive at the most optimum design. When this occurs, it
is advisable to discuss the proposed foundation design with both the Soils Engineer and the
Bridge Hydraulics Section prior to final plan preparation.
B. Seal May Not Be Required

When it is possible but not probable that a seal may be required during construction, the seal and
footing are designed as described in Section 9.7.3A. In addition, a separate design is made for a
footing without a seal. The top of the footing, or pedestal when used, shall be no higher than the
elevation set by cover requirements. The bottom of the footing shall be no higher than the foundation
elevation recommended by the Soils Engineer or the scour elevation set by Headquarters Hydraulics.
This alternate footing without a seal shall be detailed on the plans. If the alternate footing elevation is
different from the footing with seal, it is also necessary to note on the plans the required changes in
length of column bars and increased number of ties. The quantities shall be based on the footing
designed with a seal. Both designs shall be included in the plans.
9.7.4
Pile Support Footings

The top of the footing, or pedestal when used, is set by cover requirements of Section 9.5. The bottom of
seal elevation is based on the stream scour elevation determined by Hydraulics. A preliminary analysis is
made using the estimated footing and seal weight, and the column moments and vertical load at the base
of the footing to determine the number of piles and spacing. Seal size will be 1 foot 0 inches larger than
the footing all around. From Design Aid 9.7-A1, the seal thickness can be obtained based on the vent
elevation.
After preliminary dimensions are determined, the final design is made using the criteria outlined in
Section 9.5. If the seal is omitted during construction, the bottom of footing shall be set at the scour
elevation and an alternate design is made.
9-7:V:BDM9
March 1993
9.7 - 3

Criteria
Substructure Design
9.8
Drilled Shafts
9.8.1
General
Drilled Shafts
A. Definition
A drilled shaft is a machine and/or manually excavated shaft in soil or rock that is filled with
concrete and reinforcing steel. A drilled shaft is circular in cross-section and may be belled at the
base to provide greater bearing area.
Vertical load is resisted by the drilled shaft in base bearing and side friction. Horizontal load is
resisted by the shaft in horizontal bearing against the surrounding soil or rock.
B. Characteristics
The following special features distinguish drilled shaft from other types of foundations:
1.
The drilled shaft is installed in a drilled hole, unlike the driven pile.
2.
Wet concrete is cast and cures directly against the soil forming the walls of the bore hole.
Temporary steel casing may be necessary for stabilization of the open hole and is extracted
during concrete placement.
3.
The installation method for drilled shafts is adapted to suit the subsurface conditions.
C. Terminology
Other terminology commonly used to describe a drilled shaft includes: drilled pier, drilled caisson,
and bored pile. In soil, the shaft is normally drilled with an auger. In rock, a core barrel bit is used in
combination with blasting.
9.8.2
Types of Drilled Shafts

Drilled shafts may be categorized by two different methods. The first method defines shafts by their load
transfer. The second method classifies shafts by their type of construction.
A. Classification by Load Transfer to the Soil
1.
Straight shaft, end-bearing drilled shaft. Load is transferred by base resistance only.
2.
Straight shaft, side-wall shear or friction drilled shaft. Load is transferred by shaft shear
resistance only.
3.
Straight shaft, side-wall shear and end-bearing drilled shaft. Load is transferred by combination
of shaft and base resistance.
4.
Belled or underreamed drilled shaft. Load is transferred by the bell in end-bearing. Shaft shear
resistance may be considered, depending on the dimensions of the drilled shaft and overburden
material.
5.
Straight or belled drilled shaft on hard soil or rock. Shaft shear resistance may be considered,
under some circumstances, when the shaft is socketed into good rock.
B. Classification by Type of Construction
January 1991
1.
Not cased, reinforced.
2.
Temporary casing, removed while placing concrete.
3.
Temporary casing with permanent liner.
9.8 - 1

Criteria
Substructure Design
9.8.3
4.
Permanent casing.
5.
Underreamed shafts.
6.
Underwater concrete placement.
Drilled Shafts
Advantages and Disadvantages of the Drilled Shaft

A. Advantages
1.
Construction equipment is normally mobile and construction can proceed rapidly.
2.
The excavated material and the drilled hole can often be examined to ascertain whether or not the
soil conditions at the particular site agree with the projected soil profile.
3.
Changes in geometry of the drilled shaft may be made during the progress of a job if the
subsurface conditions so dictate. These changes include adjustment in diameter and in penetration
and the addition or exclusion of underreams.
4.
The heave and settlement at the ground surface will normally be very small.
5.
The personnel, equipment, and materials for construction are usually readily available.
6.
The completed excavation can often be carefully inspected prior to construction if casing or
slurry is not required. For end-bearing situations, the soil beneath the tip of the drilled shaft can
be probed for cavities or for weak soil.
7.
The noise level from the equipment is less than for some other methods of construction.
8.
The drilled shaft is applicable to a wide variety of soil conditions For example, it is possible to
drill through a layer of cobbles, many feet into sound rock, and through frozen ground.
9.
Very large loads can be carried by a single drilled shaft.
10. Designs of drilled shafts can be made considering load transfer both in end bearing and in side
resistance.
11. The behavior of a drilled shaft at a site can be monitored by available methods of instrumentation
and analytical techniques.
12. Use in constricted areas. The shaft occupies less area than a footing and thus can be built closer
to railroads and existing structures.
13. When drilling inside a steel casing, pollution of lake or river water is minimized.
14. Drilled shafts may be more economical than spread footing construction, especially when the
foundation is deep.
B. Disadvantages
9.8 - 2
1.
Construction procedures are critical to the quality of the drilled shaft, and very careful inspection
is required.
2.
Construction techniques are sometimes very sensitive to subsurface soil and rock conditions.
Boulders can be a serious problem, especially in smaller diameter shafts.
3.
The proper performance and interpretation of load tests on drilled shafts requires expert
knowledge and experience.
4.
Lack of general knowledge of construction problems and design methods has restricted the use of
drilled shafts.

Criteria
Substructure Design
9.8.4
5.
Shaft length within predicted scour range is not considered effective.
6.
Reduced redundancy, with fewer number of shafts versus a large number of piles.
Drilled Shafts
Preliminary Soils Investigation

For proper design and construction, a site investigation is very important not only to the design engineer,
but to the contractor as well. All information that is gained in a site investigation should be made available to potential contractors.
A. Surface Features
A careful review of Surface Features should be made from the field data and soils report. Surface
features, such as boulders or cobbles, may dictate whether drilled shafts are feasible or desirable.
Among the things to be aware of are the following:
1.
The existence of utilities and any restrictions concerning their relocation or removal.
2.
A drilled shaft requires less area than a footing and is appropriate as foundation support near
existing structures or facilities such as railroad tracks. With less area, excavation, shoring, and
cribbing costs are reduced. Installation of drilled shafts produce less noise and vibration than pile
driving.
3.
Water table elevation will influence the method of construction of the drilled shaft. A casing may
be used to place concrete in the dry or a tremie used to place concrete in water or slurry.
4.
A contour map may be needed to determine the finished top elevation of the drilled shaft.
5.
Site access by construction equipment.
6.
Environmental considerations may also dictate the methods of construction.
B. Subsurface Investigation
A preliminary soils investigation and testing is needed to determine the pertinent characteristics of the
soil in which the drilled shaft is to be constructed. The characteristics of the soil will influence the
design of the shaft and the method of construction.
C. Methods of Investigation
The standard method for obtaining soil characteristics involves laboratory testing of undisturbed
samples and the use of in-situ techniques such as: Goodman Jack, the static cone test, and
pressuremeter tests. The standard penetration test is used extensively.
D. Subsurface Conditions Affecting Construction
January 1991
1.
The stability of the subsurface soils when the excavation is made will determine whether a casing
is necessary or not. The dry method (see Section 9.8.7A) of construction can be used only where
the soils will not cave or collapse. The casing or slurry method (see Section 9.8.7B and 9.8.7C)
must be used if there is danger of caving or collapse.
2.
It must be determined if groundwater exists at the site and what rate of flow can be expected into
a shaft excavation. The presence of groundwater will indicate if a tremie pour shaft will be
needed or if a tremie seal must first be poured, the shaft dewatered, and then the remainder of the
shaft poured in the dry. In either instance, the design must assure access to the top of the seal to
allow the surface to be thoroughly cleaned prior to placing additional concrete (i.e., the shaft
must be large enough to accommodate a worker or the top surface of a small diameter shaft seal
must be located so that it is accessible).
9.8 - 3

Criteria
Substructure Design
9.8.5
Drilled Shafts
3.
Any artesian water conditions must be clearly identified in the contract documents. Artesian
water flowing into a pour could spoil the concrete or cause collapse or heaving of the soil at the
excavation.
4.
The presence of cobbles or boulders can cause difficulties in drilling. Drilling with core barrel
bits or blasting can remove obstructions.
5.
The presence of existing foundations or structures.
6.
Presence of landfill that could contain hazardous or dangerous material that cannot be easily
excavated.
7.
Presence of rock may require more sophisticated drilling methods or shooting with explosives.
8.
Presence of a weak stratum below the base of the drilled shaft. For this situation, drilling may
have to be extended below the weak stratum.
Design of Drilled Shafts for Axial Load

The total axial capacity of the drilled shaft is composed of two factors: the base capacity and the side
capacity. The general formula is:
QT = QB + QS
QT = total axial capacity of the foundation
QB = the base capacity
QS = the side capacity
QB and QS are treated as independent quantities although research has shown that the base resistance and
side resistance have some independence. The degree of reliability of the above formula is compatible
with the soils information obtained from a routine investigation. Ultimate unit base resistance and side
resistance will be obtained from the Foundation Engineer. Unit side resistance may vary with depth, but
normally one value is given for the entire depth of the shaft. Ultimate base and side resistances are
furnished by the Foundation Engineer along with a factor of safety.
A. Ultimate Failure vs. Excessive Settlement
There are basically two criteria by which recommendations for unit base and shaft resistances are
arrived at by the Foundation Engineer. First, the ultimate soil resistance is determined using limit
state criteria. Second, an estimate of the settlement of the shaft is made using anticipated loads. If it is
felt that settlements are excessive, then the settlement criteria will control the design of the shaft. The
designer should indicate to the Foundation Engineer what settlements would be acceptable in the
design. Normally 1 inch is adequate. It must be cautioned, however, that in deep shafts, it is sometimes necessary to have vertical deflections on the order of 2 percent of the shaft diameter in order to
develop the base resistance.
B. Factor of Safety
For the design of drilled shafts, the Foundation Engineer should be consulted on ultimate base and
shear resistances along with a factor of safety. Drilled shafts are designed by load factor methods. For
factored load combinations, see Section 9.5.1(3b) for Maximum Pile Load. Group I Basic Service
Loads are checked against allowable axial bearing and side friction supplied from the Materials Lab.
9.8 - 4

Criteria
Substructure Design
Drilled Shafts
C. Spacing, Depth, Diameter Reinforcing, and Concrete Strength of Drilled Shafts

1.
Spacing
In situations where the design load cannot be sustained by a single shaft, several drilled shafts
may be installed to act as a group. If the spacing between shafts in a group is too small, excessive settlement may occur along with a reduction in the side resistance. As a guide to design, an
efficiency of 70 percent is recommended for drilled shaft groups in clay and 100 percent for
groups in sand, when the spacing between shafts is in the range of 2.5B to 4B (B = shaft
diameter). The Foundation Engineer will normally give a recommendation on spacing between
shafts in a group.
2.
Depth
In order to develop a high base resistance, the drilled shaft must have sufficient depth of soil
above the base. Depths between 3B and 5B (B = shaft diameter) are recommended for design.
The Foundation Engineer will normally recommend a depth. There may be a limitation on the
depth of penetration due to equipment limitations. Penetrations of 100 feet and more are not
uncommon.
3.
Diameter
The diameter of a shaft should be a minimum of 18 inches. The shaft diameters should be
specified in 6-inch increments. The maximum diameter of the shaft depends on the availability of
equipment. Diameters in the order of 10 feet to 12 feet are common.
4.
Reinforcing and Concrete Strength

Due to soil conditions and construction methods, concrete may not be placed in the dry. A
reduction in concrete strength used for design shall be as follows:
a.
Shaft diameter 4 feet 0 inches or less assumed concrete compressive strength shall be 0.85
fc. Concrete placed by tremie method is confined to small area and segregation is reduced.
Cover requirement 3-inch minimum to 6-inch maximum.
b.
Shaft diameter 4 feet 6 inches or more use 0.60 fc. Cover requirement 6-inch minimum
to 12-inch maximum.
Reinforcing shall be detailed to minimize congestion. Longitudinal reinforcing extending into

footing should be straight. If hooked, detail so that casing can be removed while placing concrete. Percentage of reinforcing shall be 0.5 percent minimum and 4 percent maximum. Use of
two concentric circular cages shall be avoided.
January 1991
9.8 - 5

Criteria
Substructure Design
9.8.6
Drilled Shafts
Design of Drilled Shafts Subject to Lateral Loads

A. General Modeling Technique
The modeling technique involved in the analysis of laterally loaded shafts depicts the soil surrounding
the shaft as a set of linear or nonlinear elastic springs. See Figure 9.8.6-1 for illustration.
Model of Laterally Loaded Shaft

Figure 9.8.6-1
Present day computer analysis techniques can handle a finite number of springs. The correct
mathematical solution involves the solution of an infinite number of springs. The problem is one of a
beam-on-elastic foundation which involves the solution of a fourth order differential equation. The
exact mathematical solution is normally difficult except in the very limited cases. Therefore, this
method of solution is considered impractical for the normal design problems.
The most practical means for analysis of the drilled shaft for lateral loads is by computer. For
additional modeling techniques, see Chapter 4 Foundation Modeling.
9.8 - 6

Criteria
Substructure Design
Drilled Shafts
B. P-Y Curves
Horizontal deflection of the soil due to load is normally represented by P-Y curves. P stands for a
force per unit length of the shaft such as kips per foot. Y is the horizontal deflection of the shaft in
units such as feet. The P-Y relationship usually will vary with depth of the shaft. A reduction for
group action will be required if the shafts are spaced less than three diameters normal to the direction
of loading and less than six to eight diameters parallel to the direction of loading. The Foundation
Engineer will provide the design engineer with P-Y curves for the design of the drilled shafts.
A set of P-Y curves must be derived for computer analysis of a drilled shaft.
Set of Nonlinear P-Y Curves

Figure 9.8.6-2
January 1991
9.8 - 7

Criteria
Substructure Design
Drilled Shafts
Another concept in soil mechanics is that of the Soil Modulus ES which is defined as -P/Y. This term will
have units such as kips per square foot.
Illustration of the Secant Modulus

Figure 9.8.6-3
The soil modulus is taken as being a linear function of depth. Since the P-Y relationship is nonlinear,
the modulus ES will be a secant modulus.
C. Analysis by Computer
1.
Dr. Reese Program

The Analysis of Laterally Loaded Piles program by Dr. Lymon Reese will accommodate P-Y
curve input data for the solution of laterally loaded piles. Linear P-Y curves are generated for
different soil layers with known soil properties. The program referred to as LPILE1 will not
allow simultaneous solution of the superstructure and substructure. The program is most
commonly used to analyze shafts.
2.
PILANA
This acronym describes a modeling technique, using STRUDL, to solve lateral loads on piles.
The soil spring coefficient (P-Y relationship) must be linear. Superstructure and substructure may
be solved for simultaneously.
3.
Pile Structure Interaction Analysis

The McAUTO STRUDL program will solve the lateral load on a pile problem. P-Y curve
relationship values may be entered directly. P-Y values may be linear or nonlinear. Both
superstructure and substructure may be analyzed simultaneously. The McAUTO STRUDL program has the most capabilities of the three computer programs listed.
9.8 - 8

Criteria
Substructure Design
Drilled Shafts
D. Shaft Design
1.
Stability
Normally, the soil surrounding a foundation element provides bracing against a buckling failure.
For this reason, the drilled shaft can be designed as a short column when the shaft is entirely
below the groundline. When the shaft extends above the ground a check for stability should be
made. See Section 9.2.1E of the Bridge Design Manual Criteria. The effects of scour must be
considered in the analysis.
2.
Axial Load, Bending Moment, and Shear

The axial load along the shaft varies due to the side friction. It is considered conservative,
however, to design the shaft for the full axial load plus the maximum moment. The entire shaft
normally is then reinforced for this axial load and moment, Longitudinal reinforcing should not
be less than 0.5 percent of the area of concrete.
Design shaft for axial load bending movement and shear similar to the design of a column.
9.8.7
Construction Methods
A. Dry Method
The dry method is applicable to soils above the water table that will not cave or slump when the hole
is drilled to its full depth. A soil that meets this specification is a homogenous stiff clay. The dry
method can be employed with sands above the water table if the sands have some cohesion.
The dry method can be used for soils below the water table if the soils are low in permeability so that only
a small amount of water will seep into the hole during the time the excavation is open.
The dry method consists of drilling a hole, without casing, placing a rebar cage, and then filling the
hole with concrete.
B. Casing Method
The casing method is applicable to sites where soil conditions are such that caving or excessive
deformation will occur when a hole is excavated. An example of such a site is a clean sand below the
water table.
This method employs a cylindrical (usually steel) casing inside the hole to hold back the caving soil.
The casing is removed from the hole during concrete placement.
C. Slurry Displacement Method
A Bentonite Slurry is introduced into the excavated hole to prevent caving or deformation of loose or
permeable soils. Drilling continues through the slurry. When the desired depth is reached, the rebar
cage is lowered into the hole and the slurry. Concrete is then tremie poured into the hole. Slurry is
displaced by the heavier concrete and collected at the surface in a sump. The slurry may be used
again in another hole.
9-8WORK:V:BDM9
January 1991
9.8 - 9

Criteria
Substructure Design
Application of LRFD Code to WSDOT Foundation Design
9.9
9.9.1
Overall Design Process, Roles, and Responsibilities

A flowchart is provided in Figure 9.9.1-1 which illustrates the overall design process needed to
accomplish an LRFD foundation design. The steps in the flowchart are defined as follows:
Conceptual Bridge Foundation Design This design step results in an informal communication produced
by the Geotechnical Branch at the request of the Bridge and Structures Office which provides a brief
description of the anticipated site conditions, an estimate of the maximum slope feasible for the bridge
approach fills for the purpose of determining bridge length, conceptual foundation types feasible, and
conceptual evaluation of potential geotechnical hazards such as liquefaction. In general, no test holes
are drilled at this stage, as only existing site data is used for this determination. The purpose of these
recommendations is to provide enough geotechnical information to allow the bridge preliminary plan
to be produced.
Develop Site data and Preliminary Bridge Plan During this phase, the Bridge and Structures Office
obtains site data from the region (see WSDOT Design Manual) and develops a preliminary bridge plan
adequate for the Geotechnical Branch to locate borings in preparation for the final design of the structure
(i.e., pier locations are known with a relatively high degree of certainty). The Bridge and Structures Office
would also provide the following information to the Geotechnical Branch to allow them to adequately
develop the preliminary foundation design:
Anticipated structure type and magnitudes of settlement (both total and differential) the structure
can tolerate.
At abutments, the approximate maximum elevation feasible for the top of the foundation in
consideration of the foundation depth.
For interior piers, the number of columns anticipated, and if there will be single foundation elements
for each column, or if one foundation element will support multiple columns.
At stream crossings, the depth of scour anticipated, if known. Typically, the Geotechnical Branch
will pursue this issue with the OSC Hydraulics Office.
Any known constraints that would affect the foundations in terms of type, location, or size, or any
known constraints which would affect the assumptions which need to be made to determine the
nominal resistance of the foundation (e.g., utilities that must remain, construction staging needs,
excavation, shoring and falsework needs, other constructability issues).
Preliminary Foundation Design This design step results in a memorandum produced by the
Geotechnical Branch at the request of the Bridge and Structures Office which provides geotechnical data
adequate to do the structural analysis and modeling for all load groups to be considered for the structure.
The geotechnical data is preliminary in that it is not in final form for publication and transmittal to
potential bidders. In addition, the foundation recommendations are subject to change, depending on the
results of the structural analysis and modeling and the effect that modeling and analysis has on foundation
types, locations, sizes, and depths, as well as any design assumptions made by the geotechnical designer.
Preliminary foundation recommendations may also be subject to change depending on the construction
staging needs and other constructability issues which are discovered during this design phase.
Geotechnical work conducted during this stage typically includes completion of the field exploration
program to the final PS&E level, development of foundation types and capacities feasible, foundation
July 2000
9.9-1

Criteria
Substructure Design
depths needed, P-Y curve data and soil spring data for seismic modeling, seismic site characterization
and estimated ground acceleration, and recommendations to address known constructability issues.
A description of subsurface conditions and a preliminary subsurface profile would also be provided at
this stage, but detailed boring logs and laboratory test data would usually not be provided.
Structural Analysis and Modeling In this phase, the Bridge and Structures Office uses the preliminary
foundation design recommendations provided by the Geotechnical Branch to perform the structural
modeling of the foundation system and superstructure. Through this modeling, the Bridge and Structures
Office determines and distributes the loads within the structure for all appropriate load cases, factors the
loads as appropriate, and sizes the foundations using the foundation nominal resistances and resistance
factors provided by the Geotechnical Branch. Constructability and construction staging needs would
continue to be investigated during this phase. The Bridge and Structures Office would also provide the
following feedback to the Geotechnical Branch to allow them to check their preliminary foundation
design and produce the Final Geotechnical Report for the structure:
Anticipated foundation loads (including load factors and load groups used).
Foundation size/diameter and depth required to meet structural needs.
Foundation details which could affect the geotechnical design of the foundations.
Size and configuration of deep foundation groups.
Final Foundation Design This design step results in a formal geotechnical report produced by the
Geotechnical Branch which provides final geotechnical recommendations for the subject structure.
This report includes all geotechnical data obtained at the site, including final boring logs, subsurface
profiles, and laboratory test data, all final foundation recommendations, and final constructability
recommendations for the structure. At this time, the Geotechnical Branch will check their preliminary
foundation design in consideration of the structural foundation design results determined by the Bridge
and Structures Office, and make modifications to the preliminary foundation design as needed to accommodate the structural design needs provided by the Bridge and Structures Office. It is possible that much
of what was included in the preliminary foundation design memorandum may be copied into the final
geotechnical report, if no design changes are needed. This report will also be used for publication and
distribution to potential bidders.
Final Structural Modeling and PS&E Development In this phase, the Bridge and Structures Office
makes any adjustments needed to their structural model to accommodate any changes made to the
geotechnical foundation recommendations as transmitted in the final geotechnical report. From this,
the bridge design and final PS&E would be completed.
9.9-2
July 2000

Criteria
Substructure Design

(BO) requests conceptual
foundation recommendations
from Geotechnical Branch (GB)
GB provides conceptual
foundation recommendations
to BO
GB provides preliminary
foundation design
recommendations
BO obtains site data from

region, develops draft
preliminary bridge plan,
and provides initial foundation
needs input to GB
BO performs structural analysis

and modeling, and provides
feedback to GB regarding
foundation loads, type, size,
depth, and configuration needed
for structural purposes
GB performs final geotechnical

design as needed and provides
final geotechnical report for
the structure
BO performs final structural modeling (if necessary)

and develops final PS&E for structure
Overall Design Process for LRFD Foundation Design

Figure 9.9.1-1
July 2000
9.9-3

Criteria
Substructure Design
9.9.2
Definitions and Geometry

Use Figure 9.9.2-1 below to provide a common basis of understanding for loading locations and directions for substructure design. This figure also describes the geometric data required for abutment and
substructure design. Note that for shaft and some pile foundation designs, the shaft or pile may form the
column as well as the foundation element, thereby eliminating the footing element shown in the figure.
Template for Foundation Site Data and Loading Direction Definitions

Figure 9.9.2-1
Note that in the guidelines which follow, where reference is made to an article or table in the AASHTO
specifications, the article can be found in the 1998 AASHTO LRFD specifications, Second Edition,
with Interims.
9.9-4
July 2000

Criteria
Substructure Design
9.9.3
Load Factors
The load combinations and factors to be used for foundation design are provided in Table 9.9.3-1 and
Table 9.9.3-2. These have been adapted from Table 3.4.1-2 of the 1998 AASHTO LRFD specifications,
Second Edition and have been reproduced from the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications. Note
that these tables are reproduced from the AASHTO specifications in their entirety for convenience only.
Consult the most recent publication of the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications to determine
the current load factors for design, with the exception of load factors which are identified herein as
specific to WSDOT practice.
Load Combinations and Load Factors (from AASHTO LRFD Specifications Table 3.4.1-1)
Table 9.2.3-1
Load
Combination
DC
DD
DW
EH
EV
ES
LL
IM
CE
BR
PL
LS
WA
Strength-I
1.75
1.00
1.00
0.50/1.20
Strength-II
1.35
1.00
1.00
0.50/1.20
Strength-III
1.00
1.40
1.00
0.50/1.20
Strength-IV
EH, EV, ES, DW
DC only
p
1.5
1.00
1.00
0.50/1.20
Strength-V
1.35
1.00
0.40
0.40
1.00
0.50/1.20
Extreme Event-I
1.00
1.00
Extreme Event-II
0.50
1.00
1.00
Service-I
1.00
1.00
1.00
0.30
0.30
1.00
0.50/1.20
Service-II
1.00
1.30
1.00
1.00
0.50/1.20
Service-III
1.00
0.80
1.00
1.00
0.50/1.20
0.75
Limit State
Fatigue-LL, IM
and CE only
July 2000
EQ
WS
WL
FR
TU
CR
SH
EL
TG
TG
TG
TG
SE
TG
TG
TG
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
SE
SE
SE
SE
CV
SE
Use One of These

at a Time
EQ
IC
CT
SE
9.9-5

Criteria
Substructure Design
Load Factors for Permanent Loads, p

(Adapted from Table 3.4.1-2 of the AASHTO LRFD Specifications, but modified as shown below)
Table 9.9.3-2
Load Factor
Type of Load
Maximum
Minimum
DC: Components and Attachments
1.25
0.9
DD: Downdrag
1.00*
1.00*
DW: Wearing Surfaces and Utilities
1.50
0.65
EH: Horizontal Earth Pressure

Active
At-Rest
1.50
1.35
0.90
0.90
1.35
1.30
1.35
1.00
0.90
0.90
1.95
1.50
0.90
0.90
.50
0.75
EV: Vertical Earth Pressure

Retaining Structure
Rigid Buried Structure
Rigid Frames
Flexible Buried Structures other than
Metal Box Culverts
Flexible Metal Box Culverts
ES: Earth Surcharge
*DD was reduced to 1.00 to reflect current WSDOT and national practice.
Permanent Load Factors
DC = dead load of structural components and non structural attachments
DD = downdrag
DW = dead load of wearing services and utilities
EH = horizontal earth pressure load
EV = vertical pressure from dead load of earth fill
ES = earth surcharge load
EL = accumulated locked-in force effects resulting from the construction process
Various Transient Load Factors
BR = vehicular braking force
LS = live load surcharge
CE = vehicular centrifugal force
PL = pedestrian live load
CR = creep
SE = settlement
CT = vehicular collision force
SH = shrinkage
CV = vessel collision force
TG = temperature gradient
EQ = earthquake
TU = uniform temperature
FR = friction
WA = water load and stream pressure
IC = ice load
WL = wind on live load
IM = vehicular dynamic load allowance
WS = wind load on structure
LL = vehicular live load
The load factors TG and SE are to be determined on a project specific basis in accordance with
Articles 3.4.1 and 3.12 of the AASHTO LRFD Specifications.
9.9-6
July 2000

Criteria
Substructure Design
9.9.4
LRFD Load Combinations, Basic Equation, and Characteristic Soil/Rock Properties

The controlling load combinations for WSDOT projects for Super and Substructure Design are as follows:
Strength I
Strength III
Strength IV
Strength V
Extreme-Event I
Service I
Relating to the normal vehicular use

Relating to the bridge exposed to wind
Relating to temperature fluctuations, creep, and shrinkage
Relating to the normal vehicular use and wind
Relating to earthquake
Relating to normal operational use and wind
In general, for Extreme Event I, set EQ, the earthquake load factor, equal to 0 (note that EQ up to 0.5
should be considered on a project specific basis to account for potential partial live loads during a seismic
event). For eccentrically loaded footings and abutment wall footings, use EQ = 0.0 or 1.0, depending on
the maximum resultant force eccentricity allowed (see Overturning Stability for Footings Strength
and Extreme Event Limit States).
A. LRFD Basic Equation
The basic equation for load and resistance factor design (LRFD) states that the loads multiplied by
factors to account for uncertainty, ductility, importance, and redundancy must be less than or equal
to the available resistance multiplied by factors to account for variability and uncertainty per the
AASHTO LRFD specifications. The basic equation, therefore, is as follows:
ii Qi Rn
i
i
Qi
Rn
=
=
=
=
=
Factor for ductility, redundancy, and importance of structure

