STS51C-143-0027 Mississippi River Delta and Coastal Louisiana, U.S.A.

January 1985

NASA PHOTO

STS61A-42-0051 Mississippi River Delta, Louisiana, U.S.A.

October 1985
N

20 mi
NASA PHOTO
78

Outline

Petroleum systems
Geologic principles and geologic time
Rock and minerals, rock cycle, reservoir
properties
Hydrocarbon origin, migration and accumulation
Sedimentary environments; stratigraphic traps
Plate tectonics, structural geology
Structural traps
Geophysical methods
Importance to Schlumberger
2

Cross Section Of A Petroleum System

(Foreland Basin Example)
Geographic Extent of Petroleum System
Extent of Play
Reservoir

Stratigraphic
Extent of
Petroleum
System

Active
Source Rock

Essential
Elements
of
Petroleum
System

Overburden Rock
Seal or Cap[Rock
Reservoir Rock
Source Rock
Underburden Rock

Petroleum Reservoir (R)

Fold-and-Thrust Belt
(arrows indicate relative fault motion)

Sedimentary
Basin Fill

Basement Rock
Top Oil Window
Top Gas Window

(modified from Magoon and Dow, 1994)

4

Petroleum System
A Petroleum System requires timely convergence
of certain geologic factors and geologic events.

These Include:
Seal or cap rock
Reservoir rock
Migration
Mature source rock

Petroleum Geology

Law of cross-cutting relationships. In the figure above, the

igneous dike (F) is younger than layers A-E but older than layer
G, because a geologic feature is younger than any other
geologic feature that it cuts. This is an important law for
determining the relative ages of geologic features.
According to the Law of Superposition, layer I is older than
layer J, and the rocks beneath the unconformity are older from
right to left. From the Principle of Original Horizonality, we
infer that layers A through F have been deformed.
Sedimentary rock are deposited in successive layers that record
the history of their time, much like the pages in history book.
However, the rock record is never complete. Missing layers
(gaps in time) result in unconformities.
An unconformity is a surface of non-deposition or erosion that
separates younger rocks from older rocks. The slide shows an
angular unconformity. A nonconformity is an unconformity in
which younger sedimentary rocks overlie older metamorphic or
intrusive igneous rocks

The following are basic principles or laws are used to

evaluate the relative ages and the relations among rock
layers.
Uniformitarianism - The present is the key to the past. By
studying modern geologic processes, we can interpret past
geologic events and rock-forming processes.
Original Horizonality - Sedimentary layers are deposited in a
horizontal or nearly horizontal position. If sedimentary layers
are tilted or folded, they have been subjected to deforming
stresses.
Superposition - Younger sedimentary beds occur on top of
older beds, unless they have been overturned or faulted.
Cross-Cutting Relations - Any geologic feature that cuts
another geologic feature is younger than the feature that it
cuts.

Cross-Cutting Relationships
K
J
I
H
G
Angular Unconformity

E
D
il
S
s
ou
e
Ign

Igneous
Dike

F
B
A

4.6

150

Mesozoic

100

Cretaceous

Jurassic

200

Triassic

250

Permian

300

Pennsylvanian

Recent

0 Pleistocene
10
20

Pliocene
Miocene

30 Oligocene
40

Eocene

Cenozoic Era

Tertiary

50

50
60 Paleocene

Mississippian

350
400
450

Paleozoic

Millions of years ago

Phanerozoic

Quaternary

Cryptozoic
(Precambrian)

Billions of years ago

Epoch

Tertiary
period

Era Period

Millions of years ago

Eon

Quaternary
period

Geologic Time Chart

Devonian
Silurian

Ordovician

500
550

Cambrian

600
7

Geologic Time Scale - Biostratigraphy

Triassic period

Permian period

Jurassic period

Pennsylvanian period
Mississippian period

146 m.y

208 m.y

245 m.y

290 m.y

323 m.y
363 m.y

vonian period
409 m.y

rian period

439 m.y
65 m.y

1 b.y

57 m.y
510 m.y

570 m.y

Evolution of cells
with nucleus

35 m.y

23 m.y

2 b.y
5 m.y

3 b.y
0.01 million
years ago

4.6 billion
years ago

ERA
PERIOD
EPOCH
Holocene
epoch

Oldest
fossil
cells

4 b.y

Oldest rocks
dated on Earth

Basic Geologic Principles

Uniformitarianism - The present is the key to the

past.
Original Horizonality - Sedimentary layers are
deposited in a horizontal or nearly horizontal position.
Superposition - Younger sedimentary beds occur on
top of older beds, unless they have been overturned or
faulted.
Cross-Cutting Relations - Any geologic feature that
cuts another geologic feature is younger than the
feature that it cuts.

Classification of Rocks

Rock-forming Source of
material
process

IGNEOUS

SEDIMENTARY

METAMORPHIC

Molten materials in
deep crust and
upper mantle

Weathering and
erosion of rocks
exposed at surface

Rocks under high

temperatures
and pressures in
deep crust

Crystallization
(Solidification of melt)

Sedimentation, burial
and lithification

Recrystallization due to
heat, pressure, or
chemically active fluids

10

The Rock Cycle

Magma
el

g
in

nd

Co
So oling
( C r lid i
ys fic a
ta
liz at
a

n
io n)
t io

(M

Sedimentary
Rock

Heat and Pressure

We

ath

eri
n
an g, T
d D ran
ep spo
osi
tion rtatio
n,

Weathering,
Transportation
and Deposition
Cem
entation and
Compaction

(Lithification)

Igneous
Rock
W eat her
T ransportai ng,
t i on
A d
D
n
e
p
o
si ti o
n

A nd
H e at
ure
Press
or phism)
et am

Metamorphic
Rock

Sediment

Igneous Rocks

Comprise 95% of the Earth's crust.

