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GATE2016MEStudyNotes:StrengthofMaterials

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GATE 2016 ME Study Notes :


Strength of Materials

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Posted in MCE, Study Notes On December 1, 2015


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In this post, we arecovering the following topics inStrength of

Materials (Mechanics of Materials)for GATE 2016 Mechanical


Engineering(ME) and remaining topics of GATE syllabus will be
covered in the next session of manufacturing:
Stressandstrain,elasticconstants,Poissonsratio,
Mohrscircleforplanestressandplanestrain,thincylinders,

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shearforceandbendingmomentdiagrams,bendingandshear
stresses,deflectionofbeams.

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Mechanical Properties of Materials:


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GATE2016MEStudyNotes:StrengthofMaterials

Many mechanical propertiesof materials are determined

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from tests, some of which give relationships between


stresses and strains.

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Strength of materials deals with the relations between the

externalforces applied to elastic bodies and the resulting

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deformations and stresses.


Inthe design of structures and machines, the application of
the principles of strengthof materials is necessary if

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satisfactory materials are to be utilized and


adequateproportions obtained to resist functional forces.
Forces are produced by the action of gravity, by
accelerationsand impacts of moving parts, by gasses and

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uids under pressure, by the transmissionof mechanical


power, etc.

Stressand strain

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Stress: When a material in subjected to an external force,a


resisting force is set up within the component. The internal

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resistance forceper unit area acting on a material is called the


stress at a point. It is a scalarquantity having unit.

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Types of Stresses:
Normal stress

Shear Stress

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Bulk Stress

Strain: It is the deformation produced in the material dueto simple


stress. It usually represents the displacement between particles in
thebody relative to a reference length.

Types of Strains:
Normal Strain

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Since strain is m/m it is dimensionless.


Shear strain

Note: The angle is radians, not degrees. The volume of the solid is
not changed by shear strain.

Bulk Strain

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Stress Strain Relationship


Graph between stress-strain is shown in below gure.In brittle
materialsthere is no appreciable change in rate of strain. There is
no yield point and nonecking takes place.The specimen is loaded
only upto point A, is gradually removed the curve follows the same
path AO and strain completely disappears. Sucha behavior is
known as the elastic behavior.

In the following gure (b), the specimen is loaded upto point B


beyond theelastic limit E. When the specimen is gradually loaded
the curve follows path BC,resulting in a residual strain OC or
permanent strain.

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Properties of Materials: Some properties of materials whichjudge


the strength of materials are given below
Elasticity: Elasticity is the property by virtue of whicha material is
deformed under the load and is enabled to return to it original
dimensionwhen the load is removed.
Plasticity: Plasticity is the converse of elasticity. Amaterial in plastic
state is permanently deformed by the application of load andit
has no tendency to recover. The characteristic of the material by
which it undergoesinelastic strains beyond those at elastic limit is
known as plasticity.
Ductility: Ducitility is the characteristic which permitsa material to
be drawn out longitudinally to a reduced section, under the
actionof a tensile force (large deformation).
Brittleness:Brittleness implies lack of ductility. A material is said to
bebrittle when it cannot be drawn out by tension to smaller
section.

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Malleability:Malleability is a property of a material which permits


the materialto be extended in all directions without rapture. A
malleable material possess ahigh degree of plasticity, but not
necessarily great strength.
Toughness:Toughness is the property of a material which enable it
to absorbenergy without fracture.
Hardness:Hardness is the ability of a material to resist indentation
orsurface abrasion. Brinell hardness test is used to check
hardness.
Brinell Hardness Number (BHN)

where, P = Standard load, D = Diameter of steel ball, andd =


Diameter of the indent.
Strength:The strength of a material enables it to resist fracture
underload.
Engineering Stress-Strain Curve:The stress-strain diagram is
shown in gure. The curve startfrom origin. Showing thereby that
there is no initial stress of strain in the specimen.The stress-strain
curve diagram for a ductile material like mildsteel is shown in
gure below.
* Upto point A, Hookes Law is obeyed and stress is
proportionalto strain. Point A is called limit of proportionality.

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* Point B is called the elastic limit point.


* At point B the cross-sectional area of the material starts
decreasingand the stress decreases to a lower value to point D,
called the lower yield point.
* The apparent stress decreases but the actual or true stressgoes
on increasing until the specimen breaks at point C, called the point
of fracture.
* From point E ownward, the strain hardening phenomena
becomespredominant and the strength of the material increases
thereby requiring more stressfor deformation, until point F is
reached. Point F is called the ultimate point.