Load factor
Load (i.e., dead load, live load, seismic load, etc.)
Resistance factor
Nominal or ultimate resistance
For typical WSDOT practice, i should be set equal to 1.0 for use of both minimum and maximum
load factors.
B. Characteristic Soil/Rock Properties and Their Use in LRFD
Load and resistance factors are based on a combination of the following:
design model uncertainty,
soil/rock property uncertainty,
unknown uncertainty inherited from allowable stress and load factor design practices included
in previous AASHTO design specifications.
Therefore, uncertainty in the soil parameters only amounts for a part of each of the load and
resistance factors.
July 2000
9.9-7

Criteria
Substructure Design
Assume that the characteristic soil/rock properties used in conjunction with the load and resistance
factors provided herein are average values obtained from laboratory test results or from correlated
field in-situ test results. Note that use of lower bound soil/rock properties could result in overly
conservative foundation designs. No specific guidance is available regarding the extent of subsurface
characterization and the number of soil/rock property tests required to justify use of the load and
resistance factors provided herein. Geotechnical engineering judgment is required.
No adequate documentation exists regarding the derivation of load factors for soil loads to have any
basis for adjusting the load factors for site specific considerations, or for regional practice. However,
there is some documentation available regarding the derivation of resistance factors for foundations.
This makes it possible to adjust the resistance factors for site specific considerations and regional
practices. See the Federal Highway Administration manual FHWA HI-98-032 Load and Resistance
Factor Design (LRFD) for Highway Bridge Substructures, 1998, for the necessary statistical information and procedures for making such an adjustment. Appendix A of this section has an example
of resistance factor adjustment as applied to a pile foundation design. Adjustments to soil resistance
factors, where warranted, will be made by the Geotechnical Branch if adequate data is available to
do so.
9.9-8
July 2000

Criteria
Substructure Design
9.9.5
Spread Footing Design

Figure 9.9.5-1 provides a flowchart which illustrates the design process and the interaction between the
structural geotechnical engineers needed for footing design.
1(ST). Determine bridge geometry and pier locations
1(GT). Determine depth of

footing based on geometry
and bearing material

footing for scour, if present (with
help of Hydraulic Engineer)
2(ST). Determine loads applied to

footing, including lateral earth
pressure loads for abutments
3(ST). Design the footing

at the service limit state
3(GT). Determine soil properties

for foundation design, and resistance
factors in consideration of the
soil property uncertainty and the
method selected for calculating
nominal resistance
4(ST). Check the bearing pressure of

the footing at the strength limit state
5(ST). Check the eccentricity of the

footing at the strength limit state
4(GT). Determine active, passive,

and seismic earth pressure parameters
as needed for abutments
6(ST). Determine nominal footing

resistance at the service limit state
8(GT). Check
nominal footing
resistance at all
limit states, and
overall stability
in light of
new footing
dimensions,
depth, and loads
7(ST). Check the bearing pressure of

the footing at the extreme limit state
8(ST). Check the eccentricity of

7(GT). Check overall stability,

determining max. feasible bearing
load to maintain adequate stability
5(GT). Determine nominal footing

resistance at the strength
and extreme limit states
6(ST). Check the sliding resistance of

the footing at the strength limit state
9(ST). Check sliding resistance of

10(ST). Design the footing (and

walls for abutment) according to the
concrete section of the Specification
GT:
ST:
Geotechnical Engineer
Bridge Engineer
Design Flowchart for Spread Footing Design

Figure 9.9.5-1
July 2000
9.9-9

Criteria
Substructure Design
A. Loads and Load Factor Application to Spread Footings

Figures 9.9.5-2 and 9.9.5-3 provides definitions and locations of the forces and moments which act
on structural footings. Table 9.9.5-1 identifies when to use maximum or minimum load factors for
the various modes of failure for the footing (sliding, overturning, bearing capacity) for each force.
Note that the eccentricity used to calculate the bearing stress is referenced to point C, whereas the
eccentricity used to evaluate overturning is referenced to point O. It is important to not change from
maximum to minimum load factors in consideration of the force location relative to the reference
point used (C or O), as doing so will cause basic statics to no longer apply, and one will not
get the same resultant location when the moments are summed at different reference points. Also
note that the loads are factored after they are distributed to the foundation through structural analysis
and modeling.
Definition and Location of Forces and Moments for Cantilever (or Overhanging) Abutments
Figure 9.9.5-2
9.9-10
July 2000

Criteria
Substructure Design
Definition and Location of Forces and Moments for L-abutments and Interior Footings
Figure 9.9.5-3
July 2000
9.9-11

Criteria
Substructure Design
The variables shown above in Figures 9.9.4-1 and 9.9.4-2 are defined as follows:
DLv, LLv, EQv
Ws
Wtoe
= vertical structural loads applied to footing/wall (dead load, transient load, EQ load,
respectively)
= structural static shear loads transmitted through bearing at wall top (parallel to
abutment wall or transverse to bridge, respectively)
= structural static shear loads transmitted through bearing at wall top (normal to
abutment wall or longitudinal to bridge, respectively)
= structural seismic shear loads transmitted through bearing at wall top (parallel to
abutment wall or transverse to bridge, respectively)
= structural seismic shear loads transmitted through bearing at wall top (normal to
abutment wall or longitudinal to bridge, respectively)
= weight of soil above abutment wall heel
= weight of soil above footing toe
WC
= weight of footing and column/wall
Ft
= soil active force behind abutment wall (use at rest earth pressure if have an
integral abutment)
= traffic surcharge force behind abutment wall
= dynamic horizontal thrust due to seismic loading
= soil and wall mass inertial force due to seismic loading
= ultimate soil passive resistance (note: height of pressure distribution triangle is
determined by the geotechnical engineer and is project specific)
p or t
n or l
EQp or EQt
EQn or EQl
Fq
PAE
PIR
QEP
Q
= soil shear resistance along footing base at soil-concrete interface
sv
R
eC
= resultant vertical bearing stress at base of footing

= resultant force at base of footing
= eccentricity calculated about point C (center of footing), to be used for bearing
stress calculations
= eccentricity calculated about point O (toe of footing), to be used for overturning
calculations
= footing width
= footing length
= traffic live load surcharge pressure
eO
B
L
q
9.9-12
July 2000

Criteria
Substructure Design
Selection of Maximum or Minimum Spread Footing Foundation Load Factors

for Various Modes of Failure for the Strength and Extreme Event Limit States
Table 9.9.5-1
Load Factor
Load
Sliding
Overturning, eo
Bearing Stress (ec, sv)
DLv
DCmin, DWmin
DCmin, DWmin
DCmax, DWmax
LLv
Use transient load

factor (e.g., LL)
Use transient load

factor (e.g., LL)
Use transient load

factor (e.g., LL)
p , t, n 1
Use DCmax, DWmax

for causing forces,
DCmin, DWmin for
resisting forces
Use DCmax, DWmax

for causing forces,
DCmin, DWmin for
resisting forces
Use DCmax, DWmax

for causing forces,
DCmin, DWmin for
resisting forces
Ws, Wtoe
EVmin
EVmin
EVmax
Wc
DCmin
DCmin
DCmax
Ft
EHmax
EHmax
EHmax
Fq
LS
LS
LS
Set = 0
Set = 0
Use transient load

factor (e.g., LL)
Note that the dead load, DLv, as used herein typically includes the load due to structural components
and non-structural attachments (i.e., DC), and the dead load of wearing surfaces and utilities (i.e., DW).
The live load, LLv, as used herein for foundation design can include any of the transient loads identified
previously except vehicular dynamic load allowance, IM, and loads due to earthquake, EQ.
B. Footing Bearing Stress and Capacity Strength and Extreme Event Limit States
For geotechnical and structural design of eccentrically loaded footings on soil, calculate the
bearing stress based on a uniform bearing pressure distribution using the Meyerhof approach.
For geotechnical and structural design of eccentrically loaded spread footings on rock, calculate
the bearing stress based on a triangular or trapezoidal bearing pressure distribution.
The Meyerhof method is summarized as follows:
Step 1: Calculate eccentricity, ec, about Point C in Figure 9.9.5-2 or Figure 9.9.5-3, with the applied
loads already factored.
ec
July 2000
(summation of factored moments acting on footing and wall)/(summation of factored

vertical forces acting on footing and wall)
9.9-13

Criteria
Substructure Design
Step 2: Calculate the factored vertical stress based on a uniform pressure distribution acting on the
base of footing, v as illustrated in Figure 9.9.5-2 or Figure 9.9.5-3. Note that this calculation method
applies in both directions for biaxially loaded footings (see Article 10.6.3.1.5 in the AASHTO LRFD
specifications for guidance on biaxial loading).
v =
(summation of factored vertical forces acting on footing and wall per unit footing
length)/(B-2ec)
Use the appropriate maximum or minimum load factors as shown in Table 9.9.5-2 when calculating
sv. Note that B - 2ec is considered to be the effective footing width B.
If a triangular distribution is used for the footing contact pressure (applies to footings on rock only):
vmax
V/B ( 1+ 6 ec / B )
V is the sum of the factored vertical forces on the footing.

Step 3: Compare v, or vmax, which already has the load factors included, to the factored bearing
capacity of the soil (i.e., the ultimate bearing capacity for the soil/rock multiplied by an appropriate
resistance factor). The factored bearing capacity (resistance) should be greater than or equal to the
factored bearing stress. That is:
v < bcqult
where, qult is the unfactored ultimate bearing capacity for the appropriate limit state and bc is the
resistance factor. Note that qult will be the same for the strength and extreme event limit states. In
general, a resistance factor of 1.0 should be used for bearing capacity at the extreme event limit state.
See Table 9.9.5-2 for resistance factors for the strength limit state.
Bearing capacity for the strength and extreme event limit states should be calculated considering the
effects of soil frictional and cohesive resistance, footing dimensions and shape, footing embedment,
and slope of the ground in front of the footing. The Geotechnical Branch will calculate the footing
bearing capacity using either the AASHTO LRFD specifications, Article 10.6.3.1, or other widely
accepted methods provided in the literature. Load inclination factors will not, in general, be considered in the determination of bearing capacity. The Geotechnical Branch may limit the ultimate
bearing capacity based on the geotechnical engineering experience available for the given
geological formation.
C. Sliding Stability for Footings Strength and Extreme Event Limit States
The factored sliding resistance is comprised of a frictional component ( Q) and a passive earth
pressure component (ep Qep). The frictional component acts along the base of the footing, and the
passive component acts on the vertical face of the buried footing element.
Factored Sliding Resistance, QR = Q + ep Qep
The Strength Limit State, and ep are determined from Table 9.9.5-2. For the Extreme Event
Limit State, = 1.0 and ep = 1.0. If passive resistance in front of footing is not dependable due to
potential for erosion, scour, or future excavation in front of footing, use ep = 0.0 for the strength and
extreme event limit states, and for temperature/shrinkage loads. The Geotechnical Branch should
be contacted for assistance to determine if passive resistance should be considered for analysis of
sliding stability.
9.9-14
July 2000

Criteria
Substructure Design
Q
=
=
=
=
=
=

(V)tan
friction angle between the footing base and the soil
tan for cast-in-place concrete against soil
(0.8)tan for precast concrete
total vertical force on footing
angle of internal friction for soil
The factored sliding resistance should be greater than or equal to the factored horizontal
applied loads.
D. Overturning Stability for Footings Strength and Extreme Event Limit States
Calculate the eccentricity about Point O in Figure 9.9.5-2 or Figure 9.9.5-3 to locate the resultant
force, R. Forces and moments resisting overturning are to be considered negative, and minimum
load factors should be used (see Table 9.9.5-1). Forces and moments causing overturning are to be
considered positive, and maximum load factors should be used for those forces (see Table 9.9.5-1).
For strength limit state, keep the resultant force at the base of the footing within the middle 1/2 of the
footing dimensions for soil and the middle 3/4 of the footing dimensions for rock. For extreme event
limit state and with EQ = 0, keep the resultant force at the base of footing within the middle 2/3 of the
footing dimensions for soil and rock. If EQ = 1.0, keep the resultant force at the base of the footing
within the middle 3/4 of the footing dimensions for soil and rock. Note that for footings subjected to
biaxial loading, these eccentricity requirements apply in both directions.
E. Overall Stability for Footings Service and Extreme Event Limit States
The Geotechnical branch will evaluate overall stability using modified Bishop, Janbu, Spencer,
or other widely accepted slope stability analysis methods. Article 10.5.2 recommends that overall
stability be evaluated at the Service I limit state (i.e., a load factor of 1.0) and a resistance factor,
os of 0.65 for slopes which support a structural element.
Available slope stability programs produce a single factor of safety, FS. The Geotechnical Branch
will continue its past practice of checking overall slope stability to insure that footings designed for
a maximum bearing stress equal to the specified service limit state bearing capacity will not cause the
slope stability factor of safety to fall below 1.5 (1.1 for extreme event limit state, with service loads
and a horizontal acceleration kh equal to 0.5 A). This practice will essentially produce the same result
as specified in Article 10.5.2 of the AASHTO LRFD Specifications.
The footing loads should be as specified for the Service I limit state for this analysis. If the footing
is located on the slope such that the footing load increases slope stability, the Geotechnical Branch
will not establish a maximum footing load which is acceptable for insuring overall slope stability
(see Figure 9.9.4-3 for example), but will instead ignore the presence of the footing to evaluate
overall stability.
Example Where Footing Contributes to Instability of Slope (left figure) vs.

Example Where Footing Contributes to Stability of Slope (right figure)
Figure 9.9.5-4
July 2000
9.9-15

Criteria
Substructure Design
A resistance factor of 0.9, which is equivalent to a factor of safety of 1.1 in current WSDOT practice,
should in general be used for overall stability for the extreme event limit state.
F. Resistance Factors for Footing Design Strength Limit State
Resistance Factors for Strength Limit State for Shallow Foundations
(adapted from Table 10.5.5-1 of the AASHTO LRFD Specifications)
Table 9.9.5-2
Type of
Resistance
Bearing Capacity
Sliding
Method/Soil/Condition
bc
ep
9.9-16
Sand
- Semi-empirical procedures using SPT data
- Semi-empirical procedure using CPT data
- Rational Method
using estimated from SPT data
using estimated from CPT data
Resistance
Factor
0.45
0.55
0.35
0.45
Clay
- Semi-empirical procedure using CPT data
- Rational Method
using shear resistance measured in lab tests
using shear resistance measured in field vane tests
using shear resistance estimated from CPT data
0.60
0.60
0.50
Rock
- Semi-empirical procedure, Carter and Kulhawy (1988)
0.60
Plate Load Test
0.55
Precast concrete placed on sand

- using estimated from SPT data
- using estimated from CPT data
0.90
0.90
Concrete cast-in-place on sand

- using estimated from SPT data
- using estimated from CPT data
0.80
0.80
Sliding on clay is controlled by the strength of the clay when the

clay shear strength is less than 0.5 times the normal stress, and is
controlled by the normal stress when the clay shear strength is
greater than 0.5 times the normal stress (see Figure 10.6.3.3-1 in
AASHTO LRFD specifications, which is developed for the case
in which there is at least 150 mm of compacted granular material
below the footing).
Clay (where shear resistance is less than 0.5 times normal pressure)
- Using shear resistance measured in lab tests
- Using shear resistance measured in field tests
- Using shear resistance estimated from CPT data
Clay (where the resistance is greater than 0.5 times normal pressure)
0.85
0.85
0.80
0.85
Soil on soil
1.00
Passive earth pressure component of sliding resistance
0.50
0.50
July 2000

Criteria
Substructure Design
G. Design of Footings at the Service Limit State

The service limit state bearing capacity, qserv, will be a settlement limited value (typically 1 inch,
but may be greater for long spans, simple spans, or relatively flexible structures). The method used
to determine the service limit state bearing capacity will depend on the soil type. The Geotechnical
Branch will use the AASHTO specifications or an appropriate textbook to select a settlement estimating method. The Meyerhof approach (see discussion under Footing Bearing Stress and Capacity
Strength and Extreme Limit States) should be used to calculate the footing bearing stress, except that
service limit state load factors should be used. For immediate settlement (not time dependent), both
permanent dead load and live load should be considered for sizing footings for the service limit state.
For time dependent settlement (e.g., on clays), only the permanent dead loads should be considered.
v < qserv, where qserv is the unfactored service limit state bearing capacity and is the resistance
factor. In general, a resistance factor of 1.0 should be applied to the bearing capacity at the service
limit state.
Design of a footing for overall slope stability at the service limit state was covered previously.
H. What the Geotechnical Branch Will Provide to the Bridge Office for LRFD Footing Design
To evaluate bearing capacity, the Geotechnical Branch will provide qult and qserv for various effective
footing widths likely to be used, and resistance factors for each limit state. The amount of settlement
on which qserv is based will be stated. The calculations will assume that qult and qserv are uniform
loads applied over effective footing dimensions B and L (i.e., effective footing width and length
((B or L) - 2e) as determined using the Meyerhof method, at least for soil. For footings on rock, the
calculations will assume that qult and qserv are peak loads and that the stress distribution is triangular
or trapezoidal rather than uniform. The Geotechnical Branch will also provide embedment depth
requirements or footing elevations to obtain the recommended bearing capacity.
To evaluate sliding stability and eccentricity, the Geotechnical Branch will provide the following
information:
resistance factors for both the strength and extreme event limit states for calculating Qt and Qep
soil parameters of , Kp, and depth of soil in front of footing to ignore in calculating Qep
, Ka, and for calculating active force behind footing (abutments only)
To evaluate soil response and development of forces in foundations for the extreme event limit state,
the Geotechnical Branch will provide foundation soil/rock shear modulus and Poissons ratio (G and
). These values will typically be determined for shear strain levels of 0.02 to 0.2%, which span the
strain levels for typical large magnitude earthquakes.
The Geotechnical Branch will evaluate overall stability and provide the maximum (unfactored)
footing load which can be applied to the design slope and still maintain an acceptable safety factor
(typically 1.5 for the strength and 1.1 for the extreme event limit states, which is the inverse of the
resistance factor). A uniform bearing stress as calculated by the Meyerhof method will be assumed
for this analysis. An example presentation of the LRFD footing design recommendations to be
provided by the Geotechnical Branch is as shown in Tables 9.9.5-3 and 9.9.5-4, and Figure 9.9.5-5.
July 2000
9.9-17

Criteria
Substructure Design
Example Presentation of Soil Design Parameters for Sliding and Eccentricity Calculations
Table 9.9.5-3
Parameter
Abutment Piers
Interior Piers
Soil Unit Weight, (soil above footing base level)
Soil Friction Angle, (soil above footing base level)
Active Earth Pressure Coefficient, Ka
Passive Earth Pressure Coefficient, Kp
Coefficient of Sliding, Tan
Example Presentation of Resistance Factors for Footing Design

Table 9.9.5-4
Resistance Factor,
Bearing
Shear Resistance
to Sliding
Passive Pressure
Resistance to Sliding
Strength
Service
Extreme Event
Limit State
Bearing Capacity
Unfactored strength and extreme

event limit states
Service limit state at ___ mm

of settlement
Effective Footing Width, B

Example Presentation of Bearing Capacity Recommendations
Figure 9.9.5-5
9.9-18
July 2000

Criteria
Substructure Design
9.9.6
Loads and Load Factor Application to Deep Foundation Design

Figures 9.9.6-1 and 9.9.6-2 provide definitions and typical locations of the forces and moments which
act on deep foundations. Table 9.9.6-1 identifies when to use maximum or minimum load factors for the
various modes of failure for the shaft or pile (bearing capacity, uplift, and lateral loading) for each force.
Definition and Location of Forces and Moments for Integral Shaft Column or Pile Bent
Figure 9.9.6-1
July 2000
9.9-19

Criteria
Substructure Design
Definition and Location of Forces and Moments for Pile or Shaft Supported Footing
Figure 9.9.6-2
where,
qp
qs
qDD
QDD
Wnet
=
=
=
=
=
Mp or Mt
Mn or Ml
MEQp or MEQt =
MEQn or MEQl =
ultimate end bearing resistance at base of shaft or pile (unit resistance)

ultimate side resistance on shaft or pile (unit resistance)
ultimate down drag load on shaft or pile (unit load)
ultimate down drag load on shaft or pile (total load)
unit weight of concrete in shaft minus unit weight of soil times the shaft volume below the
groundline (may include part of the column if the top of the shaft is deep due to scour or for
other reasons
structural static moments applied to footing, calculated at bottom of column (parallel or
transverse to pier orientation, respectively)
structural static moments applied to footing, calculated at bottom of column (normal or
longitudinal to bridge, respectively)
structural seismic moments applied to footing, calculated at bottom of column (parallel or
transverse to pier orientation, respectively)
structural seismic moments applied to footing, calculated at bottom of column (normal or
longitudinal to bridge, respectively)
All other forces are as defined for Figures 9.9.5-2 and 9.9.5-4 for footings.
9.9-20
July 2000

Criteria
Substructure Design

Selection of Maximum or Minimum Deep Foundation Load Factors
for Various Modes of Failure for the Strength Limit State
Table 9.9.6-1
Load Factor
Load
Bearing Stress (ec, sv)
Uplift
*Lateral Loading
DLv
DCmax, DWmax
DCmin, DWmin
DCmax, DWmax
LLv
Use transient load

factor (e.g., LL)
Use transient load

factor (e.g., LL)
Use transient load

factor (e.g., LL)
tp, tt, tn t1
Use DCmax, DWmax for

causing forces, DCmin,
DWmin for resisting forces

causing forces
DCmax, DWmax
Mp, Mt, Mn, M1

causing moments,
DCmin, DWmin for
resisting moments

causing moments

causing moments
Ws, Wtoe
EVmax
EVmin
EVmax
Wnet
DCmax
DCmin
N/A
QDD
DDmax
Treat as resistance,
and use appropriate
resistance factor
N/A
Ft
EHmax
Use EHmax if causes uplift
EHmax
Fq
LS
Use LS if Fq causes uplift
LS
Use transient load

factor (e.g., LL)
Set = 0
Use transient load

factor (e.g., LL)
Use unfactored loads to get force distribution in structure, then factor the resulting forces for final structural
design. All forces and load factors are as defined previously.
July 2000
9.9-21

Criteria
Substructure Design
9.9.7
Drilled Shaft Design

structural and geotechnical engineers needed for shaft design.

for foundation design, liquefaction
potential, and resistance factors in
consideration of the soil property
uncertainty and the method selected
for calculating nominal resistance

scour, if present (with help
of Hydraulic Engineer)
1(ST). Determine bridge geometry, pier

locations, column diameter, and foundation top

foundation top, including lateral earth
pressure loads for abutments, through
structural analysis and modeling as
well as shaft lateral load analysis
3(ST). Determine depth, diameter,

and nominal shaft resistance needed
to support the unfactored applied
loads at the strength limit state
3(ST). Determine depth, diameter,

and nominal shaft resistance needed
to support the unfactored applied
loads at the strength limit state
4(GT). Determine nominal single

shaft resistance at the strength and
extreme limit states as function of
depth, for likely shaft diameters
needed, considering shaft
constructability
5(ST). Reevaluate foundation

stiffnesses, and rerun structural
modeling to get new load distribution
for foundations. Reiterate if loads
from lateral shaft analysis do not
match foundation top loads from
structural modeling within 5%
6(ST). Provide estimate of settlement

limited resistance (service state)
for shaft/shaft group, or foundation
depth required to preclude
unacceptable settlement

5(GT). Estimate downdrag

loads, if present
9(GT). Evaluate
the shaft/shaft
group for nominal
resistance at the
strength and
extreme limit states,
and settlement/
resistance at the
service limit state
6(ST). Factor the loads, and adjust

the shaft size or depth as needed
to resist applied factor loads,
both lateral and vertical
10(GT). Verify
estimated tip
elevation and shaft
nominal resistance
from Step 6(ST),
as well as the
specified tip
elevation from the
greatest depth
required to meet
uplift, lateral load,
and serviceability
requirements;
if significantly
different than what
was provided in
Step 6(ST), have
structural model
and foundation
design reevaluated
7(ST). Check the minimum shaft

depth required to resist factored
uplift loads and to resist lateral loads
within acceptable deformations
8(GT). Determine P-Y curve

parameters for shaft
lateral load analysis
GT:
ST:
8(ST). Design the foundation

(and walls for abutment)
7(GT). Determine nominal

uplift resistance for shafts
as function of depth
9(ST). Develop contract

specifications
Bridge Engineer
Design Flowchart for Shaft Foundation Design

Figure 9.9.7-1
9.9-22
July 2000

Criteria
Substructure Design
A. Drilled Shaft Capacity Strength and Extreme Event Limit States

The factored capacity must be greater than the total factored vertical load applied to the shaft.
Factored capacity, QR = qp Qp + qs Qs (strength and extreme event limit states)
where,
Qp
Qs
Ap
As
=
=
=
=
qp Ap
qs A s
end bearing area
side area
The unit shaft end bearing and skin friction resistance will be determined by the Geotechnical Branch
using an appropriate static analysis method, such as provided in the AASHTO LRFD specifications,
Article 10.8.3, or determined from load test results. qp and qs are determined from Table 9.9.7-1 for
strength limit state conditions. qp and qs are equal to 0.90 to 1.0 for the extreme event limit state,
depending on the confidence in the soil parameters (typically, a resistance factor of 0.9 for qp will
typically be used where a column is supported by a single shaft). Qp and Qs are the same for both the
strength and extreme event limit states.
Note that Qs is a total nominal resistance. The AASHTO LRFD specifications treats this net shaft
weight, which is the weight of the average minus the weight of the soil volume removed to construct
the shaft, as a dead load, in which a load factor of 1.25 is applied. Past WSDOT practice has been to
subtract the net shaft weight directly from the shaft capacity. To correctly apply the AASHTO LRFD
specifications, this past practice will not be used. Therefore, for LRFD, the structural designer must
calculate the net shaft weight (typically, a unit net weight of 50 pcf is sufficiently conservative) and
add that net weight to the applied foundation dead load.
Articles 10.8.3.3.2 and 10.8.3.4.3 in the current AASHTO specifications require Qp to be reduced for
shaft diameters greater than 1.91 m (6.25 ft) in clay and 1.27 m (4.17 ft) in sand, respectively. Since
the intent of this correction is to crudely account for settlement, this correction for shaft diameter
should not be used if a more detailed analysis of settlement is conducted (see Service Limit State
Design for Drilled Shafts). Furthermore, it should be noted that qp as determined in Article
10.8.3.4.3 of the AASHTO LRFD specifications, even without this settlement correction factor for
shaft diameter, is to some extent settlement limited for shafts in sand and is not a true ultimate value.
The reason for this is that a true bearing capacity failure is typically not observed for shafts in sand,
but instead deformation simply continues to increase with load. Therefore, the transition from a
strength or extreme event limit state to a serviceability limit state is not well defined for shafts in
sand. This issue will be evaluated on a case by case basis by the Geotechnical Branch when providing shaft capacity information for all limit states.
If downdrag exists, the downdrag force QDD (qDD As) shall be considered as a load rather than a
negative resistance for shaft capacity calculations. The downdrag force QDD will be determined by
the Geotechnical Branch using an appropriate static shaft skin friction analysis method (see
AASHTO LRFD Article 10.8.3.3.1 for a method which can be used). Per Table 9.9.3-2, use a load
factor applied to the downdrag force of 1.0. This factored downdrag force, in combination with the
other factored applied loads, should be less than or equal to the factored strength and service limit
state resistances.
July 2000
9.9-23