Originated from the solidification of molten material
from deep inside the Earth.
There are two types:
Volcanic - glassy in texture due to fast cooling.
Plutonic - slow-cooling, crystalline rocks.

12

Igneous Rocks and

Reservoirs
Igneous rocks can be part of reservoirs.
Fractured granites form reservoirs in some parts of the world.
Volcanic tuffs are mixed with sand in some reservoirs.

Example: Granite Wash - Elk City, Okla., Northern Alberta,CA

13

Sedimentary Rock Types

Relative abundance

Sandstone
and conglomerate
~11%
Limestone and
dolomite
~13%

Siltstone, mud
and shale
~75%

17

Depositional Environments
The depositional environment can be:
Shallow or deep water.
Marine (sea) and lake or continental.
This environment determines many of the reservoir
characteristics

Frigg Gas Field - North Sea

18

Depositional Environments

Continental deposits are usually dunes.

A shallow marine environment has a lot of turbulence hence varied grain
sizes. It can also have carbonate and evaporite formation.
A deep marine environment produces fine sediments.

19

Clastic Reservoirs

Consolidated and unconsolidate sands

Porosity

Permeability

Determined mainly by the packing and mixing of grains.

Determined mainly by grain size and packing, connectivity

and shale content.

Fractures may be present.

21

Clastic Sedimentary Rocks

Conglomerate

Breccia

Example

Sandstone

Shale

Some sedimentary rock types

Breccia - Coarse-grained, angular fragments - little
transport;
Conglomerate - Coarse-grained, mixture of rounded
pebbles and sand ranging widely in size; well rounded
pebbles imply some transport in a high energy system
Sandstone - commonly quartz, feldspar, or rock
fragments; deposited in many environments
Shale - very fine grained; composed primarily of clay;
deposited in low-energy environments such as lakes, bays,
lagoons, of deep marine settings

Clastic Rocks
Clastic rocks are sands, silts and shales.
The difference is in the size of the grains.

Size ??
24

Average Detrital Mineral Composition of

Shale and Sandstone
Mineral Composition Shale (%)

Sandstone (%)

Clay Minerals

60

Quartz

30

65

10-15

<5

15

<1

<3

<1

Feldspar
Rock Fragments
Carbonate
Organic Matter,
Hematite, and
Other Minerals

(modified from Blatt, 1982)

23

Sedimentation

25

Clastic Sedimentary Environments

Environment

Agent Of Transportation
Deposition

Sediments

Alluvial

Rivers

Sand, gravel, mud

Lake

Lake currents, waves

Sand, mud

Desert

Wind

Sand, dust

Glacial

Ice

Sand, gravel, mud

Delta

River + waves, tides

Sand, mud

Beach

Waves, tides

Sand, gravel

Shallow shelf

Waves, tides

Sand, mud

Deep sea

Ocean currents, settling

Sand, Mud

Organic Material =
27

Depositional Environment - Delta

Sediments are transported to the basins by rivers.

A common depositional environment is the delta where the river empties into the sea.
A good example of this is the Mississippi (Miocene and Oligocene sands)

28

Rivers

Some types of deposition occur in rivers and sand bars.

The river forms a channel where sands are deposited in
layers. Rivers carry sediment down from the mountains
which is then deposited in the river bed and on the flood
plains at either side.
Changes in the environment can cause these sands to be
overlain with a shale, trapping the reservoir rock.
29

Sandstone Composition
Framework Grains
Matrix
Framework

Qtz
Quartz

Qtz
Quartz

Pores
Qtz
Qtz
Qtz
Quartz

Ankerite

Cement
31

Porosity in Sandstone
Pore
Throat

Pores Provide the

Volume to Contain
Hydrocarbon Fluids
Pore Throats Restrict
Fluid Flow

Scanning Electron Micrograph

Norphlet Formation, Offshore Alabama, USA

32

Clay Minerals in Sandstone Reservoirs

Fibrous Authigenic Illite
Secondary Electron Micrograph
Significant
Permeability
Reduction

Illite

Negligible
Porosity
Reduction
High Irreducible
Water Saturation
Migration of
Fines Problem

Jurassic Norphlet Sandstone

Hatters Pond Field, Alabama, USA

(Photograph by R.L. Kugler)

33

Clay Minerals in Sandstone Reservoirs

Authigenic Chlorite
Secondary Electron Micrograph
Iron-Rich
Varieties React
With Acid
Occurs in Several
Deeply Buried
Sandstones With
High Reservoir
Quality
Occurs as Thin
Coats on Detrital
Grain Surfaces

34

Clay Minerals in Sandstone Reservoirs

Authigenic Kaolinite
Secondary Electron Micrograph

Significant Permeability
Reduction
High Irreducible Water
Saturation

Migration of Fines
Problem

Carter Sandstone
North Blowhorn Creek Oil Unit
Black Warrior Basin, Alabama, USA

(Photograph by R.L. Kugler)

35

Effects of Clays on Reservoir

Quality
Authigenic Chlorite

Authigenic Illite
Permeability (md)

100

1000
100

10

10
1
1
0.1

0.1
0.01

0.01
2

10

14

10

14

18

Porosity (%)
(modified from Kugler and McHugh, 1990)
36

Carbonate Reservoirs

Carbonates (limestone and dolomite) normally have a very

irregular structure.
Porosity:

Permeability:

Determined by the type of shells, etc. and by depositional

and post-depositional events (fracturing, leaching, etc.).

