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York State Department of Environmental Conservation, Albany, NY, September 1979,
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Publications Distribution Section, U.S. Dept. of Interior, Pittsburgh, PA, 1967.
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Air Specific Methods, Doc. EPA-600/4-77-027a, Environmental Monitoring Systems
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44. R. M. Dowd, Hazardous Air Pollution Control, Environ. Sci. Technol. (February 1986):
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45. J. Heritage (Ed.), Update, EPA J. (July/August 1987): 36.
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47. R. Voelker, Power without Acid, Civil Eng., ASCE, July 1989, pp. 4547.
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49. M. Smith, Recommended Guide for the Prediction of the Dispersion of Airborne Effluents, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York, 1968; A. C. Stern, H.
C. Wohlers, R. W. Boubel, and W. P. Lowry, Fundamentals of Air Pollution, Academic, New York, 1973, pp. 274287; R. E. Munn, Air Pollution Meteorology, in
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50. M. I. Davis, Air Resources Management Primer, ASCE, New York, August 1973.
51. C. D. Jaffe, Sound and Noise, in The Industrial Environment . . . Its Evaluation and
Control , PHS Pub. 614, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, 1958, pp.
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NoiseUnited States, MMWR (March 1986): 185188, and (March 18, 1988):
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Air Pollution, WHO Monograph Series 46 , Columbia University Press, New York,
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Danielson, J. A. (Ed.), Air Pollution Engineering Manual , Pub. AP-40, EPA, Office of
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Davis, M. L., Air Resources Management Primer , ASCE, New York, 1973.
Godish, T., Air Quality, Lewis Publishers, Chelsea, MI, 1985.
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CHAPTER 5

SURVEYING AND MAPPING FOR

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
KURT W. BAUER, PE, RLS, AICP
Executive Director Emeritus, Southeastern Wisconsin Regional Planning
Commission, Waukesha, Wisconsin

INTRODUCTION

The practice of environmental engineering often entails the use of maps and
map-based land information systems and the conduct of related surveying operations. Accordingly, this chapter is intended to set forth certain basic surveying and
mapping concepts, the understanding of which is required for the practice of environmental engineering. Historically, surveying and mapping constituted a highly
specialized branch of civil engineering, just as city and regional planning once
did. And, historically, university civil engineering curriculums included extensive
course work in surveying and mapping, and textbooks in surveying and mapping
were often authored by practicing civil engineers. The American Society of Civil
Engineers maintains a division of surveying and mappinga field now known
as geomatics and annually awards a prize for notable achievement in the field.
Surveying and mapping have, however, increasingly become a discipline separate from civil and environmental engineering, and some branchessuch as land
surveying, which could once be practiced by licensed engineersare now practiced by a separately licensed profession. Some universities no longer include
any courses in surveying and mapping as a part of the civil and environmental
engineering curriculum. Nevertheless, the practice of environmental engineering will inevitably involve the use of maps, and, in some cases, the conduct of
related surveying operations. Therefore, an understanding of the basics concepts
underlying surveying and mapping is essential to the competent practice of environmental engineering. Accordingly, this chapter sets forth these basic concepts
in summaryand in some cases greatly simplifiedform.
Environmental Engineering: Environmental Health and Safety for Municipal Infrastructure, Land Use and Planning, and Industry
Sixth Edition Edited by Nelson L. Nemerow, Franklin J. Agardy, Patrick Sullivan, Joseph A. Salvato
Copyright 2009 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN: 978-0-470-08305-5

395

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SURVEYING AND MAPPING FOR ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

IMPORTANCE OF MAPS

The most efficient and effective way of not only presenting, but of integrating,
information about a number of factors that must be considered in any environmental engineering effort, is through the preparation of good maps designed
specifically for engineering application. Good maps serve at least two important
purposes in environmental engineering: (1) to provide a graphic representation
of the geographic area concerned; and (2) to relate pertinent data to geographic
location. Before considering the specific map requirements for environmental
engineering, a review of some of the basic concepts and definitions involved in
the preparation and use of maps is in order.

BASIC DEFINITIONS AND CONCEPTS

A map may be defined as a flat, true-scale, graphical representation of a portion

of the earths surface. In this respect, it should be recognized that the spherical
surface of the earth cannot be presented on a flat surface without some distortion.
Map scale may be defined as the relationship that exists between a distance on a
map and the corresponding distance on the surface of the earth. Map scale may
be expressed as an equivalence, a ratio, or a graph.
Foundational Elements for Creation of Maps

The creation of a map requires three foundational elements. The first of these is
a system for accurately locating features on the surface of the earth. The system
used consists of spherical coordinates expressed as latitude in degrees, minutes
and seconds north or south of the equatorial plane, and longitude expressed
in degrees, minutes and seconds east or west of the prime meridian through
Greenwich, England.
The topographic surface of the earth constitutes the physical entity upon which
the measurements of latitude and longitude, and indeed all survey measurements,
are made. The surface of the earth is an irregular, roughly spherical surface;
flattened at the poles and elongated through the equatorial plane. The latitude
of a point on this surface is given as the angular distance north or south of the
equator, and can be determined by direct astronomic observation as, for example,
by observation of the angular elevation of the pole starusing a transit or sextant.
The longitude of a point on this surface can be determined by observation of
the time difference between the meridian of longitude concerned, east or west
of a reference meridianor primemeridianthe longitude of Greenwich,
England, being the reference meridian in universal use today. See Figures 5.1
and 5.2.
The geoid is defined as a surface everywhere perpendicular to the direction of
gravityconceptually equivalent to the surface that would be assumed by mean

397

BASIC DEFINITIONS AND CONCEPTS

Z1
Point on surface
of the earth

P1
H

P2

Geoid
= latitude

ane

Equatorial pl

= time =
longitude

N
Meridian
through P
Prime Meridian
Longitude O
Z2

FIGURE 5.1 Ellipsoid latitude (), longitude (), and the orthometric height (H ) of a
point P 1 .

Orthometric height
spirit level measurement

P1
Ellipsoid height
GPS measurement

H
h

P2
N

Physical
Earth

P3

Geoid height

Ellipisoid
Geoid
Direction of gravityNormal to geoid
deflection of
the vertical
Normal to ellipsoid

FIGURE 5.2 Relationships between the topographic surface of the earth, the geoid, and
a reference ellipsoid.

sea level if the seas extended under the continents. The geoid is the figure to
which all survey measurements are referenced and to which surveying instruments
are oriented through the use of spirit level vials or plumb lines. The geoid is,
however, an irregular, undulating surface.

398

SURVEYING AND MAPPING FOR ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Since it is impossible to make survey computations on the irregular surface

of the geoid, a mathematical surface is substituted that closely approximates the
geoid. This surface is created by rotating a two-dimensional ellipse about its
semiminor axis to create a three-dimensional, mathematically defined surface,
known as the ellipsoid.
Geographic locations and relationshipsdistances and directionsare
expressed as though they were located on the ellipsoid. Historically, a number of
ellipsoids have been used as a basis for surveying and mapping operations. Within
the continental United States, the historically most widely used ellipsoid is know
as the Clark spheroid of 1866. This ellipsoid was adopted for use in geodetic surveying and in hydrographic mapping operations in the continental United States
by the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Surveynow known as the National Geodetic
Surveyand for use in topographic mapping operations by the U.S. Geological
Survey in the later part of the nineteenth century. This ellipsoid is the basis for
the North American Datum of 1927 (NAD-27), and for the older State Plane
Coordinate Systems still in use within the United States. The grid coordinate values under these older systems are expressed in U.S. survey feet. The newer State
Plane Coordinate Systems in use within the United States are based on the Geodetic Reference System of 1980. This spheroid is the basis for the North American
Datum of 1983 (NAD-83), and for the revised State Plane Coordinate Systems.
The grid coordinate values under these newer systems are expressed in meters.
Map Projections

The second of the foundational elements required for the creation of a map is
a map projection. A map projection typically consists of a set of mathematical
equations for converting the spherical surface of the earth to a flat surface upon
which maps may be constructed. Map projections thus serve to convert the spherical geometry of the mapping ellipsoid to the plane geometry of the flat mapping
surface. A number of projection systems are in use for surveying and mapping.
Tangent Plane Projection

The tangent plane projection was the most common form of projection once
used by land surveyors and civil engineers. It is the basis for plane surveying
procedures, the procedures usually taught in introductory courses in surveying.
This projection is applicable only to the surveying and mapping of small areas and
is being replaced by more sophisticated projections and attendant and mapping
surveying procedures. Many land surveyors and civil engineers engaged in the
application of plane surveying may not even be aware that they are using this
type of projection in the preparation of maps and plats attendant to their work.
In application, the surveyor selects a point in, or near, the area to be surveyed
and mapped, at which point the survey is oriented to some form of directional
control that is recoverable. The directional control may be provided by magnetic
observation; celestial observation; or by the direction of a line defined by two

BASIC DEFINITIONS AND CONCEPTS

399

monumented U.S. Public Land Survey system one-quarter section corners. The
surveyor then measures the angles formed by the lines of the survey and the
central direction. This is very different from independently measuring a magnetic
or astronomic direction for each line as is the case in projection-less mapping.
The angles so measured may then be drawn to scale on the map. Bearings shown
on tangent projection maps do not represent the astronomic or geodetic bearings
of the survey lines. The curvature of the earth and convergence of the meridians
are ignored. The distances are measured as, or reduced to, horizontal distances.
The distances are assumed to be measured at the mean elevation of the area
surveyed, and are horizontal and not level distances. No adjustments are made
for differences between distances as measured on the surface of the earth and
these same distances on the flat plane of the projection. The mapoften termed
a plat derived from the measured angles and distances is, in effect, a projection
of the curved surface of the earth onto a flat plane.
The principal advantage of this system is its simplicity. Straight lines are
considered to have a constant bearing; parallel straight lines are considered to
have the same bearing; level surfaces are considered to be flat planes; and plumb
lines are considered to be parallel. The errors introduced by these assumptions
become noticeable when the areas concerned exceed about 75 square miles,
and then approximate 0.05 foot and 0.1 second of arc. Individually compiled
maps cannot be coordinated and become diagrams rather than true maps. Other
surveys conducted in the same manner will disagree in the lengths and directions
of common lines, and directions between identical points on adjacent parcels will
have different values. This means that discrepancies, gaps, and overlaps will not
be apparent from mere review of plats of survey of adjacent parcels. Resurveys
are entirely dependent on recovery of survey markers or monuments set during
the original work.
Tangent plane projection surveys are of limited use to comprehensive planners
and to civil and environmental engineers concerned with areawide projects. The
lack of a common reference system makes the task of relating individual parcels
to each other difficult or impossible. Indeed, existing municipal maps compiled
from plats of survey are often no more than representations of the compilations
of paper records, so poorly done as to make their use in planning and engineering
difficult and costly, and the use of such plan implementation devices as official
mapping legally questionable.
The need to identify real property boundaries permanently and precisely, and
the need for large-scale, areawide planning and engineering has led to the use of
projection systems that eliminate the disadvantages of the tangent plane system.
Lambert Projection

The Lambert conformal conic projection conceptually uses a cone passed through
two parallels of the ellipsoidknown as standard parallelsto develop the
spherical surface into a plane surface. See Figures 5.3, 5.4, and 5.5. Meridians of longitude are represented on the projection by converging straight lines;
and parallels of latitude are represented as arcs of circles with a common center.

400

SURVEYING AND MAPPING FOR ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

Earth axis and

conic axis

Zone limit
Standard
Parallels

ZN
S
P
SP
ZS

Zone limit
Ellipsoid

Intersecting
cone

Intersecting
cone

Scale
too
small

Zone boundary
Standard parellel
scale exact

Scale too large

(meas. dist.
larger than
grid distance)

Standard parellel
scale exact
Zone boundary

Scale
too
small

Scale error kept to

max of 1 part in
10,000

FIGURE 5.3

Concepts underlying creation of a conic projection.

x = x + C = R sin + C
y = R b y = R b R cos
xC
tan =
(lat)
Rb y
Rb y
R=
(lat)
cos

R from latitude
=
where = ratio
of change of
Theta angle =
angle on plane
long
to angle on
sphere

Northing
N

Theta angle
Grid North

Y Northings

Xo(Eo)

Rb
Z

Xo (No)

Geodetic
North

S
P
Z

x
P(x, y)

P
y

Xb (Nb)

X Eastings

Orgin
c

Easting
x

FIGURE 5.4 Concepts underlying creation of a State Plane Coordinate System grid
from conic projection.
Horizontal ground
level distance

State plane grid

Ground
level

Ellipsoid or sea
level distance

Ellipsoid

Normals to
the ellipsoid

State plane grid distance

FIGURE 5.5 Relationship of ground level distances to state plane grid distances.