Criteria
Substructure Design
Transient loads should not be considered when downdrag forces are included in the factored load
applied to the shaft. Shaft skin friction in the downdrag zone should not be included in the shaft
capacity. If downdrag forces are induced by settlement due to liquefaction, downdrag forces shall be
considered in the extreme event limit state design of the shaft. Note that the downdrag force during
liquefaction may be different than the downdrag force which is applicable during the strength and
serviceability limit states, as liquefaction can cause the strength of the soil to change. The downdrag
forces calculated for static conditions should not be combined with the downdrag forces resulting
from liquefaction when evaluating the extreme event limit state.
B. Uplift for Drilled Shafts
Factored uplift capacity, Quf = up qup As = up Qup
where, qup = ultimate unit uplift resistance, up is as determined from Table 9.9.7-1 for strength limit
state conditions, and Qup is the unfactored ultimate uplift capacity.
The unit uplift resistance, qup is usually set equal to the unit side friction resistance, qs, for LRFD
foundation design, as the resistance factors for uplift in Table 9.9.7-1 already account for the potential for side resistance in uplift being less than the side resistance in compression. If downdrag is
likely to occur, either due to long-term settlement or due to liquefaction, the skin friction causing
downdrag is considered to be fully available to resist uplift forces. However, the downdrag force is
not subtracted from the uplift force.
C. Lateral Load Analysis for Drilled Shafts
In general, P-Y curves are used for lateral load analysis in the bridge design model to iteratively
match deflections and load distributions between the various bridge components, considering the
soil response, to insure stability of the bridge. The maximum lateral deflection which is considered
acceptable may vary from structure to structure. Even though deflections are calculated, service limit
state load groups are usually not used for this analysis.
In general, only the extreme event load groups are used for lateral load analysis, and a lat of 1.0 is
used. However, strength limit state load groups are sometimes used for this analysis. For the strength
limit state, a resistance factor of 1.0 is recommended at this time. Note that in some cases the depth
required for shaft fixity based on lateral load analysis may control the shaft depth required rather than
bearing capacity or uplift; for example where soft or liquefiable soils are present.
Normally, both static and dynamic P-Y curve parameters are provided in the Geotechnical Report.
The static parameters represent the soil behavior for short-term transient loads such as wind, ice,
temperature, and vessel impact. For earthquake loads, the dynamic and static P-Y curve parameters
will be the same if the soils present have a stiffness which does not degrade with time during shaking,
such as would occur during liquefaction.
If liquefaction can occur, two P-Y analyses for the extreme event limit state should be conducted,
one analysis using the static P-Y parameters and the other analysis using the dynamic P-Y parameters. The intent here is to bracket the structure response. Often, the highest acceleration the bridge
sees is in the first cycles of the earthquake, and liquefaction tends to occur toward the middle or
end of the earthquake. Therefore, early in the earthquake, loads are high, soil-structure stiffness is
high, and deflections are low. Later in the earthquake, the soil-structure stiffness is lower and
deflections higher.
D. Group Effects for Bearing Capacity
AASHTO Article 10.8.3.9 applies.
9.9-24
July 2000

Criteria
Substructure Design
Resistance Factors for Drilled Shaft Design

Resistance Factors for Strength Limit State for Drilled Shaft Foundations
(adapted from Table 10.5.5-3 in AASHTO)
Table 9.9.7-1
Type of
Resistance
Bearing Capacity
of Single Drilled
Shafts
qp
qs
Resistance
Factor
Base Resistance in Clay:

- Total stress (Reese and ONiel, 1988)
0.55
Base Resistance in Sand:

- SPT method (Reese and ONiel, 1988)
*0.50
Base Resistance in Rock:

- Canadian Geotechnical Society (1985)
0.50
Side Resistance in Clay:

- -method (Reese and ONiel, 1988)
0.65
Side Resistance in Sand:

*0.65
Side Resistance in Rock:

- Carter and Kulhawy (1988)
- Horvath and Kinney (1979)
Side and Base Resistance:
- Load test
Uplift Resistance
of Single Drilled
Shafts
up
0.55
0.65
+
0.70-0.80
Clay:
- Belled shafts (Reese and ONiel, 1988)
0.55
0.50
Sand:
*0.55
Rock:
- Carter and Kulhawy (1988)
- Horvath and Kinney (1979)
Load Test:
0.45
0.55
+
0.70-0.80
Group Bearing
Capacity (block
failure)
qgr
Clay:
0.65
Group Uplift
upgr
Clay:
0.55
Sand:
0.55
Resistance
Lateral Resistance
of Shafts and
Shaft Groups
lat
Clay, sand, and rock:
*1.0
*The AASHTO specifications currently do not provide bearing capacity resistance factors in sand and factors for lateral loading. For lat,
the value used will depend on the confidence in the soil parameters. These resistance factors should be considered to be tentative until
additional research and comparative designs are accomplished.
+
For shaft load tests, the number of load tests required will depend on the uniformity of the soil/rock conditions and whether or not a well
defined bearing stratum is present. Assuming that an appropriate number of load tests are conducted, use the largest resistance factor in the
specified range for very uniform conditions or for a well defined and highly resistant bearing stratum, and use the lowest resistance factor
in the range for nonuniform conditions or a poorly defined bearing stratum.
July 2000
9.9-25

Criteria
Substructure Design
E. Group Effects for Uplift

AASHTO Article 10.7.3.7.3 applies.
F. Group Effects for Lateral Loads
P-Y curves are usually derived considering only a single foundation element. To account for group
effects, multiply the modulus of subgrade reaction, k, by the appropriate efficiency factor as provided
in Table 9.9.7-2, or as specified in the Geotechnical Report. Loading direction and spacing are as
defined in Figure 9.9.7-2.
Group Efficiency Reduction Factors for Foundation Element Groups Subjected to Lateral Load
Table 9.9.7-2
Foundation Element
Spacing, Center-toCenter, in Direction of
Applied Loading
Efficiency Reduction
Factor for Multiple Row
Groups, or in Direction
Parallel to Single Row
Efficiency Reduction
Factor for Single Row
Groups for Loading Direction
Perpendicular to Row
8b
1.0
1.0
6b
0.9
1.0
5b
0.8
1.0
4b
0.65
0.9
3b
0.5
0.8
2b
0.4
0.6
Definition of Loading Direction and Spacing for Group Effects

Figure 9.9.7-2
9.9-26
July 2000

Criteria
Substructure Design
The soil strength parameters are also reduced to account for group effects. For cohesive soils,
multiply the soil cohesion, C, directly by the appropriate group reduction factor from Table 9.9.7-2 or
as specified in the Geotechnical Report. For granular soils (sands, gravels), multiply the normalized
resistance identified in Figure 9.9.7-3 by the appropriate group reduction factor to determine the
reduced friction angle. Use the following steps to accomplish this:
1.
Determine the normalized resistance for each soil layer at the friction angle for that soil layer
provided in the Geotechnical Report (e.g., for = 36o, normalized resistance = 61).
2.
Multiply the normalized resistance determined in Step 1 by the group efficiency reduction factor
based on the foundation element spacing (e.g., if the spacing is 3b, the reduction factor is 0.5 and
the normalized resistance accounting for group effects is 32).
3.
Based on the reduced normalized resistance, determine the soil friction angle accounting for
group effects (e.g., at a normalized resistance of 32, the soil friction angle is 31o).
4.
Use this reduced , in combination with the reduced modulus of subgrade reaction, k, to determine the P-Y curve accounting for group effects.
Normalized Resistance as a Function of Soil Friction Angle for Lateral Capacity Determination
Figure 9.9.7-3
where,
Normalized Resistance = Ps/bX = Ka(tan8B - 1) + Ko(tan4B)(tan)
July 2000
Soil friction angle
Ps =
Soil resistance on section of foundation element
Foundation element diameter
Soil unit weight
Depth to section of foundation element
45o + /2
Ka =
tan2 (45o-/2)
Ko =
1 - sin
9.9-27

Criteria
Substructure Design
G. Service Limit State Design for Drilled Shafts

The service limit state shaft capacity, Qserv, will be a settlement limited value (typically 0.5 to 1 inch,
but may be greater for long spans, simple spans, or relatively flexible structures). See the AASHTO
LRFD specifications, Article 10.8.2.3, which provides the method published by Reese and ONeill,
1988, to estimate the side friction and end bearing mobilized for a specified total settlement for a
single shaft. Typically, the Geotechnical Branch will be using this method to estimate vertical
deflection of shafts, where applicable. For immediate settlement (not time dependent), which is the
type of settlement addressed by the Reese and ONeill method, both permanent dead load and live
load should be considered.
For time dependent settlement (e.g., on clays for analysis of shaft groups which are primarily
frictional in nature), only the permanent dead loads should be considered. Note that this method
was developed for predicting immediate settlement for shafts in clay or in sand. This method may
be overly conservative for the very dense glacially consolidated soils often encountered in WSDOT
shaft installations, since this method was based on settlement limited behavior in soils which were not
as dense as state of Washington glacially overridden soils. The Geotechnical Branch will evaluate the
settlement potential of drilled shafts considering the amount of skin friction and end bearing
mobilized for service limit state design.
Factored bearing capacity at a specified settlement, QRserv = servp Qpserv + servs Qsserv (service limit
state), where,
Qpserv = qpserv Ap
Qsserv = qsserv As
qpserv
= end bearing resistance at base of shaft (unit resistance) for a specified settlement
qsser
= side resistance on shaft (unit resistance) for a specified settlement
Ap
= end bearing area,
As
= side area,
In general, a resistance factor of 1.0 should be used for shaft capacity at the service limit state
(servb and servs).
H. What Geotechnical Branch Will Provide to Bridge Office for LRFD Shaft Design
To evaluate bearing capacity, the Geotechnical Branch will provide as a function of depth and at
various shaft diameters the unfactored ultimate bearing capacity for end bearing, Qp, and side friction,
Qs, used to calculate QR, for strength and extreme event limit state calculations (see example figures
below). For the service limit state, the unfactored bearing capacity at a specified settlement, typically
0.5 or 1.0 inch, Qpserv (mobilized end bearing) and Qsserv (mobilized side friction) will be provided as
a function of depth and shaft diameter. See Figure 9.9.7-4 for an example of the capacity information
that would be provided. A similar set of curves, for the strength and extreme event limit states, will
also be provided for uplift capacity, Qup. Qup will be reduced to account for scour or liquefaction/
weakening.
9.9-28
July 2000

Criteria
Substructure Design
In most cases, Qult and Qup for the strength, extreme event II and extreme event I limit states will be
the same, as loss of skin friction due to liquefaction downdrag will be taken into account separately.
However, if soils are present which weaken but do not liquefy during an earthquake, a separate curve
for the extreme event I limit state may be needed.
Note that the side friction bearing capacities provided in these figures will be a total nominal
resistance, in that the net weight of the shaft below the final groundline will not already be subtracted
out of the side friction capacity. Resistance factors for bearing capacity for all limit states will also be
provided, as illustrated in Table 9.9.7-3.
If downdrag is an issue, the ultimate downdrag load, QDD, as a function of shaft diameter will be
provided, as well as the depth zone of the shaft which is affected by downdrag, the downdrag load
factor, and the cause of the downdrag (settlement due to vertical stress increase, liquefaction, etc.).
If liquefaction occurs, the reduction in side friction resistance, Qs, to be subtracted off of the ultimate
side friction capacity plots will be provided. See example tables below.
Example Presentation of Resistance Factors for Shaft Design
Table 9.9.7-3
Resistance Factor
Limit State
Skin Friction, Qs
End bearing, Qp
Uplift, Qup
Strength
Service
Extreme Event
If lateral loads imposed by special soil loading conditions such as landslide forces are present, the
ultimate lateral soil force or stress distribution, and the load factors to be applied to that force or
stress, will be provided.
The Geotechnical Branch will also provide group reduction factors for bearing capacity and uplift if
necessary, as well as the associated resistance factors.
The Geotechnical Branch will continue to provide P-Y curve data as a function of depth as has been
done in the past. Resistance factors for lateral load analysis will not be provided, as the lateral load
resistance factors will typically be 1.0.
July 2000
9.9-29

Criteria
Substructure Design

Example Presentation of Downdrag Loads
Table 9.9.7-4
QDDs, Static Conditions
QDDliq Due to Liquefaction
Pier No.
Shaft Dia = __
Shaft Dia = __
Shaft Dia = __
Shaft Dia = __
Example Presentation of Skin Friction Loss Due to Downdrag or Scour

Table 9.9.7-5
Qs Loss to be Applied to Figure 9.9.6-3
Due to Static Downdrag or Scour
for Strength Limit Qult

Due to Liquefaction Downdrag
for Extreme Event Limit Qult
Pier No.
Shaft Dia = __
Shaft Dia = __
Shaft Dia = __
Shaft Dia = __
9.9-30
July 2000

Criteria
Substructure Design
Qs (unfactored)
QQpb (unfactored)
Shaft Diameter = ___
Shaft Diameter = ___
Strength and
Extreme
Limit States
Elevation or Depth
Elevation or Depth
(a separate curve
may be needed for
the extreme event I
limit state in some
cases)
Strength and
Extreme
Limit States
Service Limit
Service
Limit
State at
State
at ___
___(in.)
of
Settlement
of
Service Limit
Service
Limit
State at ___ (in.)
State at ___
of Settlement
of
Typical Shaft Total Bearing Capacity Plots (All Limit States)

Figure 9.9.7-4
9.9.8
Pile Foundation Design

The objective of pile foundation design is to determine the following:
pile capacity,
pile size,
pile type,
size of the pile group required to resist the structural loads,
estimated pile quantity needed,
minimum tip elevation required, and
driveability of the piles to meet the design requirements.
The pile foundation design should also include characterization of the pile foundation for purposes of
modeling the overall structure, especially for seismic design.
July 2000
9.9-31

Criteria
Substructure Design
structural and geotechnical engineers needed for pile foundation design.

for foundation design, liquefaction
potential, and resistance factors in
consideration of the soil property
uncertainty and the method selected
for calculating nominal resistance

scour, if present (with help
of Hydraulic Engineer)
1(ST). Determine bridge geometry,

pier locations, and foundation top

foundation top, including lateral earth
pressure loads for abutments, through
structural analysis and modeling as
well as pile lateral load analysis
9(GT). Evaluate
the pile group for
nominal resistance
at the strength and
extreme limit states,
and settlement/
resistance at the
service limit state
3(ST). Determine the number of piles

required to support the unfactored
applied loads at the strength limit
state, and their estimated depth
3(ST). Determine the number of piles

required to support the unfactored
applied loads at the extreme event
limit state, and their estimated depth
4(GT). Select best pile types, and

determine nominal single pile
resistance at the strength and extreme
limit states as function of depth,
estimating pile sizes likely needed,
and establishing maximum
acceptable pile nominal resistance
5(ST). Reevaluate foundation

stiffnesses, and rerun structural
modeling to get new load distribution
for foundations. Reiterate if loads
from lateral pile analysis do not
match foundation top loads from
structural modeling within 5%
5(GT). Estimate downdrag

loads, if present
6(ST). Factor the loads, and adjust

size of pile group or the pile capacities
and estimated depths as needed to
resist applied factored loads

10(GT). Verify
estimated tip
elevation and pile
nominal resistance
from Step 6(ST),
as well as minimum
tip elevation from
the greatest depth
required to meet
uplift, lateral load,
and serviceability
requirements
6(ST). Provide estimate of settlement

for pile/pile group, or foundation
depth required to preclude
unacceptable settlement
7(ST). Check the minimum pile

depth required to resist factored
uplift loads and to resist lateral loads
within acceptable deformations
11(GT). Based on
minimum tip
elevation and pile
diameter needed,
determine need for
overdriving and
driveability of
pile as designed;
if not driveable,
reevaluate pile
foundation design
and structural
model
8(GT). Determine P-Y curve

parameters for pile
lateral load analysis
GT:
ST:
8(ST). Design the foundation

(and walls for abutment)
7(GT). Determine nominal

uplift resistance for piles
as function of depth
9(ST). Develop contract specifications,

obtaining pile quantities from estimated
pile depths, minimum pile capacity
required, minimum tip elevations, and
overdriving required from design
Bridge Engineer
Design Flowchart for Pile Foundation Design

Figure 9.9.8-1
9.9-32
July 2000

Criteria
Substructure Design
A. Pile Type, Pile Size, Bearing Capacity, and Estimated Tip Elevation Strength and Extreme
Event Limit States
First, determine the feasible ultimate pile capacity, Qult, for the soil at the site, and determine
the desired pile type and diameter. This ultimate capacity should be unfactored and based on
static capacity calculations or experience with a given soil deposit. See the Federal Highway
Administration manual FHWA-HI-97-013 Design and Construction of Driven pile Foundations,
1997, for examples of static analysis methods for piles.
The feasible ultimate pile capacity may also be controlled by the structural capacity of the pile,
especially if the pile will be driven to a very hard bearing stratum (e.g., driven to refusal). Determine
the structural capacity of the pile per Article 10.7.4 in the AASHTO specifications. In lieu of more
detailed structural analysis, the general guidance on pile types, sizes, and ultimate capacities provided
in Table 9.9.8-1 can be used to select pile sizes and types for analysis. The Geotechnical Branch may
also limit the ultimate pile capacity for a given pile size and type driven to a given soil/rock bearing
unit based on experience with the given soil/rock unit. The maximum capacity allowed in that given
soil/rock unit may be increased by the Geotechnical Branch per mutual agreement with the Bridge
and Structures Office if a pile load test is performed.
Typical Pile Types and Sizes for Various Ultimate Pile Capacities
Table 9.9.8-1
Pile Type and Diameter, in in.
Ultimate Pile
Capacity
in tons
Closed End Steel

Pipe/Cast-in-Place
Concrete Piles
*Precast,
Prestressed
Concrete Piles
Steel H-Piles
Timber Piles
60 tons
See WSDOT
Standard Specs.
120 tons
See WSDOT
Standard Specs.
165 tons
12 in.
13 in.
210 tons
14 in.
16 in.
12 in.
300 tons
18 in.
nonseismic areas
(Category A),
24 in. seismic areas
(Category B,
C, and D)
18 in.
14 in.
450 tons
24 in.
Project Specific
Project Specific
*Precast, prestressed concrete piles are generally not used for highway bridges, but are more commonly used for
marine work.
July 2000
9.9-33

Criteria
Substructure Design
Select the construction quality control method to be used (e.g., driving formula, wave equation,
Pile Driving Analyzer, etc.), and the resistance factors associated with the selected method, dyn.
Determine the total factored load to be applied to the pier in question (strength and extreme event
limit states). Note that the actual distribution of that load to the piles will depend on the number of
piles in the group as well as where they are located within the group geometry.
The factored load per pile, Loadp, is determined as follows:
Loadp =
iQi
n
(iMi)c
I
where,
Mi = the moment at the base of the column resulting from the forces applied to the column
(i.e., dead load, live load, seismic load, etc.)
C
= the distance between the centroid of the pile group and the center of the pile under
consideration
= moment of inertia of the pile group
= number of piles in the pile group
Other variables are as defined previously.

Determine the number of piles required in the pile group such that the factored load in any pile in
the group is not greater than the factored resistance. Use the resistance factor for the construction
quality control method selected previously, that is, QR = dyn x Qult. Qult is the feasible ultimate
pile capacity.
Do not use the above method if the pile is being driven to a specified tip elevation and the pile
capacity is not being determined in the field using a driving criteria which is based on a pile penetration resistance (i.e., any dynamic method). In this case use the resistance factor for the static analysis
method used to determine the pile capacity. In this case, QR = qp Qp + qs Qs (strength and extreme
event limit states). Check all limit states, and determine the pile group size using the limit state which
requires the most piles for the specified ultimate capacity. Note that dyn, qp, and qs are all equal
to 0.9 to 1.0 for the extreme event limit state, depending on the confidence in the soil parameters
(AASHTO specifications recommend that 1.0 be used). The pile weight will be neglected in most
cases, but if it is to be considered, it is to be treated as a load as is done for safts (see Section 9.9.7A).
Qp and Qs are the same for both the strength and extreme event limit states.
If downdrag exists, the downdrag force QDD (qDD As) shall be considered as a load rather than a
negative resistance for pile capacity calculations. The downdrag force QDD will be determined by
the Geotechnical Branch using an appropriate static pile skin friction analysis method (see FHWA
manual on the design of driven pile foundations mentioned previously).
Per Table 9.9.3-2, use a load factor applied to the downdrag force of 1.0. This factored downdrag
force, in combination with the other factored applied loads, should be less than or equal to the
factored strength and service limit state resistances. Transient loads should not be considered
when downdrag forces are included in the factored load applied to the pile for service and strength
limit state calculations. Pile skin friction in the downdrag zone should not be included in the pile
ultimate capacity.
9.9-34
July 2000

Criteria
Substructure Design
If downdrag forces are induced by settlement due to liquefaction, downdrag forces shall be considered in the extreme event limit state design of the pile. Note that the downdrag force during liquefaction may be different than the downdrag force which is applicable during the strength and
serviceability limit states, as liquefaction can cause the strength of the soil to change. The downdrag
forces calculated for static conditions should not be combined with the downdrag forces resulting
from liquefaction when evaluating the extreme event limit state. Figure 9.9.8-2 illustrates how
downdrag loads and loss of resistance is to be handled. When downdrag occurs (see Figure 9.9.7-1),
the ultimate pile capacity needed is determined as follows: Qult = Loadp/dyn + QDD + Qsdd
For the strength and extreme event limit states, if the soil is characterized as cohesive, the pile
group capacity should also be checked for the potential for a block failure. Article 10.7.3.10 in the
AASHTO specifications applies. See Table 9.9.8-2 to determine the appropriate resistance factor for
the strength limit state. Use a resistance factor of 0.9 to 1.0 for the extreme event limit state. Compare
the factored loads for each limit state to the factored block resistance. If a block failure appears likely,
increase the group size so that a block failure is prevented.
For estimating pile quantities, develop unfactored, ultimate pile capacity versus estimated depth
curves using a static analysis method (see Figure 9.9.8-2 for example). The Geotechnical Branch
may adjust the estimated depth for a given pile capacity based on experience with the soil/rock
deposit in question and professional judgment. Determine the estimated pile length, Dest., for the
desired ultimate capacity, Qult, from this pile capacity versus depth curve for the purpose of
estimating pile quantities. Make sure that Qult is greater than or equal to the factored load per pile
divided by the appropriate resistance factor, that is: Qult Loadp/dyn + QDD + Qsdd
For the construction specifications, use the estimated pile length determined as illustrated in Figure
9.9.7-1 for the contract pile quantity, and use Qult (unfactored) for the pile capacity which is inserted
into the driving formula, wave equation, etc., to determine the penetration resistance required to
accept the pile.
Note: The estimated pile length will be reasonably accurate if the bias, R, for the static analysis
method used to estimate pile lengths and the feasible ultimate pile capacity is approximately the
same as the bias, R, for the dynamic analysis method used to determine the factored pile capacity.
If the biases for the two methods are not the same, the estimated pile length could be in error for a
given level of risk. If the coefficients of variation for the two methods are also significantly different
for the two methods, this could accentuate the possible error for a given level of risk.
For example, if the dynamic formula tends to predict an average capacity which is approximately
the same as the capacity measured from a pile load test, but the static analysis method tends to
under-predict the pile capacity measured from a pile load test, the pile depth predicted using the
static analysis method illustrated in Figure 9.9.8-2 is likely to be too deep. Note that this is not likely
to be an issue when driving the pile to a well defined very dense stratum such as glacially loaded till
or bedrock. This pile length prediction accuracy is mainly a concern for friction piles. Therefore,
some engineering judgment based on experience may be needed to estimate pile quantities with
reasonable accuracy.
July 2000
9.9-35

Criteria
Substructure Design
Loadp
dyn
Loadp
dyn
Example Ultimate Pile Capacity Versus Depth Curve for Estimating Pile Lengths
Figure 9.9.8-2
QSdd
= skin friction which must be overcome during driving through downdrag/liquefaction/scour zone
Loadp
+ QDD = ultimate pile capacity needed to resist all applied axial loads per pile, including downdrag
dyn
Loadp
= factored load per pile, not including downdrag
QDD
= downdrag load per pile
= number of piles in pile group for pier
Dest.
= estimated pile length needed to obtain desired ultimate capacity
9.9-36
July 2000

Criteria
Substructure Design
B. Determination of Minimum Pile Tip Elevations

Determine the minimum pile depth required to meet settlement, lateral deflection/capacity, and
uplift requirements. This would become the minimum pile tip elevation requirement for the contract
specifications. Note that lateral loading and uplift requirements may influence (possibly increase) the
number of piles required in the group if the capacity available at a reasonable minimum tip elevation
is not adequate. This will depend on the soil conditions and the loading requirements. For example,
if the upper soil is very soft or will liquefy, making the minimum tip elevation deeper is unlikely to
improve the lateral response of the piles enough to be adequate. Adding more piles to the group or
using a larger pile diameter to increase the pile stiffness may be the only solution.
The various analyses required to establish the minimum tip elevations needed (if minimum tip
elevations are in fact needed), are as follows:
1.
Uplift for Piles

For the strength and extreme limit states, for the pile group size and geometry already
determined, calculate for the structure the uplift capacity per pile needed using factored loads.
Calculate the uplift resistance available using static analysis methods and using resistance factors
appropriate for the static analysis method used, for both limit states. Do this as a function of pile
depth. Therefore,
Factored uplift capacity, Quf = up qup As = up Qup
where, qup = ultimate unit uplift resistance, As is the pile side area, up is as determined from
Table 9.9.7-2 for strength limit state conditions, and Qup is the unfactored ultimate uplift capacity.
The unit uplift resistance, qup is usually set equal to the unit side friction resistance, qs, for LRFD
foundation design, as the resistance factors for uplift in Table 9.9.7-2 already account for the
potential for side resistance in uplift being less than the side resistance in compression. If
downdrag is likely to occur, either due to long-term settlement or due to liquefaction, the skin
friction causing downdrag should be considered to be fully available to resist uplift forces.
However, the downdrag force is not subtracted from the uplift force.
From these calculations, determine the depth required to obtain the required factored uplift
capacity.
2.
Lateral Load Analysis for Piles

Lateral Load Analysis for Drilled Shafts applies.
3.
Pile Group Bearing Capacity and Settlement (Service Limit State)

For the service limit state, compare the factored load to the maximum group capacity per
AASHTO Articles 10.7.2.1 and 10.7.2.3 to determine the pile depth which will result in the
desired maximum settlement. Treat the pile group as an equivalent footing as described in
Articles 10.7.2.1 and 10.7.2.3 in the AASHTO Specifications, and calculate the settlement of
the group. Do this to get the minimum depth required to prevent the settlement criteria from
being exceeded.
4.
Group Effects for Uplift

AASHTO Article 10.7.3.7.3 applies.
5.
Group Effects for Lateral Loads

Group Effects for Lateral Loads under Shaft Design applies.
July 2000
9.9-37

Criteria
Substructure Design
C. Resistance Factors for Pile Foundation Design

Resistance Factors for Strength Limit State for Pile Foundations
(adapted from Table 10.5.5-2 in AASHTO LRFD specifications)
Table 9.9.8-2
Type of
Resistance
Bearing Capacity
of Single Piles
(static analysis
methods)
qs
Skin Friction in Clay:

- -method (Tomlinson, 1987)
- -method (Esrig and Kirby, 1979)
- -method (Vijayvergiya and Focht, 1972)
Skin Friction in Sand:
- SPT Method (Meyerhof)
- CPT Method
- Nordlund Method
qp
Resistance
Factor
0.70
0.50
0.55
0.45
0.55
+
0.55
End Bearing in Clay and Rock:

- Clay (Skempton, 1951)
- Rock (Canadian Geotechnical Society, 1985)
0.70
0.50
End Bearing in Sand:

- SPT Method (Meyerhof)
- CPT Method
- Thurmans Method
0.45
0.55
+
0.55
qs,
qp
Side and Base Resistance:

- Load test
*0.70-0.80
Bearing Capacity
of Single Piles
(dynamic analysis
methods)
dyn
Side Resistance and End Bearing, All Soils:

- WSDOT driving formula, per Standard Specifications
- ENR driving formula
- Wave Equation, without PDA
- Wave Equation with PDA (PDA used on one pile/ pier and 2 to 5% of the piles)
- PDA with CAPWAP (min. one pile/pier and 2 to 5% of the piles)
0.50
0.25
0.50
0.60
0.60-0.75
Uplift Resistance
of Single Piles
up
a-method (clay)
b-method (clay)
l-method (clay)
SPT-method (Meyerhof method for sand)
CPT-method (sand)
Nordlund Method (sand)
CAPWAP
Uplift Load Test
0.60
0.40
0.45
0.35
0.45
+
0.45
?
*0.70-0.80
Block Failure
qgr
Clay
0.65
Group Uplift
Resistance
upgr
Sand
Clay
0.55
0.55
Lateral Pile
Resistance
lat
Clay, sand, and rock (single piles and groups):
1.0
*For the load test resistance factor, the values shown are more conservative than as provided in the AASHTO specifications. They have been adjusted based on
calibration to current WSDOT practice (FS = 2 if load test is conducted). Note that the number of load tests required will depend on the uniformity of the soil/rock
conditions and whether or not a well defined bearing stratum is present. Assuming that an appropriate number of load tests are conducted, use the largest resistance factor
in the specified range for very uniform conditions or for a well defined and highly resistant bearing stratum, and use the lowest resistance factor in the range for
nonuniform conditions or a poorly defined bearing stratum.
For the wave equation and PDA resistance factors, the values shown are more conservative than as provided in the AASHTO specifications. They have been adjusted
based on calibration to current WSDOT practice (FS = 2.25 if wave equation and PDA are conducted, and FS = 2.75 if wave equation without PDA is used). For PDA
with CAPWAP, calibration of CAPWAP results to pile load test results indicate that a resistance factor as high as 0.75 to 0.8 could be used. However, that calibration
assumes that a CAPWAP is performed on every pile, or the soil/rock conditions are perfectly uniform, which in actual applications is never the case. Assuming that the
number of piles as specified in the table are tested using a PDA/CAPWAP, use the largest resistance factor in the specified range for very uniform conditions or for a well
defined and highly resistant bearing stratum, and use the lowest resistance factor in the range for nonuniform conditions or a poorly defined bearing stratum. These
resistance factors for pile capacity should be considered to be tentative until additional research and comparative designs are accomplished
+
The approach defined above for the use of load test data or PDA/wave equation was also used to determine resistance factors for the Nordlund and Thurman pile capacity
methods (current WSDOT practice is to use FS = 2.5 with these methods). Furthermore, statistical analysis provided by the FHWA course manual Load and Resistance
Factor Design (LRFD) for Highway Bridge Substructures, 1998, for the Nordlund method confirms that resistance factors for this method should be on the order of 0.55
to 0.6.
For lat, the value used will depend on the confidence in the soil parameters.
9.9-38
July 2000

Criteria
Substructure Design
D. Determination of Pile Driveability

If the required minimum tip elevation is deeper than the penetration depth estimated to obtain the
desired pile capacity (Qult), the pile will need to be overdriven. Estimate the amount of overdrive
(i.e., maximum driving capacity) required using the unfactored pile capacity versus depth curve as
illustrated in Figure 9.9.7-3, but instead using the minimum tip elevation to determine the ultimate
pile capacity at the minimum tip elevation. This will yield the maximum driving resistance per the
WSDOT Standard Specifications to be used to size the pile hammer and to determine the minimum
pile wall thickness. The pile hammer and minimum pile wall thickness are sized so that maximum
driving stresses are not exceeded, and pile damage during driving is prevented. In this case, a preliminary wave equation analysis should be conducted during design by the Geotechnical Branch to
evaluate potential pile driveability, and to set minimum pile wall thickness and minimum hammer
energy requirements for the contract specifications as appropriate.
E. What Geotechnical Branch Will Provide to Bridge Office for LRFD Pile Design
To evaluate pile capacity, the Geotechnical Branch will provide information regarding pile capacity
using one of the following two approaches:
1.
A plot of the unfactored ultimate bearing capacity (Qult) as a function of depth for various pile
types and sizes for strength and extreme event limit state calculations would be provided. This
design data would be used to determine the feasible ultimate pile capacity, the estimated depth
for pile quantity determination, and the maximum driving resistance required to reach the
minimum tip elevation. If scour and/or liquefaction is likely to occur, separate tables will
usually be provided which summarize the estimated downdrag loads and capacity losses.
Such assumptions/special considerations will also be identified on the plots. See Figure 9.9.8-3
for example of pile data presentation.
2.
Only Qult and the estimated depth at which it could be obtained, and tabulated capacity
reductions necessary to account for the effects of scour and/or liquefaction, would be provided
for one or more selected pile types and sizes.
In most cases, Qult and Qup for the strength, extreme event II, and extreme event I limit states will be
the same, as loss of skin friction due to liquefaction downdrag will be taken into account separately.
However, if soils are present which weaken but do not liquefy during an earthquake, a separate curve
for the extreme event I limit state may be needed.
For evaluating uplift, the Geotechnical Branch will provide, as a function of depth, the ultimate
unfactored uplift capacity, Qup. This will be provided as a function of depth, or as a single value for
a given minimum tip elevation, depending on the project needs, and will be reduced to account for
scour and/or liquefaction. Resistance factors will also be provided for strength and extreme event
limit states.
Resistance factors for bearing capacity for all limit states will also be provided (see Table 9.9.8-2
for an example).
If downdrag is an issue, the ultimate downdrag load, QDD, as a function of pile diameter will be
provided, as well as the depth zone of the pile which is affected by downdrag, the downdrag load
factor, and the cause of the downdrag (settlement due to vertical stress increase, liquefaction, etc.).
If liquefaction occurs, the reduction in side friction resistance, Qs, to be subtracted off of the ultimate
capacity plots will be provided.
July 2000
9.9-39

Criteria
Substructure Design
If lateral loads imposed by special soil loading conditions such as landslide forces are present, the
ultimate lateral soil force or stress distribution, and the load factors to be applied to that force or
stress, will be provided.
The Geotechnical Branch will also provide group reduction factors for bearing capacity and uplift if
necessary, as well as the associated resistance factors, but these will be rarely needed.
The Geotechnical Branch will continue to provide P-Y curve data as a function of depth as has been
done in the past. Two separate tables will typically be provided, one for static properties and one for
dynamic properties (see Section 9.9.6C for an explanation on how they are to be used.) Resistance
factors for lateral load analysis will not be provided, as the lateral load resistance factors will
typically be 1.0.
Minimum tip elevations for the pile foundations will be provided as appropriate. Minimum tip
elevations will be based on pile foundation settlement, and, if uplift loads are available, the depth
required to provide adequate uplift capacity. Minimum pile tip elevations provided in the
Geotechnical Report may need to be adjusted depending on the results of the lateral load and uplift
load evaluation performed by the Bridge and Structures Office. If adjustment in the minimum tip
elevations is necessary, or if the pile diameter needed is different than what was assumed by the
Geotechnical Branch for pile capacity design, the Geotechnical Branch should be informed so that
pile driveability, as discussed below, can be re-evaluated.
Pile driveability will be evaluated at least conceptually for each project, and if appropriate, a wave
equation analysis will be performed and the results of the analysis provided in terms of special
requirements for hammer size and pile wall thickness, etc. The maximum driving resistance required
to reach the minimum tip elevation will also be provided. Note that it will not be possible to obtain
the maximum driving resistance from the pile bearing capacity plots mentioned previously if the pile
bearing capacities provided in the plots have been reduced to account for scour and/or liquefaction.
A separate determination is required to estimate the maximum driving resistance if the pile capacity
versus depth plots include the effects of scour or liquefaction. Once the pile analysis and design are
completed in the Bridge and Structures Office, the Geotechnical Branch is to be contacted for
final reivew ad comment.
Example Presentation of Resistance Factors for Pile Design
Table 9.9.8-3
Resistance Factor
Limit State
9.9-40
Bearing Capacity, Qult
Uplift, Qup
Strength
Service
Extreme Event
July 2000

Criteria
Substructure Design

Example Presentation of Downdrag Loads
Table 9.9.8-4
QDDs Static Conditions
QDDliq Due to Liquefaction
Pier No.
Pile Dia = __
Pile Dia = __
Pile Dia = __
Pile Dia = __
Example Presentation of Skin Friction Loss Due to Downdrag or Scour

Table 9.9.8-5
Due to Static Downdrag or Scour
for Strength Limit Qult

Due to Liquefaction Downdrag
for Extreme Event Limit Qult
Pier No.
Pile Dia = __
Pile Dia = __
Pile Dia = __
Pile Dia = __
July 2000
9.9-41

Criteria
Substructure Design
Bearing Capacity, Qult (unfactored)
Uplift Capacity, Qup (unfactored)
Strength and Extreme
Strength and Extreme

Event II limit,
Dia. = ___
Assumptions:
Strength
Dia. = ____ mm
Assumptions:
Elevation or Depth
Elevation or Depth
Strength
Event II limit,
Dia.
_____
Dia. = ___
Assumptions:
Assumptions:
ExtremeEvent
event
Extreme
I limit
(assumes
Dia.
= ___ for this example
Extreme
I limit
ExtremeEvent
event
Dia.
=
___
(assumes for this example
that liquefaction
Dia. = _____
that liquefaction
Dia. = _____
Example Presentation of Pile Bearing Capacity and Uplift

Figure 9.9.8-3
P65:DP/BDM9
9.9-42
July 2000

Criteria
Substructure Design
9.99
Bibliography
Bibliography
1.
W. T. Moody, Moments and Reactions for Rectangular Plates, U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of
Reclamation, 1970.
2.
Richard Bares, Tables for the Analysis of Plates, Slabs, and Diaphragms Based on the Elastic
Theory, Wiesbaden, 1971.
3.
Peck, Hansen, Thornburn, Foundation Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1967.
4.
Ultimate Strength Design Handbook, Volume 1, ACI Special Publication No. 17, American Concrete
Institute, Detroit, 1967.
5.
S. Timoshenko, Theory of Elastic Stability, McGraw Hill.
6.
G. A. Leonards, Ed. Foundation Engineering, McGraw Hill, 1962. 624.15
7.
W. C. Huntington, Earth Pressures and Retaining Walls, Wiley, 1957.
8.
Wayne C. Teng, Foundation Design, Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1962.
9.
C. W. Dunham, The Theory and Practice of Reinforced Concrete, McGraw Hill, 1953.
L553f
10. Association of Drilled Shaft Contractors, Inc., 6060 N. Central Expressway, Dallas, TX 75206,
Standards and Specifications for the Drilled Shaft Industry, Revised July 15, 1979.
11. L. C. Reese and S. J. Wright, Drilled Shaft Manual, Volume I, Construction Procedures and Design for
Axial Loading, U.S. Department of Transportation, Office of Research and Development,
Implementation Division, HDV-22, Washington, DC 20590, July 1977.
12. L. C. Reese and J. D. Allen, Drilled Shaft Manual, Volume II, Structural Analysis and Design for
Lateral Loading, U.S. Department of Transportation, Office of Research and Development,
Implementation Division, HDV-22, Washington, DC 20590, July 1977.
13. L. C. Reese, Analysis of Laterally Loaded Piles, Software Documentation, Department of Civil
Engineering, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, July 1997.
14. Washington State DOT, Olympia, Washington, Instructions to Engineers Structural Applications
Computer Manual.
15. McDonnell Douglas Automation Company, Box 516, St. Louis, MO 63166, ICES STRUDL User
Manual, April 19890.
16. Noel J. Everard and Edward Cohen, Ultimate Strength Design of Reinforced Concrete Columns,
ACI Publication SP-7.
17. R. J. Woodward, W. S. Gardner and D. M. Greer, Drilled Pier Foundation.
18. Karl Terzaghi, Evaluation of Coefficient of Subgrade Reaction, Geothechnique, Volume V, 1955.
19. Prakash S., Behavior of Pile Groups Subject to Lateral Loads, Ph.D. Thesis, University of Illinois,
1962.
9-99:WORK:BDM3
January 1991
9.99 - 1

Appendix A
Substructure Design
Design Aids
January 1991
9.2 - A1

Appendix A
Substructure Design
Design Aids
9.2 - A2
January 1991

Appendix A
Substructure Design
Design Aids
January 1991
9.2 - A3

Appendix A
Substructure Design
Design Aids
9.2 - A4
January 1991

Appendix A
Substructure Design
Design Aids
January 1991
9.2 - A5

Appendix A
Substructure Design
Design Aids
Column Design Flow Chart
9.2 - A6
January 1991

Appendix A
Substructure Design
Design Aids
Column Design Effective Length Factors
January 1991
9.2 - A7

Appendix A
Substructure Design
Design Aids
Buckling Load Round Columns
9.2 - A8
January 1991

Appendix A
Substructure Design
Design Aids
Factor Charts
January 1991
9.2 - A9

Appendix A
Substructure Design
Design Aids
Moment Magnification Factor
9.2 - A10
January 1991

Appendix A
Substructure Design
Design Aids
Column Design Example
January 1991
9.2 - A11

Criteria
Appendix A
1.
Consider the following soil profile for a bridge pier:

Factored Load = 900 tons for Strength I
Factored Load = 2100 tons for Extreme I
Loose SAND
30 ft
Dense SAND
A pipe pile, closed end, will be used for this example. Assume that the pile supported footing has no bending
moments applied to it to keep the example simple. Structural analysis of potential pile options (see AASHTO
code for maximum loading allowed for pile stresses and to prevent buckling or crushing) and WSDOT policy
indicates that a minimum 18 inch diameter is required for a 300 ton pile and 24 inch diameter is required for
a 450 ton pile. Static analysis and previous experience with this bearing stratum indicates that the feasible
ultimate pile capacity for the bearing stratum is 300 tons for an 18 inch diameter pipe pile (this is Qult,
unfactored).
2.
Using a static analysis method (assume SPT method is used), the unfactored ultimate pile capacity versus
depth curve is as follows:
Ultimate Pile Capacity (tons)
100
200
300
10
20
Depth (ft)
30
40
50
July 2000
9.9-A-1

Criteria
Appendix A
3.
The WSDOT driving formula will be used as the quality control method for pile capacity in the field. For
this method, dyn = 0.5 for Strength I (see calibration in Steps 3.a to 3.d below), and dyn = 1.0 for Extreme I.
Pile capacity data which illustrates accuracy of WSDOT formula:
Predicted Ult. Capacity, 2000 Standard Spec. Equ. (kips)
a.
New (1998) Standard Specifications Equation - End

of Driving Data - Ultimate Capacity
3500
Rult = FE Ln 10N
F = 3.3 (steam)
F = 3.1 (OE Diesel)
F = 2.4 (CE Diesel)
3000
95%
Confidence
2500
Steam
Hammers
OE Diesel
Hammers
CE Diesel
Hammer
2000
1500
Spe1000
b.
9.9-A-2
500
0
0
500
1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Load Test Rult - Davisson's Criteria (kips)
3500
Parameters for calibration to determine resistance factor:

Parameter
Definition
Value
Bias Factor for

Resistance, R
Ratio of measured to predicted resistance,

using log normal mean values
0.97
COVR
Log normal coefficient of variation for

resistance prediction
0.356
QD/QL
Dead load to live load ratio
Typical value is 3.0
QD
Bias factor for structure dead load, using log

normal mean values
1.05 (assume CIP

concrete structure)
COVQD

structure dead load
0.10 (assume CIP

concrete structure)
QL
Bias factor for structure live load,

using log normal mean values
1.15
COVQL

structure live load
0.18
Target reliability index
FS
ASD factor of safety typically used in practice
2 to 2.5 for pile groups

2.5 to 3.0
July 2000

Criteria
Appendix A
c.
Check implied by current ASD design safety factor:
FS QD
2
2
+ 1
R QL 1 + COVQD + COVQL
ln
QD
1 + COVR2
+
QL
QD
DL
2
2
+ COVQL
ln (1 + COVR2 ) 1 + COVQD
)]
0.97(2.5)(3.0 + 1) 1 + 0.12 + 0.182

ln
1 + 0.356 2
1.05(3.0) + 1.15
=
= 1.93
ln (1 + 0.356 2 )(1 + 0.12 + 0.182 )
For FS = 3.0, = 2.39

(Note: The FS of 3.0 was used when our standard specifications specified the use of the ENR equation,
which has a much higher coefficient of variation and tended to over-predict capacity (bias of 0.8, COVR
of 0.61, implying a = 1.11 for FS = 3.0) than our current driving formula. We now use FS = 2.5 with our
current driving formula.)
In conclusion, a = 2.0 appears adequate for this analysis considering previous practice.
d.
Check R implied by current ASD safety factor:
D QD Q + L 1.25 3.0 + 1.75

( )
L
=
R =
= 0.55
QD
2
.
5
3
.
0
1
+
(
)
FS Q + 1
L
For FS = 3.0, R = 0.46
e.
Calculate the resistance factor, dyn, for the strength limit state:
dyn =
2
2
+ COVQL
1 + COVQD
QD
R D Q + L
L
1 + COVR2
)]
QD + exp ln 1 + COV 2 1 + COV 2 + COV 2

(
QL
R)
QD
QL
QD QL
D = LRFD specified load factor for dead load = 1.25

L = LRFD specified load factor for live load = 1.75
dyn
July 2000
1 + 0.12 + 0.182
0.97(1.25(3.0) + 1.75)
1 + 0.356 2
= 0.535
=
(1.05(3.0) + 1.15) exp 2.0 ln (1 + 0.3562 )(1 + 0.12 + 0.182 )
9.9-A-3

Criteria
Appendix A

If use a T = 2.5, get dyn = 0.44.

In conclusion, recommend a dyn = 0.50 for design, based on the use of the WSDOT driving formula.
(Note: If use the ENR equation, which has a bias of 0.80 and a coeff. of variation of 0.61, for a T = 2.0,
would need a R = 0.27. If a CAPWAP is used to determine pile capacity, a bias of 1.45 and a coeff. of
variation of 0.44 was obtained for end of driving conditions, resulting in a R = 0.68 for a T = 2.0. For
a CAPWAP at beginning of redrive conditions, a bias of 1.61 and a coefficient of variation of 0.42 was
obtained, resulting in a R = 0.79 for a T = 2.0.)
4.
The total factored load for the pier is as shown in the figure in Step 1.
5.
Determine the number of piles to required to support the pier load, using a feasible ultimate pile capacity
Qult = 300 tons from Steps 1 and 2. Assume all piles have the same load for this simplified example.
(Note that we have not considered a pier loading scenario where the corner piles are more heavily loaded
than the interior piles, which would more normally be the case. This simplified uniform loading case was
selected to keep this example simple.)
For the Strength I limit state:
Factored pier load = 900 tons

Resistance/pile = dynQult = 0.5(300 tons) = 150 tons
No. of piles = 900/150 = 6 piles
For the Extreme Event I limit state:
Factored pier load = 2100 tons

Resistance/pile = dynQult =1.0(300 tons) = 300 tons
No. of piles = 2100/300 = 7 piles
6.
Determining the estimated pile length from the figure in step 2, Dest. = 50 ft.
7.
For the contract, the pile quantities will be based on an estimated pile length of 50 ft, and the pile capacity
shown in the plans will be 300 tons ultimate. The pier will have a seven pile group, because the extreme
event limit state controls design in this case.
8.
A pile group settlement analysis was performed with the tips up in the loose sand (depth of 25 ft) and with
the pile tips 5 ft into the dense sand (depth of 35 ft). Group settlement in the first case was determined to
be 1.5 inches, and in the second case was just below 1 inch. Therefore, minimum pile tips will be specified in the contract, but must check lateral load capacity and deflection, and uplift requirements before
selecting a final minimum tip elevation.
9.
The uplift load per pile based on factored loads was determined to be 30 tons from the structural analysis
for the strength limit state. For the extreme event limit state, the uplift load per pile was determined to be
100 tons.
10. Calculate the depth required to obtained the required uplift capacity, using static analysis methods. The
resistance factor from the AASHTO LRFD design specifications, using the SPT method, static, is 0.35 for
the strength limit state and 1.0 for the extreme event limit state.
9.9-A-4
July 2000

Criteria
Appendix A
Factored Pile Uplift Capacity (tons)

50
100
150
30
10
0.35Qult for strength

limit state
20
Depth (ft)
30
1.0Qult for extreme event

limit state
40
50
From this figure, the minimum depth required is 31 ft for the strength limit state and 35 ft for the extreme
event limit state.
11. Lateral load analysis for deflection and fixity indicates that the pile tips must be at least 27 ft deep. Uplift
requirements for the extreme event limit state appears to control the minimum depth required, considering
settlement, uplift, and lateral load requirements. Therefore, select a minimum tip elevation based on a
minimum pile depth of 35 ft.
12. Based on the pile capacity vs. depth plot and a required minimum penetration of 35 ft, which is less than
the estimated tip elevation, overdriving will not be required. Therefore, use a pile capacity of 300 tons
ultimate for sizing the pile hammer and pile wall thickness required for constructability.
July 2000
9.9-A-5

Criteria
Detailing Practice
Contents
Page
10
10.1
10.1.1
10.1.2
10.1.3
10.1.4
10.1.5
Detailing Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Standard Office Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Drawing Orientation and Layout Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Lettering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E. Line Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F. Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
G. Grpahic Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
H. Structural/Architectural Section, Views, and Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I. Revisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
J. Care of Original Manual Drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Final Layout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bar Lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bridge Standard Plans and Office Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Plotting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.1-1
1
1
1
1
2
2
5
5
6
6
6
9
11
12
12
12

10.1-A1-1 through 7 Abbreviations
10.1-A2 Structural Steel
10.1-A3 Footing Layout
Appendix B Examples
10.1-B1
Footing Layout
10-CON:V:BDM10
October 1993
10.0 - i

Criteria
Detailing Practice
Drawings
10.0
Detailing Practice
10.1
Drawings
The following is to provide the novice with basic information on computer drafting and the fundamentals
of file management, and plotting for this activity.
Drafting and plotting of drawings is done from BREWS (BRidge Engineers WorkStation) terminals.
These terminals operate on the VMS operating system, and GDS is the drafting software used by the
Bridge Division. GDS is designed with built-in macros that retrieve information based on filenames that
you select from menus or input in batch mode.
STDROOT:[FGB]TBFF.FGB is an example of a filename, where:
STD:
is the root directory where all the files for the STD job are kept. A job is generally
defined as the work to be done for a particular L-XXXX (where L = Location and
XXXX = the accounting number assigned to the job)
[FGB]
is the subdirectory where all drawing files are kept.
TBFF
is the user's name for the file. This has a 32 character limit and the first 8 characters
must be unique.
.FGB
is the file extension. FBG is always the GDS extension for all drawings.
Please note that all colons, brackets and periods must be used as shown in the example.
Directories provide a convenient way to keep job files together, but only if they are used with consistency
and updated regularly (clean out obsolete files etc.). Users should choose directory names that are relative
to the job they are working on (State Route numbers, bridge numbers, ramp designations, acronyms). This
makes it easier for someone to find files that pertain to your job should you be unavailable. Using directories is also important in terms of achieving job files. It is easy to transfer all files that pertain to a job
(and only those files that pertain to the job) to a tape when these files are consolidated in one directory.
A user can have personal directories or the computer support personnel can set up a job directory to be
used by a group of users.
To call up a CAD sheet, first select the job directory listing menu in the lower left of the GDS window. A
listing of job directories appear on the screen; choose the proper job and then, from the next menu, the
CAD sheet file you want.
10.1.1 Standard Office Practices

A. Purpose
The purpose of these standards is to enable the Bridge Branch to produce consistent and effective
plan sheets which will have uniform appearance and information. Engineers and detailers are
responsible for ensuring that these criteria are implemented.
B. Planning
The engineer coordinates with the structural detailer the scope of the detailing work involved. Similar
bridge plans and details should be reviewed and kept as examples for maintaining consistent detailing
practices. These examples should not be older than three years.
October 1993
10.1 - 1

Criteria
Detailing Practice
Drawings
C. Drawing Orientation and Layout Control

1.
Standard bridge sheet format is 331/2 inches x 221/2 inches with the bottom 2 inches used for title
block and related information.
2.
Regular graphite lead or ink shall be used on vellum drawings. Ink or plastic lead only shall be
used on mylar drafting film.
3.
Drawings shall be carefully organized so the intent of the drawing can be read easily. North
arrows shall be placed on layouts and footing layouts. (See Chapter 2 and 10.1.2 for special
requirements for preliminary plan and layout sheets.) Related details shall be grouped together in
an orderly arrangemnet. Do not overcrowd the drawing with details. The following is a standard
sheet configuration when plan, elevation, and sectional views are required.
PLAN
SECTIONS
&
DETAILS
ELEVATION
D. Lettering
1.
General
a.
Text # 4 Ames Lettering Guide Manual, CBR 35 CADD.

Titles #6 Ames Lettering Guide Manual, CBR 70 CADD.
Underline all titles with a single line having the same weight as the lettering used. Use "bas
TITLE".
2.
b.
Lettering shall be upper case only, slanted at approximately 68 degrees angle on the Ames
Lettering Guide and of uniform height.
c.
Lettering shall be oriented so as to be read from the bottom right edge of the sheet.
Dimensioning
a.
10.1 - 2
A dimension shall be shown once on a drawing, unless repeating it is necessary for clarity.
Duplication and unnecessary dimensions should be avoided. All dimension figures shall be
placed above the dimension line, and so that they may be read from the bottom of the right
edge of the sheet, as shown in the following detail:
October 1993

Criteria
Detailing Practice
October 1993
Drawings
b.
Reinforcing bar clearances need not be specified on plans unless different from the general
Notes.
c.
When details or structural elements are complex, utilize two drawings. One for dimensions
and the other for reinforcing bar details.
d.
Dimensions 12 inches or more shall be given in feet and inches unless the item dimensioned
is conventionally designated in inches (for example, 16 pipe).
e.
In dimensions more than 1 foot, fractions less than 1 inch shall be proceeded by 0 (for
example, 3-03/4.
f.
Placement of dimensions outside the view, preferably to the right or below, is desirable.
However, in the interest of clarity and simplicity it may be necessary to place them
otherwise. Examples of dimensioning placement are shown on Figure 10.1.1-1.
10.1 - 3

Criteria
Detailing Practice
Drawings
Figure 10.1.1-1
10.1 - 4
October 1993

Criteria
Detailing Practice
Drawings
E. Line Work
1.
All line work must be of sufficient size, weight, and clarity so that it can be easily read from a
print that has been reduced to one-half the size of the original drawing. The line style used for a
particular structural outline, centerline, etc., shall be kept consistent wherever that line is shown
within a set of bridge plans.
2.
Linework shall have appropriate gradations of width to give line contrast as shown below. Care
shall be taken that the thin lines are dense enough to show clearly when reproduced.
3.
When drawing structural sections showing reinforcing steel, the outline of the section shall be a
heavier line weight than the rebar.
The Mark No. bubble for reinforcing steel shall be a rectangle. use [ ] to create text
rectangles.
Epoxy coated reinforcement shall be denoted by a triangle in the following manner.
42
#6
F. Scale
When selecting a scale, it should be kept in mind that the drawing will be reduced. Generally, the
minimum scale for a section detail with rebars is 3/8 inch = 1 foot. The scale used on steel bridge
plans will be 3/4 inch = 1 foot minimum.
October 1993
10.1 - 5

Criteria
Detailing Practice
Drawings
Sections and views may be enlarged to show more detail, but the number of different scales used
should be kept to a minimum.
G. Graphic Symbols
1.
2.
Graphic symbols shall be in accordance with the following:

a.
Structural Steel Detailing: AISC Steel Construction Manual see structural steel chart.
b.
Welding symbols: See Lincoln Welding Chart.
Symbols for hatching different material is shown on Figure 10.1.1-2.
H. Structural/Architectural Sections, Views, and Details

1.
A section cuts through the structure; a view is from outside the structure; a detail shows a
structural element in more detail usually a larger scale.
2.
Whenever possible, sections and views shall be taken looking to the right ahead on station or
down. Care shall be taken to ensure that the orientation of a detail drawing is identical to that of
the plan, elevation, etc., from which it is taken.
3.
On plan and elevation drawings where it is impossible to show cut sections and details, the
section and detail drawing should immediately follow the plan and elevation drawing unless there
are a series of related plans. If it is impractical to show details on a section drawing, a detail
sheet should immediately follow the section drawing. In other words, the order should be from
general plan to more minute detail.
4.
Structural and architectural sections, views, and details shall be identified by a circle divided into
upper and lower halves.
Examples are shown in Figure 10.1.1-3.
I.
5.
Breaks are allowable in lines provided that their intent is clear.
6.
Each pier shall be detailed separately as a general rule. If the intermediate piers are identical
except for height, then they can be shown together.
Revisions
1.
10.1 - 6
Manual Techniques
a.
Pencil on paper can simply be erased and done over.
b.
Ink on film can be washed off with plain water. Older drawings may need to soak awhile or
use rubbing alcohol, but this is preferable to erasing, which will remove the matte finish and
make the area difficult to draw on.
c.
Photo lines can usually be eradicated using chemical eradicators (Solutions A and B)
available from the vault. This preserves the surface finish. If the chemical is ineffective,
check to see if the print is reverse reading in which case the eradicator must be applied to
the back. (Reverse reading film positives are actually preferable so that changes are not
made on the same surface from which the lines are removed.) Erasing on the front of a
mylar sheet should be a last resort as it removes the surface finish.
October 1993