Determined by deposition and post-deposition events,

fractures.

Fractures can be very important in carbonate reservoirs.

37

Carbonate types

Chalk is a special form of limestone (CaCO3) and is

formed from the skeletons of small creatures
(cocoliths).
Dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2) is formed by the replacement
of some of the calcium by a lesser volume of
magnesium in limestone. Magnesium is smaller than
calcium, hence the matrix becomes smaller and more
porosity is created.

???

Evaporites such as Salt (NaCl) and Anhydrite

(CaSO4) can also form in these environments.

??
38

Depositional Environment
Carbonates

Carbonates are formed in shallow seas containing features such as:

Reefs.

Lagoons.

Shore-bars.

39

Diagenesis

The environment can also involve subsequent alterations of the rock

such as:

Chemical changes.
Diagenesis is the chemical alteration of a rock after burial. An example is the
replacement of some of the calcium atoms in limestone by magnesium to form
dolomite.

Mechanical changes - fracturing in a tectonically-active region.

40

Source Rocks

Hydrocarbon originates from minute organisms in seas and

lakes. When they die, they sink to the bottom where they form
organic-rich "muds" in fine sediments.
These "muds" are in a reducing environment or "kitchen", which
strips oxygen from the sediments leaving hydrogen and carbon.
The sediments are compacted to form organic-rich rocks with
very low permeability.
The hydrocarbon can migrate very slowly to nearby porous
rocks, displacing the original formation water.

42

Hydrocarbon Migration

Hydrocarbon migration takes place in two stages:

Primary migration - from the source rock to a porous rock.
This is a complex process and not fully understood.
It is probably limited to a few hundred metres.
Secondary migration - along the porous rock to the trap.
This occurs by buoyancy, capillary pressure and hydrodynamics
through a continuous water-filled pore system.
It can take place over large distances.

43

Structural Hydrocarbon Traps

Shale

Oil

Trap

Sea
l

Oil/Gas
Contact

Gas

Closure

Oil/Water
Contact
Oil

Fracture Basement

Salt
Dome

Fold Trap

Salt
Diapir

Oil

(modified from Bjorlykke, 1989)

Organic Matter in Sedimentary Rocks

Kerogen

Vitrinite

Disseminated Organic Matter in

Sedimentary Rocks That is Insoluble
in Oxidizing Acids, Bases, and
Organic Solvents.

Vitrinite
A nonfluorescent type of organic material
in petroleum source rocks derived
primarily from woody material.
The reflectivity of vitrinite is one of the
best indicators of coal rank and thermal
maturity of petroleum source rock.

Reflected-Light Micrograph
of Coal

44

Interpretation of Total Organic Carbon (TOC)

(based on early oil window maturity)
Hydrocarbon
Generation
Potential

TOC in Shale
(wt. %)

TOC in Carbonates
(wt. %)

Poor

0.0
- 0.5

0.0
- 0.2

Fair

0.5
- 1.0

0.2
- 0.5

Good

1.0
- 2.0

0.5
- 1.0

Very Good

2.0
- 5.0

1.0
- 2.0

>5.0

>2.0

Excellent

45

Basic Elements of Plate Tectonics

DIVERGENT BOUNDARY:
Seafloor spreading
Mid-ocean ridge

CONVERGENT BOUNDARY:
Plate subduction

Mountain building

Lithosphere

Magma rising

Asthenosphere
Magma
forming

Distribution of
earthquakes

Continental crust

Volcanism

Oceanic crust

Sedimentary Basin and

Stress Fields
Basin Geometries

Fault Types
Rift Related Basin
(Extensional Stress)
Normal fault

Sedimentary Fill

Foreland Basin
(Compressive Stress)
Thrust fault
Pull-apart Basin
(Lateral Stress)
Wrench fault
48

Folded Structures
Convex upward

?? Age

Anticline

Syncline

50

 Definitions
A fold is a bend in the strata.
An anticline is a fold that is convex upward. The
oldest beds occur in the center of an anticline.
A syncline is a fold that is concave upward. The
youngest beds occur in the center of a syncline.
A monocline (not shown) is composed of strata
that dip in one direction and are not known to form
a flank of an anticline.

Fold Terminology
N
b

m
Li

m
Li

Li

Anticline
Syncline
Modified from xxx)

Youngest
rock
Oldest rock

51

Faulting

Strike Slip Fault

(Left Lateral)

Dip Angle

St

rik
e

Fault Plane
54

Faults
Normal Fault

Reverse Fault
Strike direction

Strike direction

Key bed

F.W.

H.W.

rown

F.W.

Upth

n
ow
thr

own
nthr

arp

Dow

n
row

Sc

wn
Do

ult

Fa

th
Up

Fault scarp

Dip
angle

H.W.

Dip angle
Fault plane

Fracture: Joint and Fault

Fault plane

52

Geologic Reservoir Heterogeneity

56

Scales of Geological Reservoir Heterogeneity

Interwell
Area

Field Wide

Well

Well

Determined
From Well Logs,
Seismic Lines,
Statistical
Modeling,
etc.