Elasticconstants
Stress produces a strain, but how much strainis produced
depends on the solid itself. The solid is then characterised by
anelasticmodulus that relates strain to stress.

Dierent types of stresses and their corresponding strains


withinelastic limit are related which are referred to as elastic
constants. The threetypes of elastic constants(moduli) are:
Modulus of elasticityor Youngs modulus (E),
Bulk modulus (K) and
Modulus of rigidityor shear modulus (M,C or G).
Youngs modulus

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Rigidity modulus

Bulk modulus

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Hookes Law (Linear elasticity):Hookes Law stated that within


elastic limit, the linear relationshipbetween simple stress and
strain for a bar is expressed by equations.

Where, E = Youngs modulus of elasticity,P = Applied load across a


cross-sectional area.
l= Change in length
l = Original length

Freeexpansion of 1 due to temperature rise


Freeexpansion of 2 due to temperature rise
Expansionof 1 due to temperature stress (tensile)
Compressionof 2 due to temperature stress (compression)

Poissons Ratio
Poissons Ratio:The three stresses and strains do not operate
independently. Stresses produce strains in lateral directions as the
solid tries to retain its original volume. When an axial force is
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applied along the longitudinal axis of a bar, the length of a bar will
increase but at the same time its lateral dimension (width) will be
decreased so, it is called as Poisson ratio.

Value of Poissons ratio is same in tension and compression.


Volumetric Strain:It is dened as the ratio of change in volume to
the initialvolume. Mathematically
Volumetric strain,

Volumetric Strain Due to Single Direct Stress:The ratio of change


in volume to original volume is called volumetricstrain.

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Volumetric strain:

For the circular bar of diameter d:

Volumetric Strain due to Three Mutually Perpendicular Stress


System:When a body is subjected to identical pressure in three
mutuallyperpendicular direction, then the body undergoes
uniform changes in three directionswithout undergoing distortion
of shape.

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or
Shear Modulus or Modulus of Rigidity:

At principal planes, shear stress is always zero.


Planes of maximum shear stress also contains normal stress.
Relationship between E, G, K and
Modulus of rigidity:
Bulk modulus:

Analysis of Stress and Strain


We will derive somemathematical expressions for plains stresses
and will study their graphical signication
in 2D and 3D.
Stress on InclinedSection PQ due to Uniaxial Stress:Consider a
rectangularcross-section and we have to calculate the stress on an
inclined section as shownin gure.
Normal stress :

Tangential stress:

Resultant stress:
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Stress Induced byState Simple Shear:Induced stress is


dividedinto two components which are given as
Normal stress:

Tangential stress:

Stress Induced byAxial Stress and Simple Shear


Normal stress:

Tangential stress:

Principal Stressesand Principal Planes:The plane carryingthe


maximum normal stress is called the major principal plane and
normal stressis called major principal stress. The plane carrying
the minimum normal stress isknown as minor principal stress.

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Major principal stress:

Minor principal stress:

Across maximum normalstresses acting in plane shear stresses


are zero.

Computation of principalStress from Principal Strain:The three


stressesnormal to shear principal planes are called principal
stress, while a plane at whichshear strain is zero is called principal
strain.
For two dimensionalstress system,
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3 = 0,

Maximum Shear Stress:The maximum shear stressor maximum


principal stress is equal of one half the dierence between the
largestand smallest principal stresses and acts on the plane that
bisects the angle betweenthe directions of the largest and
smallest principal stress. The plane ofthe maximum shear stress is
oriented 450 from the principal stress planes.

Principal Strain:For two dimensionalstrain system,

Where, e1= Strain in x-direction,e2 = Strainin y-direction, and=


Shearing strain relative to OX and OY.

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Maximum Shear Strain:The maximum shear strainalso contains


normal strain which is given as

Rectangular strainsRosette are inclined 450 to each other.

Principal strains:

Mohrs Circle
Graphically, variationof normal stress and shear stress are studied
with the help of Mohrs circle. A two dimensional Mohrs circle can
be constructed, if the normal stresses 1 and 2.
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Normal stress:

Shear stress:

General State ofStress at an Element:The following procedureis


used to draw a Mohrs circle and to nd the magnitude and
direction of maximumstresses from it.

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Observations fromMohrs Circle:The following are the


observations of Mohrs circle as:
At point M on circles n is maximum and shear stress is
zero.
Maximum principal stress coordinate of M
At point N on circle n is minimum and shear stress is zero.
Minimum principal stress coordinate of N

Where, n Averagestress
Radius of circle:

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* If

GATE2016MEStudyNotes:StrengthofMaterials

,then radius of Mohrs circle is zero and

Thin Cylinders
Stresses in Thin Cylindrical Shell
Circumferential stress (hoop stress):

Where, p = Intensity of internal pressure,d = Diameter of the


shell,t = Thickness of shell, = Eciencyof joint
Longitudinal stress:

Change in Dimension of a Thin Cylindrical Shell due to an


InternalPressure:
Change in diameter:

Circumferential strain (1):

Change in length:

Longitudinal

strain(2):

Change in volume:
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Thin Spherical Shell


Stresses in shell material:

Change in diameter:

Where,

Change in volume:

Lakes Theory:Lakes theory is based on the following


assumptions.
Assumptions
1. Homogeneous material.
2. Plane section of cylinder, perpendicular to longitudinal
axisremains under plane and pressure.Hoop stress at any
section is:

Radial pressure:
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Subjected to Internal Pressure (p):


1. At
2. At

Subjected to External Pressure (p)


1. At
2.

At

Note Radial and hoop stresses vary hyperbolically.

Shear force and bending moment diagrams


A Shear Force Diagram (SFD) indicates how a force applied
perpendicularto the axis (i.e., parallel to cross-section) of a beam
is transmitted along thelength of that beam. A Bending Moment
Diagram (BMD) will show how the applied loadsto a beam create a
moment variation along the length of the beam.
Statically Determinate Beam:A beam is said to be statically
determinate if all its reactioncomponents can be calculated by
applying three conditions of static equilibriumi.e.,
and
Statically Indeterminate Beam:When the number of unknown
reaction components exceeds the staticconditions of equilibrium,
the beam is said to be statically indeterminate.

Shear Force:Shear force has a tendency to slide the surface, it acts


parallelto surface.
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Only for distributed load not for point load.

Bending Moment:Any moment produced by forces acting on the


beam must be balanceby an equal opposite moment produced by
internal forces acting in beam at the section.This moment is called
bending moment.

Only for distributed and concentrated load not for couple.

Bending and Shear Stresses


Bending Moments and Shear Stress Distribution:Bending stress
and shear stress distribution are classied inthe following groups.
Bending Moment in Beam:When beam is subjected to a bending
moment or bent there are inducedlongitudinal or bending stress
in cross-section.

Moment of inertia about neutral axis.

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At the neutral axis, there is no stress of any kind. At one sideof the
neutral axis, there are compressive stresses,
Modulus of Section:Section modulus is a geometric property for a
given cross-sectionused in the design of beams or exural
members.

Rectangular section:

Modulus of section:

Circular section:

Modulus of section:

Shearing Stress:Shearing stress on a layer JK of beam at distance y


from neutralaxis.

Where,V = Shearing force


Firstmoment of area:

Shear stress in Rectangular Beam:Suppose, we have to determine


the shear stress at the longitudinallayer having y distance from
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GATE2016MEStudyNotes:StrengthofMaterials

neutral axis.

Circular Beam:Centre of gravity of semi-circle lies at distance from


centre orbase line. As it is symmetrical above neutral axis, hence
at neutral axis shearstress will be maximum.

For

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GATE2016MEStudyNotes:StrengthofMaterials

Shears Stress in Hollow Circular Cross-Section:In hollow circular


cross-section, if we have to calculate at neutral axis by the
formula r.

Shear Stress in
Triangular
a triangular
cross-section,
if
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Shear Stress in I-section:

Deflection of Beams
Deection of Beam: Deection is dened as the
verticaldisplacement of a point on a loaded beam. There are many
methods to nd out theslope and deection at a section in a
loaded beam.
Double Integration Method: This is most suitable when
concentratedor udl over entire length is acting on the beam.

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Integrating one time:

Integrating again,

Where,
M = Bending moment
I = Moment of inertaia of the beam section

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Y = Deection of the beame

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E = Modulus of elasticity of beam material.


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