Criteria
Detailing Practice
Drawings
Figure 10.1.1-2
October 1993
10.1 - 7

Criteria
Detailing Practice
Drawings
Figure 10.1.1-3
10.1 - 8
October 1993

Criteria
Detailing Practice
J.
May 1995
Drawings
d.
Plastic lead on film must be erased with a soft eraser, taking care to avoid removing the
surface finish.
e.
Film surface damaged by erasing may be restored by careful roughening with a hand eraser.
f.
A chemical solution called sepia eradicator can be used to eradicate lines on sepias. The
Bridge Branch seldom uses sepias, but if needed, this solution may be obtained from the
stockroom if no one in Bridge has a bottle.
2.
Cadd sheets shall be changed on the cadd film and replotted.
3.
Plan Revisions Versus Addendums

a.
All changes to plans require initials of the Bridge Engineer or the Unit Design Supervising
Engineer. The locations of all changes (except deletions) shall be shaded so they can be
easily found. Shading on preliminary plans is removed before printing the ad copies. The old
method of using a number enclosed in a circle enclosed in a triangle is no longer acceptable.
b.
Use the revision block in the left margin to record changes, including the due date and
description of each change, made after the preliminary plan is signed by the Bridge Engineer, but before the ad copy. This left margin block is also removed before printing the ad
copies.
c.
The Olympia Service Center Plans Branch places a border along the bottom of the plan
sheets. This border contains blocks where the Plans Branch assigns sheet numbers, a contract
number, a title, and a revision block for the contract plans. For changes made after the ad
copy is mailed out (addendum) fill in the revision block, including the due date and description of each addendum. Also, include the contract title, contract number, and sheet number
assigned by the Plans Branch (e.g., if bridge sheet number 4 of 7 was assigned plan sheet
number 18 or 30 by the Plans Branch, it must remain plan sheet 18 of 30 if revised).
Care of Original Manual Drawings

1.
Original manual drawings should be handled with care to avoid damaging them in any way.
2.
Original manual drawings should be stored flat, either in a designated file or in the drafters desk.
3.
If it is necessary to leave an original manual drawing out overnight, it should be covered to

reduce exposure to mishap.
4.
An original manual drawing shall not be used for review or checking. All review or checking
shall be done from prints.
10.1 - 9

Criteria
Detailing Practice
Drawings
10.1 - 10
May 1995

Criteria
Detailing Practice
Drawings
10.1.2 Final Layout

a.
General The original preliminary plan will be used to create the final layout. Views, data, and
notes may be repositioned to improve the final product.
b.
Items on the preliminary plan which should not appear on the final layout are as follows:
c.
1.
Typical roadway sections.
2.
Notes to the district.
3.
Vertical curve, superelevation, and curve data for other than main line.
4.
Other information that was preliminary or that will be found elsewhere in the plans.
Items not normally on the preliminary plan which should be added are as follows:
1.
Test hole locations (designated by 3/16 inch circles, quartered) to plan view.
2.
Elevation view of footings, seals, piles, etc. Show elevation at bottom of footing and, if
applicable, the type and size of piling.
3.
General notes above legend in upper right-hand corner usually in place of the typical section.
4.
Title LAYOUT in the title block and sheet number in the space provided.
5.
Other features, such as lighting, conduit, signs, excavation, riprap, etc., as determined by the
designer.
6.
The layout check list can be used for reference. See Chapter 2.
October 1993
10.1 - 11

Criteria
Detailing Practice
Drawings
10.1.3 Bar Lists

Barlist files are different from regular drawing files in that they consist of nine sheets (or windows). In
order to view the various sheets type in DR SHEETn where n is a number from 1 to 9. All special bend
types must be drawn in the SPECIAL window (DR SPECIAL). If the special bends are drawn in any of
Sheets 1 through 9 they will be erased when the BARLIST program is rerun. Special bend types drawn
in the SPECIAL window will appear on all sheets and will not be erased when BARLIST is rerun.
Barlists have a different set of menus in GDS. While you are in GDS make the following selections:
DWG MGT
FILES
MENU PERS
BARLIST
This will get you into the special menus to put page numbers on the sheets and plot bar lists.
To create page (or plan sheet) numbers for bar list sheets, select the First Sheet No. option in the NAMES
menu then enter the value of the first page number. All subsequent sheets will be numbered automatically.
If the page number is alphanumeric (that is, it contains both letter and number parts) then choose the
Sheet No. Prefix(Letter) option in the NAMES menu. Do not use this option if there is no letter in the
page number.
There are three ways to plot barlist sheets. Plotting can be done interactively in a GDS session by typing
DR SHEETn then using PLOT NOW, or by using the F9 AND F10 function keys (F9 will plot fullsize
and F10 halfsize), or by using batch procedures as described in section 10.1.5. The batch routine will ask
you how many sheets there are to the barlist and will plot them all whereas PLOTNOW and the function
keys will plot only one sheet at a time.
Barlist sheets do not require an engineers stamp.
10.1.4 Bridge Standard Plans and Office Standards

a.
New standards and revisions to existing Standard Plans are made according to the same standard
office practices as plan sheets.
b.
Use of standard sheets for contract plans from the CADD office.
c.
1.
Copy the standard file to your directory and rename the new file by picking Copy STD file
from the FILES menu.
2.
A plot should be made on which the designer marks the required changes.
3.
Using the marked plot as a guide, the structural detailer makes changes and requests new plots.
4.
SR number, job number, sheet number, and title should be added on layout sheet only.
Changes are made to the master CADD standard file upon the receipt of the revision from the BDM
coordinator with his signature/initials and current date of the new revision.
10.1.5 Plotting
The user can plot either interactively in GDS or use the SPLOT command after a VMS prompt. Plotting
may take as long as 20 minutes, so be patient. It depends on how many plots are already waiting. To see a
listing of plot files waiting type PLIST at the VMS prompt. See section 10.1.3 for plotting bar lists.
10.1 - 12
October 1993

Criteria
Detailing Practice
Drawings
Interactive Plotting
There are two interactive ways to plot in GDS. The user can make menu selections, or can use function
keys.
PLOT NOW is a menu pick that will plot what is on the screen. Depending on your selection, you can get
full size, half size or laser printer plots on the screen.
Functions Keys are a short cut method to menu selections. Function key F9 plots a full size sheet and F10
plots halfsize.
Batch Plotting
Using SPLOT (to Plot a Single Sheet)
A drawing may be requested at any terminal by the commands given in the example below. You will
need to know the filename, which is shown above the WSDOT logo on every sheet.
The procedures would be as shown below for file, NRUP116ROOT:[FGB]LAYOUT.FGB. (beginning at the VMS prompt):
VS15A>SPLOT
(EXIT or Ctrl/Z to quit)
FILENAME: LAYOUT
PLOT SIZE: Large OR [Small], or 3 for Laser print:
Hit the Return key for the default smal or enter L for large.
NUMBER OF COPIES [1]:
Hit the Return key for the default 1 or enter the number of copies you want.
Using MPLOT (to Plot Multiple Sheets)
Please note that this routine can tie up a plotter for hours.
First, create a data file that includes all the filenames for the sheets you want to plot. In the
following example the data file PLOTLIST is set up to plot: NEBAR, JUNKTST, and
LAYOUT. The routine begins at the VMS prompt (this is not in the menus).
VS15A>MPLOT
PLOT LIST INPUT FILE: PLOTLIST
DIRECTORY NAME (NO FGB):NRUP116
PLOT SIZE: Large OR [Small]:
Hit the Return key for the default small or enter large
NOW SUBMITTING PLOT OF NRUP116FGB:NEBAR, TO BATCH
Job SINGLE_BATCH_PLOT (queue VS15A_BATCH, entry 20) started on
VS15A_BATCH
ERROR IN LOCATING NRUP116FGB:JUNKTST.FGB
NRUP116FGB:LAYOUT.FGB IS LOCKED BY [RUDEEN]
UNABLE TO PLOT
As you can see, only one file, NEBAR, was actually plotted. JUNKTST does not exist, and LAYOUT is
currently being used by Jeff Rudeen.
10-1:V:BDM10
October 1993
10.1 - 13

Appendix A
Detailing Practice
Design Aids
Abbreviations
A. General
1.
Because different words sometimes have identical abbreviations, the word should be spelled out where the
meaning may be in doubt.
2.
A few standard signs are in common use in the office of Bridge and Structures. These are listed with the
abbreviations.
3.
A period should be placed after all abbreviations, except as listed below.
4.
Apostrophes are usually not used. Exceptions: pavt., reqd., rdway.
5.
Abbreviations for plurals are usually the same as the singular. Exceptions: figs., no., ctrs., pp.
6.
Abbreviations in titles should be avoided if possible.
B. List of abbreviations commonly used on bridge plan sheets:

A
about
abutment
adjust, adjacent
aggregate
alternate
ahead
aluminum
Americal Society for Testing and Materials
American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials
and
angle point
approved
approximate
area
asbestos cement pipe
asphalt concrete
Asphalt concrete pavement
asphalt treated base
at
abt.
abut.
adj.
agg.
alt.
ahd.
al.
ASTM
AASHTO
avenue
average
&
A.P.
apprd.
approx.
A
Asb. Cp
AC
ACP
ATB
@ (used only to indicate spacing
or pricing, otherwise spell out).
Ave.
avg.
B
back
back of pavement seat
bearing
begin horizontal curve (Point of Curvature)
begin vertical curve
bench mark
between
bituminous surface treatment
bottom
boulevard
bridge
bridge drain
bk.
B.P.S.
Brg.
P.C.
BVC
BM
betw. or btwn.
BST
bot.
Blvd.
Br.
Br. Dr.
April 1991
10.1 - A1 - 1

Appendix A
Detailing Practice
building
buried cable
C
cast-in-place
cast iron pipe
center, centers
centerline
center of gravity
center to center
Celsius (formerly Centrigrade)
cement treated base
centimeters
class
clearance, clear
compression, compressive
column
concrete
conduit
concrete pavement (Portland Cement Concrete Pavement)
construction
continuous
corrugated
corrugated metal
corrugated steel pipe
countersink
county
creek
cross beam
crossing
cross section
cubic feet
cubic inch
cubic yard
culvert
D
degrees, angular
degrees, thermal
diagonal(s)
diameter
diaphragm
dimension
district
double
drive
E
each
each face
easement
East
edge of pavement
edge of shoulder
10.1 - A1 - 2
Design Aids
bldg.
BC
CIP
(C.I.P.)
ctr., ctrs.
CG
ctr. to ctr., c/c
C
CTB
cm.
Cl.
clr.
comp.
col.
conc.
cond.
PCCP
const. or constr.
cont. or contin.
corr.
CM
CSP
csk.
Co.
Cr.
X-Bm.
Xing
X-Sect.
CF or cu. ft. or ft.3
cu. in. or in.3
CY or cu. yd. or yd.3
culv.
or deg.
C or F
diag.
diam. or
diaph.
dim.
Dist.
dbl.
Dr.
ea.
E.F.
ease., esmt.
E.
EP
ES
April 1991

Appendix A
Detailing Practice
endwall
electric
elevation
embankment
end horizontal curve (Point of Tangency)
end vertical curve
Engineer
equal(s)
estimate(d)
excavation
excluding
expansion
existing
exterior
F
Fahrenheit
far face
far side
feet (foot)
feet per foot
field splice
figure, figures
flat head
foot kips
foot pounds
footing
forward
freeway
G
gallon(s)
galvanized
galvanized steel pipe
gauge
General Special Provisions
girder
ground
guard railing
H
hanger
height
height (retaining wall)
hexagonal
high strength
high water
high water mark
highway
horizontal
hour(s)
hundred(s)
April 1991
Design Aids
EW
elect.
el. or elev.
emb.
P.T.
EVC
Engr.
eq. (as in eq. spaces) or =
(mathematical result)
est.
exc.
excl.
exp., expan.
exist.
ext.
F
FF
FS
ft. or
ft./ft or / or /ft.
F.S.
fig., figs.
F.H.
ft-kips
ft-lb
Ftg.
fwd.
Fwy.
gal.
galv.
GSP
ga.
GSP
gir.
gr.
GR
hgr.
ht.
H
hex.
H.S.
H.W.
H.W.M.
Hwy.
horiz.
hr.
hund.
10.1 - A1 - 3

Appendix A
Detailing Practice
I
included. including
inch(es)
inside diameter
inside face
interior
intermediate
invert
J
joint
junction
K
kilometer(s)
kilopounds
L
layout
left
length of curve
linear feet
longitudinal
lump sum
M
maintenance
malleable
manhole
manufacturer
maximum
mean high water
mean higher high water
mean low water
mean lower low water
meters
mile(s)
miles per hour
millimeters
minimum
minute(s)
miscellaneous
modified
monument
N
National Geodetic Vertical Datum
near face
near side
North
Northbound
not to scale
number; numbers
10.1 - A1 - 4
Design Aids
incl.
in. or
I.D.
I.F.
int.
interm.
inv.
jt.
jct.
km.
kips, K.
LO
lt.
L.C.
L.F.
longit.
L.S.
maint.
mall.
MH
mfr.
max.
MHW
MHHW
MLW
MLLW
m.
mi.
mph
mm.
min.
min. or
misc.
mod.
Mon.
N.G.V.D.
NF
NS
N.
NB
NTS
#, No.; Nos.
April 1991

Appendix A
Detailing Practice
O
original ground
ounce(s)
outside diameter
outside face
out to out
overcrossing
overhead
P
page; pages
pavement
pedestrian
per cent
pivot point
Plans, Specifications and Estimates
plate
point
point of compound curve
point of curvature
point of intersection
point of reverse curve
point of tangency
point of vertical curve
point of horizontal curve
point of tangent
polyvinyl chloride
portland cement concrete
pound, pounds
pounds per square foot
pounds per square inch
power pole
precast
pressure
prestressed
prestressed concrete pipe
Puget Sound Power and Light
Q
quantity
quart
R
radius
railroad
railway
Range
regulator
reinforced, reinforcing
reinforced concrete
reinforced concrete box
reinforced concrete pipe
required
retaining wall
April 1991
Design Aids
O.G.
oz.
O.D.
O.F.
O to O
O-Xing
OH
p.; pp.
pavt.
Ped.
%
PP
PS&E
or PL
pt.
PCC
P.C.
P.I.
PRC
P.T.
PVC
POC
POT
PVC
PCC
lb., lbs., #
psf, lbs./ft.2,lbs./ ,#/
psi, lbs./in.2, lbs./ ,#/
PP
P.C.
pres.
P.S.
P.C.P.
P.S.P.&L.
quant.
qt.
R.
RR
Rwy.
R.
reg.
reinf.
RC
RCB
RCP
reqd.
Ret. Wall
10.1 - A1 - 5

Appendix A
Detailing Practice
revised (date)
right
right of way
road
roadway
route
S
seconds
Section (map location)
Section (of drawing)
sheet
shoulder
sidewalk
South
southbound
space(s)
splice
specification
square foot (feet)
square inch
square yard
station
standard
stiffener
stirrup
street
structure, structural
support
surface, surfacing
symmetrical
T
tangent
telephone
temporary
test hole
thick(ness)
thousand
thousand feet board measure
ton(s)
total
township
transition
transportation
transverse
treatment
typical
U
ultimate
undercrossing
10.1 - A1 - 6
Design Aids
rev.
rt.
R/W
Rd.
rdwy.
Rte.
sec. or
Sec.
Sect.
sht.
shldr., shld. or sh.
SW, sdwk
S.
SB
spa.
spl.
spec.
sq. ft. or ft.2
sq. in. or in.2
SY, sq. yd. or yd.2
Sta.
std.
stiff.
stirr.
St.
str.
supp.
surf.
symm.
Tan. or T.
Tel.
temp.
T. H.
th.
M
MBM
T.
tot.
T.
trans.
transp.
transv.
tr.
typ.
ult.
U-Xing
April 1991

Appendix A
Detailing Practice
V
variable, varies
vertical
vertical curve
vitrified clay pipe
volume
W
water surface
weight(s)
welded steel pipe
swelded wire fabric
West
Willamette Meridian
wing wall
with
without
Y
yard, yards
year(s)
Design Aids
var.
vert.
BV
VCP
vol. or V
W.S.
wt.
WSP
W.W.F.
W.
W.M.
W.W.
w/
w/o
yd., yds.
yr.
10-1-A1:V:BDM10
April 1991
10.1 - A1 - 7

Appendix A
Detailing Practice
Design Aids
Structural Steel
Flat pieces of steel are termed plates, bars, sheets, or strips, depending on their dimensions. Bars
and plates aregenerally classified as follows:
Bars:
up to 6 inches wide, .203 in. (3/16 inch) and over in thickness

6 inches to 8 inches wide, .230 in. (7/32 inch) and over in thickness
Plates:
over 8 inches wide, .230 in. (7/32 inch) and over in thickness
over 48 inches wide, .180 in. (11/64 inch) and over in thickness
Thinner pieces up to 12 inches wide are strips and over 12 inches are sheets. A complete table of clasification
may be found in the AISC Manual of Steel Construction, 8th Ed. page 6-3.
The following table shows the usual method of labeling some of the most frequently used structural steel shapes.
Note that the inches symbol () is omitted, but the foot symbol () is used.
April 1991
10.1 - A2

Appendix A
Detailing Practice
Design Aids
Footing Layout
The Footing Layout is a plan of the bridge limiting the details shown to those needed to locate the footings. The
intent of the footing layout is to minimize the possibility of error at this initial stage of construction. Other related
information and/or details such as pile locations, pedestal sizes, and column sizes are considered part of the pier
drawing and should not be included in the footing layout.
The Footing Layout should be shown on the layout sheet if room allows. It need not be in the same scale. When
the general notes and footing layout cannot be included on the first (layout) sheet, the footing layout should then
be included on the second sheet.
Longitudinally, footings should be located using the survey line to reference such items as the footing, centerline
pier, centerline column, or centerline bearing, etc., as shown on the pier details sheet.
Appendix 10.5-B1-1 is an example of a footing layout showing:
The basic information needed.
The method of detailing from the survey line.
Notes:
1.
When seals are required, their locations and sizes should be clearly indicated on the footing layout.
2.
This example shows a complicated geometry as the result of the combined efforts of a horizontal curve and
the presence of the sharp skew. This is the reason for the odd dimensions shown in factuions of an inch. In
most designs the footing layout would be much simpler.
10-1-A3:V:BDM10
April 1991
10.1 - A3

Criteria
Quantities
Contents
Page
11.1
11.1.1
Cost Estimating Quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Conceptual Stage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Preliminary Plan Stage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Design Stage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Final Contract Quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.1.2 Not Included in Bridge Quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.2
Computation of Quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.2.1 Responsibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Design Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Bridge Projects Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.2.2 Procedure for Computation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.2.3 Data Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.2.4 Accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Preliminary Quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Final Quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.2.5 Excavation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Structure Excavation, Class A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Special Excavation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Shaft Excavation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.2.6 Shoring or Extra Excavation, Class A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.2.7 Piling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Appendix A
11.2-A1 Not Included in Bridge Quantities List
11.2-A2 Bridge Quantities Form
11.1-1
1
1
1
1
1
1
11.2-1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
5
5
5
8
P:DP/BDM11
August 1998
11.0-i

Criteria
Quantities
11.1
The quantities of the various materials involved in the construction of a project are needed for determining
the estimated cost of the project and for establishing a base for the contractors bid and payment.
11.1.1 Cost Estimating Quantities

Quantities for determining cost estimates are often necessary during various stages of project development
and required at the completion of the Contract Plans. These quantities are calculated from the best
information available at the time (see Chapter 11.2.3). The policy regarding the preparation of quantity
calculations is as follows:
A. Conceptual Stage
During the conceptual stage of a project, estimated quantities may be required to arrive at an
estimated cost. The need for quantities will be determined by the Bridge Projects Unit.
B. Preliminary Plan Stage
Upon completion of the preliminary plan, estimated quantities may be required to arrive at an
estimated cost. The need for quantities will be determined by the Bridge Projects Unit.
C. Design Stage
If requested, quantity calculations shall be made, reviewed, and submitted to the Bridge Projects Unit
by the Bridge Design Unit as the design progresses. The first submittal of estimated quantities shall
be made as soon as the major dimensions of the structure are determined. As refinements in the
design are made, quantities varying more than 10 percent from those previously submitted shall be
resubmitted.
D. Final Contract Quantities
Upon completion of structural design and plans, the quantities of materials involved in the
construction of the project shall be computed.
11.1.2 Not Included in Bridge Quantities

Items of work which appear in the bridge plan sheets, but for which details, specifications, and quantities
are supplied by the district, shall be listed in the Not Included in Bridge Quantities List (Form 230-038).
This list is required for every bridge, even if no items of work are in the Plans that are in this category.
(In this case, fill out the bridge information at the top of the form and write NONE across the form.)
This form is transmitted to other agencies for further processing. Particular care shall be taken in the
preparation of this list as omissions result in inaccurate quantities and frequently necessitate construction
change orders.
11-1:P:BDM11
August 1998
11.1-1

Criteria
Quantities
11.2
Computation of Quantities
11.2.1 Responsibilities
A. Design Unit
The Design Unit is responsible for alerting the Bridge Projects Unit when alterations are made after
turn-in to the design features and quantities which will affect the cost of the structure.
B. Bridge Projects Unit
The Bridge Projects Unit will not be responsible for computing quantities. However, they will be
responsible for ensuring that the quantities listed in the Bid Proposal correspond to those received
from the Design Unit.
11.2.2 Procedure for Computation

Quantities are to be computed and checked independently. The originator and checker shall separately
summarize their results on Form 230-031 Bridge Quantities in the units shown thereon. The two
summaries shall be submitted to the Design Unit Supervisor for comparison. The originator and checker
shall use identical breakdowns for each quantity. For example, the originators figures for excavation for
each of Piers 1, 2, and 3 should be compared separately against the corresponding figures made by the
checker. When the desired accuracy is achieved, a Supervisors Bridge Quantities form shall be prepared.
(This form is the same as previously mentioned except that it is labeled Supervisors Bridge Quantities
and is completed by the supervisor or his designee. If the supervisor elects, the originators or the
checkers Bridge Quantities form may be designated as Supervisors Bridge Quantities.) This form is
used by the Bridge Projects Unit to prepare the final bridge cost estimate.
All quantity calculations and bridge quantities forms are to be filed in the job file. All subsequent
revisions shall be handled in the same manner as the original quantities. On the Bridge Quantities form,
any revision to the original figure should not be erased but crossed out and replaced by the new figure
using a different colored pencil. If there are too many revisions, the old summary sheet should be marked
void, left in the file, and a new sheet made out, marked Revised, dated, and the original forwarded to the
Bridge Projects Unit.
Mistakes in quantities can be very costly to the department. The originator and checker must account for
all items of work on the Bridge Quantities form but must also be careful to enter an item of work only
once (e.g., concrete or steel rebar in the superstructure should not be entered both in the lump sum
superstructure breakdown and in the unit bid item quantity).
11.2.3 Data Source

Quantities of materials for use in preliminary cost estimates can often be obtained from the materials
calculated for previous similar designs. This information is available from the Bridge Projcts Unit.
11.2.4 Accuracy
A. Preliminary Quantities
Quantities used for cost estimates during the conceptual stage of the design are expected to have
an accuracy of 10 percent. The first iteration of quantities, after the preliminary plan has been
completed, is expected to have an accuracy of 5 percent.
August 1998
11.2-1

Criteria
Quantities
B. Final Quantities
Final quantities to be listed in the Special Provisions and Bid Proposal sheet are to be calculated to
have an accuracy of 1 percent, including bar list.
11.2.5 Excavation
A. Structure Excavation, Class A
Excavation necessary for the construction of bridge piers and reinforced concrete retaining walls is
classified as Structure Excavation, Class A. Payment for such excavation is generally at the unit
contract price per cubic yard. The quantity of excavation to be paid for is measured as outlined in
Section 209.4 of the Standard Specifications. Computation of the quantity shall follow the same
provisions. Designers shall familiarize themselves with this section of the Standard Specifications.
Any limits for structure excavation not conforming to the limits specified in the Standard
Specifications shall be shown in the Plans.
Structure excavation for footings and seals shall be computed using a horizontal limit of 1 foot
0 inches outside and parallel to the neat lines of the footing or seal or as shown in the Plans. The
upper limit shall be the ground surface or stream bed as it exists at the time the excavation is started.
See Figure 11.2.6-1(A), (B), and (C).
Figure 11.2.6-1
11.2-2
August 1998

Criteria
Quantities
Structure excavation for the construction of wing walls shall be computed using limits shown in
Figure 11.2.6-2.
Figure 11.2.6-2
Figure 11.2.6-3
August 1998
11.2-3

Criteria
Quantities
When bridge approach fills are to be constructed in the same contract as the bridge and the foundation
conditions do not require full height fills to be placed prior to the construction of the pier, the approach fill
is constructed in two stages, i.e., constructed up to the bottom of footing or 1 foot above the bottom of
footing and then completed after the bridge construction. (The Materials Laboratory shall be consulted on
the staging method.) The structure excavation shall be computed from the top of the first stage fill.
The bottom of a spread footing will be placed 1 foot 0 inches below the top of the first stage fill. See
Figure 11.2.6-4(A). The bottom of footings supported on piling will be placed at the top of the first stage
fill; therefore, no structure excavation is required (see Figure 11.2.6-4(B)).
The limits for stage fills shall be shown in the Plans with the structure excavation, if any.
Figure 11.2.6-4
Prior to pier construction, when (1) a full height fill with or without surcharge is required for settlement,
or (2) the original ground line is above the finish grade line, structure excavation shall be computed to
1 foot 0 inches below the finish grade (pavement) line (see Figure 11.2.6-5).
Figure 11.2.6-5
11.2-4
August 1998

Criteria
Quantities
B. Special Excavation
The excavation necessary for placement of riprap around bridge piers is called Special Excavation
Special excavation shall be computed from the top of the seal to the existing stream bed or ground
line along the slopes indicated in the Plans. Special excavation will only include excavation outside
the limits of structure excavation.
The limits for special excavation shall be shown in the Plans.
Figure 11.2.6-6
C. Shaft Excavation
Excavation necessary for the construction of shaft foundations is generally measured by the cubic
yard and paid for at the unit contract price per cubic yard for Soil Excavation for Shaft Including
Haul.
The usual limits for computing shaft excavation shall be the neat lines of the shaft diameter and from
the bottom elevation of the shaft as shown in the Plans to the ground surface as it exists at the time of
shaft excavation.
The methods of measurement and payment and the limits for shaft excavation shall be specified in the
Special Provisions.
11.2.6 Shoring or Extra Excavation, Class A

All excavation in the dry which requires workmen to enter the excavated area and which has a depth of
4 feet or more is required to be shored, unless the earth face is excavated at its angle of repose (Extra
Excavation).
All excavation which is 15 feet or less from the edge of a traveled pavement is also required to be shored.
All excavation adjacent to railroad tracks shall also be shored.
Cofferdams are required for all underwater excavation or excavation affected by ground water.
Shoring, cofferdams, or caissons or extra excavation required for the construction of bridge footings and
reinforced concrete retaining walls constructed in the wet or dry is classified as Shoring or Extra
Excavation, Class A.
August 1998
11.2-5

Criteria
Quantities
For the purpose of estimating the cost for cofferdams or for shoring or extra excavation, Class A, it is
necessary to compute the peripheral area of an assumed sheet pile enclosure of the excavated area.
While payment for Shoring or Extra Excavation, Class A, is made at a lump sum contract price, the costs
are a function of overall height of excavation. In general, each side of the excavation for each pier shall be
categorized into an average overall height range as shown on Form 230-031 (i.e., less than 6 feet, 6 to 10
feet, 10 to 20 feet, or greater than 20 feet), the area for the side computed using the appropriate width
times the average overall height, the overall area for the side shall be entered in the category that matches
the sides average overall height. These calculations are required for each pier of the bridge as applicable.
See accompanying Figure 11.2.6-7 and sample calculation.
For excavation in the dry, the peripheral area shall be the perimeter of the horizontal limits of structure
excavation times the height from the bottom of the footing to the ground surface at the time of excavation.
For excavation in water, the peripheral area shall be the perimeter of the horizontal limits of structure
excavation times the height from the bottom of the seal to 2 feet above the seal vent elevation.
For shaft-type foundations, it is not necessary to compute the area for shoring because the cost for shoring
is normally included in the contract price for shaft excavation.
Figure 11.2.6-7
11.2-6
August 1998