100's
m

Interwell

1-10 km

Reservoir
Sandstone

10's
m

Well-Bore

100's m

10-100's
m

Petrographic or
Scanning Electron
Microscope

1-10's
m

10-100's
mm

Hand Lens or
Binocular Microscope

Unaided Eye

(modified from Weber, 1986)

57

Hydrocarbon Traps

Structural traps

Stratigraphic traps

Combination traps

58

Traps General

Ghawar Oilfield - Saudi Arabia- Ls - 145 mi x 13 mi wide x260 ft

produces 11,000 b/d total 82B bbls
Gasharan Oilfield - Iran - Ls - 6000ft. Net pay total 8.5 B bbls

59

Structural Hydrocarbon Traps

Shale

Oil

Trap

Sea
l

Oil/Gas
Contact

Gas

Closure

Oil/Water
Contact
Oil

Fracture Basement

Salt
Dome

Fold Trap

Salt
Diapir

Oil

(modified from Bjorlykke, 1989)

60

Fault Traps

Faults occur when the rock shears due to stresses. Reservoirs

often form in these fault zones.
A porous and permeable layer may trap fluids due to its location
alongside an impermeable fault or its juxtaposition alongside an
impermeable bed.
Faults are found in conjunction with other structures such as
Normal
Reverse Fault???
anticlines, domes and
salt or
domes.

Drag Faults - Wyoming,

most Rocky Mountains
Normal Faults - Nigeria,
Hibenia (E. Canada), Vicksburg
Trends (Victoria, TX)

61

Stratigraphic Traps
Michigan - Belle River Mills
Devonian reefs (Barriers and Atolls) Alberta CA. (Leduc & Redwater)
Midland Basin &Delaware Basin of
West TX - Barrier Reefs

Point Bars - Powder River Basin, WY, Clinton SS in Western Ok,

62

Petroleum ExplorationGeophysical Methods

Gravity methods

Magnetic surveys

Seismic surveys

64

Principle of Gravity Surveys

Uncorrected
Gravity
+1 Gravity
-1 Value (mgal)
-2
-3

Corrected Gravity
(Bouguer Anomaly)
Meter

Clastics
2.4 gm/cm3

Salt
2.1 gm/cm3

65

Principle of Magnetic Surveys

Sedimentary Basin
Basement

Magnetization
Measured
(from xxx, 19xx)

66

Seismic Surveys

The seismic tools commonly used in the oil

and gas industry are 2-D and 3-D seismic
data
Seismic data are used to:
Define and map structural folds and faults
Identify stratigraphic variations and map sedimentary
facies
Infer the presence of hydrocarbons

67

Pre-Drilling Knowledge
Exploration

Structural information obtained from surface seismic data.

Rough geological information can be provided by nearby
wells or outcrops.
Approximate depths estimated from surface seismic data.

68

Marine Acquisition System

Boat
Sea Surface
Source
(Airguns)
Incident
waves

Cable with hydrophones

Reflected
waves

Sea bed
Sedimentary Layers

69

Crossline 470 (East)

N

S
Seal (unconformity)
Reservoirs

Source

70

Applications of Seismic Data

Make a structural model of the reservoir

Delineate and map reservoir-quality rocks
Establish gas/water contacts

71

- 12 6
0

Structural Map, VLE 196 Field

2

-1

-1

28
0 0

30
00

-1

- 12600

-1

22
0

-1 2
4 0 0

-1 2 4
0 0

Structural interpretation
based on 3-D seismic
and well log data

-1 1 6 0 0

-1

00

26
-1

24

1400

-1

00

-1

0
-12

Top Misoa C-4 Sand

Elevation (ft) N

00

00

- 12400

-1

30

00

-12,800
-13,200

00

-12,400
-12,800

-12,000
-12,400

t
F a u l
4 0 0
V L E

-11,600
-12,000

-1
26

- 11 6 0 0

- 11800

11,400
-11,600

40

60

12

- 1
2

0
40

3000 ft
1000 m

-1
2

- 11 60 0

Sea-level datum

80

- 1

28

12

72
00
- 128

Channels

Seismic
Amplitude
Map
of a
Horizon
3-D Seismic data
define reservoirquality,channel-fill
sand deposits

Modified from Brown, 1996

73

Fluid Level Boundaries on 3-D

Data
Not Interpreted

Flat spot on seismic line indicates

petroleum / water contact

Interpreted

Fault
Modified from Brown, 1996

74

Exercise 1
1. Oil forms at lower temperatures than gas. T_____ F ______
2.The law of (original horizontality, uniformitarianism, superpos
ition) states that, in a normal
sedimentary sequence, younger layers occur on top of olders.layer
3.The largest division of geologic time is the (era, eon, period,
epoch).
4.Hydrocarbons are most abundant in (metamorphic, igneous, sedimen
tary) rocks.
5. The most abundant sedimentary rock type is shale. T____ F__
____
6. Name 3 clay minerals common in sandstone reservoirs
A. _____________________ B.____________________
7.

C. _________ ___________

Clastic rocks are formed from the materials of older rocks

the by
actions of
erosion,
transportation
and __________________.
Clastic rocks are sedimentary. T___ F____

8.

Name two non

-clastic sedimentary rocks. A.______________ B.________________

9.

Alluvial, desert, delta, beach and shallow shelf sediment make

he best
t reservoirs

10.

T_______ F_______

Exercise 2
1.

1. Diagenesis is the chemical alteration of a rock after burial. T___ F ___

2.

(Magnesium, Iron, or Sulfate) must be in the formation water in order to convert

limestone to dolomite.

3.

Limestone is (CaCO3 or Ca(CO3)2).

4.

Dolomite is MgCaCO3 or MgCa(CO3)2.

5.

Reef deposits are classified as (clastic, carbonate) sedimentary rocks.

6.

The source rock must contain (organic material, coal, methane).

7.

Fault and anticline traps occur only in gas wells. T___ F___

8.

The oil water contact can be observed using seismic T___ F___

9.

(Historical, structural, tectonic) geology addresses the occurrence and origin of

smaller scale deformational features, such as folds and faults, that may be
involved in hydrocarbon migration or which may form structural hydrocarbon traps.

10.