Criteria
Quantities
Sample Calculation:
For this pier (Figure 11.2.6-7):
Side A: average height = (4 + 6)/2 = 5 feet
width = 15 feet
area = 5 15 = 75 square feet
Side B: average height = (6 + 15)/2 = 10.5 feet
width = 20 feet
area = 10.5 20 = 210 square feet
Side C: average height = (10 + 15)/2 = 12.5 feet
width = 15 feet
area = 12.5 15 = 187.5 square feet
Side D: average height = (4 + 10)/2 = 7 feet
width = 20 feet
area = 7 20 = 140 square feet
For this example
height category
area
less than 6 feet
75 square feet
6 feet to 10 feet
140 square feet
10 feet to 20 feet
210 + 188 = 398 square feet
greater than 20 feet
N.A.
These numbers would be entered on Form 230-031 as follows:

Std.
Item
No.
Item
Use
Item
Description
4012
Std. Item
Shoring or
Extra Excavation,
Class A
Dry:
Quant.
(Enter Total
for Bridge Here)
Unit
of
Meas.
L.S.
Average Overall Height

Pier
6 ft.
to 10 ft.
6 ft.
__Example_
__________
75
_ S.F.
140
10 ft.*
to 20 ft.
20 ft.*
_ S.F.
_398(11.5*) S.F.
__
_ S.F.
__________ S.F.
__________ S.F.
__________ S.F.
__________ S.F.
__________
__________ S.F.
__________ S.F.
__________ S.F.
__________ S.F.
__________
__________ S.F.
__________ S.F.
__________ S.F.
__________ S.F.
*Indicate Average Height
August 1998
11.2-7

Criteria
Quantities
11.2.7 Piling
The piling quantities are to be measured and paid for as outlined in Section 6-05.3(1)D Test Piles, and
measurement and payment Sections 605.4 and 6-05.5 of the Standard Specifications. Computation of
piling quantities shall follow the same provisions. Designers shall familiarize themselves with these
sections of the Standard Specifications.
Timber test piles are driven outside the structure limits and are extra or additional piling beyond the
required number of production piling.
Concrete or steel test piles are driven within the structure limits and take the place of production piling.
In this case, the number of production piling is reduced by the number of test piling.
The quantity for Furnishing _____ Piling _____ is the linear feet of production piling below cut-off to
the estimated pile tip (not minimum tip) shown in the soils report. (Does not include test piles.)
The quantity for Driving _____ Piling _____ is the number of production piling driven. (Does not
include test piles.)
Pile tips are required if so stated in the soils report. The tips on the test piles are incidental to the test pile;
therefore, the number of pile tips reported on the Bridge Quantities Form 230-031 should not include the
number of pile tips required on the test piles.
DP:BDM11
11.2-8
August 1998

Appendix A
Quantities
Not Included In
Bridge Quantities List
Environmental And Engineering Service Center
SR
Job Number
Designed By
Checked By
Project Title
Date
Supervisor
Type of Structure
The following is a list of items for which the Bridge and Structures Office is relying on the Region to furnish
plans, specifications and estimates.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
DOT
Form 230-038 EF
Revised 2/97
11.2-A1 Not Included in Bridge Quantities Form

August 1998
11.2-A1

Appendix A
Quantities
Bridge Quantities Form
Bridge Quantities
Indicate Unit of Measure:
English
Metric
Bridge and Structures

St. Item No.
Item Use
Item Description
Quantity
0001(E)
0001(M)
Std. Item
Mobilization
0061
0061
GSP Item
Removing Portion of Existing Bridge
Unit of
Measure
L.S.
Type
L.S.
SF/SM
Area
Greater than 12/305 mm long:

Drilled Holes: Less than 12/305 mm long:
Number
Diameter
Number
Diameter
Length
Inch/mm
Inch/mm
LF/M
Inch/mm
Inch/mm
Inch/mm
Inch/mm
Core Drilled Holes: Less than 12/305 mm long:

Number
0071
0071
GSP Item
Diameter
Inch/mm
Sp. Prov.
Std. Item
LF/M
LF/M
Inch/mm
Inch/mm
LF/M
L.S.
Area
SF/SM
L.S.
Area
SF/SM
CY/CM
Structure Excavation Class A Incl. Haul

Unsuitable:
Pier
Soil
CY/CM
CY/CM
CY/CM
CY/CM
Soil
Rock
CY/CM
CY/CM
CY/CM
CY/CM
GSP Item
Length
Inch/mm
Removing Temporary Structure
Cofferdam:
Pier
4010/8835
Diameter
Inch/mm
Inch/mm
Type
4006/8331
Greater than 12/305 mm long:
Number
Removing Existing Bridge

Type
LF/M
LF/M
Special Excavation
Pier
Soil
CY/CM
CY/CM
CY/CM
CY/CM
CY/CM
CY/CM
CY/CM
CY/CM
CY/CM
DOT Form 230-031 EF

Revised 8/2000
Page 1 of 6
11.2-A2 Bridge Quantities Form

August 2000
11.2-A2-1

Appendix A
Quantities
St. Item No.
Item Use
Item Description
4013/4013
Std. Item
Shoring or Extra Excavation Class A

Dry:
Pier
Quantity
L.S.
AVERAGE O VERALL HEIGHT
6 ft./2 m to
10 ft./3 m
<6 ft./2 m
SF/SM
SF/SM
SF/SM
SF/SM
SF/SM
SF/SM
SF/SM
SF/SM
Cofferdam:
Pier
4030
10 ft./3 m to*
20 ft./6 m
SF/SM
SF/SM
SF/SM
SF/SM
>20 ft./6 m *
SF/SM
SF/SM
SF/SM
SF/SM
AVERAGE O VERALL HEIGHT

<6 ft./2 m
SF/SM
SF/SM
SF/SM
SF/SM
*I NDICATE
Unit of
Measure
6 ft./2 m to
10 ft./3 m
SF/SM
SF/SM
SF/SM
SF/SM
10 ft./3 m to *
20 ft./6 m
SF/SM
SF/SM
SF/SM
SF/SM
>20 ft./6 m *
SF/SM
SF/SM
SF/SM
SF/SM
AVERAGE HEIGHT
Each
GSP Item
Rock Bolt
---
Sp. Prov.
Soil Excavation For Shaft Including Haul
CY/CM
Sp. Prov.
Rock Excavation For Shaft Including Haul
CY/CM
--
Sp. Prov.
Furnishing and Placing Temp. Casing For
---
Sp. Prov.
Furnishing Permanent Casing For
Sp. Prov.
Placing Permanent Casing For
--
Sp. Prov.
CSL Access Tube
LF/M
4151/8426
Std. Item
St. Reinf. Bar For Shaft
LB/KG
---
Sp. Prov.
Conc. Class 4000P For Shaft
CY/CM
GSP Item
Excavation For Piling
LF/M
4055/8355
Std. Item
Preboring For Pile
LF/M
4060/4060
Std. Item
Furnishing and Driving Concrete Test Pile
Each
4070/8363
Std. Item
Furnishing Concrete Piling -
LF/M
4080/4080
Std. Item
Driving Concrete Pile -
4085/4085
Std. Item
Furnishing and Driving Steel Test Pile
Diam. Shaft
Diam. Shaft
Diam. Shaft
Diameter
Diameter
LF/M
LF/M
Each
Each
Each
4090/8373
Std. Item
Furnishing Steel Piling
LF/M
4095/4095
Std. Item
Driving Steel Pile
Each
4100/4100
Std. Item
Furnishing and Driving Timber Test Pile
Each
LF/M
4105/8381
Std. Item
Furnishing Timber Piling - Untreated
4106/8383
Std. Item
Furnishing Timber Piling - Creosote Treated
LF/M
4108/4108
Std. Item
Driving Timber Pile - Untreated
Each
4110/4110
Std. Item
Driving Timber Pile - Creosote Treated
Each
4116/4116
Std. Item
Pile Splice - Timber
Each
--
Sp. Prov.
Pile Tip
Each
DOT Form 230-031 EF
Page 2 of 6
Revised 8/2000
11.2-A2-2
August 2000

Appendix A
Quantities
St. Item No.
Item Use
Item Description
Quantity
Unit of
Measure
4120/8393
Std. Item
Furnishing Prestressed Hollow Concrete Piling
LF/M
4130/4130
Std. Item
Placing Prestressed Hollow Concrete Pile
Each
4140/4140
Std. Item
Driving Prestressed Hollow Concrete Pile
Each
4145/4145
Sp. Prov.
Pile Loading Test
LF/M
No. of Tests
Each
Pile Size
Ton/Tonne
4147/8410
Std. Item
Epoxy-Coated St. Reinf. Bar For
LB/KG
4147/8410
Std. Item
Epoxy-Coated St. Reinf. Bar For Traffic Barrier
LB/KG
4148/8412
Std. Item
Epoxy-Coated St. Reinf. Bar For Bridge
LB/KG
4149/8420
Std. Item
St. Reinf. Bar For Bridge
LB/KG
4151/8426
Std. Item
St. Reinf. Bar For Traffic Barrier
LB/KG
4151/8426
Std. Item
St. Reinf. Bar For
LB/KG
4165/8428
Std. Item
Wire Mesh
SY/SM
4166/8430
Std. Item
Lean Concrete
CY/CM
--
GSP Item
Conc. Class
CY/CM
4322/8452
Std. Item
Conc. Class 4000/28 for Bridge
CY/CM
4202/8442
Std. Item
Conc. Class 4000/28 for Traffic Barrier
CY/CM
4202/8442
Std. Item
Conc. Class 4000/28 for
CY/CM
4320/8441
Std. Item
CY/CM
4200/8440
Std. Item
CY/CM
4325/8477
Std. Item
CY/CM
4205/8475
Std. Item
CY/CM
4324/8468
Std. Item
Conc. Class 4000W/28W for Bridge
CY/CM
4204/8466
Std. Item
Conc. Class 4000W/28W for
CY/CM
4183/4183
GSP Item
Conc. Class EA
CY/CM
4185/4185
GSP Item
Conc. Class HE
CY/CM
--
Std. Item
Conc. Class
4184/4184
GSP Item
Cylinder Concrete
LS
CY/CM
CY/CM
4188/4188
GSP Item
Fractured Fin Finish
SY/SM
4230/4230
Std. Item
Structural Carbon Steel
LB/KG
4235/4235
Std. Item
Structural Low Alloy Steel
LB/KG
4240/4240
Std. Item
Structural High Strength Steel
LB/KG
4246/4536
Std. Item
Cast Steel
LB/KG
4251/8540
Std. Item
Forged Steel
LB/KG
4256/8546
Std. Item
Cast Iron
LB/KG
4261/8549
Std. Item
Malleable Iron
LB/KG
4267/8552
Std. Item
Ductile Iron
LB/KG
4271/8555
Std. Item
Cast Bronze
LB/KG
DOT Form 230-031 EF

Revised 8/2000
August 2000
Page 3 of 6
11.2-A2-3

Appendix A
Quantities
St. Item No.
Item Use
Item Description
Quantity
Unit of
Measure
4280/8560
Std. Item
Timber and Lumber - Untreated
MBM/M3
4282/8582
Std. Item
Timber and Lumber - Creosote Treated
MBM/M3
MBM/M3
4284/8584
Std. Item
Timber and Lumber - Salts Treated
4300/4300
Std. Item
Superstructure
Bridge Plan Area
SF/SM
Roadway Deck
Bridge Plan Area
SF/SM
4311/4311
4390/8595
Std. Item
GSP Item
GSP Item
LF/M
LF/M
Electrical Conduit
Diameter
4400/8600
LS
Inch
Length
LF/M
Steel Handrail
LF/M
LF/M
4405
GSP Item
Bridge Rail - Low Fence Type
4406
GSP Item
Bridge Rail - High Fence Type
LF/M
LF/M
4410/8605
GSP Item
Bridge Railing Type
4420
GSP Item
Bridge Grate Inlet
Each
4453/4453
GSP Item
Pigmented Sealer
SY/SM
7169/9572
Sp. Prov.
Structural Earth Wall
SF/SM
---
Sp. Prov.
DOT Form 230-031 EF
Sp. Prov.
Page 4 of 6
Revised 8/2000
11.2-A2-4
August 2000

Appendix A
Quantities
Breakdown of Items for Superstructure or Roadway Deck

St. Item No.
Item Use
Item Description
Std. Item
Epoxy-Coated Steel Reinforcing Bar
LB/KG
Std. Item
Epoxy-Coated Steel Reinforcing Bar (Traffic Barrier)
LB/KG
--
Std. Item
Steel Reinforcing Bar
LB/KG
--
Std. Item
Steel Reinforcing Bar (Traffic Barrier)
LB/KG
--
GSP Item
Conc. Class
CY/CM
--
Std. Item
Conc. Class 4000D/28D
CY/CM
---
Quantity
Unit of
Measure
--
Std. Item
Conc. Class 4000/28
CY/CM
--
Std. Item
Conc. Class 4000/28 (Traffic Barrier)
CY/CM
--
Std. Item
Conc. Class 5000/35
--
Std. Item
Conc. Class
--
GSP Item
SY/SM
--
Std. Item
Structural Carbon Steel
LB/KG
--
Std. Item
Structural Low Alloy Steel
LB/KG
--
Std. Item
Structural High Strength Steel
LB/KG
LB/KG
CY/CM
LS
CY/CM
--
Std. Item
Cast Steel
--
Std. Item
Forged Steel
LB/KG
--
Std. Item
Cast Iron
LB/KG
--
Std. Item
Malleable Iron
LB/KG
--
Std. Item
Ductile Iron
LB/KG
--
Std. Item
Cast Bronze
LB/KG
--
Std. Item
Timber and Lumber - Untreated
MBM/M3
--
Std. Item
Timber and Lumber - Creosote Treated
MBM/M3
--
Std. Item
Timber and Lumber - Salts Treated
MBM/M3
--
Sp. Prov.
Glulam Deck Panels
MBM/M3
--
Std. Item
Electrical Conduit
Diameter
LF/M
Inch Length
LF/M
---
GSP Item
Steel Handrail
LF/M
GSP Item
Bridge Rail - Low Fence Type
LF/M
--
GSP Item
Bridge Rail - High Fence Type
LF/M
--
Std. Item
Bridge Railing Type
LF/M
--
GSP Item
Traffic Barrier
LF/M
4430/4430
GSP Item
Special Bridge Drain
Each
4433/4433
Sp. Prov.
Modify Bridge Drain
Each
4434/4434
Sp. Prov.
Plugging Existing Bridge Drain
Each
4420/4420
GSP Item
Bridge Grate Inlet
Each
DOT Form 230-031 EF

Revised 8/2000
August 2000
Page 5 of 6
11.2-A2-5

Appendix A
Quantities
St. Item No.

--
4444/8634
Item Use
GSP Item
Sp. Prov.
Item Description
Quantity
Expansion Joint System

Type
LF/M
Length
LF/M
Type
Length
LF/M
Type
Length
LF/M
Expansion Joint Modification

Type
Unit of
Measure
Length
LF/M
LF/M
CF/M3
4232/8515
Sp. Prov.
Modified Concrete Overlay
4233/8516
Sp. Prov.
Finishing and Curing Modified Concrete Overlay
SY/SM
4456/8644
Sp. Prov.
Scarifying Concrete Surface
SY/SM
Sp. Prov.
Polymer Concrete Overlay
SY/SM
Sp. Prov.
Further Deck Preparation

Volume
CF/CM Avg. Depth
Inch/mm
Bridge Deck Repair

Volume
CF/CM Avg. Depth
Inch/mm
4445/4445
-4455/8643
GSP Item
L.S.
GSP Item
Pigment Sealer
SY/SM
GSP Item
Membrane Waterproofing (Deck Seal)
SY/SM
--
Sp. Prov.
Pot Bearing
Each
--
Sp. Prov.
Disc Bearing
Each
--
Sp. Prov.
Spherical Bearing
Each
--
Sp. Prov.
Cylindrical Bearing
Each
--
Std. Item
Elastomeric Bearing Pad
Each
--
GSP Item
Fabric Pad Bearing
Each
--
Std. Item
Prestressed Conc. Girder Series W42G/W42MG
LF/M
--
Std. Item
LF/M
--
Std. Item
LF/M
--
Std. Item
LF/M
--
Std. Item
LF/M
--
Std. Item
LF/M
--
Std. Item
Prestressing
LB/KG
--
Sp. Prov.
Precast Prestressed Slab

Volume
--
Sp. Prov.
--
Sp. Prov.
Sp. Prov.
--
Sp. Prov.
--
Sp. Prov.
DOT Form 230-031 EF

Revised 8/2000
LF/M
CF/CM Length
SF/SM
LF/M
Precast Prestressed Double Tee Beam

Volume
--
SF/SM
CF/CM Length
Precast Prestressed Tri Beam

Volume
11.2-A2-6
L.S.
Precast Segment
Volume
CF/CM Length
SF/SM
LF/M
LF/M
CY/CM
Page 6 of 6
August 2000

Criteria
Construction Costs
Contents
Page
12.0
12.1
12.2
12.2.1
12.2.2
12.2.3
12.2.4
12.2.5
12.3
12.3.1
Construction Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Factors Affecting Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Type of Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Location of Project Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Size of Project Contract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Foundation Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sequencing of Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Development of Cost Estimates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Prospectus and Design Report Estimates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Preliminary Design Estimates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Estimate Updates During Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Contract Estimates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.3.2 Responsibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Bridge Projects Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.3.3 Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.3.4 Cost Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Square Foot Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Appendix A
12.3-A1 Bridge and Structures Estimating Aids
12.3-A2 Substructure Estimating Aids
12.3-A3 Superstructure Estimating Aids
12.3-A4 Miscellaneous Estimating Aids
12.1-1
1
12.2-1
1
1
1
1
1
12.3-1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
P:DP/BDM12
August 1998
12.0-i

Criteria
Construction Costs
12.0
Construction Costs
12.1
Introduction
Introduction
The construction costs itemized in Appendix A are to aid the user in estimating the cost of bridge projects.
The costs are based on historical data retrieved from recent WSDOT Contracts.
Requests for cost estimates from outside offices should be submitted in writing to the Bridge Projects Unit
and a written response will be sent within a reasonable time. Estimates requiring input from the Bridge
Design Section will take longer due to project schedule priorities.
Telephone requests for cost estimates from outside the Bridge and Structures Office shall be referred to
the Bridge Projects Unit.
All cost estimates prepared by the Bridge and Structures Office should have the concurrence of the Bridge
Projects Engineer.
12-1:P:BDM12
August 1998
12.1-1

Criteria
Construction Costs
12.2
Factors Affecting Costs
Factors Affecting Costs
12.2.1 Type of Structure

Many factors, as outlined in Section 2.2.3, must be considered in the selection of the type, size, and
location of a bridge or wall.
Common structures with normal detail will be on the low end and mid-range of costs. Unique or complex
structures will be on the high end.
12.2.2 Location of Project Site

Projects in remote areas or with difficult access will generally be on the high end of the cost range, and
sometimes beyond.
12.2.3 Size of Project Contract

Small projects tend to be on the high end of the cost range while large projects tend to be on the low end
of the cost range.
12.2.4 Foundation Requirements

Foundation requirements greatly affect costs. Water crossings requiring seals and piles are generally very
expensive. Scour requirements can push the costs even higher. The earlier foundation information can be
made available the more accurate the cost estimate will be. The Bridge Projects Unit should be made
aware of unusual foundation requirements or changes to foundation type as soon as possible for updating
of the estimate.
12.2.5 Sequencing of Project

Projects with stage construction, detours, temporary construction, etc., will be more expensive.
12-2:P:BDM12
August 1998
12.2-1

Criteria
Construction Costs
12.3
Development of Cost Estimates

Estimates prepared by the Bridge and Structures Office shall include mobilization but not sales tax,
engineering, construction contingencies, or inflation.
12.3.1 Types
A. Prospectus and Project Summary Estimates
Conceptual cost estimates are prepared when little information about the project is available. Use the
construction costs in Appendix A, assuming the worst case conditions, unless actual conditions are
known. An example of a worst case condition is pile supported footings. In remote areas, or for small
projects, use the high end of the cost range. Use mid-range costs for usual conditions.
To cover unforeseen project modifications, add a 20 percent estimate contingency to a prospectus
estimate and a 10percent estimate contingency to a project summary estimate. These contingencies
can be adjusted depending on the preliminary information available.
B. Preliminary Design Estimates
Preliminary design estimates are prepared during the preliminary design stage when the type and
size of bridge is known. Limited foundation information is sometimes available at this stage. The
construction costs in Appendix A shall be used with an appropriate inflation factor, assuming the
worst case conditions, unless foundation conditions are known, along with a minimum of 10 percent
contingency to cover scope creep.
For bridge rehabilitation projects, add a minimum 20 percent contingency amount to specific items,
such as mechancical rehabilitation and structural steel repair, to cover potential increases in costs that
often surface after indepth inspections are completed.
C. Estimate Updates During Design
During the design period, the designer should keep the Bridge Projects Unit informed of significant
changes to the design that might affect the cost. Examples of significant changes are: deeper than
expected footing and seals, use of piles when none were expected, change of substructure types, and
changes to superstructure. This is a critical element in the project budgeting process.
D. Contract Estimates
The contract estimate is prepared by the Bridge Projects Unit after the Plans and Final Quantities
have been submitted to the Bridge Projects Unit for final processing. The contract estimate is prepared using the quantities furnished by the Design Section, unit bid prices from Appendix A, other
historical data, and the judgment of the engineer preparing the estimate. Unique, one-of-a-kind
projects require special consideration and should include an appropriate construction cost
contingency.
12.3.2 Responsibilities
A. Bridge Projects Unit
The Bridge Projects Unit is responsible for preparing the prospectus, project summary, preliminary,
and final contract estimates and updating the preliminary estimate as needed during the design phase
of the project.
The Bridge Projects Unit assists the regions and outside agencies, such as counties and cities, to
prepare conceptual design report and preliminary estimates when requested in writing.
August 1998
12.3-1

Criteria
Construction Costs
B. Designer
The designer is responsible for providing preliminary quantities and final quantities to the Bridge
Projects Unit to aid in the updating of preliminary estimates and the preparation of contract estimates.
12.3.3 Documentation
Whenever a cost estimate is prepared by the Bridge and Structures Office for an outside office, a Cost
Estimate Summary sheet (Form 230-040) shall be filled out by the engineer preparing the estimate. The
Cost Estimate Summary shall be maintained in the Job File. During the design stage, the summary sheet
shall be maintained by the Structural Design Unit. It is the design unit supervisors responsibility to
ensure the summary sheet is up to date when the job file is submitted to the Bridge Projects Unit.
12.3.4 Cost Data

A. General
The bridge costs summarized in Appendix A represent common highway, railroad, and water
crossings. Consult the Bridge Projects Engineer for structures spanning across large rivers or canyons
and other structures requiring high clearances or special design and construction features.
The square foot costs are useful in the conceptual and preliminary design stages when details or
quantities are not available. The various factors affecting costs as outlined in Section 12.2 must be
considered in selecting the square foot cost for a particular project. As a general rule, projects
including none or few of the high-cost factors will be close to the mid-range of the cost figures.
Projects including many of the cost factors will be on the high side. The user must exercise good
judgment to determine reasonable costs. During the preliminary stage, it is better to be on the conservative side for budgeting purposes.
B. Square Foot Area
Compute the square foot area to be used with the square foot cost shall be computed as follows:
Bridge Widenings and New Bridges
The area of bridges is based on the actual width of the new portion of the roadway slab constructed
(measured to the outside edge of the roadway slab) times the length, measured from end of wingwall
to end of wingwall, end of curtain wall to end of curtain wall, or back to back of pavement seat if
there are no wingwalls or curtain walls. Wingwalls are defined as walls without footings which are
cast monolithically with the bridge abutment wall and may extend past the abutment footing. Curtain
walls are defined as walls that are cast monolithically with the bridge abutment wall and footing and
only extend to the edge of footing.
Bridge Rail Replacement
The bridge rail and curb removal is based on the total length of the rail and curb removed.
Bridge Lengths With Unequal Wingwalls
If a bridge has wingwalls or curtain walls of unequal length on opposite sides at a bridge end or
wingwalls or curtain walls on one side of a pier only, the length used in computing the square foot
area is the average length of the walls. If the wingwalls are not parallel to the centerline of the bridge,
the measurement is taken from a projected line from the end of the wingwall normal to the centerline
of the roadway.
12.3-2
August 1998

Criteria
Construction Costs
Retaining Walls
If retaining walls (walls that are not monolithic with the abutment) extend from the end of the bridge,
the cost of these walls is computed separately. The area of the wall is based on the height from the top
of footing to the top of the wall.
DP:BDM12
August 1998
12.3-3

Appendix A
Construction Costs
Bridge and Structures Estimating Aids

BRIDGE AND STRUCTURES
(Note: Unit struture costs include mobilization
but do not include sales tax, engineering, or contingency)
LOW
AVERAGE
HIGH
PRESTRESSED CONCRETE GIRDERS

SPAN 50-140 FT.
Water Crossing w/piling
SF
$ 75.00
$ 90.00
$ 110.00
Water Crossing w/spread

footings
SF
70.00
80.00
100.00
Dry Crossing w/piling
SF
75.00
85.00
100.00
Dry Crossing w/spread

footings
SF
60.00
70.00
90.00
Water Crossing w/piling
SF
80.00
100.00
130.00
Water Crossing w/spread

footings
SF
75.00
95.00
120.00
Dry Crossing w/piling
SF
80.00
100.00
120.00
Dry Crossing w/spread

footings
SF
65.00
90.00
110.00
REINFORCED CONCRETE FLAT SLAB

SPAN 20-60 FT.
SF
45.00
60.00
80.00
PRESTRESSED CONCRETE SLABS

SPAN 13-69 FT.
SF
50.00
70.00
95.00
PRESTRESSED CONCRETE DECKED

BULB-TEE GIRDER
SPAN 40-115 FT.
SF
80.00
90.00
115.00
STEEL GIRDER SPAN 60-400 FT.
SF
105.00
125.00
160.00
STEEL TRUSS SPAN 300-700 FT.
SF
135.00*
STEEL ARCH SPAN 30-400 FT.
SF
145.00*
CONCRETE BRIDGE REMOVAL
SF
10.00
25.00
40.00
WIDENING EXISTING CONCRETE

BRIDGES (Including Removal)
SF
100.00
130.00
185.00
RAILROAD UNDERCROSSING
SINGLE TRACK
LF
RAILROAD UNDERCROSSING
DOUBLE TRACK
LF
REINFORCED CONCRETE AND

POST-TENSIONED CONCRETE BOX
GIRDER-SPAN 50-200 FT.
July 2000
$7,000.00*(Steel Underdeck Girder)

$8,000.00*(Steel Thru-Girder)
$11,000.00*
12.3-A1-1

Appendix A
Construction Costs
Bridge and Structures Estimating Aids

BRIDGE AND STRUCTURES
(Continued)
LOW
$ 70.00
AVERAGE
$ 80.00
HIGH
PEDESTRIAN BRIDGE
REINFORCED CONCRETE
SF
$ 90.00
REINFORCED CONCRETE RIGID

FRAME (TUNNEL)
SF
REPLACING EXISTING CURBS &

BARRIER WITH NEW JERSEY
BARRIER (INCLUDING REMOVAL)
LF
100.00
150.00
200.00
REINFORCED CONCRETE
RETAINING WALL
(EXPOSED AREA)
SF
35.00
50.00
65.00
SOLDIER PILE TIEBACK WALL

(EXPOSED AREA)
SF
100.00
120.00
150.00
80.00*
MSE WALL
PRECAST CONCRETE PANELS
SF
13
24
35
MSE WALL
WELDED WIRE
SF
11
18
25
MSE WALL
CIP CONCRETE FACE
SF
30
35
40
SOIL NAIL WALL
SF
20
30
40
CONCRETE FACING
PERMANENT GEOSYNTHETIC WALL
SF
11
15
30
CONCRETE CRIB WALL

CONCRETE HEADERS
SF
20
30
40
*Based on limited cost data. Check with the Bridge Support Engineer.
Bridge areas are computed as follows:
Typical Bridges: Width x Length
Width: Total width of deck, including portion under the barrier.
Length: Distance between back of pavement seats, or for a bridge having wingwalls, 3-0
behind the top of the embankment slope; typically end of wingwall to end of wingwall,
reference Standard Plans H9.
Special Cases:
Widenings Actual area of new construction.
Tunnel Outside dimension from top of footing to top of footing over the tunnel roof,
i.e., including walls and top width.
For small jobs (less than $100,000), use the high end of the cost range as a starting point.
P65:DP/BDM12
12.3-A1-2
July 2000

Appendix A
Construction Costs
Substructure Estimating Aids

SUBSTRUCTURE
BID ITEMS
COST/UNIT
UNIT
Structure Excavation Class A Incl. Haul

Earth
Rock
Inside Cofferdam Earth
Rock
Cu. Yd.
Cu. Yd.
Cu. Yd.
Cu. Yd.
Shoring Extra Excavation Class A

Dry Depth under 6
Dry 6 - 10
Dry 10 - 20
10.00
100.00
20.00
100.00
25.00
200.00
30.00
175.00
Sq. Ft.
Sq. Ft.
Sq. Ft.
2.00
6.00
10.00
6.00
10.00
20.00
Cofferdam
Sq. Ft.
20.00
30.00
Preboring For Standard Piles
Lin. Ft.
25.00
45.00
3,000.00
3,000.00
1,500.00
5,000.00
4,000.00
2,500.00
30.00
25.00
8.00
7.00
40.00
30.00
10.00
9.00
Furnishing & Driving Test Piles

Concrete
Steel
Timber
Each
Each
Each
Furnishing Piling
Conc. _____ Diam.
Steel TYP HP 12x53
Timber Creosote Treated
Timber Untreated
Lin. Ft.
Lin. Ft.
Lin. Ft.
Lin. Ft.
Pile Tip
CIP Concrete (Steel Casing Short Tip)
CIP Concrete (Steel Casing 10 Stinger)
Steel (H-Pile)
Timber (Arrow Tip)
Each
Each
Each
Each
150.00
4,000.00
100.00
20.00
200.00
5,000.00
200.00
40.00
Driving Piles (40 - 70 Lengths)

Concrete _____ Diam.
Steel
Timber
Each
Each
Each
400.00
300.00
200.00
800.00
700.00
400.00
Cu. Yd.
Cu. Yd.
200.00
350.00
450.00
650.00
Lin. Ft.
100.00
300.00
Lin. Ft.
Each
Est.
Cu. Yd.
100.00
1,000.00
10,000.00
125.00
600.00
1,500.00
25,000.00
200.00
Shafts
Soil Excavtion For Shaft Including Haul
Rock Excavation For Shaft Including Haul
Furnishing and Placing Temp. Casing
For Shaft
Furnishing Permanent Steel Casing
For Shaft
Placing Permanent Steel Casing For Shaft
Shoring or Extra Excavation cl. A Shaft
Conc. Class 4000P For Shaft
July 2000
12.3-A2-1

Appendix A
Construction Costs
St. Reinf. Bar For Shaft
CSL Access Tubes
Force Account Remvoing
Obstrucitons For Shaft
Substructure Estimating Aids

Lb.
Lin. Ft.
40.00
1.50
50.00
3.50
Est.
10% of all of above shaft ______
St. Reinf. Bar For Bridge
Lbs.
0.45
0.60
Epoxy-Coated St. Reinf. Bar For Bridge
Lbs.
0.60
0.80
Conc. Class 4000W
Cu. Yd.
100.00
150.00
Conc. Class 4000P
Cu. Yd.
100.00
150.00
Conc. Class 4000 (Footings)
Cu. Yd.
300.00
400.00
Conc. Class 4000 (Abut. & Ret. Walls)
Cu. Yd.
300.00
400.00
Conc. Class 5000
Cu. Yd.
350.00
450.00
Lean Concrete
Cu. Yd.
100.00
130.00
Concrete Class 4000 P (CIP Piling)
Cu. Yd.
100.00
175.00
P65:DP/BDM12
12.3-A2-2
July 2000

Appendix A
Construction Costs
Superstructure Estimating Aids

SUPERSTRUCTURE
BID ITEMS
Elastomeric Bearing Pads
Girder Seat
Girder Stop
COST/UNIT
UNIT
Each
Each
Spherical and Disc, Bearings

(In place with plates)
Kip
Fabric Pad Bearing

(In place, including all plates, TFE, etc.)
Each
80.00
50.00
$ 100.00
70.00
7.00
10.00
1,000.00
2,000.00
Prestressed Concrete Girder

W42G (Series 6)
W50G (Series 8)
W58G (Series 10)
W74G (Series 14)
W83G
W95G
Lin. Ft.
Lin. Ft.
Lin. Ft.
Lin. Ft.
Lin. Ft.
Lin. Ft.
Structural Carbon Steel (Steel

girder, etc. when large
amount of steel is involved)
Lbs.
0.80
1.35
Structural Low Alloy Steel (Steel

girder, etc. when large amount
of steel is involved)
Lbs.
1.00
1.40
Structural Steel (Sign supports, etc.

when small amounts of steel are involved)
Lbs.
2.00
4.00
Timber & Lumber

Creosote Treated
Salts Treated
Untreated
Lagging (in place) Untreated
Lagging (in place) Creosote Treated
MBM
MBM
MBM
MBM
MBM
1,500.00
1,800.00
1,000.00
1,400.00
1,900.00
2,000.00
2,500.00
1,500.00
1,800.00
2,500.00
Expansion Joint Modification
Lin. Ft.
250.00
350.00
Expansion Joint System

Compression Seal
Modular (Approx. $100 per inch of movement)
Strip Seal
Lin. Ft.
Lin. Ft.
Lin. Ft.
20.00
500.00
100.00
50.00
2,000.00
200.00
Bridge Drains
Each
250.00
500.00
Bridge Grate Inlets
Each
1,200.00
1,500.00
Conc. Class 5000
Cu. Yd.
500.00
600.00
Con. Class 5000 (Segmental Constr.)
Cu. Yd.
600.00
700.00
Con. Class 4000D (Deck Only)
Cu. Yd.
450.00
Conc. Class 4000
Cu. Yd.
400.00
July 2000
85.00
90.00
100.00
110.00
130.00
140.00
550.00
500.00
12.3-A3-1

Appendix A
Construction Costs
Superstructure Estimating Aids

SUPERSTRUCTURE
(Continued)
BID ITEMS
COST/UNIT
UNIT
Concrete Class EA
(Exposed Aggregate)
Cu. Yd.
350.00
500.00
Concrete Class 4000 LS

(Low Shrinkage)
Cu. Yd.
$300.00
$400.00
Concrete Class 5000 LS
Cu. Yd.
400.00
500.00
St. Reinf. Bar
Lb.
0.40
0.55
Epoxy-Coated Steel Reinforcing Bar
Lb.
0.50
0.75
Post-tensioning
Prestressing Steel (Includes Anchorages)
Lbs.
1.50
2.50
Traffic Barrier
Lin. Ft.
55.00
75.00
Metal Railing (Type BP & BP-B)
Lin. Ft.
35.00
55.00
Metal Railing (Thrie Beam)
Lin. Ft.
40.00
65.00
Modified Conc. Overlay
C.F.
25.00
60.00
Furnishing and Curing Modified Conc. Overlay
Sq. Yd.
40.00
70.00
Scarifying Conc. Overlay
Sq. Yd.
8.00
12.00
Polymer Concrete
Sq. Yd.
45.00
100.00
P65:DP/BDM12
12.3-A3-2
July 2000

Appendix A
Construction Costs
Miscellaneous Estimating Aids

Miscellaneous
BID ITEMS
COST/UNIT
UNIT
Electrical Conduit, metal 2
Lin. Ft.
Sign Support (Brackets, Mono,

or Truss Sign Bridges)
Lbs.
Concrete Surface Finishes

Exposed Aggregate Finish*
Pigmented Sealer
Sq. Yd.
Sq. Yd.
Sq. Yd.
$ 8.00
$ 15.00
2.00
4.00
17.00
17.00
5.00
28.00
22.00
8.00
500.00
700.00
.08
.10
*Requires the use of

concrete Class EA
Painting Existing Steel Bridges
(Lead Base)
Ton. (Steel)
Painting New Steel Bridges
Lb. (Steel)
Mobilization
Sum of Items
Masonry Drilling
Holes up to 1 foot deep
1 diameter
1 12
2
2 12
3
3 12
4
5
6
7
24.00
25.00
28.00
30.00
32.50
42.50
47.50
53.00
60.00
77.00
10%
For holes greater than 1-foot deep up to 20 feet deep, use 1.5 above prices.
If drilling through steel reinforcing, add $16.00 per lineal inch of steel drilled.
Removal of Rails and Curbs
Lin. Ft.
$ 80.00
$130.00
Removal of Rails, Curbs, and Slab
Sq. Ft.
25.00
50.00
Further Deck Preparation
Cu. Ft.
100.00
150.00
Bridge Deck Repair
Cu. Ft.
110.00
160.00
Removing ACP from bridge deck
Sq. Yd.
6.00
10.00
P65:DP/BDM12
July 2000
12.3-A4

Criteria
Construction Specifications and Estimates
Contents
Page
13.0
13.1
Construction Specifications and Estimates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.2
Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Standard Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Amendments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. Special Provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Addendum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E. AD Copy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.3
Reviewing a Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Job File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Bridge Rating Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C. PS&E Check List (Form 230-037) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
D. Summary of Quantities (Form 230-031) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E. Plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F. Not Included in Bridge Quantities (Form 230-038) (see example 13.0 B-3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
G. Foundation Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.4
Preparing the Cost Estimates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.5
Preparing the Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.6
Preparing the Working Day Schedule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.7
Reviewing Projects Prepared by Consultants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.8
Submitting the PS&E Package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.9
Office Copy Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A. Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B. Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Appendix A Design Aids and Forms
13.6-A1 Construction Time Rates
13.0-B1 Construction Working Day Schedule
13.0-B2 Cost Estimate Summary
13.0-B3 Project Cost vs. Time Chart
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
P:DP/BDM13
August 1998
13.0-i

Criteria
13.0
13.1
General
Introduction
The Bridge Projects Unit prepares the specifications and estimates (S&E) for all structural projects
designed or reviewed by the Bridge and Structures Office. The preparation includes reviewing the job
file, plans, PS&E check list, Not Included in Bridge Quantities List, foundation report, and preparing the cost estimates, specifications, and working day schedules; and submitting the PS&E package
to the Region or Plans Branch.
For projects designed by a Bridge Design Unit, the Bridge Projects Unit normally has three weeks to
prepare the S&E package and submit it to the Bridge and Structures Engineer and another week to
submit it to the Region or Plans Branch.
For projects designed by a consultant, the Bridge Projects Unit normally has three weeks to review
and comment on the 90 percent design package. After the consultant submits the 100 percent design
package, the Bridge Projects Unit has three weeks to prepare the S&E package and submit it to the
Bridge and Structures Engineer and another week to submit it to the Region or Plans Branch.
13.2
Definitions
A. Standard Specifications
Standard Specifications for Road, Bridge, and Municipal Construction, provisions and requirements
for the prescribed work.
B. Amendments
Approved revisions or supplements to specific sections of the standard specifications.
C. Special Provisions
Supplemental specifications and modifications to the standard specifications and the amendments to
the standard specifications that apply to an individual project.
D. Addendum
A written or graphic document issued to all bidders and identified as an addendum prior to bid
opening, which modifies or supplements the bid documents and becomes a part of the contract.
E. AD Copy
The AD copy is the contract document advertised to prospective bidders.
F. The governing order is as follows: Special Provisions, Contract Plans, then Standard Specifications
for Road, Bridge, and Municipal Construction.
13.3
Reviewing a Project
A. Job File
Check for the items of work that need to be included in the PS&E; items that need special provisions
or cost estimates; and items that require additional research and information. Check that the job file
fly leaf information has been completed by the designer (Form 221-076).
August 1998
13-1

Criteria
B. Bridge Rating Form
Bridge rating forms are prepared by the designer and submitted as part of the design package to the
Bridge Projects Unit which are then forwarded to the Bridge Preservation Unit.
C. PS&E Check List (Form 230-037)
Check for special materials, construction requirements, permits, etc., that may need Special
Provisions such as:
Permits:
United States Coast Guard
Agreements:
utilities on bridge, etc.
Materials:
structural steel, etc.
Construction Requirements:
temporary access, stage construction, or construction over railroad
Special Items:
modified concrete overlay or architectural treatment
D. Summary of Quantities (Form 230-031)

Verify that the Summary of Quantities is labeled as Supervisors Bridge Quantities. That is, the
supervisor shall summarize the quantities and resolve all discrepencies between the designer and
checker.
E. Plans
Check the plans for materials, special items, stage construction, standard notes and consistent
terminology, etc.
F. Not Included in Bridge Quantities (Form 230-038) (see example 13.0 B-3)
Check for items shown on the plans that will be included in regions PS&E work such as items
outside the structure limits. These shall be listed on the Not Included in Bridge Quantities List. For
example: temporary traffic barrier, gravel backfill for walls, etc.
G. Foundation Report
Check that recommended foundation types and elevations are shown on the plans. Obtain a copy of
the final Foundation Report for the S&E file. Check for settlement period of embankment, special
excavation, etc., that need special provisions and/or cost estimates. Check for the number of test holes
and the locations listed on the layout sheet against the final Foundation Report.
13.4
Preparing the Cost Estimates

A. General
Preparing the Bridge Cost Estimate consists of listing the standard and nonstandard bid items. The
software Excel is used to prepare the Cost Estimate. The Bridge Projects Unit uses a standard output
format for Cost Estimates. This output includes the tabulation of all items, a breakdown for each lump
sum item, and square foot cost of the structure.
B. Procedure
Pricing for the bid items above can be based on the Construction Cost Estimating Aids listed in
Appendix A of Chapter 12, bid tabulations from previous contracts, and the Unit Bid Average listing
from the Plan Branch Office. The engineer needs to make adjustments for inflation, site location,
quantities involved, total of the work involved, etc.
13-2
August 1998

Criteria
Each standard item has a corresponding code number. Both the item and code number are stored on
the Excel worksheet. The nonstandard unit contract items do not have standard item numbers for
coding.
All estimates shall include mobilization, but do not include sales tax, engineering, or contingencies.
13.5
Preparing the Specifications

A. General
There are three types of specifications: (1) Standard Specifications and Amendments to the Standard
Specifications, (2) General Special Provisions (GSP), and (3) Bridge Special Provisions (BSP).
All of the Amendments, GSPs, and BSPs texts are stored in the computer system and can be
retrieved from the Plans Branch Text Processing. The texts are divided into topic documents.
Each document is named under a coded name list under the Amendments, GSP, or BSP indexes.
If any modifications are made to a GSP, then the date must be dropped and the document code must
be changed.
B. Procedure
In preparation of the bridge specifications, all of the applicable documents of the Amendments,
GSPs, and BSPs are each listed in numerical order, and required fill-ins are provided, then these are
submitted to text processing. The Plans Branch Text Processing will process the requested list using
standard Form 220-013A (Appendix 13.5-A1.)
For special provisions not covered by a GSP or BSP, appropriate documents must be written in
the standard format including description, materials, construction requirements, measurement, and
payment. These documents are coded and placed on the appropriate order of the listing and are sent
to the Plans Branch Text Processing for text processing.
The completed text of the bridge specifications shall be checked for typing errors, contents of the
texts, consistent terminology for materials called for in the plans, and pay items called for in the
estimates. They shall be revised and reviewed as necessary before the final office copy is printed for
the S&E package.
13.6
Preparing the Working Day Schedule

A. General
The Bridge Projects Unit calculates the number of the working days necessary to construct the
bridge portion of the contract, and enters the time in the special provision Time for Completion.
The working days are defined in the Section 1-08.5 of the Standard Specifications.
B. Procedure
The first task of estimating the number of working days is to list all the construction activities
involved in the project. These include all actual construction activities such as excavation, forming,
concrete placement, and curing; and the nonconstruction activities such as mobilization, material and
shop plan approval. Special conditions such as staging, limited access near wetlands, limited construction windows for work in rivers and streams, limited working hours due to traffic and noise
restrictions, require additional time.
August 1998
13-3

Criteria
The second task is to assign the number of working days to each construction activity above (see
Appendix 13.6-A1). Construction Time Rate can be used as a guide to estimate construction time
required. This table shows the average rate of output for a single shift, work day only. Adjustment to
the rates of this table should be made based on the project size, type of work involved, location of the
project, etc. In general, larger project will have higher production rates than smaller projects, new
construction will have higher production rates than widening, and unstaged work will have higher
production rates than staged work.
The last step is to arrange construction activities, with corresponding working days, into a
construction schedule on a bar chart, either by hand on the Construction Working Day Schedule Form
230-041 (see Appendix 13.0 B7) or by computer on the Microsoft Project Program. List the activities
in a logical construction sequence, starting from the substructure to the superstructure. Items shall
overlap where practical and the critical path shall be identified.
13.7
Reviewing Projects Prepared by Consultants

A. General
Consultants are required to submit the 90 percent complete design package to the Bridge and
Structures Office for review and comment three weeks prior to submiting the 100 percent complete
design package.
The package shall be in the same format as those prepared by the Bridge and Structures Office.
B. Procedure
The Bridge Projects Unit reviews and comments on the 90 percent complete design package. After
the consultant makes corrections and resubmits the package as 100 percent complete, the Bridge
Projects Unit prepares and forwards the PS&E package to the Plans Branch.
13.8
Submitting the PS&E Package

A. General
The PS&E package includes:
1.
Cover letter to the Bridge and Structures Engineer
2.
Cover letter to the Region or Plans Branch.

For Region Ad and Award projects, the paragraph regarding As Constructed Plans and the
cc: to Construction Support Unit Technician are only used when work related to a bridge
is part of the project, not for retaining walls, signs, etc. away from a bridge.
13-4
3.
Bridge Construction Cost Estimate
4.
Not Included in Bridge Quantity List
5.
Special Provisions
6.
Log of Test Borings
7.
One Reduced Xerox Set of Plans
8.
Cost Estimate Summary (see Appendix 13.0-B2)
9.
Construction Working Day Schedule
August 1998

Criteria
B. Procedure
Check with a resident specification and estimate engineer for the latest and most current acceptable
distribution list for the region in question.
13.9
Office Copy Review

A. Description
The Office Copy Review is a set of plans and special provisions to be reviewed before the AD Copy
is printed. Normally, the Office Copy is received for reviewing two weeks prior to the AD date.
B. Procedure
The review of the Office Copy is to make sure the Bridge PS&E and Log of Test Boring have been
properly incorporated before the printing of the AD Copy; and to check the coordination between the
regions plans and Bridge Offices plans.
Revisions, changes, additions, deletions shall be submitted to the regions or the Plans Branch by the
Specifications and Estimate Engineer.
P:DP/BDM13
August 1998
13-5

Appendix A
Construction Time Rates
Construction Time Rates

Operation
Substructure
Structure Exc. & Shoring
*Seals
*Footings
*Abutment Walls
*Wingwalls
*Retaining Walls with Footings
*Columns
Falsework for X-beams
*X-beams
Driving Test Piles
Furnishing Piles
Precast Concrete
Cast-in-Place Concrete
Steel
Timber
Driving Piles
Concrete
Steel
Timber
Prestressed Girders
Girder Fabrication
Set Girders
*Slab & Diaphragms
Box Girders
Span Falsework
*Bottom Slab
*Webs, Diaphragms, and X-beams
*Top Slab
Stress and Grout Strands
Strip Falsework
T-Beam
Span Falsework
*Girders, Diaphragms, and Slab
Strip Falsework
Flat Slab
Span Falsework
*Slab and X-beams
Strip Falsework
Steel Girder
Girder Fabrication
Girder Erection
*Slab
Painting
Miscellaneous
*Traffic Barrier
*Traffic Railing & Sidewalk
*Concrete Overlay
Expansion Joint Replacement
Units**
Minimum
Output
Maximum
Output
Average
Output
C.Y./Day
C.Y./Day
C.Y./Day
C.Y./Day
C.Y./Day
C.Y./Day
C.Y./Day
C.Y./Day
C.Y./Day
Each/Day
20
10
6
4
1
4
3
13
16
1
150
20
14
19
2
17
8
4
20
2
Days
Days
Days
Days
40
15
30
20
20
2
2
2
30
5
10
5
L.F./Day
L.F./Day
L.F./Day
100
100
100
200
200
200
150
150
150
Days
L.F./Day
C.Y./Day
70
200
6
35
1,450
18
45
550
11
S.F./Day
C.Y./Day
C.Y./Day
C.Y./Day
LBS/Day
S.F./Day
150
3
5
7
4,500
1,500
900
11
25
12
8,000
3,000
700
8
18
9
6,000
2,200
S.F./Day
C.Y./Day
S.F./Day
500
6
1,000
1,000
15
2,000
700
10
1,500
S.F./Day
C.Y./Day
S.F./Day
100
6
300
600
15
1,000
250
10
500
Days
L.F./Day
C.Y./Day
S.F./Day
200
50
6
1,000
110
200
15
3,000
150
100
10
2,000
L.F./Day
L.F./Day
S.Y./Day
Days/Lane
Closure
20
15
200
4
80
60
300
6
40
35
250
8
80
15
10
7
1.5
11
4
10
18
1
* Concrete
** All times are based on 8-hour work days
13-6A:P:BDM13
August 1998
13.6-A1

Appendix B
Cost Estimate Summary
P:DP/BDM13
August 1998
13.0-B2

Appendix B
Construction Specifications
Project Cost vs. Time Chart
P:DP/BDM13
August 1998
13.0-B3

Criteria
Bridge Rating
Contents
Page
14.0
14.1
14.1.1
14.1.1.1
14.1.1.2
14.1.2
14.1.2.1
14.1.2.2
14.1.3
14.1.4
14.1.4.1
14.1.4.2
14.1.5
14.1.6
14.1.6.1
14.1.6.2
14.1.7
14.1.8
14.2
14.2.1
14.2.1.1
14.2.1.2
14.2.2
14.2.2.1
14.2.2.2
14.2.2.3
14.2.3
14.2.4
14.2.5
14.2.6
14.2.6.1
14.2.6.2
14.2.7
14.2.8
14.2.9
14.3
14.4
14.99
Bridge Rating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Rating Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Load Resistance Factor Rating (LRFR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Load Factor Design Rating (LFDR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Live Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Load Factor Design Rating (LFDR) for National Bridge Inventory (NBI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dead Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Load Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Load Factor Design Rating (LFDR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Load Capacity Reduction Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Load Factor Rating (LFDR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Reduction Factors (for both LRFR and LFDR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ratings for Overloads (LRFR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Special Rating Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Prestressed Concrete Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Load Factor Design (LFD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Reinforced Concrete Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Concrete Decks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Concrete Crossbeams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
In-Span Hinges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Concrete Box Girder Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Concrete T-Beam Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Concrete Flat Slab Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Steel Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Steel Floor Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Steel Truss Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Timber Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Widened or Rehabilitated Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Other Special Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Load Rating Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Load Rating Reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
August 1998
14.1-1
1
1
2
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
7
7
7
7
8
8
8
14.2-1
1
1
1
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
5
14.3-1
14.4-1
1
14.0-i

Criteria
Bridge Rating
Contents

14.0-A1 Load Rating Flow Chart
14.0-A2 Source of Rating Factors
14.0-A3 Bridge Inspection Report Condition Codes
14.0-A4 Span Type Abbreviations
14.0-A5 Bridge Rating Summary
14.0-A7 3D Live Load Modeling Guidelines for Truss Bridges
P:DP/BDM14
9807-0802
14.0-ii
August 1998

Criteria
Bridge Rating
14.0
Bridge Rating
14.1
General
General
Bridge Rating is a procedure to evaluate the adequacy of various structural components to carry
predetermined applied loads. The WSDOT Bridge Preservation Section is responsible for the bridge
inventory and load rating of existing and new bridges in accordance with the NBIS and the AASHTO
Manual for Condition Evaluation of Bridges, latest edition. As presently required, only elements of the
superstructure will be rated. Generally, superstructure shall be defined as all structural elements above
the column tops including drop cross-beams.
Load rating shall be part of structural design for all, widened (one lane width or more throughout the
length of the bridge), or rehabilitated bridges where the rehabilitation alters the load carrying capacity
of the structure. The carrying capacity of a widened or rehabilitated structure shall equal or exceed the
capacity of the existing structure. The Bridge Design Section generally will not be required to load rate
new bridges/designs. However, for the more complex structures where computer models are used in the
design/analysis, a copy of the computer models shall be made and submitted to the Bridge Load Rating
Engineer in the Bridge Preservation Section.
In order to provide a baseline rating for new bridges, the bridge designer shall make rating calculations
and complete a Bridge Rating Summary (see Appendix 14.0-A5) as part of the design process. The
designer shall place the original rating calculations and report and a copy of the bridge plans in an
Accopress-type binder (see Section 14.4). When the bridge design is complete, the designer shall
forward the completed bridge rating package to the Bridge Projects Unit, then the Bridge Projects
Unit will forward the rating package to the Bridge Preservation Section. The bridge rating will go
into service at the completion of bridge construction. The Bridge Preservation Section shall then
be responsible to maintain an updated bridge load rating throughout the life of the bridge based on
current bridge condition (see Appendix 14.0-A1).
Conditions of existing bridges change resulting in the need for reevaluation of their load rating. Such
changes may be caused by damage to structural elements, extensive maintenance or rehabilitative
work, or any other deterioration identified by the Bridge Preservation Section through their regular
inspection program.
This criteria applies only to concrete and steel bridges. For timber bridges, rating procedure shall be
as per Chapters 6 and 7 of the 1994 AASHTO Manual for Condition Evaluation of Bridges.
14.1.1
Rating Procedure
Structural elements as defined above shall be evaluated for flexural, vertical shear, and torsional
capacities based on Load Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) as outlined in the AASHTO 1989 Guide
Specifications for Strength Evaluation of Existing Steel and Concrete Bridges and Load Factor Design
(LFD) as outlined in the 1994 AASHTO Manual for Condition Evaluation of Bridges. Consider all
reinforcing, including temperature/distribution reinforcing, in the rating analysis.
By definition, the adequacy or inadequacy of a structural element to carry a specified truck load will be
indicated by the value of its rating factor (RF); that is, whether it is greater or smaller than 1.0. For a
specific loading, the lowest RF value of the structural elements will be the overall rating of the bridge.
August 1998
14.1-1

Criteria
Bridge Rating
14.1.1.1
General
Load Resistance Factor Rating (LRFR)

For HS-20, AASHTO-1, AASHTO-2, and AASHO-3 trucks, the basic rating equation shall be:
M CAP D M DL P M P
L M ( L + I )
R.F. = (for flexure)
R.F. = (for vertical shear)
V CAP DV DL PV P
LV ( L + I )
For Overload (OL)-1 and Overload-2 trucks, the basic rating equation shall be:
(
)
( L M(L+I) ) OL - Truck
V CAP DV D PV P ( LV ( L + I ) ) AASHTO - Truck
( LV(L+I) ) OL - Truck
M CAP D M D P M P L M ( L + I ) AASHTO - Truck
R.F. = (for flexure)
R.F. = (for vertical shear)

Where:
R.F.
Rating Factor (Ratio of Capacity to Demand)
MCAP
Ultimate Bending Moment Capacity
* MDL
Calculated Dead Load Bending Moment
MP
Secondary Bending Moment Due to Prestressing
* M(L+I)
Calculated Live Load and Impact Bending Moment
Resistance Factor (Capacity Reduction Factor)
Dead Load Factor
Live Load Factor
Prestress Factor
Impact
VCAP
Ultimate Shear Capacity
VDL
Calculated Dead Load Shear Force
VP
Calculated Prestressing Shear Force
V(L+I)
Calculated Live Load Plus Impact Shear Force
*For continuous structures, a one-half support width moment increase is to be used.
14.1-2
August 1998

Criteria
Bridge Rating
14.1.1.2
General
Load Factor Design Rating (LFDR)