Good quality sandstone reservoirs normally contain ~(1-10 or 25-30% silt and
clay).

81

Exercise 3
N
4

Well
4

2
1

b
Well

d
82

 Circle the correct answer or label the drawing as directed.

1. Figure a is a (normal, strike-slip, lateral) fault.
2. If a well is drilled as shown on block a the target
sandstone will most likely be missing. T ___ F ___
3. Figure b is a(n) (lateral fold, anticline, syncline).
4. In Figure b, layer 1 = salt, 2 = sandstone, 3 = shale, and
4=limestone. On the figure, indicate the layer that is most
likely have trapped hydrocarbon.
5. Figure c is a(n) (right, left) lateral fault.
6. On Figure d, the structure is a (normal fault, reverse,
strike-slip) fault.
7. A well drilled at the location shown on Figure d will find
strata (repeated, missing).

Exercise 4
1.

2.

3.
3.

4.

5.

Hydrocarbons reservoirs are normally in (igneous, metamorphic,

sedimentary) rocks.
Fluorescence of drill cuttings or core indicates (oil, gas, water) is
present.
Reservoir traps are (very impermeable, highly permeable).
What are 2 uses of seismic data in petroleum exploration and
development?
1.

________________________________________________

2.

_________________________________________________

In inclined reservoir rocks, what is the significance of a flat spot

in seismic sections?
What is a 4-D seismic evaluation?

83

Basic Geologic Principles

Uniformitarianism - The present is the key to the

past.
Original Horizonality - Sedimentary layers are
deposited in a horizontal or nearly horizontal position.
Superposition - Younger sedimentary beds occur on
top of older beds, unless they have been overturned or
faulted.
Cross-Cutting Relations - Any geologic feature that
cuts another geologic feature is younger than the
feature that it cuts.

The following are basic principles or laws are used to evaluate the
relative ages and the relations among rock layers.
Uniformitarianism - The present is the key to the past. By studying
modern geologic processes, we can interpret past geologic events and
rock-forming processes.
Original Horizonality - Sedimentary layers are deposited in a
horizontal or nearly horizontal position. If sedimentary layers are tilted
or folded, they have been subjected to deforming stresses.
Superposition - Younger sedimentary beds occur on top of older
beds, unless they have been overturned or faulted.
Cross-Cutting Relations - Any geologic feature that cuts another
geologic feature is younger than the feature that it cuts.

KLASIFIKASI BATUAN
Batuan merupakan agregat padat yang terdiri dari
mineral atau mineraloid, kebanyakan batuan terdiri
atas beberapa jenis mineral (mineral, gelas,
ubahan mineral organik, dan kombinasi dari
komponen-komponen tersebut) (Ernest G. Ehlers &
Harvey Blatt, 1980).
Batuan didefinisikan juga sebagai kumpulan
mineral alamiah yang terkristalkan oleh proses
pembentukan batuan (Huckenholz, 1982).

BERDASARKAN GENESA DAN

KOMPOSISI

Batuan Beku
Batuan Piroklastik
Batuan Sedimen
Batuan Metamorf

Distribusi batuan di bumi :

Batuan beku di kerak bumi bagian atas
Batuan sedimen di permukaan
Batuan metamorf di inti dalam, mantel,
kerak bumi bagian bawah

BATUAN BEKU

Batuan beku adalah batuan yang terbentuk

akibat membekunya magma pada waktu
perjalannya menuju ke permukaan bumi.

Hasil dari pembekuan magma tersebut

membentuk berbagai jenis mineral yang
mengikuti aturan tingkat diferensiasi dari
magma.

Magma adalah cairan silikat yang panas dan

pijar yang terdiri atas unsur-unsur O, Si, Al, Fe,
Mg, Ca, Na, K dan sebagainya.

 Komposisi batuan beku dapat dibedakan

dari komposisi secara mineralogi.:
Mineral utama (olivin, piroksen, felspar,
kuarsa, plagioklas, dsb)
Mineral tambahan: mineral yang terbentuj dari
kristalisasi magma tapi kehadirannya sedikit
(contoh: apatit, rutil, mineral bijih, dsb)
Mineral sekunder: mineral hasil ubahan dari
mineral-mineral primer (contoh: klorit, epidot,
dll)

Kimiawi
Unsur utama (major element): seperti
unsur oksoda SiO2, Al2O3, dll.
Unsur jejak (trace element): seperti Sr,
Rb, Ba, dll.
Unsur tanah jarang (rare earth element):
seperti La, Ce, Pr, dll.

Klasifikasi batuan beku:

Pada dasarnya klasifikasi batuan beku didasarkan pada
tekstur dan mineralogi.

a. Berdasarkan tekstur:
IUGS (International Union of Geological
Sciences) membagi batuan beku berdasarkan
pada besar butir:
Batuan fanerik diklasifikasikan sebagai batuan plutonik,
dimana butirannya kasar, sehingga secara individu dapat
dibedakan, berbutir kasar-sedang (> 1 mm). Kristal-krital
yang lebih besar (fenokris) tertanam dalam masa dasar yang
lebih halus (Gambar 2). Klasifikasi batuan fanerik dilakukan
oleh IUGS, 1973 (Gambar 3).
Batuan afanitik diklasifikasikan sebagai batuan vulkanik,
dimana ukuran mineralnya terlalu kecil untuk dibedakan,
umumnya berbutir haus (< 1mm). Klasifikasi batuan ini dapat
dilihat pada Gambar 4.

Berdasarkan mineralogi (Gambar 5)

Dasar klasifikasi:
Komposisi (%) mineral utama
Kimiawi:

silika (% SiO2) :

ultrabasa (SiO2 < 45%)

basa (SiO2 45 52%)

intermediate (SiO2 52 66%)
asam (SiO2 > 66%)

alumina saturation

peralumina : jenuh terhadap alumina (Al2O3 > Na2O + K2O +CaO)

peralkaline : oksida alkalin > oksida alumina
subalumina : oksida alumina =/> oksida alkalin (Na2O + K2O)
metalumina : oksida alumina =/> Na2O + K2O +CaO

color index proporsi mineral felsik dan mafik

Batuan Piroklastik adalah batuan hasil letusan

gunungapi. Terdiri atas material-material
piroklastik, yaitu pecahan gelas/abu/debu
gunungapi, kristal, lithik.
Klasifikasi batuan piroklastik:
Pada dasarnya pembagian batuan piroklastik
didasarkan pada ukuran butir. Penamaan: tuf, tuf
lapili, breksi piroklastik atau breksi vulkanik
(Gambar 6). Untuk yang berbutir halus (<4 mm):
tuff gelas, tuf kristal, tuf lithik (Tabel 1).

UKURAN
CLAST
(PECAHAN)
> 64 mm

PIROKLAS
Bomb
Block

2 - 64 mm

Lapillus / Lapili

< 2 1/16 mm

Butiran debu
kasar
Butiran debu
halus

< 1/16 mm

ENDAPAN
PIROKLASTIK

NAMA BATUAN

Lapisan
bom/blok atau
tefra bom/blok
Lapisan lapili
atau tefra lapili
Debu kasar

Aglomerat, breksi
piroklastik

Debu halus

Tuf debu halus

Lapillitone / tuf
lapili
Tuf debu kasar

 Selain batuan piroklastik ini juga dikenal

batuan epiklastik, yaitu batuan yang
terbentuk dari campuran atau rombakan
material-material batuan piroklastik
(vulkanik) (Gambar 7). Contoh: batupasir
vulkanik, tuf pasiran, dll.

BATUAN SEDIMEN

Batuan sedimen adalah batuan yang

berasal dari rombakan batuan yang telah
ada yang telah mengalami siklus
sedimentasi (pelapukan-transportasisedimentasi-diagenesa) (Gambar 9).

 Komposisi batuan sedimen:

Fragmen mineral/batuan hasil rombakan (terigen)
Material hasil proses kimiawi (material auttigenik), contoh:
karbonat, fosfat.
Material allochem (rombakan hasil presipitasi terdahulu),
contoh: fosil, mineral organik, dll.

 Penggolongan batuan sedimen

Batuan sedimen dapat diklasifikasikan
berdasarkan beberapa cara:
Berdasarkan proses pembentukannya (Gambar 10):
Sedimentasi mekanis, contoh batulanau,
batulempung, batupasir, dll.
Sedimentasi organis, contoh batubara, batugamping
terumbu, batugamping bioklastik, dll
Sedimentasi kimiawi, contoh batugamping kristalin,
dolomit, batugamping oolith, gips, anhidrit, dll.

? Berdasarkan asal-usulnya:
Klastik terigenous
Rudit, arenit, lutit

Endapan biokimia
Pengendapan
biogenik organik
kimia
Batugamping,
Ironstones,
dolomit,
rijang, evaporit
fosfat, batubara

Volkaniklastik
Tufa, aglomerat

Batuan Sedimen Berdasarkan

Tekstur

Berdasarkan teksturnya dibagi menjadi

dua, yaitu yang bertekstur klastik
(berdasarkan mekanisme
pengendapan), dan batuan yang
bertekstur non klastik (kristalin).

Batuan Sedimen Klastik

Terdiri atas material detritus (hasil

rombakan / pecahan), memperlihatkan
tekstur klastik. Ukuran butir halus
kasar (Gambar 11), dibagi berdasarkan
skala yang dinyatakan oleh Wentworth
(Gambar 12).

Unsur-unsur tekstur batuan sedimen klastik:

Butiran (grain) : klastik yang tertransport yang disebut sebagai fragmen.

Matriks (masa dasar) : lebih halus dari fragmen/butiran, mengisi rongga antar fragmen,
diendapkan bersama-sama dengan fragmen.
Semen : berukuran halus, mengikat butiran/fragmen dan matriks, diendapkan ditempat
sedimentasi setelah fragmen dan matriks.
Pemilahan (sorting) : derajat kesamaan atau keseragaman butir. Dinyatakan dalam skala baik,
sedang, atau buruk.
Porositas : perbandingan volume pori terhadap volume batuan secara keseluruhan. Biasanya
dinyatakan dalam % atau dalam kualitas (baik, sedang atau buruk). Batuan dengan butir yang
seragam (terpilah baik) akan mempunyai porositas yang relatif lebih besar dari batuan dengan
pemilahan buruk. Clay memiliki porositas yang paing besar, lalu batupasir dan kemudian breksi
atau konglomerat.
Kebundaran : menyatakan kebundaran atau ktajaman butiran yang mencerminkan tingkat abrasi
selama transportasi. Merupakan sifat permukaan dari butiran yang disebabkan oleh pengaruh
transportasi terhadap butiran.
Kemas (fabric) : merupakan sifat hubungan antar butir sebagai fungsi orientasi atau packing.
Dinyatakan dalam skala terbuka (kontak antar butiran tidak bersentuhan) dan tertutup (kontak
antar butiran saling bersentuhan).
Permeabilitas : kemampuan batuan meloloskan fluida, yang mencerminkan poriyang saling
berhubungan. Batupasir merupakan batuan dengan permeabilitas yang baik, sedangkan clay
walaupun memiliki porositas baik tapi permeabilitasnya yang buruk. Karena mineral dalam clay
termasuk kedalam minera pirosilika yang bersifat konduktif, sehingga clay ini mengikat kation
yang akan mengikat OH. Oleh karena itu clay memiliki sifat swelling (dapat mengembang bila
terkena air), yang menyebabkan resistivity dari clay ini sangat rendah (Gambar 13).
Struktur sedimen : penyimpangan dari bidang perlapisan. Struktur sedimen ini mencerminkan
mekanisme yang mempengaruhi pengendapan batuan sedimen. Contoh: strutur sedimen pada
mekanisme arus turbidit yang dinyatakan oleh Bouma dalam Sikuen Bouma.

Batuan Sedimen Non-Klastik

Umumnya tersusun atas mineral autigenik

(terbentuk di tempat sedimentasi). Pada P dan
T tertentu seringkali memperlihatkan gejala
diagenesa, akibatnya porositas batuan
menjadi sangat rendah atau bakhan tidak ada.
Porositas primer rendah dan memperlihatkan
tekstur mozaik (contoh batugamping). Kadangkadang terdapat butiran yang amorf (seperti
kalsedon dan opal) sebagai semen.

Batuan Sedimen Kimiawi

Terbentuk akibat peranan/pengaruh

proses-proses kimia dari larutan. Terdiri
atas batuan karbonat dan batuan
evaporit.

Batuan Karbonat

Batuan karbonat adalah batuan sedimen yang

mempunyai komposisi garam-garam karbonat
yang dominan (> 50%). Proses
pembentukannya dapat secara insitu, berasal
dari larutan yang mengalami proses kimiawi
maupun biokimiawi.
Komposisi kimia dan mineralogi batuan
karbonat:

Aragonit (CaCO3 orthorombik)

Kalsit (CaCO3 hexagonal)
Dolomit (CaMg(CO3)2)
Magnesit (Mg CO3)

Porositas batuan karbonat:

Ada dua macam klasifikasi porositas dalam
batuan karbonat:
menurut Murray (1960) merupakan klasifikasi
berdasarkan pada genesa, dibagi menjadi:
Porositas primer : terbentuk pada saat sedimentasi
berlangsung. Terdiri atas porositas kerangka framework porosity), porositas lumpur (mud porosity), dan
porositas pasir (sand porosity).
Porositas sekunder : terbentuk setelah pengendapan,
akibat pelarutan, rekahan atau perubahan yang
terjadi setelah proses sedimentasi.
Sucrose dolomite porosity : terbentuk sebagai akibat
adanya penggantian kalsit oleh dolomit.

menurut Choquette anfd Pray (1970)

merupakan klasifikasi deskriptif dan
genetik. Unsur-0unsurnya terdiri atas:

Basic porosity types:

fabric selective : interpartikel, intrapartikel,

interkristalin, moldic, fenestral, shelter, growth
framework.
Non fabric selective : fracture, channel, vuggy,
cavern
Fabric selective or not : breccia, boring, burrow,
shrinkage.

Modifying terms : genetic modifiers, size

modifiers, abundance modifiers.

Klasifikasi batuan karbonat

Klasifikasi dalam batuan karbonat antara lain
dikemukakan oleh Grabau (1913), Folk (1953),
Pettijohn (1957), Dunham (1962), Embry and
Klovan (1972), dll.
Klasifikasi yang banyak digunakan dalam
penggolongan batuan karbonat adalah
klasifikasi menurut Dunham, dan Embry and
Klovan, karena klasifikasi ini cukup sederhana
dan mudah dalam pemnakaiannya.

Klasifikasi Dunham (1962)

Klasifikasi ini didasarkan pada tekstur
pengendapan (Gambar 17). Faktor yang
penting dalam klasifikasi ini adalah:
Butiran didukung lumpur (mud supported)
Butiran saling menyangga (grain
supported)
Sebagian butiran didukung lumpur,
sebagian butiran saling menyangga
(parteil)

Klasifikasi Embry and Klovan

(1972)
Merupakan modifikasi dari klasifikasi
Dunham, didasarkan pada terdapatnya
lumpur diantara kerangka atau pecahan
kerangka (Gambar 14).

Batuan Evaporit

Merupakan batuan garam yang terbentuj

jarena evaporasi air laut.. Mineral
penyusunnya bersifat monomineralik,
antara lain: garam (CaSO4 2H2O),
anhidrit (CaSO4), dan halit (NaCl)

BATUAN METAMORF

Batuan metamorf adalah batuan yang

terbentuk akibat proses perubahan
tekanan (P) dan temperatur (T) atau
keduanya, dimana batuan memasuki
kesetimbangan baru tanpa adanya
perubahan komposisi kimia (isokimia)
dan tanpa melalui fasa cair (dalam
keadaan padat) dengan temperatur
berkisar 200-800 C.

Perubahan yang terjadi dalam proses

metamorfosa: perubahan tekstur dan struktur
(yang merefleksikan sejarah pembentukkannya);
dan asosiasi mineral.
Struktur batuan metamorf:
Struktur foliasi (schistosity) struktur paralel
yang ditimbulkan oleh mineral pipih/mineral
prismatik, seringkali terjadi pada metamorfosa
regional dan metamorfosa kataklastik.
Struktur non foliasi struktur yang dibentuk
oleh mineral-mineral yang equidimensional,
seringkali terjadi pada metamorfosa termal.

Beberapa struktur batuan

metamorf:
Yang bersifat foliasi:

Slaty cleavage planar, dijumpai bidang belah batu sabak/slate.

Filitik rekristalisasi lebih kasar dari slaty cleavage.
Shistose struktur perulangan dari mineral pipih dan mineral
granular dimana mineral pipih orientasinya menerus (tidak terputus).
Gneisose struktur perulangan dari mineral pipih dan mineral
granular dimana mineral pipih orientasinya terputus, sering disebut
close schistosity.
Milonitik menunjukan goresan-goresan akibat penggerusan yang
kuat.
Filonitik gejala dan kenampakan sama dengan milonitik, hanya
disini butirannya lebih halus.

Yang bersifat non foliasi:

Granulose terdiri atas mineral granular
Hornfelsik identik dengan granoblastik, tapi mineral
equidimensional. Lepidoblastik terdiri atas mineral
pipih/tabular
Nematoblastik terdiri atas mineral prismatik
Granoblastik terdiri atas mineral granular
Homeoblastik terdiri atas satu tekstur saja
Heteroblastik terdiri atas beberapa tekstur
Relic (sisa) tekstur sisa yang terbentuk sebelum
metamorfosa
Kristaloblastik setiap tekstur yang terbentuk pada saat
metamorfosa
Awalan meta bila masih dikenali sifat batuan
asalnya, seperti metasedimen, metavolkanik, dll.

CONTINENTAL SEDIMENTARY ENVIRONMENTS

Copyright
ALLUVIAL FAN

1998 Pamela J. W. Gore

FLUVIAL

LACUSTRINE

DESERT (DUNES)

PALUDAL

Rock Type

Breccia,
conglomerate,
arkose

Conglomerate,
sandstone,
siltstone, shale

Siltstone, shale, limestone, or

evaporites (gypsum)

Quartz arenite
(sandstone) or
gypsum

Peat, coal,
black shale,
siltstone

Composition

Terrigenous

Terrigenous

Terrigenous, carbonate, or
evaporite

Terrigenous or
evaporite

Terrigenous

Color

Brown or red

Brown or red

Black, brown, gray, green

Yellow, red, tan,

white

Black, gray,
or brown

Grain Size

Clay to gravel

Clay to gravel
(Fining upward)

Clay to silt or sand

(Coarsening upward)

Sand

Clay to silt

Grain Shape

Angular

Rounded to
angular

---

Rounded

---

Sorting

Poor

Variable

Variable

Good

Variable

Inorganic
Sedimentary
Structures

Cross-bedding and
graded bedding

Asymmetrical
ripples, crossbedding, graded
bedding, tool
marks

Symmetrical ripples,
lamination, cross-bedding,
graded bedding, mudcracks,
raindrop prints

Cross-bedding

Laminated
to massive

Organic or
Biogenic
Sedimentary
Structures

---

Tracks,
trails,burrows

Tracks, trails, burrows, rare

stromatolites

Tracks, trails

Root
marks,
burrows

Fossils

---

Rare freshwater
shells, bones, plant
fragments

Freshwater shells, fish,

bones, plant fragments

---

Plant
fossils, rare
freshwater
shells,
bones, fish

MARINE SEDIMENTARY ENVIRONMENTS

Copyright
REEF

1998 Pamela J. W. Gore

CONTINENTAL
SHELF

CONTINENTAL SLOPE AND

RISE

ABYSSAL PLAIN

Rock Type

Fossiliferous
limestone

Sandstone, shale,
siltstone, fossiliferous
limestone, oolitic
limestone

Litharenite, siltstone, and shale (or

limestone)

Shale, chert, micrite,

chalk, diatomite

Composition

Carbonate

Terrigenous or
carbonate

Terrigenous or carbonate

Terrigenous or
carbonate

Color

Gray to white

Gray to brown

Gray, green, brown

Black, white red

Grain Size

Variable,
frameworks, few to
no grains

Clay to sand

Clay to sand

Clay

Grain Shape

---

---

---

---

Sorting

---

Poor to good

Poor

Good

Inorganic
Sedimentary
Structures

---

Lamination, crossbedding

Graded bedding, cross-bedding,

lamination, flute marks, tool marks
(turbidites)

Lamination

Organic or
Biogenic
Sedimentary
Structures

---

Trails, burrows

Trails, burrows

Trails, burrows

Fossils

Corals, marine
shells

Marine shells

Marine shells, rare plant fragments

Marine shells
(mostly microscopic)

TRANSITIONAL SEDIMENTARY ENVIRONMENTS

Copyright
DELTA

1998 Pamela J. W. Gore

BARRIER BEACH

LAGOON

TIDAL FLAT

Rock Type

Sandstone, siltstone,
shale, coal

Quartz arenite, coquina

Siltstone, shale, limestone,

oolitic limestone or gypsum

Siltstone, shale,
calcilutite, dolostone or
gypsum

Composition

Terrigenous

Terrigenous or
carbonate

Terrigenous, carbonate, or
evaporite

Terrigenous,
carbonate, or evaporite

Color

Brown, black, gray,

green, red

White to tan

Dark gray to black

Gray, brown, tan

Grain Size

Clay to sand
(Coarsening upward

Sand

Clay to silt

Clay to silt

Grain Shape

---

Rounded to angular

---

---

Sorting

Poor

Good

Poor

Variable

Inorganic
Sedimentary
Structures

Cross-bedding, graded
bedding

Cross-bedding,
symmetrical ripples

Lamination, ripples, crossbedding

Lamination,
mudcracks, ripples,
cross-bedding

Organic or
Biogenic
Sedimentary
Structures

Trails, burrows

Tracks, trails, burrows

Trails, burrows

Stromatolites, trails,
tracks, burrows

Fossils

Plant fragments, shells

Marine shells

Marine shells

Marine shells