For HS-20 Inventory and HS-20 Operating Ratings, the basic equation shall be:
R.F. =
R n A1D S
A 2 L (1 + I )
Where:
R.F.
Rn
Nominal Capacity of the Member
Unfactored Dead Load Moment or Shear
Unfactored Live Load Moment or Shear
Unfactored Prestress Secondary Moment or Shear
Impact Factor to Be Used With the Live Load Effect
A1
Factor for Dead Load (see Section 14.1.4.2)
A2
Factor for Live Load (see section 14.1.4.2)
Additional rating consideration shall be given to prestressed and post-tensioned members and is
discussed in further detail in Section 14.2.1.2.
14.1.2
Live Loads
The vehicles specified in the AASHTO Guide Specifications for Strength Evaluation of Existing Steel
and Concrete Bridges represent legal weights and are to be used to determine posting limits. The two
overload vehicles represent extremes in the limits of permitted vehicles in Washington State. The
HS-20 vehicle and lane load as specified in the AASHTO Manual for Condition Evaluation of Bridges
are to be used in reporting the inventory and operating ratings to the National Bridge Inventory.
For new designs, the number of lanes shall be the actual designated lanes as shown on the bridge layout
(not the number of lanes as per AASHTO Specification 3.6). For existing bridges, the number of lanes
shall be the actual striped lanes at the time of rating.
When multiple lanes are considered, apply the appropriate multilane reduction factor given in Section
14.1.7. Load distribution methods are discussed under specific bridge types. Do not consider sidewalk
live loads in rating analysis.
14.1.2.1

The six moving loads for the initial rating shall be the HS-20 truck loading (Figure 14.1.2-4), three
AASHTO vehicles and two overload trucks (Figure 14.1.2-1). In addition, use the lane loading as
shown on Figure 14.1.2-2 to rate structures with spans over 200 feet. For the two overload trucks
(OL-1 and OL-2), use only one overload truck occupying one lane in combination with one of the
AASHTO trucks in each of the remaining lanes.
14.1.2.2
Load Factor Design Rating (LFDR) for National Bridge Inventory (NBI)
The live load to be used in the basic rating equation should be the HS-20 truck (Figure 14.1.2-4) or
lane loading (Figure 14.1.2-3) as defined in the AASHTO Design Specifications. Where the effects
are greater than those produced by HS-20 truck, the bridge should also be rated using the lane loading.
August 1998
14.1-3

Criteria
Bridge Rating
14.1.3
General
Dead Loads
Dead Loads shall be as defined in the AASHTO Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges, except
for concrete weight shall be 155 pcf. Dead Load shall include weight of any existing bridge deck
overlay. When overlay depth is not known, allowance shall be as per Section 3.3.2.1 of the AASHTO
Guide Specifications.
14.1.4
Load Factors
14.1.4.1

Dead Load
D = 1.20
Prestress Load
P = 1.00
Live Load*
1.
2.
3.
14.1-4
Low volume roadways (ADTT less than 1,000), significant sources

of over weight trucks without effective enforcement.
L = 1.65
Heavy volume roadways (ADTT greater than 1,000), significant sources

of over weight trucks without effective enforcement.
L = 1.80
OL-1 and OL-2 (or other permit vehicles).
L = 1.30
August 1998

Criteria
Bridge Rating
General
*Notes:
If unavailable from traffic data, ADTT may be estimated as 20 percent of ADT.
The listed factors are essentially the same as Table 2 of AASHTO Guide Specifications except that
Live Load Category 1 and 2 have been eliminated based on the assumption that Washington State does
not have fully effective enforcement or control of overloads.
Trucks for Rating (for LRFR)
Figure 14.1.2-1
August 1998
14.1-5

Criteria
Bridge Rating
General
Lane Load Rating (for LRFR)
Figure 14.1.2-2
Lane Load Rating (for LFDR)
Figure 14.1.2-3
HS-20 Truck (for both LRFR and LFDR)
Figure 14.1.2-4
14.1-6
August 1998

Criteria
Bridge Rating
14.1.4.2
General
Load Factor Design Rating (LFDR)

Dead Load
Live Load
14.1.5
A1 = 1.30
A2 = 1.30
A2 = 2.17
Operating
Inventory
Load Capacity Reduction Factors

Use the evaluating procedures and equations found in the AASHTO Standard Specifications for
Highway Bridges under the section on load factor design to determine nominal resistance. The
following resistance factors (capacity reduction) apply only to structural members in good condition.
Generally, condition of the structure and other pertinent information are listed on the Bridge Inspection
Report and rating information sheets. The engineer should use this data to make adjustments to the
resistance factors. For deck rating, the condition code found in field 8 (visual) of the old Bridge
Inspection Report or 507 of the new Bridge Management Inspection Report should be used to adjust
resistance factors. For superstructure rating, the lowest code of fields 14-19 of the old Inspection
Report or fields 38 through 156 of the new Bridge Management Inspection Report should be used.
Normally, adjustments can be made based on the AASHTO Guide Specifications Tables 3(a) and
3(b). Questions regarding interpretation of these tables should be directed to the Bridge Load
Rating Engineer.
For new designs, all ratable elements shall be considered an 8 for new condition.
Resistance Factors:
Redundant Steel Members:
Nonredundant Steel Members:
Prestressed Concrete Elements:
Reinforced Concrete Elements:
0.95
0.80
0.95 flexure
0.90 shear
0.90 flexure
0.85 shear
14.1.6
Impact
14.1.6.1

For new designs, impact shall be 10 percent (0.1).
For existing bridges, the impact shall be determined by the approach roadway condition (field 33) and
the amount of severe scaling on the bridge (field 12) as shown on the old Bridge Inspection Report
or (field 533) and (field 512) respectively on the current Bridge Management Inspection Report. For
approach roadway condition codes 6 or greater, assume 10 percent impact; for codes 5 or less, assume
20 percent impact. If the bridge has 0 to 4 percent severe scaling (S00 to S04 for the first three entries
in field 12 or 512), assume 10 impact; if between 5 and 15 percent severe scaling, assume 20 percent
impact; if greater than 15 percent severe scaling, assume 30 percent impact.
February 2000
14.1-7

Criteria
Bridge Rating
14.1.6.2
General
Load Factor Rating (LFDR)

Impact is expressed as a fraction of the live load stress, and shall be determined by the following
formula:
*I =
50
L + 125
Where:
I = Impact Fraction (maximum 30%)
L = Length in Feet of the Portion of the Span That is Loaded to Produce the Maximum Stress in
the Member.
*AASHTO Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges 3.8.2.1.
14.1.7
14.1.8
Reduction Factors (for both LRFR and LFDR)

Number of Loaded Lanes
Reduction Factor
One or two lanes

Three lanes
Four lanes or more
1.0
0.8
0.7
Ratings for Overloads (LRFR)

The OL-1 and OL-2 truck loads listed in Section 14.1.2 are considered to be overloads.
Due to the infrequent nature of the overloads, it is more reasonable to use reduced live load factors for
rating rather than those specified for design. For special cases, such as checking prestressed concrete
members by the service load method, the rating factors should be established by using higher allowable
stresses (see Section 14.2, Special Rating Criteria).
For overload ratings, the load factors to be used in the basic rating equation shall be:
D
= 1.2
= 1.3
= 1.0
P:DP/BDM14
9807-0802
14.1-8
August 1998

Criteria
Bridge Rating
General
14.2
Special Rating Criteria
14.2.1
Prestressed Concrete Bridges
14.2.1.1

For prestressed concrete members, rating is to be determined by the service load method for bending
moments.*
For prestressed girders designed for continuous of live load and impact, rate the negative moment zone
at interior supports as a conventional reinforced concrete member, considering only the deck reinforcement (by load factor method). For loading conditions that produce positive moment at the supports, the
prestressed girders extended strands can be considered as positive reinforcement.
Rating for shear in the girder shall begin at a distance h/2 from the centerline of the pier (h = overall
girder depth).
When rating for AASHTO vehicles, allowable stresses shall be:
Tensile stress for top and bottom = 6(fc)1/2
Compressive stress = 0.4 fc
When rating for overload trucks (OL-1 and OL-2), allowable stresses shall be:
Tensile stress for top and bottom = 1.15 [6(fc)1/2]
Compressive stress = 0.53 (1.3 fc)
For all loadings, prestress losses shall be as per design or current AASHTO Design Specifications.
*When the rating for the overload vehicles is less than 1.0, a check by the ultimate load method shall
also be made. The rating recorded on the summary sheet shall be the value determined by the ultimate
load method divided by 1.30 but no greater than 1.0.
14.2.1.2
Load Factor Design (LFD)

The rating of prestressed concrete members at both Inventory and Operating level should be
established in accordance with the strength requirements of Article 9.17 of the AASHTO Design
Specifications. Additionally at Inventory level, the rating must consider the allowable stresses at
service load as specified in Article 9.15.2.2 of the AASHTO Design Specifications. In situations of
unusual design with wide dispersion of the tendons, the operating rating might further be controlled
by stresses not to exceed 0.90 of the yield point stresses in the prestressing steel nearest the extreme
tendon fiber of the member.
Typically, prestressed concrete members used in bridge structures will meet the minimum
reinforcement requirements of Article 9.18.2.1 of the AASHTO Design Specifications. While there
is no reduction in the flexural strength of the member and, in the event that these provisions are not
satisfied, the Bridge and Structures office, may choose, as part of the flexural rating, to limit live loads
to preserve the relationship between Mn and 1.2Mcr that is prescribed for a new design. The use of this
option necessitates an adjustment to the value of the nominal moment capacity Mn, used in the
flexural strength rating equations. Thus when Mn < 1.2Mcr, the nominal moment capacity becomes
(k)(Mn),
M n
k = 1.2 M
cr
August 1998
14.2-1

Criteria
Bridge Rating
General
Inventory Rating
To establish the Inventory rating for Prestressed Concrete, use the lowest rating factor from the basic
rating equation, shown in Section 14.1.1.2, and the following equations:
6 (f c )
12
R.F. = (Concrete Tension)
F d + F p Fs
F1
R.F. = (Concrete Compression)
0.6f c F d F p F s
F1
R.F. = (Concrete Compression)
0.4 f c 12 F d F p F s
F1
R.F. = (Prestressing Steel Tension)
0.8f y F d + F p F s
F1
Operating Rating
To establish the operating rating for Prestressed Concrete, use the lowest rating factor, from the basic
rating equation, shown in Section 14.1.1.2, and the following equation should be used:
R.F. = (Prestressing Steel Tension)
0.9f y F d + F p F s
F1
Where:
14.2.2
R.F.
fc
Concrete Compressive Strength
Fd
Unfactored Dead Load Stress
Fp
Unfactored Stress Due to Prestress Forces After All Losses
Fs
Unfactored Stress Due to Secondary Prestress Forces
Fl
Unfactored Live Load Stress Including Impact
f*y
Prestress Steel Yield Stress (per AASHTO 9.1.2)
Reinforced Concrete Structures

For conventional reinforced concrete members of existing bridges, checking of serviceability shall not
be part of the rating evaluation.
Rating for shear in the longitudinal direction shall begin at a distance h/2 from the centerline of the pier
(h = total depth).
14.2.2.1
Concrete Decks
For all concrete roadway deck slabs, except flat slab bridges, that are designed per current AASHTO
criteria for HS-20 loading or heavier, loading will be considered structurally sufficient and need not
be rated. However, for existing roadway slabs having any of the following conditions, rating will
be required:
14.2-2
1.
Slab was designed for live loads lighter than HS-20.
2.
Slab overhang is more than half the girder spacing.
3.
Bridge Inspection Report Code is below 4 (field 8 or 508 visual deck condition).
August 1998

Criteria
Bridge Rating
4.
General
When the original traffic barrier(s) or rail have been replaced by heavier barrier.
When rating of the slab is required, live load shall include all vehicular loads as specified in
Section 14.1.2 and load distribution shall be per current AASHTO Standard Specifications for
Highway Bridges.
14.2.2.2
Concrete Crossbeams
For concrete crossbeams integral with the superstructure (raised crossbeam) on new bridges, rating
will be for the number of designated lanes (see 14.1.2). For existing structures, ratings will be for
the number of striped lanes. Live loads conforming to these lane configurations can be applied to the
crossbeam as moving point loads at any location between curbs which produce the maximum effect.
When rating for shear in crossbeams, current AASHTO Design Specifications requires shear design to
be at the face of support if there is a concentrated load within a distance d from the face of support.
This requirement is new relative to earlier editions of AASHTO Design Specifications which allowed
shear reinforcement design to be at a distance d from the face of support. When rating existing
crossbeams which show no indication of distress on the latest inspection report, but have a rating
factor of less than one (1.0), a more detailed/accurate shear analysis should be performed. One acceptable method is the truss analogy as published in Bibliography 14.99-1(1). For existing box girder
and integral T-beam crossbeams, in lieu of this detailed analysis, dead and live loads can be assumed
as uniformly distributed and the shear rating performed at a distance d from the face of support.
14.2.2.3
In-Span Hinges
For in-span hinges, rating for shear and bending moment should be performed based on the reduced
cross-sections at the hinge seat. Diagonal hairpin bars are part of this rating as they provide primary
reinforcement through the shear plane.
14.2.3
Concrete Box Girder Structures

Rating shall be on the per bridge basis for all applied loads. This is consistent with the current design
procedures regarding live load applications.
14.2.4
Concrete T-Beam Structures

Rate on a per member basis, except for precast girder units, which are to be rated per unit.
14.2.5
Concrete Flat Slab Structures

Rate cast-in-place solid slabs on a per foot of width basis. Rate precast panels on a per panel basis.
Rate cast-in-place voided slabs based on a width of slab equal to the predominant center-to-center
spacing of voids.
Load distribution shall be per current AASHTO Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges.
When rating flat slabs on concrete piling, assume pin-supports at the slab/pile interface of interior piers
and the slab continuous over the supports. If ratings using this assumption are less than 1.0, the piles
should be modeled as columns with fixity assumed at 10 feet below the ground surface.
Pile caps are to be rated if deemed critical by the engineer.
14.2.6
Steel Structures
On existing bridges, checking of fatigue and servicability shall not be part of the rating evaluation.
August 1998
14.2-3

Criteria
Bridge Rating
14.2.6.1
General
Steel Floor Systems

Floorbeams and stringers shall be rated as if they are simply supported. Assume the distance from
outside face to outside face of end connections as the lengths for the analysis. For steel floorbeams
on new bridges, rate for the number of designated lanes (see 14.1.2). For existing structures, rate for
the number of striped lanes. Live loads conforming to these lane configurations can be applied to the
floorbeam as moving point loads at any location between curbs which produce the maximum effect.
The end connections for stringers and floorbeams shall be rated.
Do not rate connections unless there is evidence of deterioration.
14.2.6.2
Steel Truss Structures

The capacity of steel truss spans, regardless of length, shall follow the AASHTO Guide Specifications
for Strength Design of Truss Bridges (load factor design) and the AASHTO Standard Design
Specifications. In the event the two specifications are contradictory, the guide specification is to
be followed.
Rate on a per truss basis using either 3-D analysis or simplified distribution methods. Assume
nonredundancy of truss members and pinned connections.
In general, rate chords, diagonals, verticals, end posts, stringers, and floorbeams. Do not rate
connections unless there is evidence of deterioration, except for pinned connections with trusses.
For pin-connected trusses, also analyze pins for shear, and the side plates for bearing capacity.
For truss members that have been heat-straightened three or more times, deduct 0.1 from (Phi).
14.2.7
Timber Structures
Unless the species and grade is known, assume Douglas fir, select structural for members installed
prior to 1955 and Douglas fir, No. 1 after 1955. The allowable stresses for beams and stringers, as
listed in the AASHTO Standard Design Specifications, should be used.
The inventory rating for HS-20 vehicle is calculated using allowable stresses as directed in the
AASHTO Standard Design Specifications. For calculating the operating rating for the HS-20 vehicle,
the 3 AASHTO, and two overload vehicles, use 133 percent of the inventory allowable stress.
The nominal dimensions should be used to calculate deadload, and the net dimensions to calculate
section modulus. If the member is charred, it may be assumed the 1/4-inch of material is lost on all
surfaces. Unless the member is notched or otherwise suspect, shear need not be calculated.
When calculating loads, no impact is assumed and distribution factors are selected assuming one traffic
lane where the roadway is less than 20 feet wide or two or more traffic lanes where the roadway is
20 feet or wider.
14.2.8
Widened or Rehabilitated Structures

For widened bridges, rate crossbeams in all cases.
Since the longitudinal capacity of the widened portion of the structure will equal or exceed the capacity
of the existing structure, a longitudinal rating for the widened portion will be required only when the
width of the widened portion on one side of the structure is greater than or equal to 12-0 or more
throughout the length of the structure.
For rehabilitated bridges, a load rating will be required if the load carrying capacity of the structure is
altered by the rehabilitation.
14.2-4
August 1998

Criteria
Bridge Rating
14.2.9
General
Other Special Cases

For nonredundant structures such as through girder, arches, and/or any superstructure with less than
three main load carrying members, rating shall be on the per member basis.
P:DP/BDM14
9807-0802
August 1998
14.2-5

Criteria
Bridge Rating
14.2-6
General
August 1998

Criteria
Bridge Rating
14.3
General
Load Rating Software

Use the current version of BRIDG for Windows software for all applicable ratings. The capabilities and
release dates of the BRIDG software are as follows:
Release Version
Release Date
Rating Capabilities
BRIDG v.105.
July 1996
LRFD and LF of concrete bridges.
BRIDG v.11.0.
December 1995
LRFD and LF of steel girder bridges.
BRIDG v.97
September 1997
LRFD and LF of concrete, steel

girder, and steel truss bridges.
*Tenative release dates.
P:DP/BDM14
9807-0802
August 1998
14.3-1

Criteria
Bridge Rating
14.4
General
Load Rating Reports

Rating reports shall consist of:
1.
A Bridge Rating summary sheet as shown on Appendix 14.0-A5 reflecting the lowest rating factor,
including superstructure components not analyzed by BRIDG, for each loading condition.
2.
A brief report of any anomalies in the ratings and an explanation of the cause of any rating factor
below 1.0.
3.
Hard copy of computer output files (RPT files) used for rating, and any other calculations or
special analysis required.
4.
A complete set of plans for the bridge.
5.
Two 3.5-inch data diskettes which contains the final versions of all input files (BDF files) created
in performing the load rating.
All reports shall be bound in Accopress-type binders.

When the load rating calculations are produced as part of a design project (new, widening, or
rehabilitation,) the load rating report and design calculations shall be bound separately.
Any questions on the BRIDG Program or load rating can be directed to the bridge Load Rating
Engineer.
14.99
Bibliography
1.
Manual for Condition Evaluation of Bridges (1994) AASHTO, 444 North Capitol Street NW,
Suite 249, Washington, D.C. 20001.
P:DP/BDM14
9807-0802
August 1998
14.4-1

Appendix A
Bridge Rating
Load Rating Flow Chart
Bridge Designer complete Load

Rating as part of Design Project
Load Rating turned into Bridge

Project Unit
Load Rating sent to Load

Rating Engineer
No
S&E schedule distributed monthly

to Load Rating Engineer
Complete
yes
List of missing Load Ratings

Distributed quarterly to the Bridge
Design Engineer
Load Rating Engineer

tracks Load Ratings
Load Rating Engineer Update

Database and File Load Rating
August 1998
14.0-A1

Appendix A
Bridge Rating
Source of Rating Factors
14.0-A2 Source of Rating Factors
14.0-A2
August 1998

Appendix A
Bridge Rating
Bridge Inspection Report Condition Codes

Bridge Inspection Report Condition Codes
Not applicable.
Very good condition. No defects. Bridge can carry normal traffic levels. No action required to monitor
or repair.
Good condition. Minor defects with potential for minor repair. Bridge can carry normal traffic levels.
Record and monitor bridge conditions.
Satisfactory condition. Moderate defects with potential for major repair. Bridge is adequate for normal
traffic levels. Record and monitor bridge conditions and/or add to repair schedule.
Fair condition. Moderate defects with potential for minor rehabilitation. Bridge is minimally adequate for
highway traffic. Monitor bridge conditions and/or add to repair schedule.
Poor Condition. Major defects requiring major repair. Bridge is marginally adequate for truck traffic.
Make repairs as soon as possible.
3* Serious condition. Major defects. Member is failing. Bridge is inadequate for truck traffic. Repair bridge
immediately or restrict truck traffic.
2* Critical condition. Major defects. Member has failed. Bridge is inadequate for all highway traffic.
Repair bridge immediately or close bridge.
1* Imminent failure. Bridge is closed and inadequate for all highway traffic. Bridge cannot be rehabilitated.
0* Failed. Bridge is closed and inadequate for all highway traffic. Bridge is beyond repair.
*These codes are used to rate the condition of primary bridge members only (i.e., trusses, beams, abutments, etc.).
For changing values in the rating factor equation, a condition code of 7 or 8 corresponds to good or fair condition.
A condition code of 5 or 6 corresponds to a deteriorated condition; generally the report would identify the deficient
structural elements with specifics such as section loss.
A condition code of 4 or less corresponds to a heavily deteriorated condition. The report should state the specific
element with its section loss.
Inspection is considered to be estimated except in a specific case associated with identifiable deteriorated and/or
deteriorating structures.
Maintenance is considered intermittent unless specifically directed in unusual circumstances.
August 1998
14.0-A3

Appendix A
Bridge Rating
Span Type Abbreviations

Span Type Abbreviations
BAS
Bascule Lift Span
SA
Steel Arch
CA
Concrete Arch
SB
Steel Beam
CBOX
Concrete Box Girder
SBOX
Steel Box Girder
CFP
Concrete Floating Pontoon
SCULV
Steel Culvert
CG
Concrete Girder
SFP
Steel Floating Pontoon
CS
Concrete Slab
SG
Steel Girder
CST
Concrete Slab on Timber Piling
SL
Steel Lift Span
CTB
Concrete T-Beam
SS
Steel Swing Span
CTRU
Concrete Truss
ST
Steel Truss
CTUN
Concrete Lined Tunnel
SUSP
Steel Suspension Span
CCULV
Concrete Culvert
TCULV
Timber Culvert
ESB
Encased Steel Beam
TTLB
Treated Timber Laminated Beam
PCB
Pretensioned Concrete Beam
TTLL
Treated Timber Longitudinal Laminated
PCS
Pretensioned Concrete Slab
TTRU
Treated Timber Truss
PCTB
Pretensioned Concrete T-Beam
TTS
Salts-Treated Timber Trestle
POB
Post-tensioned Concrete Beam
TTT
Creosote-Treated Timber Trestle
POTB
Post-tensioned Concrete T-Beam
TTUN
Timber-Lined Tunnel
PTBX
Post-tensioned Box Girder
TUN
Tunnel
PRC
Precast Reinforced Concrete Beam
UTL
Untreated Log
PRPOB
Pretensioned and Post-tensioned Beam
UTRU
Untreated Timber Truss
UTT
Untreated Timber Trestle
UTLB
Untreated Timber Laminated Beam
14.0-A4
August 1998

Appendix A
Bridge Rating
Bridge Rating Summary

Bridge Rating Summary
Bridge Name: _________________________________________________________________________________

Bridge Number: _______________________________________________________________________________
Span Types: __________________________________________________________________________________
Bridge Length: ________________________________________________________________________________
Design Load: _________________________________________________________________________________
Rating By: ___________________________________________________________________________________
Checked By: __________________________________________________________________________________
Date: ________________________________________________________________________________________
Truck
RF
HS-20
_________________
_________________
_____________________________
AASHTO 1
_________________
_________________
_____________________________
AASHTO 2
_________________
_________________
_____________________________
AASHTO 3
_________________
_________________
_____________________________
OL-1
_________________
_________________
_____________________________
OL-2
_________________
_________________
_____________________________
Inventory
_________________
_________________
_____________________________
Operations
_________________
_________________
_____________________________
Controlling Point
NBIS Rating
Remarks: _____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
August 1998
14.0-A5

Appendix A
Bridge Rating
Load Rating Flow Chart
3D Live Load Modeling Guidelines for Truss Bridges

Live Load Criteria
The live loads to be considered and the application thereof, shall be consistent with those described in the
AASHTO Guide Specifications for Strength Evaluation of Existing Steel and concrete Bridges and the WSDOT
Bridge Design Manual. To summarize the criteria:
In computing load effects, one vehicle shall be considered present in each rating lane.
The positioning of the vehicle in each rating lane shall be according to AASHTO specifications. These
specifications require the vehicle to be positioned in such a way as to produce the extreme structural response
under consideration.
For the purpose of load rating, the number of rating lanes shall be considered the number of striped lanes.
The rating lanes shall be positioned between the curbs in accordance with the AASHTO specifications.
Live Load Modeling Guidelines

The purpose of these guidelines is to provide the rating engineer with a live load modeling scheme that will capture
the significant load effects for typical, well conditioned truss bridges, while reducing the time required to perform
a detailed live load analysis. Typical truss bridges are symmetrical about their longitudinal axes, with parallel
trusses, straight members, and uniform spacing of floor beams. It is ultimately the responsibility of the rating
engineer to determine the minimum rating factor for the structure. For unique and/or poorly conditioned structures,
this may require a more detailed evaluation of the live load effects.
BRIDG for Windows implements a brute force live load analysis method. To improve live load analysis
performance, the generation of live load cases must be reduced. These guidelines describe live load generation in
terms of longitudinal step sizes for the movement of the trucks along the bridge and transverse lane positions
between the curb lines.
Minimum Longitudinal Step Size

Longitudinal step shall not be less than the distance between floor beams.
Transverse Placement of Rating Lanes

The transverse placement of rating lanes is guided by the Lane Shift Sensitivity Factor (LSSF). This factor is used
to determine if the response of the structure is sensitive to lane positioning. The Lane Shift Sensitivity Factor is
computed by:
LSSF = (# of Design Lens - # of Rating Lanes) / # of Rating Lanes
Where:
Number of rating Lanes is the equal to the number of lanes currently striped on the bridge.
Number of Design Lanes is as specified by the AASHTO Standard Specification for Bridges.
14.0-A6
August 1998

Appendix A
3D Live Load Modeling
Guidelines for Truss Bridges
Bridge Rating
The position of rating lanes is described in the following table:
Sensitivity
LSSF
Lane Group Positioning
Insensitive
LSSF < 0.25
Center of the bridge
Sensitive
0.25 LSSF 1.0
Left Edge, Center, Right Edge
Hypersensitive
LSSF > 1.0
Left Edge, Left Quarter Point, Center, Right Quarter

Point, Right Edge
This method of transverse placement will be used to determine the Inventory and Operating Ratings for reporting
to the National Bridge Inventory. This method will also be used to determine if the bridge needs further investigation by the WSDOT Bridge Preservation office. This investigation will determine the need for posting, restriction
to permit (a.k.a. overload) vehicles, and need for retrofit or rehabilitation.
P:DP/DM14
9807-0802
August 1998
14.0-A7

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BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL

BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL

Final Design Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Appendix A Design Aids

BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL

Gravity always works if something is not supported, it will fall.

High quality craftsmanship must be provided by everyone.

There is no foolproof design.

10. Many problems can be avoided by using a little loving care.

BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL

Reinforced Concrete Superstructures

Prestressed Concrete Superstructures

10. Detailing Practice

Reinforced Concrete Superstructures

Box Girder Bridges

The Shear Diagram

BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL

Numbering of Tables and Figures

BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL

BRIDGE DESIGN INSTRUCTION 5.1.1 CHAPTER 5

Use of Concrete Class 5000 and Class 4000D

There is confusion regarding the availability of Concrete Class 5000. This

BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL

C. Record of Manual Revisions

BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL

Bridge and Structures Office Organization

Bridge and Structures Office Organization

Organizational Elements of the Office

Structural Design Units

BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL

Bridge and Structures Office Organization

Bridge Projects Unit

C. Bridge Preservation Engineer

Bridge Preservation Unit

BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL

Bridge and Structures Office Organization

D. Bridge Management Engineer

BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL

Bridge and Structures Office Organization

Design Unit Responsibilities and Expertise

Expansion Joint Modifications

Coast Guard Permits

Sign Supports, Light Standards, Traffic Signal Supports

BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL

Design Procedures and Processes

Quality Control/Quality Assurance (QC/QA) Process for WSDOT Bridge Designs

BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL

Design Procedures and Processes

Prepare a Design Time Estimate Bar Chart (see Section 1.5.2).

Identify tasks and plan order of work.

Identify coordination needs with other designers, units, and offices.

At least monthly or as directed by the design unit manager:

Develop preliminary quantities for 90 percent complete cost estimate.

BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL

Design Procedures and Processes

Near end of project:

Design Checker Responsibility

BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL