Pleistocene Human Settlement in The Southeastern United States Current Evidence and Future Directions

PaleoAmerica
A journal of early human migration and dispersal
ISSN: 2055-5563 (Print) 2055-5571 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/ypal20
Pleistocene Human Settlement in the

Southeastern United States: Current Evidence and
Future Directions
David G. Anderson, Ashley M. Smallwood & D. Shane Miller
To cite this article: David G. Anderson, Ashley M. Smallwood & D. Shane Miller (2015)
Pleistocene Human Settlement in the Southeastern United States: Current Evidence and
Future Directions, PaleoAmerica, 1:1, 7-51, DOI: 10.1179/2055556314Z.00000000012
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1179/2055556314Z.00000000012
Published online: 28 Jan 2015.
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Date: 14 April 2016, At: 02:31
REVIEW ARTICLE
Pleistocene Human Settlement in the

Southeastern United States: Current Evidence
and Future Directions
David G. Anderson
University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN
Ashley M. Smallwood
Downloaded by [151.42.85.249] at 02:31 14 April 2016
University of West Georgia, Carrollton, GA
D. Shane Miller
Mississippi State University, Starkville, MS
Research into the earliest occupations in the southeastern United States has been underway since the 1930s,
when a pattern of large-scale excavations combined with the reporting of surface finds was initiated that
continues to this day. Work at Macon Plateau and Parrish Village, excavated during the New Deal, was
followed by a series of stratigraphic excavations in floodplains, rockshelters, and other locales from the 1940s
onward. These early studies produced a basic cultural sequence, portions of which were defined by crossdating findings from the Southeast with discoveries made in other parts of the country. The Southeast is
unique in that surveys of fluted projectile points have been conducted in every state, some since the 1940s.
These surveys now encompass a wider range of projectile points and other tool forms, and the large
numbers of Paleoindian artifacts found in the region suggest intensive occupation. Whether these quantities
reflect the presence of large numbers of early people, or of modern collectors and extensive agriculture,
remains the subject of appreciable debate. The regional radiocarbon record is fairly robust for the latter end
of the period, but far more sample collection, analysis, and interpretation is needed. The regional literature is
burgeoning, with research being conducted in every state, much of it funded by CRM activity.
Keywords Southeastern United States, Pre-Clovis, Clovis, Paleoindian, Younger Dryas, Dalton
1. Introduction
Paleoindian archaeology in the Americas has undergone a renaissance in recent years, with an ever
increasing number of projects and reports encompassing fieldwork at new sites and survey areas; the use of
big data combined with sophisticated analytical
methods to pull new information from old sites and
collections; a renewed interest in nuanced, theoretically grounded colonization and subsistence models;
and above all a flood of articles, detailed site reports,
synthetic overviews, and topically oriented edited
volumes. Researchers in the southeastern United
States are making major contributions in all of these
areas. In this paper, we outline the history and
current state of research on Paleoindian archaeology
Correspondence to: David G. Anderson. Email: dander19@utk.edu
2015 W. S. Maney & Son Ltd

and the Center for the Study of the First Americans
DOI 10.1179/2055556314Z.00000000012
and the nature of the landscape at the end of the

Pleistocene in the region, together with a state by
state breakdown of key sites, dates, and datasets available for researchers. We conclude with a brief discussion of our thoughts on where future research could
be conducted to increase our understanding of the
regional record. Absolute calendar dates herein are
based on the IntCal13 calibration (Reimer et al.
2013), save where actual radiocarbon dates are presented, and the end of the Pleistocene, by geological
convention, is equated with the end of the Younger
Dryas chronozone, currently placed at 11,700 cal yr
BP based on evidence from the Greenland ice core
records (Walker et al. 2009).
Pleistocene human occupations in the Southeast
are characterized in this paper using Early, Middle,
and Late Paleoindian period designations, comprising
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Pleistocene Human Settlement in the Southeastern United States
Anderson et al.
Figure 1 A timeline and key diagnostic Paleoindian projectile points from the southeastern United States (Individual point
images courtesy of James M. Adovasio, Pete Bostrom/Lithics Casting Laboratory, John B. Broster, James S. Dunbar, Albert C.
Goodyear, R. Jerald Ledbetter, Joseph McAvoy, and David K. Thulman; graphic prepared by Stephen J. Yerka).
the Pre-Clovis (>13,250 cal yr BP), Clovis (ca.

13,25012,850 cal yr BP), and post-Clovis fluted and
unfluted (ca. 12,85011,700 cal yr BP) assemblages
found in the region (Figure 1). While use of these intervals has been advocated for some time (e.g.,
Anderson 2001: 15256, 2004: 11922, 2005: 3233;
Anderson and Sassaman 2012: 5), there is no consistency in the use of these terms across the region. The
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most widely used framework comes from a synthesis

of southeastern Paleoindian archaeology (Anderson
1990a: 164165; Anderson and Sassaman 1996a;
Anderson et al. 1996: 913) written in 1990, before
the existence of Pre-Clovis sites was widely accepted,
an effective radiocarbon calibration reaching back
into the late Pleistocene had been developed, and
fairly precise dating of late Pleistocene chronozones
Anderson et al.
existed. In that framework, Early Paleoindian was

equated with the occurrence of Clovis projectile
points, Middle Paleoindian with post-Clovis fluted
and unfluted lanceolate and waisted forms, and
Late Paleoindian with Dalton and related types.
The problem with that framework is that it is based
on projectile point classifications and inferred temporal ranges that are often ill-defined, overlapping,
and in some casessuch as the occurrence of
fluting or various lanceolate formsvaried appreciably in spatial extent and duration over the region.
Fluting, for example, continues to occur much later
in northern parts of eastern North America than in
the south (Bradley et al. 2008; Ellis 2004; Miller
and Gingerich 2013a, 2013b; OBrien et al. 2014:
103).
Using precisely delimited temporal ranges that are
also closely tied to major changes in climate and
culture, we argue, is a more appropriate way to
organize Paleoindian assemblages than the earlier
approach. Accordingly, herein, the Late Paleoindian
period is equated with the Younger Dryas climate
episode, currently fairly tightly dated to
12,85011,700 cal yr BP (Bousman and Vierra 2012:
5; Fiedel 2015; Walker et al. 2009). The Middle
Paleoindian period is equated with the interval
during which Clovis assemblages are widespread
over North America, from 13,250 to 12,850 cal yr
BP (using Waters and Staffords (2007: 1123)
maximum temporal range for Clovis for the beginning
and the onset of the Younger Dryas for the end). The
Early Paleoindian period corresponds to everything
prior to 13,250 cal yr BP. Waters and Stafford (2013)
have recently suggested this interval be called the
Exploration Period. While we accept their logic for
such a period, we prefer Early Paleoindian because it
is more neutral and because we do not really know
how much exploration as opposed to settlement or
settling into particular areas had occurred prior to
13,250 cal yr BP. We recognize that these intervals
may shift somewhat as both the dating of the
Younger Dryas onset and the beginning of Clovis
are more precisely determined, and as the radiocarbon
calibration is refined, but they are based on our best
current evidence (cf. Dasovich and Doran 2011;
Dunbar 2007; Faught and Waggoner 2012; Fiedel
2015; Prasciunas and Surovell 2015; Walker et al.
2009; Waters and Stafford 2007; Webb and Dunbar
2006). The Younger Dryas onset, in particular,
serves as a well-defined boundary separating Middle
and Late Paleoindian periods in this framework; if
Clovis peoples and their associated assemblages continued into the Younger Dryas for a time in some
places, they still occur within what is here called the
Late Paleoindian period. The end of the Younger
Dryas, about 11,700 cal yr BP, corresponding to the
end of the Pleistocene epoch and the Late

Paleoindian subperiod in the Southeast, is more
appropriate than the 11,450 cal yr BP used in previous
cultural sequences that were based, in part, on an
earlier geological convention for the onset of the
Holocene, 10,000 14C yr BP, or roughly 11,450 cal yr
BP when calibrated (Hageman 1969; Harland et al.
1989; Walker et al. 2009).
Archaeologists in the Southeast face the same challenges confronting researchers throughout the
Americas, and it is clear we are living in exciting
times. The origins of the first inhabitants are being
explored with great care at a number of sites through
large-scale, multiyear excavation projects, and the
regions Middle and Late Paleoindian (i.e., Clovis
and post-Clovis) record is arguably the densest in the
Americas in terms of the numbers of recorded sites
and artifact varieties. While genetic evidence indicates
Americas first peoples came from eastern Asia sometime after the Last Glacial Maximum (e.g., Chatters
et al. 2014; Rasmussen et al. 2014), some researchers
argue for a much greater antiquity and different
origins (e.g., Goodyear 2005; Lowery et al. 2010;
Stanford and Bradley 2002, 2012; Straus et al. 2005).
This debate has a long history in the Southeast, with
early technologies intermittently reported, including
cobble tools, Levallois-like cores and flakes, and as
of yet untyped bifaces or bipoints (Ensor 2013;
Hranicky 2012; Lively 1965a, 1965b; Stanford and
Bradley 2012; Stanford and Stenger 2014). The overview that follows indicates that while much has been
learned about the lifeways and dating of these first
peoples, there are still many questions that require
further investigation. The locations of all sites from
the region mentioned in the text are given in Figure 2.
2. Late Pleistocene environments in the

Southeast
While culture areas change over time and were certainly different in the late Pleistocene, for the purposes
of this paper we define the Southeast following
modern understanding of the region, as encompassing
the area loosely bounded on the north by the Ohio and
Potomac Rivers, on the west by the Mississippi River
and areas just to the west, and on the south and east
by the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean. This
includes portions or all of the modern states of
Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky,
Louisiana, Mississippi, North Carolina, South
Carolina, Tennessee, and Virginia, although given
changes in sea-level, drainage, subsidence and
rebound, and vegetation and animal populations, the
region was appreciably different in the late
Pleistocene (Figure 3). Physiography and biota,
which were changing dramatically in the late
Pleistocene in response to the onset of the current
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Figure 2 Archaeological sites mentioned in the text in relation to major modern physiographic features.
interglacial, would have profoundly shaped settlement

in the region. The margins of the region, including the
extensive embayment of the Mississippi, were lowlying, minimally dissected coastal plains. Their
extent and outer margins fluctuated in response to
global sea level, with transgression in the primary
trend, albeit with some reversals, after ca.
19,000 cal yr BP through the early Holocene.
Relative sea-level stabilization did not occur until ca.
5,000 cal yr BP, when intensive human use of the
coastal margin is first documented in the region
(Anderson et al. 2013a; Balsillie and Donoghue
2004; Harris et al. 2013; Russo 1996; Sassaman
2010). Further into the interior of the Southeast, the
terrain has greater relief and is dominated by the
hills, plateaus, and mountains of the Piedmont,
Ridge and Valley, Blue Ridge, and the Appalachian
and Interior Low Plateaus. Save where bisected by
drainages and gaps, movement would have been
more difficult than in lower lying areas.
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Drainages in the Southeast trend for the most part

to the east and southeast in the Atlantic Coastal
Plain and Piedmont; to the east and west in peninsular
Florida; and to the south, southwest, and west in the
Gulf Coastal Plain and Piedmont. The divide
between the Atlantic and Gulf drainages occurs in
central Georgia between the Ocmulgee and Flint
Rivers, and while archaeological exploration of the
area remains relatively poor, it appears to have been
a locus of appreciable settlement in the Paleoindian
period (Anderson et al. 1990, 1994; Smallwood et al.
in press; Snow 1977a, 1977b). In the Interior Low
and Appalachian Plateaus, major drainages such as
the Cumberland and Tennessee flow to the west, and
north into the Ohio, while drainages further west
flow into the Mississippi or the Gulf of Mexico.
Patterns of interaction, including the location of and
movement along trails, were undoubtedly profoundly
shaped by regional physiography (Anderson 1990a:
185, 2010: 28487, 2013; Broster et al. 2013;
Anderson et al.
Figure 3 The landscape of North America ca. 15,000 cal yr BP, in relation to modern shorelines. The southeastern United States
appears to have been minimally occupied at this time (graphic prepared by Stephen J. Yerka).
Halligan 2013; Holliday and Miller 2013; Jodry 2005;

Meyer 1928; Miller 2014; Tanner 1989). Interaction is
presumed to have been greater between groups within,
rather than between, these major topographic subdivisions (i.e., Atlantic, Gulf, the Interior, and peninsular
Florida).
The presence of other water sourcesCarolina Bays
in the Atlantic and baygalls in the Gulf Coastal Plain,
and karstic terrain/sinkholes in peninsular Florida
and in the Midsouthwould have facilitated movement along as well as across stream courses in lower
lying areas and along the larger drainages in more
desiccated, hilly or mountainous parts of the region;
by following tributaries, divides could be reached,
although these were more easily crossed in gentler
terrain (e.g., Anderson 1990a; Anderson and Gillam
2000; Brooks et al. 2010; Jodry 2005; Morrow 2014;
Steele et al. 1998). Whether early peoples moved
along or between drainages in the region has been
the subject of appreciable debate, in relation to
Dalton settlement in Arkansas (cf. Gillam 1996a,

1996b, 1999; Morse 1971, 1973, 1975a, 1977;
Schiffer 1975a, 1975b), Paleoindian settlement in
peninsular Florida (e.g., Dunbar 1991; Dunbar and
Waller 1983; Thulman 2009), and Early Archaic and
presumably earlier settlement on the south Atlantic
slope (cf. Anderson 1996; Anderson and Hanson
1988; Daniel 1998, 2001). We now believe movement
along, across, and between drainages occurred in
these areas and probably throughout the region, at
least in the Middle and Late Paleoindian periods
(Brooks et al. 2010; Faught and Carter 1998; Gillam
1995, 1996a, 1996b, 1999; Moore and Brooks 2012;
Moore and Irwin 2013; Moore et al. 2010; Morrow
2014: 121).
While Paleoindian peoples likely moved on foot
much of the time, in some areas watercraft were
almost certainly employed. This is best indicated by
the widespread occurrence of adzes in the central
Mississippi Valley in Late Paleoindian Dalton
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contexts and the occurrence of related adze-like forms

in other parts of the region (Anderson 1990a: 185, 187,
1995: 15; Daniel and Wisenbaker 1987: 7981;
Engelbrecht and Seyfort 1994; Gerrell et al. 1991;
Jodry 2005: 14345; Miller and Goodyear 2008;
Morrow 2014; Morse 1997a, 1997b; Morse and
Goodyear 1973). Microwear analyses support the
inference that Dalton adzes from the Sloan site in
Arkansas were used to work charred wood, probably
for the construction of dugout canoes (Gaertner
1994; Yerkes and Gaertner 1997: 6566); early historic
accounts and illustrations of southeastern Indians
document how they did so (Hariot 1590; Hartman
1996). Unfortunately, no preserved canoes or watercraft of any kind dating older than the middle
Holocene have been found in the region (Hartman
1996; Morrow 2014; Newsom and Purdy 1990;
Wheeler et al. 2003). Use of watercraft may not have
been as prevalent prior to Dalton times, at least in
some areas. Morrow (2014: 121), based on the occurrence of identifiable lithic raw material on
Paleoindian diagnostics, for example, demonstrated
that in Clovis times unfrozen portions of the
Mississippi River do not appear to have been crossed
regularly, given the drainage marks the extent of
occurrence of many knappable materials, notably in
the central and southern part of the valley. In the
northern part of the valley, in contrast, cross-drainage
movement of lithic material was much more common,
which Morrow (2014: 121) attributed to the river freezing over and hence being traversable on foot. Lithic
raw material and site distributions also suggest the
Appalachian Mountains were a major barrier to east
west movement, separating peoples living on the
Atlantic seaboard from those in areas further west
(Lane and Anderson 2001; see also Williams and
Stoltman 1965: 674, 676). Farther to the south, movement through the Coastal Plain and Piedmont appears
to have been easier, with appreciable use of the Fall
Line macroecotone between these physiographic provinces evident in the archaeological record
(Anderson and Hanson 1988; Anderson et al. 1990,
2010a; Daniel 1998, 2001; Lane and Anderson 2001;
Miller 2011, 2014; Smallwood et al. in press).
Sea levels and shorelines were changing rapidly in
the late Pleistocene Southeast, but how this influenced
settlement remains unknown, although the subject has
been the focus of much recent research (e.g., Anderson
et al. 2010b, 2013a; Faught 1996, 2002, 2004a, 2004b,
2006; Faught and Donoghue 1997; Faught and
Guisick 2011; Gillam et al. 2006; Guisick and
Faught 2011; Halligan 2013: 6162; Harris et al.
2013; Hemmings and Adovasio 2014; Holliday and
Miller 2013: 226228; Lowery et al. 2012). For
decades, Paleoindian and Archaic artifacts have been
found in offshore deposits indicating that portions of
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the now submerged continental shelf were once occupied, but how close people were living to the actual
seashore and the nature of their adaptationthat is,
whether and the extent to which marine mammals,
fish, shellfish, or other plant and animal species were
employedis unknown (Blanton 1996; Faught
2004a, 2004b; Hemmings and Adovasio 2014).
Climatic warming and the concomitant sea-level rise
associated with the current interglacial began during
the Blling chronozone, after ca. 14,850 cal yr BP
and continued, albeit with sometimes significant fluctuations in temperature and sea-level, through the end
of the Younger Dryas chronozone about
11,700 cal yr BP, when the Pleistocene epoch ended
and the Holocene epoch began (Walker et al. 2009).
There is no evidence for glaciation anywhere in the
Southeast, nor for large pluvial lakes, although
smaller bodies of water in the form of Carolina bays
and baygalls were widespread, and the Mississippi
River system carried vast amounts of glacial meltwater
during warming intervals, resulting in deeply incised,
braided stream channels (Dyke 2004; Dyke et al.
2003; Russell et al. 2009; Saucier 1994). As the
volume of water decreased, meander regimes appeared
in the lower Mississippi Valley and throughout the
Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plains (Leigh 2006; Leigh
et al. 2004; Saucier 1994: 45, 9398). The complex geomorphological changes that southern river and karstic
systems underwent in the late Pleistocene and after
make finding early sites in their vicinity challenging,
at least compared to the detection of early sites in
upland settings, where deposits tend to be shallower
and landforms are more stable (Goodyear 1999; Knox
1983; Leigh 2006; Leigh et al. 2004; Thulman 2009).
Knappable stone occurs unevenly over the region,
with major outcrops of high quality chert and novaculite found in parts of the interior highlands in the
Ouachita and Ozark mountains and the Interior Low
Plateau, and the Coastal Plains of Georgia, South
Carolina, and northern Florida; in contrast, highquality metavolcanics are found in the Piedmonts of
Georgia and the Carolinas, particularly the latter area
(Anderson et al. 1982: 12031; Austin and Estabrook
2000; Banks 1990; Daniel and Butler 1991; Dunbar
2006b; Endonino 2007; Goodyear and Charles 1984;
Goodyear et al. 1990; Moore and Irwin 2013; Novick
1978; Ray 2007; Smith 1986: 618; Steponaitis et al.
2006; Upchurch 1984; Upchurch and Strom 1982;
Upchurch et al. 2008). Lower quality cherts, quartz,
metavolcanics, and other materials are more widespread across the region, frequently occurring as
gravel deposits (e.g., Anderson and Smith 2003;
Banks 1990; McCutcheon and Dunnell 1998;
McGahey 1987). Raw material selection and use has
received appreciable attention from Paleoindian
researchers in recent decades, and while the use of
Anderson et al.
high-quality raw material is commonly attributed to

Clovis populations (e.g., Goodyear 1979, 1989), the
use of locally available lithic raw materials regardless
of quality is evident in some areas (Anderson 2013:
38081) and is particularly characteristic of Late
Paleoindian assemblages over much of the Southeast,
perhaps related to changes in subsistence, a reduction
in range mobility, and decreased use of highly curated
tools (Anderson 1990a: 202, 1995: 9; Anderson et al.
2010a: 77; Goodyear et al. 1990; Smallwood et al. in
press; Speth et al. 2013).
Southeastern biotic communities were profoundly
influenced by changes in global climate, although
much more primary research is needed to document
how this played out in local settings. With deglaciation
and warming temperatures, floral and faunal communities were changing rapidly, with those that could
adjust moving both inland from the rapidly shrinking
continental shelf, and to the north into previously
colder or glaciated terrain (Davis 1983: 17273;
Delcourt and Delcourt 1985: 19, 1989; Delcourt and
Delcourt 1981, 1983, 1987, 2004; Delcourt et al.
1983, 1997; Halligan 2013; Jackson et al. 1997;
Jacobson et al. 1987; McWeeney 2013; Overpeck
et al. 1992; Russell et al. 2009; Watts et al. 1996;
Webb 1987, 1988; Webb et al. 1993; Williams et al.
2001, 2004). As a general trend, hardwood and
mixed hardwood/pine forests expanded from refugia
in the lower Southeast, replacing colder communities
as the latter moved northward, although it must be
emphasized that significant variability in biota is
evident across much of the region, making focused
paleoenvironmental work essential to interpreting
local archaeological records (e.g., Delcourt and
Delcourt 2004; Meeks and Anderson 2012: 11213).
To date only a few large-scale paleoenvironmental programs directed to reconstructing paleovegetation and
its role in subsistence, or the Paleoindian impact on
biota through predation or changing fire regimes
(e.g., Gill et al. 2009), have been conducted as part
of Pleistocene age archaeological projects in the
region, although the studies at Dust Cave in
Alabama, Sloan in Arkansas, and Page-Ladson in
Florida stand as models of the multidisciplinary
effort needed (e.g., Delcourt and Delcourt 1989;
Delcourt et al. 1997; Dunbar 2006a, 2006b; Hanson
2006; Hollenbach 2004, 2007, 2009; Hope and
Koch 2006; Morrow 2011; Morse 1975b, 1997a;
Newsom 2006; Newsom and Milbachler 2006;
Sherwood 2001; Sherwood and Chapman 2005;
Sherwood et al. 2004; Webb 2006).
Late Pleistocene fauna in the Southeast encompassed a wide range of extinct and modern animal
species such as mammoth, mastodon, bison, camel,
horse, giant ground sloth, and saber-toothed tiger, as
well modern animals exploited throughout the
Holocene by local populations such as bear, whitetailed deer, opossum, rabbit, raccoon, and squirrel
(FAUNMAP 1996; Kurtn and Anderson 1980;
Lapham 2006; Russell et al. 2009; Webb 1974, 2006).
Late Pleistocene extinctions were essentially complete
over much of North America soon after the onset of
the Younger Dryas, about 12,850 cal yr BP
(Agenbroad 2005; Faith 2011; Faith and Surovell
2009; Fiedel 2009; Fiedel and Haynes 2004; Grayson
1987, 2006; Grayson and Meltzer 2002, 2003, 2004;
Guthrie 2003; Haynes 2002a, 2002b, 2009; Haynes
and Hutson 2013; Martin 1973, 2006; Mead and
Meltzer 1984; Meltzer and Mead 1983, 1985;
Waguespak 2013). Exactly when these extinctions
were complete in the Southeast is uncertain; at sites
such as Dust Cave in Alabama only modern
fauna have been found in Late Paleoindian deposits
(e.g., Walker 2007). At Ryan-Harley and Norden,
presumed Suwannee sites in Florida, however,
there is the possibility that some species may have
survived into the Younger Dryas or, alternatively,
that Suwannee is older than we currently think,
coeval with Clovis or even earlier; the dating of these
assemblages is ambiguous at present, however
(Dunbar and Vojnovski 2007: 197, 201; Dunbar
et al. 2005: 92).
Which plant and animal species were exploited by
Early and Middle Paleoindian peoples in the region
remains largely unknown at present, given a paucity
of sites with preserved paleosubsistence remains,
although given numerous associations in Florida and
much sparser evidence elsewhere, there is no question
some species of extinct fauna, including megafauna,
were at least occasionally targeted (e.g., Bullen et al.
1970; Dunbar and Vojnovski 2007: 19697; Dunbar
and Webb 1996; Dunbar et al. 1989, 2005; Gingerich
and Kitchell 2015; Haynes and Hutson 2013;
Hemmings 2004; Hemmings et al. 2004; Hoffman
1983; Rayl 1974; Webb and Simons 2006; Webb et al.
1984; see also Broster et al. 2013; Deter-Wolf et al.
2011, and Haynes and Hutson 2013: 29596 for discussion of Paleoindian subsistence in the Midsouth, based
on a probable Early Paleoindian age mastodon butchering area at the Coats-Hines site in Tennessee). We have
much better data on Late Paleoindian subsistence, in
particular from Dust Cave and other rockshelter sites
in northern Alabama, where extensive analysis and
recent reporting indicate a reliance on modern biota
(Fagan 2013; Hollenbach 2004, 2007, 2009; Sherwood
et al. 2004; Walker and Driskell 2007; Walker et al.
2001). Late Paleoindian human populations had a
much narrower array of animal resources to choose
from, and yet at the same time plant communities
expanded and diversified given the warmer climate,
factors that likely shaped the changes in settlement
and technology observed during this period.
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3. Early research and the Paleoindian

archaeological record of the Southeast
The discovery of the European Paleolithic sparked a

debate over a question that still resonates in
American archaeologywhen did the colonization
of North America occur, and when did people reach
the southeastern United States? In the late nineteenth
century, Charles Abbott discovered stone tools in
Trenton, New Jersey, that he reported were as primitive-looking as European Paleolithic tools and likely
dated as old (Abbott 1876; Meltzer 1983, 2009).
Soon after, many other sites in eastern North
America with European-like paleoliths seemed to
support a deep glacial antiquity for human presence
in the New World. While Abbott and most of his
peers were convinced of an American Paleolithic,
William Henry Holmes questioned the evidence.
Based on excavations at prehistoric stone quarries,
Holmes argued that the alleged paleoliths were in
fact only manufacture failures discarded during more
recent Native American quarrying activity (Holmes
1892, 1893; Meltzer 2009). Physical anthropologist
Ales Hrdlic ka argued that the human skeletal evidence
recovered, with no evidence for earlier hominid forms
then known, such as H. neandertalensis or H. erectus,
likewise did not support a Paleolithic-age occupation
of the Americas. Possible associations of stone tools
with extinct fauna had been noted at Big Bone Lick,
Kentucky, and at Kimmswick, Missouri, in the nineteenth century, and a pelvis of presumed great antiquity (now known to be only a few thousand years
old) was found near Natchez, Mississippi, in the
1840s, although these were not widely accepted
(Cotter 1991; Freeman et al. 1996: 39194; Meltzer
1983; Tankersley 1990a: 7476). One of the many proposed Early Man sites Hrdlic ka discredited was the
1915 discovery known as Vero Man in Florida (Gidley
and Loomis 1926; Hrdlic ka 1918; Sellards 1917a,
1917b; Sellards et al. 1917; Stewart 1946). The Vero
locality is now being re-excavated under the direction
of James Adovasio and Andrew Hemmings, to determine if Hrdlic kas assessment was correct, since we
now know anatomically modern humans have great
antiquity in Africa (>100,000 years), and were
present in the Americas in the late Pleistocene, with
examples found in a few locations in North America
(e.g., Chatters et al. 2014; Morrow and Fiedel 2006;
Rasmussen et al. 2014).
The discovery of stone tools in association with
Pleistocene-age bison remains at the Folsom site in
1926 marked the first secure evidence that American
prehistory could be confidently pushed back to the
late Pleistocene (Figgins 1927; Meltzer 2006a,
2006b). The importance of the Folsom and subsequent
fluted point megafauna discoveries in the west for
southeastern archaeology, besides unequivocally
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showing people were present in North America in

the Pleistocene, lay in the fact that the associated projectile points had distinctive thinning or fluting, a
manufacturing procedure that we now know was
never again used commonly in prehistory in the
Americas. By the 1930s, fluted points had come to
be regarded as a fairly unambiguous marker of a late
Pleistocene/early Holocene age site and were identified in many parts of North America, including in
the Southeast. Brown (1926: 13234) reported a
fluted form he called the Coldwater in surface collections in Mississippi, but at the time, coincidentally
right before the announcement of the Folsom discovery (Figgins 1927; Meltzer 2006a), its age and importance was unknown. The Coldwater name has been
retained by local archaeologists and is used to describe
non-fluted to weakly basally thinned, presumably Late
Paleoindian waisted and lanceolate points (e.g.,
McGahey 1981, 1996: 354, 2004: 1821).
While this scientific debate, known as the Great
Paleolithic War (Meltzer 2009: 71), raged on, southeastern archaeologists stayed on the periphery of the
argument; instead, most nineteenth and early twentieth century activity focused on the large mounds,
earthworks, shell middens, and cemetery sites found
throughout the region, a pattern still followed by
most researchers to this day (Anderson and
Sassaman 2012: 15355). New Deal era survey and
excavation programs, however, brought the southeastern Paleoindian record to the attention of the professional community. In 1935, just three years after
the famous discovery at Clovis, New Mexico
(Howard 1933), A. R. Kellys crew of relief workers
recovered a Clovis point and other stone tools
during excavations at Macon Plateau in Georgia
(Anderson et al. 1994; Kelly 1938: 27; Ledbetter
et al. 1996; Waring 1968: 237). The Macon Clovis
point, the first one in the region from a systematically
excavated site with good stratigraphic context, established a relative age for Clovis in the Southeast (i.e.,
below ceramic-bearing deposits). Also in 1935,
Bushnell (1935) reported surface finds of fluted
points in Virginia, and they were reported in other
southern states soon thereafter (e.g., Wauchope
1939, 1966). Later in the New Deal era a second,
more extensive Clovis assemblage was excavated at
the Parrish Village site in western Kentucky, with
seven fluted points and some 280 unifacial tools recovered, although the association of the former with the
latter was uncertain (Freeman et al. 1996: 39596;
Jefferies 2008: 75; Rolingson and Schwartz 1966:
143; Tankersley 1990a; Webb 1951).
The Macon find and Parish Village excavations,
along with the recognition that fluted points occurred
throughout the region in some incidence, led to
increased interest in the southeastern Paleoindian
Anderson et al.
record. Because southeastern fluted points resembled

those found in the western part of the country that
had been dated to the late Pleistocene based on associated fauna, their similarity, or typological dating, was
used to infer a similar age. That is, southeastern
archaeologists relied on visual similarities in morphological characteristics and technological traits to relatively sequence bifacial point types and tools
recovered in surface contexts and from buried sites.
Based on excavations in the West, fluted point forms
from the Southeast were considered to be older than
unfluted forms, and by the 1950s, appreciable effort
was expended to finding and defining local variants
of fluted and presumably related but presumed later
non-fluted point forms. Most of these were found in
surface contexts, many in private artifact or arrowhead collections. Professional and avocational
archaeologists alike began recording fluted points, in
some cases reports of one or a few artifacts in local
journals, and in other cases through more systematic
recording efforts (Anderson 1990a, 1990b, 1991;
Anderson and Faught 1998; Brennan 1982). In 1947,
Ben McCary established one of the first and to this
day the oldest continuous fluted point survey in the
country, in Virginia, and recorded many
Folsomoid points later determined to be Clovis
and other Paleoindian point types (Hranicky 1989,
2008, 2009; McCary 1947, 1991). By the 1950s,
many southeastern fluted points were locally being
referred to as Clovis or Clovis-like, since most lacked
the parallel sides, fine marginal retouch, and fulllength/instrument-assisted fluting characteristic of
western Folsom points. A number of distinctive
waisted and eared fluted and unfluted forms, presumed to be Paleoindian in age, were also recognized
and defined in the 1950s and 1960s, such as the
Cumberland, Redstone, and Wheeler fluted types
and the Beaver Lake and Quad unfluted types in the
Midsouth, the Suwanee and Simpson waisted types
in Florida, and various San Patrice forms in the
trans-Mississippi south and areas just to the east
(e.g., Bullen 1962, 1968; Cambron 1955; Cambron
and Hulse 1964: 30, 99; DeJarnette et al. 1962;
Ensor 1987; Gramly 2009; Kneberg 1956; Lewis
1954: 7; Purdy 2008: 4953; Simpson 1948; Soday
1954; Webb 1946). While a full-fluted/instrumentassisted horizon has since been recognized in the
region, local examples are appreciably different in
shape from Folsom points found in the Plains and
Southwest (Anderson et al. 2010a; Goodyear 2006,
2010). By the 1980s, projects recording attribute and
image data were established in most southeastern
states, many of which continue to this day, albeit
with some gaps due to the changes in personnel
(Anderson et al. 1986, 1990; Broster 1989; Broster
and Norton 1996; Charles 1981; Dunbar 1991, 2007;
Daniel and Moore 2011; Dunbar and Hemmings

2004; Dunbar and Waller 1983; Gagliano and
Gregory 1965; Goodyear et al. 1990; McGahey
1987; Michie 1977; Rolingson 1964; Tankersley
1990a, 1996).
In the early 1990s, these primary data on local projectile points were compiled and made available, first
on disks and by the late 1990s online, through the
Paleoindian Database of the Americas (PIDBA)
project (Anderson 1990b, 1991; Anderson and
Faught 1998, 2000; Anderson et al. 2005, 2010a;
Faught et al. 1994; see http://pidba.utk.edu/)
(Table 1). As inferred by earlier generations of
Paleoindian researchers (e.g., Brennan 1982; Cotter
1937; Mason 1962), and as more and more researchers
and collectors made their data available, it became
evident that large numbers of fluted Paleoindian projectile points have been found in the Southeast, far
more than have been systematically reported from
other parts of the continent (Figure 4). Most of the
documented artifacts, however, come from surface
contexts and have been reported by private citizens;
to this day, few southeastern Clovis points have been
recovered from secure excavation contexts. Dense,
stratigraphically discrete, and largely undisturbed
Clovis assemblages such as those found at CarsonConn-Short, Thunderbird, Topper, and Williamson,
in fact, are, at least so far, extremely rare occurrences
in the region (Anderson et al. 1996; Broster et al.
2013; Carr et al. 2013; Gardner 1974; Goodyear
1999; Smallwood 2012).
The Southeast PIDBA data need to be greatly
expanded. As can be seen from Table 1, in some
states only fluted points are recorded, while in others
a wide range of presumed Paleoindian forms are documented. Efforts to document all later Paleoindian
types, such as Dalton, have only occurred systematically in three statesGeorgia, Mississippi, and
Tennesseealthough this appears to be changing.
Fortunately, recording projects are underway in
nearly every southern state at present, and the people
maintaining them make their data available to
PIDBA, reflecting the regions long history of collegiality in research (e.g., Anderson and Sassaman 2012;
Brown 1994). PIDBA thus serves as an important
source of readily available primary data, allowing
researchers to explore topics such as landscape use,
diachronic changes in mobility, population concentrations and settlement, and sources of bias in the
data (Anderson and Sassaman 2012: 4849;
Anderson et al. 2010a; Buchanan 2003; Miller 2011;
ODonoughue 2007; Prasciunas 2008, 2011; Seeman
and Prufer 1984; Shott 2002, 2005; Smallwood 2010,
2011, 2012; Thulman 2006, 2009, 2012; Wah et al.
2014). Resolving what the dense point concentrations
in the East and Southeast actually mean has polarized
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2015
VOL.
Point type
Arkansas
Louisiana*
Mississippi
Alabama
Tennessee
Kentucky
Florida
Georgia
South Carolina
North Carolina
Virginia**
Sample total
NO.
Page-Ladson
Miller-like
Clovis
Fluted
Unfluted Clovis
Clovis Variant
Ross County
Gainey
Folsom/Sedwick
Pelican
Redstone
Cumberland
Unfluted Cumberland
Barnes
Wheeler
Simpson
Suwannee
Quad***
Beaver Lake
Coldwater
Tallahassee
Dalton
Dalton. Fluted
Hardaway
Lanceolate forms
Unknown
Totals
3
123
1
20
112
3
502
17
17
1849
15
27
19
267
2
18
19
14
6
1
1
455
35
11
22
7
314
6
136
968
58
9
16
3
3
12
49
379
29
1
2
1
3
141
12
117
663
4
1
6
196
37
21
1129
20
94
484
55
86
16
30
9
59
13
88
193
217
379
485
2
9
13
2
7
2
21
1410
1320
76
13
25
555
5497
363
7
3
143
29
122
87
57
44
9
967
94
19
119
18
2138
*No Paleoindian point survey project has been conducted in Louisiana in recent years.
**Only fluted forms recorded. Redstone and Gainey types designated by A. C. Goodyear in 2005.
***Includes Arkabutla and Hinds types.
Includes Greenbrier, Harpeth River, Haw River, Nucholls, San Patrice, Sante Fe, Tallahassee, and lanceolate, and side notched forms.
46
17
64
2
3
32
6
35
1
1
1
124
579
10
253
1019
3
1
3510
1315
55
80
35
41
22
14
295
950
55
86
76
153
239
778
772
120
11
2971
176
39
192
758
12,747
PaleoAmerica
Anderson et al.
16
Table 1
Paleoindian points by type and state in the southeastern United States as recorded in PIDBA (Paleoindian database of the Americas), as of September 2014
Anderson et al.
Figure 4 North America at ca. 13,00012,000 cal yr BP, showing locations yielding fluted projectile points, in relation to modern
shorlines. Evidence for human settlement is widespread, with dense populations indicated in the southeastern United States
based on the numbers of recorded sites and diagnostic artifacts. This map encompasses all typed Clovis and Clovis variants in
the database, plus all untyped fluted points in the database that have not been assigned to a later type like Folsom, Cumberland,
etc. in the database. Some clearly later fluted point forms are included, particularly in the upper Midwest and the Northeast
(graphic prepared by Stephen J. Yerka).
researchers for decades, however, with the extreme

positions being they are due either to lots of ancient
people or lots of modern collectors and ground-exposing agricultural practices (Cotter 1937; Dincauze 1993;
Lepper 1983, 1985; Mason 1962; Prasciunas 2011).
The researchers managing PIDBA mostly reside in
the Southeast and have worked the longest with
people running point recording projects in that
region, which may help to explain why the southeastern data are thought to be the most accurate and complete in the overall database.
While recording Paleoindian artifacts has a long
history in the Southeast, so too do excavation projects directed at finding early occupations, following
on the WPA work at Macon Plateau and Parrish
Village. Beginning in the late 1940s and continuing
to the present day, excavations into stratified deposits

in the regions rockshelters and floodplains have
helped to establish a relative chronology for early
assemblages. The basic outline of the Late
Paleoindian and early Holocene cultural sequence
used to this day in the region was established at
sites such as Hardaway in North Carolina (Coe
1964; Daniel 1998, 2001), Silver Springs in Florida
(Dunbar 2006c: 405; Neill 1958) Stanfield-Worley
Bluff shelter in Alabama (DeJarnette et al. 1962),
Russell Cave in Alabama (Griffin 1974; Miller
1956), and at a number of sites just outside the
Southeast, such as St. Albans in West Virginia
(Broyles 1966, 1971), Rodgers Shelter in Missouri
(Ahler 1971; Kay 1982; McMillan 1971; Wood and
McMillan 1976), and Modoc Rock Shelter in
PaleoAmerica
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Anderson et al.
Illinois (Ahler 1993; Fowler 1959). With the emergence of CRM archaeology, large-scale excavations
in open air, typically floodplain settings occurred in
the 1970s and 1980s: in the Little Tennessee River
at Ice House Bottom and Rose Island (Chapman
1985); at Hester along the Tombigbee River in
Mississippi (Brookes 1979); at sites along the Haw
River in North Carolina (Cable 1996; Claggett and
Cable 1982); at the G. S. Lewis East, Gregg
Shoals, and Ruckers Bottom sites along the
Savannah River of Georgia and South Carolina
(Anderson and Joseph 1988; Sassaman et al. 2002;
Tippett and Marquardt 1984); at the Harney Flats
site in Florida (Daniel and Wisenbaker 1987;
Daniel et al. 1986); and at Big Eddy just outside
the region in Missouri (Lopinot et al. 1998, 2000).
Major well-reported excavations conducted in other
contexts, by academic programs or research groups,
also occurred in the 1970s and after, such as those
at Dust Cave in Alabama (Driskell 1996; Sherwood
et al. 2004). A listing of many of the more recent
large-scale excavation projects, including a number
of sites yielding exceptional quantities of surface
material, is provided in Table 2.
By the later 1950s, radiocarbon dating began to play
a role in the dating of local late Pleistocene/early
Holocene assemblages, at sites such as St. Albans on
the periphery of the region in West Virginia and somewhat later, in the 1970s, at sites in the Little Tennessee
River Valley in eastern Tennessee (Broyles 1971;
Chapman 1985). Radiocarbon dates have been run
on late Pleistocene/early Holocene archaeological
assemblages in increasing frequency in the region, providing more refined chronological control, serving as
proxy measures of regional population levels, and
helping to fill in gaps in the existing temporal
sequence. Anderson and others (Anderson et al.
2011; see also Martin-Siebert 2004 and Meeks and
Anderson 2012: 11423) summarized dates associated
with Paleoindian and Early Archaic sites in the
Southeast, in part, to reconstruct regional population
history before, during, and after the Younger Dryas.
Miller and Gingerich (2013a, 2013b) provided a comprehensive recent update of radiocarbon dates associated with Paleoindian and Early Archaic materials in
the region, and their analyses document the age of
specific point forms fairly tightly, as discussed in the
next section.
As knowledge of early occupations grew, southeastern archaeologists began to produce syntheses of the
regional record and formulate models of early settlement, mobility, and technological organization.
Early syntheses were in article format, arguing that
the large numbers of fluted points and their association with fossil megafaunal remains implied direct
predation (Williams and Stoltman 1965), suggested a
18
PaleoAmerica
2015
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local origin for fluting technology (Mason 1962), or

focused on Late Paleoindian Dalton sites, assemblages, and settlement patterning (Goodyear 1974;
Morse 1971, 1973, 1975a, 1975b). More recent syntheses of southeastern or eastern Paleoindians have
taken the form of lengthy articles (Anderson 1990a;
Lepper and Meltzer 1991; Meltzer 1984a, 1988) or
book length efforts, typically with multiple contributors (Anderson and Sassaman 1996a, 2012;
Gingerich 2013a; Martin-Siebert 2004; Morse 1997a,
1997b). Advancing and evaluating settlement models
has occurred less frequently, with discussion published
primarily in article format (Anderson 1990a, 1995,
1996; Anderson and Sassaman 1996b; Anderson
et al. 2013a; Cable 1996; Daniel 1998, 2001;
Gardner 1977, 1981, 1983, 1989; Gillam 1996a,
1999; Gillam et al. 2007; Gingerich and Kitchell
2015; Goodyear et al. 1990; Kimball 1996;
Smallwood 2012). Perhaps the best known of these
models was proposed by William Gardner, based on
his work at Thunderbird, Fifty, and related sites in
the Middle Shenandoah Valley, Virginia, at the socalled Flint Run Paleoindian complex, named for
the major jasper sources present (Carr et al. 2013;
Gardner 1974, 1977, 1981, 1983, 1989). According
to Gardner, raw material played a key role in early
settlement; populations were tethered to stone quarries. They lived near the quarry at base camps for part
of the year, and after scheduled forays or temporary
occupation elsewhere, returned again to the quarry.
Quarries served as predictable resource locations for
replenishing tool kits and centers for social aggregation. Later, Gardner (1983, 1989) expanded his
model to explain settlement patterns along most of
the eastern seaboard. At the time, Gardners model
took a fairly unique perspective on Paleoindian lifeways. Instead of assuming Paleoindians were highly
mobile big-game hunters whose highly curated stone
tool technology allowed them to range over the landscape rather than settle in to specific places (e.g.,
Kelly and Todd 1988; Martin 1973; Meltzer 1988),
Gardner (1977: 261) argued populations in the East
were selectively mobile within a prescribed territory
and that lithic raw material sources played a major role
in shaping settlement ranges. Thirty years after formulation, Gardners place-oriented as opposed to
technology-oriented model remains highly influential; subsequent work has repeatedly demonstrated
how important quarry areas were to early southeastern
populations, particularly studies in the Carolinas
related to the use of the Allendale and Hardaway/
Uwharrie lithic raw material sources (e.g., Daniel
1998, 2001; Daniel and Goodyear in press;
Goodyear and Charles 1984; Goodyear et al. 1990).
Similarly, in Florida the distribution of Paleoindian
sites corresponds to karstic terrain, particularly
Anderson et al.
Table 2
Major recent Paleoindian excavation assemblages from the southeastern United States (with selected surface context
assemblages included, typically where excavations have also occurred)
State
AL
Site name
Geographic location
Excavation information
Belle Mina
On a ridge
overlooking sinks;
Limestone County
Dust Cave
Cave in a limestone
bluff of Highland
Rim along a
tributary of the
Tennessee River;
Lauderdale
County
On a ridge
overlooking a
large sink; Colbert
County
1 acre site; Paleoindian

artifacts recovered in
plow zone/surface
context
7 test units, trench of 6
2 2 m units (later
divided into 1 m
quads); Paleoindian
artifacts found in basal
zones T and U and
exterior zone S2
Complex of 65 sites/
artifact clusters with
materials recovered
from the surface over
>50 years of collecting
3 2 2 m test units,
surface collection, site
was examined to see if
intact Dalton deposits
were present, given the
dense surface
assemblage
Heavens HalfAcre
AR
Diagnostic artifacts
recovered in excavation
and surface context (noted
separately as excavation
and surface)
11 Clovis, 1 Clovis/
Cumberland, 2 Beaver
Lake/Quad points
(surface)
1 reworked Cumberland
point or drill, 1 Quad, 1
Hardaway, 2 Dalton, and
3 Beaver Lake points
(excavation)
72 Clovis, 8 Clovis
unfluted, 38
Cumberland, 20 Quad,
24 Beaver Lake, and
7 Redstone (surface)
Dalton surface assemblage
shown to be deflated,
eroded, or redeposited
by the testing. 20 Dalton,
1 Big Sandy, 1 Early
Side-Notched, 2 Kirk
Corner-Notched, 1 Kirk
Cluster (surface)
68 Clovis, 22 Clovis
Unfluted, 86
Cumberland, 7 redstone,
60 Quad, 50 Wheeler
types, 72 Beaver Lake,
67 Colbert Dalton,
200 Greenbrier Dalton,
73 Hardaway
Side-Notched,
28 Undetermined/
Unfinished fluted
(surface)
1 side-notched
(excavation)
References
Ensor (2014: 1518)
and Futato (1996)
Driskell (1994: 30);

Sherwood (2001);
Sherwood et al.
(2004); Walker
(1998: 5760)
King (2007)
Joe Powell
On a sandy ridge on
the Tombigbee
River floodplain
Quad
Tennessee River
floodplain;
Limestone County
Complex of sites along 3

miles of Tennessee
River floodplain; Quad,
Beaver Lake, and
Dalton recovered from
the surface
LaGrange
Bluff shelter; Colbert

County
9 5 5 and 2 1 5 ft units
StanfieldWorley
Bluff shelter south of

the Tennessee
River; Colbert
County
59 Colbert Dalton,
7 Greenbrier,
52 Greenbrier Dalton, 36
Nucholls Dalton, and 19
Hardaway Side-Notched
(excavation)
Brand
In the Western
Lowlands near
LAnguille River;
Poinsett County
Sand dune in the
Western Lowlands;
Greene County
Ancient river channel
levee west of
Crowleys Ridge
2 45 5 ft test trenches
and 3 10 40 ft blocks;
Paleoindian artifacts
recovered from
stratigraphically
separate zone D, a
dark midden
associated with sidenotched points
2 2 m units totaling
24.5 m2; Zone I/II
contact
305 Dalton points

(excavation)
Goodyear (1974)
144 m2 block excavation;

in shallow deposits of
20 discrete clusters
3 5 10 ft blocks
146 Dalton points

(excavation)
Morrow (2011); Morse

(1975b, 1997a)
2 Dalton points
(Excavation), >100
Dalton points (surface)
Redfield (1971);
Redfield and
Moselage (1970)
Sloan
Lace Place
Ensor (1985)
Cambron and Hulse

(1960); Cole (2006),
Hubbert (1989)
(point totals from
Hubbert 1989: 139)
DeJarnette and Knight

(1976); Hollenbach
(2009)
DeJarnette et al.
(1962: 91109)
(reported by
excavation level)
Continued
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Anderson et al.
Table 2 Continued
State
FL
GA
Site name
Geographic location
Harney Flats
Low swampy plain in

Hillsborough River
Valley;
Hillsborough
County
Page Ladson
Sinkhole within a
channel of the
Aucilla River;
Jefferson County
Sloth Hole
Large sink in the

west run of the
lower Aucilla;
Jefferson County
Large block excavations

in Areas 1, 2, and 3;
Middle Paleoindian
Suwannee and Early
Archaic Bolen found in
nearly same
stratigraphic position
ranging from 114 to
151 cm below surface
of Area 1
21 artifacts suggested to
represent Late
Paleoindian recovered
in Unit 5 in a 12 m2
area of Test C
Underwater site
excavated as more
than 80 1 1 m-units
Little Salt
Springs
Large, flooded
sinkhole near
Charlotte Harbor
Wooden stake found

between turtle
carapace and plastron
but context and
association ambiguous
Wakulla Springs
Lodge
At Wakulla spring in
the Gulf Coastal
Lowlands; Wakulla
County
Warm Mineral
Springs
Limestone sinkhole;
Sarasota County
Middle Paleoindian
Suwannee and Early
Archaic Bolen found in
nearly same
stratigraphic position
Human remains and
samples of charred
wood recovered in
Level 4 but context and
association ambiguous
8LE2105
Southern edge of
Cody Scarp where
it meets Gulf
Coastal Plain
Macon Plateau
Near Macon; Bibb

County
Muckafoonee
Creek
Southwestern
Georgia near
major chert
outcrops of the
Flint River
formation:
Dougherty County
Multiyear, large block

excavations; two
stratigraphically
separate Bolen
occupations; possible
Suwannee fluted
preforms below Bolen
Stratigraphically below
ceramic-bearing
Archaic component
2 1 1 and 1 2 2 m2;
stratified Archaic and
Paleoindian deposits
and surface)
References
8 Suwannee and Simpson

points (latter suggested
to fall within range of
Suwannee point type by
Dunbar and Hemmings,
2004) (excavation)
Daniel and Wisenbaker

(1987: 38)
No points recovered in
Paleoindian components
Dunbar (2006c:
41218); Dunbar
et al. (1988); Faught
et al. (2003); Webb
(2006)
Halligan (2012: 71);
Hemmings (1999:
2539)
4 Clovis points (recovered

out of contexts) and
2 complete and
57 fragmentary pieces
of ivory
Wooden stake associated
(?) with giant land
tortoise. The stake was
dated to ca.
14,000 cal BP, while
bone from the tortoise
returned a date of ca.
16,300 cal BP (Clausen
et al. 1979: 60911).
Dunbar and Webb
(1996: 352) state that the
tortoise shell was not
carbonized from cooking
as previously believed
1 Clovis-like point
(excavation)
No artifacts recovered in
testing
No temporally diagnostic
points recovered from
Paleoindian, only fluted
preforms (possibly
Suwannee)
Clausen et al. (1979);

Dunbar and Webb
(1996)
Jones and Tesar

(2000); Tesar and
Jones (2004)
Clausen et al. (1975a,

1975b); Cockrell
(1987); Cockrell and
Murphy (1978);
Royal and Clark
(1960)
Goodwin et al. (2013);
Hornum et al. (1996)
1 Clovis point (excavation)
Kelly (1938); Waring

(1968)
1 Middle or Late
Paleoindian point
(excavation)
Anderson et al. (1994:

60); Elliott (1982)
Continued
20
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Anderson et al.
Table 2 Continued
State
KY
LA
Site name
Geographic location
Raes Creek
At Fall Line along

Savannah River;
Richmond County
Ruckers Bottom
Taylor Hill
Upper Savannah
River; Elbert
County
Savannah River
floodplain near
Augusta;
Richmond County
Theriault Chert
Quarry
Along Brier Creek;

Burke County
9Ri381
At Fall Line along

Savannah River;
Richmond County
Adams
Along the Little River

near Herndon and
Hopkinsville;
Christian County
Henderson
Confluence of Eddy
creek and
Cumberland River;
Lyon County
Parrish Village
Confluence of Rose,
Weirs, and Clear
creeks; Hopkins
County
Pearson Ridge area
of Fort Polk on an
eroded ridge
slope near Eagle
Hill; Sabine
County
3 sites areas totaling

441.75 m2; Late
Paleoindian and Early
Archaic in lowest levels
of >4 m stratified and
well-dated deposits
Archaic deposits
11.2 2 and 1.1 1 m
test units; stratified
Middle and Late
Archaic deposits
Paleoindian evidence
found 3034 inches
below surface directly
above sterile clay
9.1 1 m2 units; below
stratified deposits
bearing Early and
Middle Archaic points
Clovis artifacts in
recovered from the
surface around the
circumference of a
large sink hole
Several trenches
excavated to depth of
29.4 cm; Paleoindian
and Archaic mixed at
found at 15.2 cm
Multiple transects cut
across 38 m of site;
points recovered at
depth of 0.3 and 0.5 m
Initial testing found an
undisturbed
Paleoindian component
and a Clovis at depth
of 4050 cm in a test
unit; Subsequent
testing (6 x 5-m block)
found Paleoindian
stratum 90100 cm
below surface
48 5-ft squares
excavated in Area A
and >189 5-ft squares
in Area B3; In Area A,
2 Clovis points
recovered in a pit
feature 36 cm below
surface and 1 on or
near surface; Also in A,
19 San Patrice and
Pelican and Meserve
points, and in Area B,
20 San Patrice points.
San Patrice points
found at depths of
530 cm below surface
Eagle Hill II
John Pearce
Terrace overlooking
Cypress Bayou;
Caddo Parish
and surface)
References
1 Dalton/Hardaway
preform (excavation)
Crook (1990)
1 Clovis point (excavation)
Anderson and
Schuldenrein (1985)
1 Clovis point, 1 possible

fluted preform, and 2
Dalton points
(excavation)
Elliot and Doyon

(1981)
1 Clovis point (later typed

as a Redstone point)
and 2 Dalton points
(excavation)
Brockington (1971);
Goodyear personal
communication
1 probable beveled Dalton

point medial-distal
(excavation)
Smallwood et al.
(2014)
4 Clovis points (surface),

No artifacts found in
buried context
Freeman et al. (1996);

Gramly and Yahnig
(1991); Sanders
(1990)
2 possible Cumberland
points (excavation)
Maggard and
Stackelbeck (2008:
137)
7 Clovis points
(excavation)
Rolingson and
Schwartz (1966);
Webb (1951)
1 Clovis point and 1

Folsom-like lanceolate
point (excavation)
Anderson and Smith

(2003: 4143); Gunn
and Brown (1982);
Rees (2010: 4748);
Servello and Bianchi
(1983)
3 Clovis, 6 Pelican points,

2 Meserve points (Dalton
or San Patrice, var.
Hope), and 39 San
Patrice points
(excavation)
Rees (2010: 47); Webb

et al. (1971: 10)
Continued
PaleoAmerica
2015
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21
Anderson et al.
Table 2 Continued
Geographic location
16VN1505
Terrace overlooking
Big Brushy Creek,
Fort Polk Vernon
County
MS
Hester
Alluvial floodplain of
the Tombigbee
River in the
Tombigbee Hills;
Monroe County
Initially tested in largescale shovel-test

survey; Subsequent
testing, 7.50 x 50-cm
and 5.1 x 1-cm,
recovered Plainview
and San Patrice in Test
Unit 4 at 70100 cm
6 10 10 ft squares;
Clovis and Cumberland
in zone of yellow sand
(Dalton zone) and
Quads found below
Dalton zone
NC
Baucom
Hardaway
In the floodplain of
the Rocky River
near the Fall Line
Zone; Union
County
Hardaway
Along Yadkin River

near Uwharrie
Mountains; Rowan
County
Haw River
Alluvial terrace of
Haw River;
Chatham County
In Great Dismal
Swamp on south
side of
Pasquotank River;
Pasquotank
County
State
Site name
Pasquotoank
SC
Big Pine Tree
Flamingo Bay
Taylor
Central Savannah
River valley on
Smiths Lake
Creek; Allendale
County
Eastern sand rim of
Flamingo Bay, a
Carolina bay;
Aiken County
Near the Congaree

River and Fall
Line; Lexington
County
Central Savannah
River valley in the
Coastal Plain on
outcrop of Coastal
Plain chert;
Allendale County
Topper
20 4-ft area gridded into

5-ft squares; below
levels with corner and
side-notched points
and in 8 9 level of
hard, sandy, yellow
clay
19551959 excavations
removed 53 m2 and
19751980 excavations
removed large block
(>50 m2) immediately
south of 1950s work;
Late Paleo found in
Zones II, III, and IV and
associated with
Archaic points
31CH129: 12 12 m
block
and surface)
References
1 Clovis point, 1 Plainview

point, and 2 San Patrice
points (excavation)
Anderson and Smith

(2003: 351); Abrams
et al. (1995); Meyer
et al. (1996)
1 Clovis, 1 Cumberland
point, 6 Quad points (1
found in mixed context
with Early Archaic
points), numerous Dalton
lanceolate and Dalton
side-notched points
(excavation)
9 Hardaway-Dalton points
(excavation)
Brookes (1979);
Brookes (personal
communication);
McGahey (1996:
371)
Peck (2003)
(excavation)
Daniel (1998)
Multi-component
Paleoindian, Archaic,
and Woodland surface
site shallowly buried;
over 100 stone tools
and several hundred
flakes recovered from
7 ha area
Found in 100115 cmbs
zone with Taylor sidenotched points
3 Clovis-like fluted points

and 1 Hardaway SideNotched (surface)
Cable (1996: 11011);

Claggett and Cable
(1982)
Daniel et al. (2007);
Daniel and Moore
(2011)
4 Dalton points
(excavation)
Goodyear (1999);
Waters et al. (2009)
23 2 2 m units in 2
block excavations;
single occupation, and
Clovis diagnostics
found in larger 19 unitblock
4 10-ft squares; below
zone with Early Archaic
Palmer assemblage
2 Clovis points
(excavation)
Moore and Brooks

(2012); Moore
(personal
communication
2014)
10 Dalton points
(excavation)
Michie (1996)
4 Clovis points, 1
Redstone, and 1 Dalton
(excavation)
Anderson et al.
(2013b); Goodyear
(2005); Miller (2010);
Sain (2011);
Smallwood (2010);
Smallwood et al.
(2013)
3 major site areas totaling

840 m2 have been
excavated to date;
below Archaic and
Woodland components
Continued
22
PaleoAmerica
2015
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Anderson et al.
Table 2 Continued
State
Site name
Tree House
TN
Carson-ConnShort
Coats-Hines
Johnson
Located in the
Piedmont on a
sandy levee of the
south side of the
Saluda River;
Lexington County
In a series of terrace
ridges of the
Western Valley
along the shore of
Kentucky Lake
and south of an
ancient channel of
the Tennessee
River; Benton
County
Near Spencer Creek,

a tributary of
Harpeth River;
Williamson County
Confluence of the
Cumberland River
and a tributary;
Davidson County
Nuckolls
On the Tennessee
River in the
Kentucky Lake
area; Humphreys
County
Wells Creek
Crater
Confluence of
Cumberland River
and Wells Creek;
Stewart County
Overlooking an old
oxbow of the
Cumberland River;
Davidson County
Widemeier
VA
Geographic location
Cactus Hill
and surface)
References
3 block units, 2,125 sq.

ft/200 m2
1 Clovis, 1 Dalton
(excavation)
Nagle and Green

(2010)
6 1 1 m2 test units
excavated in Area A
and 3 test units in Area
F; 2 units in Area A
have distinct
Paleoindian
components: in TU 1,
fluted preform found
3055 cm below
surface and in TU 8,
Clovis points found
buried in association
with Late Archaic firecracked-rock feature
Two large excavation
blocks
2 Clovis points
(excavation)
Broster and Norton

(1993); Broster et al.
(1996); Nami et al.
(1996); Smallwood
(2011, 2012);
Stanford et al.
(2006)
Extinct fauna, flakes, and

flake tools (excavation)
Breitburg et al. (1996),

Deter-Wolf et al.
(2011)
Artifacts and dated

material collected from
features eroding out
river bank; Paleoindian
artifacts found in
Stratum IV, which is
1 m thick and
stratigraphically below
Early Archaic
components in Stratum
III and II
Testing demonstrated site
is a deflated surface
from which Clovis,
Cumberland, and
Dalton points, and
prismatic blades, have
been surface collected
3 test trenches and a
number of excavation
blocks (Tune 2013:
149)
Clovis, Cumberland,
Beaver Lake, and
Dalton points found in
surface collection, but
stratified deposits in 8
concentrations (A-H
and J) with datable
Early Archaic material
suggest that
Paleoindian deposits
could be intact
Area A-3 (test
excavations totaling
180 ft2), Area B, Area
C, and Area D
3 Clovis points, 6
Cumberland, and 1
Dalton point (excavation)
Barker and Broster

(1996); Broster and
Barker (1992);
Broster et al. (1991,
1996)
No artifacts found in buried

context
Broster et al. (2013);

Lewis and Kneberg
(1958); Ellerbusch
(2004)
6 Clovis, 1 Beaver Lake

(surface? Provenience of
points uncertain) (Tune
2013: 150)
No artifacts found in buried
context
Dragoo (1973); Tune

(2013)
2 Early Triangular, Clovis

points and 4 Middle
Paleoindian points found
in Excavation Area B; 2
Daltons (Area A?)
(excavation)
McAvoy and McAvoy

(1997); Johnson
(1997, 2014)
Broster et al. (2006,

2013)
Continued
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2015
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23
Anderson et al.
Table 2 Continued
State
Site name
Geographic location
Fifty
On and adjacent to
alluvial fan
upstream from a
buried bog;
Warren County
Smith Mountain
Natural levees
paralleling the
Roanoke River;
Pittsylvania County
Thunderbird
South Fork of the

Shenandoah River
situated across
outcrops of
Jasper; Warren
County
Williamson
At the interface of
the Coastal Plain
and Piedmont,
about halfway
between the
Nottoway and
Appomattox River
basins; Dinwiddie
County
Found in excavations of
interfan area with
16.10 10 ft units in
area 70 ft by 1030 ft;
recovered in Level 4
level with Early Archaic
Charleston/Palmer
occupation
Deep auger testing; some
remains found on
exposed levee surface
and in small excavation
units
Excavations in 2 areas of
siteupslope shallow
habitation site and
downslope buried
stratified production
area with Area 1B and
4 in downslope most
reported; in Area 4
Paleo found in Levels
68, and in area 1B,
Clovis on clay
Middle to Late Paleo
component and Early
Archaic component
Trenching and 11 10 10
and 2 10 5-ft test
units; Clovis point
preform recovered from
unit 290R10, 1.3 ft-level
of Zone 3 in Feature
1. Second recovered
280R10, 0.2 ft of Zone
3
sinkhole catchment systems, where fresh water, chert,

and wild plant and animal resources would have
been concentrated or easily acquired. This Oasis
Model was originally proposed by Neill (1964) and
has since been explored in detail by a number of scholars, particularly Dunbar and Waller (Donoghue 2006;
Dunbar and Waller 1983; Dunbar et al. 1989; Waller
and Dunbar 1977; Webb 2006). Thulman (2009) has
recently argued that during the Younger Dryas
surface water scarcity was a significant constraint on
Paleoindian settlement patterning, which may
explain an increase in the concentration of sites near
locations with higher frequencies of sinkholes.
Based on the presence of dense concentrations of
artifacts in river valleys in portions of the Southeast,
Anderson (1990a, 1996) proposed a regional-scale
place-oriented model of Paleoindian colonization
and settlement. In this staging area model,
Anderson argued that early Paleoindian peoples entering the Eastern Woodlands encountered major river
valleys, slowed their movement, and settled into the
24
PaleoAmerica
2015
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NO.
and surface)
References
2 Clovis points
(excavation)
Carr (1985, 1992); Carr

et al. (2013)
1 Clovis point, 1 plano-like

point (excavation)
Childress (1993);
Childress and Vogt
(1994); Childress
and Blanton (1997);
Johnson (2014)
Carr et al. (2013:
18283); Gardner
(1974); Gardner and
Verrey (1979);
Verrey (1986: 162)
2 Clovis points (Area 1B), 1

Middle/Late?
Paleoindian point and 1
broken Clovis point
(Area 4), and 1 Dalton
(Hardaway-Dalton-like
point/preform) (in
disturbed context of
Area 1B) (excavation)
2 Clovis point preforms

(without basal grinding)
(excavation)
Haynes (1972, 1985);

Hill (1997); McCary
(1951, 1975);
McCary and Bittner
(1978)
ecologically richest locations; perhaps not coincidentally, these areas also had major knappable stone
resources, making the model an extension of
Gardners tethering argument. These locations
became staging areas or settlement nuclei for group
aggregation and residence. As populations grew,
groups fissioned and dispersed into secondary
staging areas, knowing that in the event of problems
there were places on the landscape they could return
to and find people or resources. Early Paleoindian
groups habitually used staging areas and formed discrete populations, leaving behind dense concentrations
of artifacts. These concentrations reflect incipient
macroband-level organization and the foundations
for early cultural regionalization. Again, unlike
western-based models, Anderson (1990a, 1996; see
also Dincauze 1993 for a similar perspective in the
Northeast) predicted the nature of Paleoindian colonization and settlement in the Southeast was a slowerpaced process that occurred in a step-wise manner.
Cable (1996: 144), however, alternately suggested
Anderson et al.
that the dense concentrations of Paleoindian artifacts

in the Midsouth and higher latitudes were due to the
differences in use intensity and a greater occurrence
of logistical organizational strategies, which either
never occurred or had been replaced by foraging strategies much earlier in warmer lower latitudes, following
arguments advanced by Binford (1980). In this view,
staging areas were simply places where there was a
greater need for bulk processing to overcome more
severe overwintering challenges, resulting in denser
assemblages and greater numbers of discarded
curated tools such as end scrapers (see also Walthall
1998a).
The staging area model received little direct testing,
however, until Smallwood (2012) demonstrated differences between assemblages in differing parts of the
region that might be tied to such a population dispersal, although the areas settled first and then subsequently, if this is what happened, remain to be
determined, and depend in part on entry routes and
subsequent population histories (Anderson et al.
2010a, 2013a; Miller 2014; Smallwood 2012). In a
time when much of what we knew about
Paleoindians was based on sites in the Plains and
Southwest, the works of Dunbar, Gardner,
Goodyear, Mason, McCary, Meltzer, Morse,
Stoltman, Williams, and many others (e.g., Anderson
1990a, Cable 1996; Goodyear 1974; Meltzer 1984a,
1988; Meltzer and Smith 1986; Morse 1971, 1975a,
1977; Schiffer 1975a, 1975b; Williams and Stoltman
1965) highlighted the growing southeastern record,
took a regional perspective on settlement, and

created testable hypotheses for archaeologists
working in the region and beyond to explore.
4. The radiocarbon record and projectile point

chronology
While it is clear that Paleoindian period hunter-gatherers experienced remarkable environmental changes,
actually correlating and directly dating changes in
culture with changes in climate is difficult in the southeastern United States. Here widely accepted radiocarbon dates associated with diagnostics and used to help
develop the cultural sequence in the Southeast are
examined, to indicate our current state of understanding of chronology (Figure 5, Table 3). Historically, one
of the major hurdles in studying the Pleistocene
archaeological record in this region has been locating
sites with datable components (Anderson 2005;
Dunnell 1990; Goodyear 1999; Miller and Gingerich
2013a, 2013b; Williams and Stoltman 1965: 673).
This is largely a product of (1) the warm and humid
climate in the region relative to other areas of North
America, and (2) the surface geology is composed primarily of residuum that has not seen much, if any,
accumulation of sediments since the appearance of
people in North America (Dunnell 1990: 13;
Goodyear 1999). As a result, Pleistocene archaeological sites in the southeastern United States are often
characterized by surface (or shallowly buried) sites
almost entirely composed of stone tools with little to
no organic preservation (Meltzer 1984a, 1988). This
Figure 5 Radiocarbon dates for key Middle and Late Paleoindian diagnostics, and how their ranges compare to the record
elsewhere (graphic prepared by D. Shane Miller).
PaleoAmerica
2015
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25
Anderson et al.
contrasts significantly with the Holocene record in the

region, where many of the classic sites that form the
cultural sequence for eastern North America (e.g.,
Koster in Illinois, Icehouse Bottom and Rose Island
in Tennessee, and St. Albans in West Virginia) did
not produce datable Pleistocene-aged components
(Miller and Gingerich 2013a, 2013b).
Consequently, the bulk of what we know about
Paleoindian sites in the Southeast comes from
surface sites and private collections, which form the
basis of projectile point surveys that have been active
in every state in the region at one time or another
since McCarys (1947, 1984, 1991; Hranicky 1989;
2008, 2009) Folsomoid survey of Virginia in the
1940s (for a discussion of fluted point surveys in the
region see Anderson 1990b; Anderson and Faught
1998; Anderson et al. 2010b; Brennan 1982). These
sites, collections, and surveys provided a way to
define the range of variation in projectile points that
have been recovered in the region. However, to begin
placing these projectile point types into chronological
order, researchers have historically relied on comparing the morphology of projectile points to well-dated
sites in other regions of North America (Anderson
et al. 1996; Goodyear 1999; Miller and Gingerich
2013a). Only relatively recently have sites such as
Cactus Hill and Dust Cave provided widely accepted
radiocarbon dates that help to solidify the
Paleoindian period culture historical sequence in the
Southeast (McAvoy and McAvoy 1997; Sherwood
et al. 2004).
The earliest reported projectile point types in
eastern North America are the Miller Lanceolatea
lanceolate, unfluted projectile point known from the
Pre-Clovis levels at Meadowcroft Rockshelter in
Pennsylvaniaand the Early Triangular type from
Cactus Hill, Virginia (Adovasio 1998, Adovasio
et al. 1978, 1999; McAvoy and McAvoy 1997). At
Meadowcroft Rockshelter, a Miller Lanceolate was
found in Stratum IIa bracketed by levels associated
with radiocarbon dates that fall between 11,300
700 14C yr BP (13,375 988 cal yr BP) and 12,800
87014C yr BP (15,389 1,219 cal yrBP). At Cactus
Hill, two Early Triangular points were found in
levels that produced artifacts below the Clovis deposits. Two charcoal samples from features interpreted
as hearths in these levels produced two radiocarbon
dates, 15,070 70 14C yr BP (Beta-81590; 18,308
112 cal yr BP) and 16,940 50 14C yr BP (Beta128330; 20,428 95 cal yr BP) (Feathers et al. 2006:
170; McAvoy and McAvoy 1997). However, the acceptance of these dates, and the Miller Lanceolate and
Early Triangular as Early Paleoindian projectile
point types, while increasingly widespread, is not universal (cf. Adovasio and Pedler 2005, 2014; Adovasio
et al. 1999; Anderson and Sassaman 2012: 45; Fiedel
26
PaleoAmerica
2015
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2013; Goodyear 2005), and more work directed to

detecting early diagnostics is clearly needed.
The chronological placement of fluted point technology in the southeastern United States has relied
heavily on well-dated sites from other regions, in particular the southwestern United States and the Great
Plains. Haynes (1964, 1969, see also Haynes 1992,
2005) initially put the date range for Clovis technology
as
between
11,500
and
10,900 14C yr BP
(13,34112,747 cal yr BP). However, Waters and
Stafford (2007) argue that the minimum date range
for
Clovis
is
much
narrower
in
time
(11,05010,800 14C yr BP; 12,91412,713 cal yr BP)
based on both new dates and the reanalysis of the existing body of dates. G. Haynes et al. (2007), however,
countered that Waters and Stafford excluded some
dates, the most prominent of which are from the
Aubrey site in Texas (Ferring 1995, 2001), which predates their narrower date range for Clovis by several
centuries. The recently published radiocarbon dates
from Fin del Mundo in Sonora (Sanchez et al. 2014)
and OSL dates from the Debra L. Friedken site in
Texas (Waters et al. 2011) provide further evidence
for Clovis (or Clovis-like) technology prior to Waters
and Staffords (2007) date range. Consequently, what
has emerged is a long and a short chronology
for Clovis in North America with the earliest dated
expressions of Clovis technology in the lower latitudes,
but with the great majority of the radiocarbon dates
for Clovis defining the narrower time range advanced
by Waters and Stafford.
In the southeastern United States, the earliest dated
component containing fluted preforms occurs at the
Johnson site in Nashville, Tennessee. Barker and
Broster (1996) collected charcoal from features interpreted as hearths eroding into the Cumberland River
that were associated with both fluted and unfluted preforms. These produced three dates that substantially
predate the Waters and Stafford (2007) short chronology for Clovis, and also predate both Aubrey and Fin
del Mundo (Ferring 1995, 2001; Sanchez et al. 2014).
However, two of the three early dates from the
Johnson site have exceptionally large standard deviations, and Vance Hayness attempts to replicate
them produced dates that were early Holocene in age
(Barker and Broster 1996: 10003). While additional
dates would likely lead to chronological refinement,
the site has likely been lost to erosion (Broster et al.
2013). Other sites in eastern North America, such as
Shawnee-Minisink in Pennsylvania, and Sheriden
Cave and Paleo Crossing in Ohio (Eren 2005, 2006,
Eren et al. 2004; Gingerich 2007, 2013b; Johnson
1997, 2014; McAvoy and McAvoy 1997; McNett
1985; Redmond and Tankersley 2005; Tankersley
1999; Waters et al. 2009), have demonstrated that at
the very least Clovis technology is contemporaneous
Anderson et al.
Table 3
Radiocarbon dates associated with temporally diagnostic Paleoindian bifaces for the southeastern United States and
surrounding areas
Site
14
C yr BP
Cal yr BP
References
Component
Lab number
Meadowcroft, PA*
Meadowcroft, PA*
Cactus Hill, VA
Cactus Hill, VA
Johnson, TN
Johnson, TN
Johnson, TN
Johnson, TN
Johnson, TN
Johnson, TN
Johnson, TN
Sloth Hole, FL
Topper, SC
Miller Lanceolate
Miller Lanceolate
Miller Lanceolate?
Miller Lanceolate?
Fluted Preforms
Fluted Preforms
Fluted Preforms
Fluted Preforms
Fluted Preforms
Fluted Preforms
Fluted Preforms
Clovis? (Ivory Rod)
Clovis?
SI-2354
SI-1686
Beta-166238
Beta-81590
TX-6999
TX-7454
TX-7000
AA-9165
AA-9168
AA-9164
AA-8860
SL-2850
AA100294
16,175 975
12,800 870
16,940 50
15,070 70
12,660 970
11,980 110
11,700 980
9,555 90
9,090 85
9,050 85
8,925 75
11,050 50
10,958 65
19,816 1207
15,389 1219
20,428 95
18,308 112
15,281 1335
13,839 141
14,101 1393
10,904 150
10,271 119
10,194 134
10,024 124
12,913 74
12,837 79
Cactus Hill, VA**

Paleo-Crossing,
OH**
Paleo-Crossing,
OH**
Paleo-Crossing,
OH**
Shawnee-Minisink,
PA**
Shawnee-Minisink,
PA**
Shawnee-Minisink,
PA**
Shawnee-Minisink,
PA**
Shawnee-Minisink,
PA**
Sheriden Cave,
OH***
Dust Cave, AL
Clovis
Clovis
Beta-81589
AA-8250-C
10,920 250
11,060 120
12,820 258
12,924 110
Adovasio et al. (1978: 643)

Adovasio et al. (1978: 643)
McAvoy and McAvoy (1997)
Feathers et al. (2006)
Barker and Broster (1996: 98)
Hemmings (2004)
Goodyear (2013); Wittke et al.
(2013)
McAvoy and McAvoy (1997)
Brose (1994)
Clovis
AA-8250-E
10,980 110
12,875 100
Brose (1994)
Clovis
AA-8250-D
10,800 185
12,707 205
Brose (1994)
Clovis
UCIAMS24866
Beta-101935
11,020 30
12,882 62
Gingerich (2007: 92)
10,940 90
12,842 90
10,915 25
12,763 27
Clovis
UCIAMS24865
Beta-127162
10,900 40
12,762 35
Clovis
Beta-203865
10,820 50
12,722 28
Clovis
UCIAMS38249
Beta-81599
10,915 30
12,765 30
Waters et al. (2009: 109)
10,500 60
12,432 120
Sherwood et al. (2004: 53839)
Beta-81613
10,490 60
12,415 124
Beta-40681
10,490 360
12,198 477
Beta-65179
10,390 80
12,259 147
Beta-100506
10,370 180
12,153 300
Beta-40680
10,345 80
12,197 158
Beta-81609
10,340 130
12,154 240
Beta-133790
10,310 60
12,139 143
Beta-65181
10,310 230
12,035 364
Beta-41063
10,330 120
12,145 228
Beta-147135
10,140 40
11,807 114
Beta-133791
10,100 50
11,689 148
Beta-81610
10,070 70
11,621 169
Beta-147132
10,010 40
11,495 108
Beta-65177
9,990 140
11,562 236
Beta-133788
9,950 50
11,401 112
Beta-81611
9,890 70
11,350 117
Beta 93017
10,150 70
11,790 165
Childress and Blanton (1997: 12)
Dust Cave, AL
Dust Cave, AL
Dust Cave, AL
Dust Cave, AL
Dust Cave, AL
Dust Cave, AL
Dust Cave, AL
Dust Cave, AL
Dust Cave, AL
Dust Cave, AL
Dust Cave, AL
Dust Cave, AL
Dust Cave, AL
Dust Cave, AL
Dust Cave, AL
Dust Cave, AL
Smith Mountain, VA
Clovis
Clovis
Quad/Beaver Lake/
Dalton
Quad/Beaver Lake/
Dalton
Quad/Beaver Lake/
Dalton
Quad/Beaver Lake/
Dalton
Quad/Beaver Lake/
Dalton
Quad/Beaver Lake/
Dalton
Quad/Beaver Lake/
Dalton
Quad/Beaver Lake/
Dalton
Quad/Beaver Lake/
Dalton
Quad/Beaver Lake/
Dalton
Quad/Beaver Lake/
Dalton
Quad/Beaver Lake/
Dalton
Quad/Beaver Lake/
Dalton
Quad/Beaver Lake/
Dalton
Quad/Beaver Lake/
Dalton
Quad/Beaver Lake/
Dalton
Quad/Beaver Lake/
Dalton
Lanceolate (Plano?)
Continued
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Anderson et al.
Table 3 Continued
Site
Component
14
C yr BP
Cal yr BP
References
Rodgers Shelter,
MO
Rodgers Shelter,
MO
Puckett, TN
Dalton
ISGS-48
10,530 650
12,227 849
Coleman (1972: 154)
Dalton
M-2333
10,200 330
11,872 472
Crane and Griffin (1972: 159)
Dalton
Beta-48045
9,790 160
11,220 286
Olive Branch, IL
Graham Cave, MO
Dalton
Dalton/Early SideNotched
Early Side-Notched
Early Side-Notched
Early Side- Notched
Bolen (Side- and CornerNotched)
not given
M-130
9,115 100
9,700 500
10,305 133
11,218 716
Norton and Broster (1992: 34,

1993)
Gramly and Funk (1991)
M-1928
9,470 400
10,862 596
M-1889
9,290 300
10,559 430
M-1152
9,640 450
11,126 664
M-1346
9,440 400
10,818 593
M-1347
9,340 400
10,674 584
M-1348
9,040 400
10,259 547
M-1153
8,920 400
10,102 535
Beta-81602
Beta-81606
M-1827
Beta-81469
10,070 60
9,720 70
9,900 500
10,090 70
11,617 156
11,084 132
11,476 696
11,661 173
DeJarnette et al. (1962: 8587),

Josselyn (1964)
DeJarnette et al. (1962), Josselyn
(1964)
(1964)
DeJarnette et al. (1962: 8587),
Josselyn (1964)
(1964)
Broyles (1966: 18, 4041)
Faught et al. (2003: 17)
Beta-81468
9,900 60
11,344 104
Beta-81467
9,850 50
11,264 52
Beta-21752
10,280 110
12,056 231
Beta-58857
10,000 80
11,515 161
Beta-21750
10,000 120
11,557 210
Beta-103888
9,950 70
11,434 136
Beta-58858
9,930 60
11,388 118
Graham Cave, MO
Graham Cave, MO
Stanfield-Worley,
AL
Stanfield-Worley,
AL
Stanfield-Worley,
AL
Stanfield-Worley,
AL
Stanfield-Worley,
AL
Dust Cave, AL
Dust Cave, AL
St. Albans
8LE2105, FL
Lab number
8LE2105, FL
8LE2105, FL
Page-Ladson, FL
Page-Ladson, FL
Page-Ladson, FL
Page-Ladson, FL
Page-Ladson, FL
*These radiocarbon dates bracket the deposits that produced the Miller Lanceolate.
**These dates were accepted by Waters and Stafford (2007).
***This date was derived from collagen from a bone projectile point. Waters et al. (2009) argue that this sample represents the most
accurate age for the Clovis assemblage at this site.
These dates are from Zone U at Dust Cave.
These dates are from Zone T at Dust Cave.
The Dalton components were not distinguishable from later side-notched components (Goodyear 1982: 384).
These dates are from Zone R at Dust Cave.
Side- and Corner-Notched Bolen bifaces co-occurred within the deposits that produced these dates.
with that in the western United States, spans the latter

part of the BllingAllerd interstadial period, and
terminates with the beginning of the Younger Dryas
stadial period at approximately 12,850 cal yr BP. In
the southeastern United States, the only widely
accepted radiocarbon date associated with Clovis
lithic technology is from the Cactus Hill site in
12,786
Virginia
(10,920 50 14C yr BP;
55 cal yr BP; Beta-81589; McAvoy and McAvoy
1997; Wagner and McAvoy 2004). An ivory rod
from Sloth Hole in Florida also produced a date that
is contemporaneous with Clovis sites elsewhere in
North America (11,050 50 14C yr BP; 12,913
28
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74 cal yr BP; SL-285; Hemmings 2004, 2005).

Finally, Wittke et al. (2013) and Goodyear (2013)
have reported a date associated with the Clovis deposits at the Topper site in South Carolina (10,958
65 14C yr BP; 12,837 79 cal yr BP; AA-100294).
However, the context of this date and its association
with the archaeological deposits at the site are only
minimally published, and await further investigation.
In the western United States, Clovis is replaced by
Folsom at the onset of the Younger Dryas, which is
supported by their stratigraphic relationship at sites
such as Blackwater Draw and a large body of radiocarbon dates (Holliday 2000). However, in the
Anderson et al.
southeastern United States, projectile point forms that

presumably follow Clovis at the onset of the Younger
Dryas (e.g., Redstone, Gainey, Cumberland, Barnes,
Suwanee, and Simpson) remain to be securely dated or
even, in some cases, securely differentiated (Anderson
2005, 2013; Meeks and Anderson 2012; Miller and
Gingerich 2013a, 2013b; Morrow 2015). Gramly
(2008, 2009, 2012), in fact, suggests Cumberland is
Early Paleoindian or Pre-Clovis in age, an inference considered unlikely here on technological grounds, but the
forms dating and stratigraphic occurrence unquestionably needs to be accurately determined. The low incidence of dates for the initial centuries of the Younger
Dryas has been tied to a shift in demography
(Anderson and Faught 2000), mobility and landscape
use (Anderson et al. 2010a, 2011; Faught 2008;
Thulman 2009), and the cliff in the available calibration curves that make radiocarbon dates within this
timeframe difficult to interpret (Fiedel 1999, 2015;
Meltzer and Holliday 2010).
While there are almost no radiocarbon dates available from the Southeast in the initial centuries of the
Younger Dryas, a handful of sites have produced
dates for the remainder of the Younger Dryas and the
transition to the early Holocene. This uptick in the frequency of radiocarbon dates in the latter stages of the
Younger Dryas is likely due to the increase in the use
of caves and rockshelters, which provide a better
context for preservation than the surface scatters that
typify the early Paleoindian record in the southeastern
United States (Miller and Gingerich 2013a, 2013b;
Walthall 1998a). Dust Cave, in particular, is the key
site used in the southeastern United States for establishing the chronological relationship between Quad/
Beaver Lake, Dalton, and Early Side-Notched projectile points (Sherwood et al. 2004). The dates for the
Quad/Beaver/Dalton components (Zones T and U)
are consistent with the radiocarbon dates from
Rodgers Shelter, which Goodyear (1982) used to
argue that Dalton is a Late Paleoindian manifestation
dating to between 10,500 and 9,900 14C BP
(12,47511,275 cal yr BP). Moreover, at the Smith
Mountain site in Virginia, Childress and Blanton
(1997: 12) recovered a Plano-like biface (which may
be comparable to Quad or Dalton types elsewhere
in the region), and a charcoal sample that produced
a date (10,150 70 14C BP; 11,790 165 cal yr BP;
Beta-93017) that falls within the temporal span that
proposed by Goodyear (1982). However, two sites
have produced Dalton components with dates that are
younger than Goodyears temporal range, Olive
Branch in Illinois (9,115 100 14C BP; 10,305
133 cal yr BP; Gramly 2002; Gramly and Funk 1991)
and Puckett in Tennessee (9,790 160 14C BP;
11,220 286 cal yr BP; Beta-48045; Norton and
Broster 1993: 47).
Finally, Dust Cave (as well as Stanfield-Worley in

Alabama, Graham Cave in Missouri, and St. Albans
in West Virginia) demonstrated that the chronological
occurrence of side-notched projectile points spans the
Late Paleoindian/Early Archaic (Younger Dryas/
Holocene) boundary. In the Midsouth, side-notched
projectile points were observed in early contexts at
Stanfield-Worley (DeJarnette et al. 1962), Graham
Cave (Crane and Griffin 1956: 667), and more recently
at Dust Cave (Driskell 1994; Randall 2002; Sherwood
et al. 2004), and at sites like Page-Ladson and
8LE2015 in Florida (Carter and Dunbar 2006;
Faught and Waggoner 2012; Goodwin et al. 2013).
However, adding to the confusion is that side-notching
reappears in the Middle/Late Archaic in parts of the
Southeast, including at the regionally famous Big
Sandy site in western Tennessee (Bissett 2014;
Osborne 1942), unfortunately resulting in the
occasional use of the term Big Sandy to describe
both earlier and later side-notched forms, prompting
calls for clarification (Carter and Dunbar 2006: 494;
Morse 1994: 233). Additionally, side-notching may
occur with corner-notched variants of Bolen projectile
points in Florida (Faught and Waggoner 2012; Faught
et al. 2003). While Stanfield-Worley, Dust Cave, PageLadson, and 8LE2015 clearly demonstrate a late
Pleistocene/early Holocene horizon of side-notched
projectile points in the southeastern United States,
the mere presence of a side-notched projectile point
does not automatically equate to an archaeological
component dating to the PleistoceneHolocene
transition.
5. Paleoindian adaptations in the Southeast

Evidence for Pleistocene occupation in the Southeast
is here placed into three temporal groupings, designated the Early, Middle, and Late Paleoindian
periods, closely corresponding to before, during, and
after Clovis times. Paleoindian adaptations in the
Southeast for the Early, Middle, and initial part of
the Late Paleoindian periods are not well understood
at present, although our knowledge base is rapidly
improving. Early research focused on defining and
examining the manufacture and occurrence of morphologically discrete point types, providing a framework for exploring cultural change through analyses
of their environmental and material cultural associations. While there were early exceptions (e.g.,
Gardner 1974; Goodyear 1974; Morse 1973, 1975b),
only fairly recently have researchers moved away
from a focus on sequence definition and begun to
apply site- to regional-scale analyses and large datasets
to explore questions of adaptation and settlement.
Much of this work has been loosely linked under the
rubric of technological organization as it applies to
site structure and land use (after Binford 1978, 1980,
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1982, 1983, 2001); while quite successful, the

approaches brought to the study of regional
Paleoindian assemblages have been expanding to
encompass other areas in recent years, such as ceremonialism, foraging and gender relations, and cultural
transmission, although this work is in its infancy
(e.g., Anderson 1995: 3436, 2013; Gero 1993, 1995;
Meltzer 2009; OBrien et al. 2014; Smallwood 2012;
Speth et al. 2013; Thulman 2006). Stratified sites
with multiple separable components or groups of
single component sites in close proximity to one
another provide the best hope for examining change
in specific localities, but such findings are uncommon,
in spite of appreciable effort expended in their detection (e.g., Anderson and Joseph 1988; Chapman,
1985; Gardner 1974, 1989; Hollenbach 2009; Miller
et al. 2012; Sherwood et al. 2004; Webb 2006).
Large-scale multiyear excavation programs with significant resources directed to multidisciplinary
research, including geoarchaeology, paleosubsistence
analyses, and absolute dating, have occurred in only
a few settings, such as Dust Cave, Page-Ladson, the
Thunderbird locality, and Topper. Significant work
has also occurred through briefer but much more
intensive CRM projects, at sites such as 8LE2105 in
Florida and Tree House in South Carolina
(Goodwin et al. 2013; Hornum et al. 1996; Nagle
and Green 2010).
5.1 Early Paleoindian adaptations

(>13,250 cal yr BP)
No diagnostic artifacts are currently known that
unambiguously identify Early Paleoindian assemblages in the region, making the recognition of components and inferences about settlement and
mobility difficult unless and until more sites are
found in secure stratigraphic context or with unambiguous absolute dates. Bifacial forms attributed to
this period, however, have been found at a number
of sites in and near the region that may prove to be
reliable indicators, such as the Early Triangulars at
Cactus Hill in Virginia, the Miller Lanceolate from
Meadowcroft Rockshelter in Pennsylvania, the PageLadson type from the site of the same name in
Florida, a waisted unfluted Simpson-like point from
Wakulla Springs site in Florida, and bipoints from
the Delmarva area (e.g., Adovasio 1998; Adovasio
and Pedler 2014; Adovasio et al. 1978, 1999: 42728;
Anderson 2005: 32; Dunbar 2006c: 41112, 42123;
Dunbar and Hemmings 2004: 6667; Goodyear
2005; Haynes 2002a: 40; Hranicky 2012; Johnson
1997, 2014; Lowery et al. 2010; McAvoy and
McAvoy 1997: 111, 177, 17980; Bradley and
Stanford 2004; Stanford and Bradley 2012; Wah
et al. 2014). We now believe that diagnostic Early
Paleoindian point types may be present in existing
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collections, but have remained unrecognized because

(1) they are similar to later forms, (2) they occur in
very low incidence, or (3) they have not been found in
securely dated, stratified contexts, making their age
equivocal. Early Paleoindian assemblages found in the
region have either yielded few artifacts or, where
denser assemblages are present, contain material difficult to identify as resulting from human agency, such
as the bend-break industry reported at Topper, which
may be confused with naturally fractured stone
(Goodyear 2005; King 2012; McDonald 2000; Webb
2006). No detailed settlement/subsistence models have
been proposed for Early Paleoindian southeastern occupations, although models proposed for the subsequent
Middle Paleoindian period may well apply, such as
whether these people targeted megafauna or had a
more generalist adaptation (e.g., Gingerich and
Kitchell 2015; Meltzer and Smith 1986), were tethered
to quarries or karst topography (e.g., Dunbar and
Waller 1983; Gardner 1977, 1983, 1989), or quickly
settled into some areas or were more free wandering
(cf. Anderson 1990a, Kelly and Todd 1988).
5.2 Middle Paleoindian adaptations (ca.

13,25012,850 cal yr BP)
Widespread evidence for human settlement in the
Southeast occurs soon after ca. 13,250 cal yr BP,
during the Middle Paleoindian period, identified by
the presence of assemblages with Clovis-fluted points
which locally, like elsewhere in North America, refer
to bifacially flaked points with a slightly concave
base from which a flute extends about half-way up
the blade (Holliday 2000; Sellards 1952; Stanford
1991; Tankersley 2004; Willig 1991; Wormington
1957). Clovis assemblages, although not well dated
in the Southeast, are assumed to run from sometime
around or perhaps significantly before 13,250 cal yr BP
until roughly the onset of the Younger Dryas, ca.
12,850 cal yr BP. The nature of what is meant by
Clovis culture is arguably not well defined, although
an association with fluting, overshot flaking, and a
range of formal tool forms including blades and scrapers, is widely accepted across the region (e.g.,
Anderson and Sassaman 1996a; Goebel 2015; Miller
et al. 2013; Morrow 1996; Tankersley 2004). The continuation of fluting well past Clovis times in many
parts of the continent is an important reason for
using a period rather than a cultural definition for
Middle Paleoindian. Dates for Clovis assemblages
remain sparse in the Southeast (and beyond), and
until more sites are securely dated the proposed temporal range for the type and the period proposed
herein must be considered tentative (Miller and
Gingerich 2013a, 2013b).
While large numbers of Clovis points have been
recorded in the Southeast, most come from surface
Anderson et al.
context, making it difficult to determine which other

artifacts found in the same settings are associated,
and from that more general settlement/subsistence behavior. Only rarely have large assemblages been found
in excavation context, typically from quarry-related
sites (although some exceptions exist, such as
Pasquotank in North Carolina (Daniel et al. 2007)).
Unlike the western part of the continent, the
Southeast has little evidence for either megafaunal
kill sites or Middle Paleoindian period lithic caches
(Huckell and Kilby 2014; Kilby 2015; Kilby and
Huckell 2013; Tankersley 2004; the Sloan assemblage,
however, demonstrates that caching behavior occurs in
Late Paleoindian Dalton times). Save for the northern
part of the region, formal hafted end scrapers are infrequent in southeastern Middle Paleoindian assemblages, perhaps due to the reduced need for extensive
hide working in a warmer climate (Cable 1996: 144;
Miller and Goodyear 2008; Sanders 1990). Likewise
evidence for structures is rare, with only one post-inground building reported to date, from the
Thunderbird locality (Carr et al. 2013), and even this
structure, a possible multifamily complex, may date
to the Late Paleoindian era. The largest Middle
Paleoindian period assemblages in the Southeast
come from quarry areas, several of which have seen
extensive excavation; much of the material recovered,
however, tends to be debitage from early reduction
activity, and while domestic localities may be
present, the recognition of camp structure has proved
elusive, although spatial differences in activities has
been noted at some sites (e.g., Carr et al. 2013;
Gardner 1989; Smallwood et al. 2013). Attempts to
determine possible structures from the occurrence of
voids or areas of lesser artifact concentration in
debris scatters have been attempted, with possible
examples detected from subsequent Early Archaic
period sites (e.g., Anderson and Hanson 1988: 274;
Sassaman et al. 2002), but the areas examined at
most sites with Clovis assemblages to date have been
too small or too dispersed to permit such analyses.
Nonetheless, thanks to decades of work at quarries
and recording the distribution of Paleoindian artifacts,
we have a reasonably good understanding of how
Clovis peoples made use of stone, and hence likely
moved and interacted, over the larger region.
Geographically extensive but not unlimited or
unbounded ranges for bands or perhaps macrobands,
on the order of from 100 to 300 km in extent, are
suggested in Florida, the Midsouth, and on the
South Atlantic Slope in the vicinity of the Carolinas
and Georgia, with activity decreasing with increasing
distance from quarry areas or raw material occurrence
zones (e.g., Anderson et al. 2010a; Daniel and
Goodyear in press; Goodyear et al. 1990; Thulman
2006).
Analyses of assemblages from Adams in Kentucky

(Sanders 1983, 1988, 1990), the Thunderbird locality
in Virginia (Carr et al. 2013; Gardner 1974, 1989),
Williamson in Virginia (Smallwood 2012), CarsonConn-Short in Tennessee (Broster et al. 1994;
Smallwood 2012), and Topper in South Carolina
(Goodyear 2005; Miller 2011; Sain 2011; Smallwood
2010, 2012; Smallwood et al. 2013) have been important contributions to reconstructing Clovis lithic technology in the Southeast. These studies demonstrate
that in the production of bifaces, Clovis flintknappers
used overshot/overface flaking and end thinning
(Morrow 1995, 1996, 2015; Sanders 1990;
Smallwood 2010, 2012). At quarry-related sites, they
crafted biface cores (Carr et al. 2013; Sanders 1990;
Verrey 1986) and manufactured point preforms with
a broad range of acceptable sizes, some falling into
size ranges of used finished points (Smallwood
2010). While many bifaces were reduced to produce
Clovis points with characteristic flutes, some were
crafted into other bifacial tools, such as adzes, choppers, and scrapers (Sanders 1990: 5051; Smallwood
et al. 2013). Some southeastern Clovis quarry-related
sites also have evidence of blade production
(Broster et al. 1996: 7; Sain 2011; Sanders 1990;
Smallwood et al. 2013). Blades were struck from
conical (Broster et al. 1996) and, to a greater extent,
wedge-shaped cores (Sain 2011). At some sites
(McAvoy 1992; Sain 2011), blades are slightly
smaller and less curved but still fall within the
known range of classic Clovis blade production
(Collins 1999; Waters et al. 2011). Clovis flintknappers
in the region retouched blades as side and end scrapers
and with gravers and spokeshaves (Broster and Norton
1993; Broster et al. 1996; Sanders 1990). Blades, both
unmodified and modified, were used at the quarryrelated sites, and just as bifaces, many were likely
carried away (Sain 2011; Sanders 1990). In addition
to blades, a wide variety of other types of unifacial
tools were also produced and used at southeastern
quarry-related sites, including side scrapers, scraper
planes, and denticulates; end scrapers, while present
at Adams and Williamson, are uncommon further
south (Broster and Norton 1996; Sanders 1990;
McAvoy 1992; Peck 2003; Smallwood et al. 2013).
These studies have confirmed the importance of
large quarry-related sites in Southeastern Clovis
lifeways.
5.3 Late Paleoindian adaptations

(12,85011,700 cal yr BP)
The Late Paleoindian is a time of tremendous cultural
and climatic change in the Southeast, roughly corresponding to the Younger Dryas climate episode,
which had significant impacts on local physiography
and biota, with major extinctions and relocations of
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flora and fauna, marine transgressions and reversals,

and changes in river regimes occurring (Anderson
et al. 2010b, 2013a; Dunbar 2006a; Halligan 2013;
Leigh 2006; Leigh et al. 2004; Nash 2009; Russell
et al. 2009; Williams et al. 2001, 2004). In the
Southeast, cultural regionalization began as early as
the Middle Paleoindian Clovis period (Smallwood
2012; Smith et al. 2015; Thulman 2006), and
evidence of populations becoming increasingly more
regionally focused is fully apparent by the Late
Paleoindian period, represented technologically by
an increase in the number and diversity of fluted and
unfluted point types. The cause of this variation
whether by technological shifts associated with adaptive changes or the effects of cumulative variation in
style through cultural drift/cultural transmission
remains unknown, although both undoubtedly were
varyingly important (Anderson and Sassaman 2012;
OBrien et al. 2014; Thulman 2006, 2012).
During the Younger Dryas this diversification continues, and indeed explodes, within the Southeast.
Projectile point forms include morphologically distinctive fully fluted, basally thinned, and unfluted forms,
with subregional variants evident, rather than a
single more or less uniform style such as the Clovis
form widespread previously. The following types or
subtypes are assumed to occur at this time: Barnes,
Beaver Lake, Clovis Variants, Cumberland, Dalton,
Gainey, Quad, Redstone, San Patrice, Suwannee, and
Simpson, together with lanceolates resembling Plains
Paleoindian forms. The latter, we are coming to
realize, occur widely during the Paleoindian period
in eastern North America, either untyped or described
using types such as the Ste. Anne/Varney (Bradley
et al. 2008; Childress and Blanton 1997; Childress
and Vogt 1994; Fishel 1988; Gingerich 2013c). In the
western part of the region, in the trans-Mississippi
south of Louisiana and Arkansas, Folsom/
Sedgewick, Plainview, Midland, and Angostura types
have been found (Anderson and Smith 2003: 24289;
Anderson et al. 1996: 1113; Jennings 2008; Johnson
1989; Morse et al. 1996; Rees 2010; Wykoff and
Bartlett 1995), but whether these are related to the
similar forms occasionally found further east is
unknown. Somewhat later in the Younger Dryas, a
range of notched and serrated forms, subsumed
under the overarching Dalton supertype or cluster,
become common across the region, followed by sideand then corner-notched forms that continue into the
early Holocene (Anderson and Sassaman 2012;
Justice 1987; Morse 1997b). The temporal ranges
and associations of these forms with one another
remain poorly determined, particularly at the early
end of the period. Fortunately, this situation improves
dramatically later in the Younger Dryas, where a
number of well-dated Dalton sites are known, as
32
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discussed below (Meeks and Anderson 2012; Miller

and Gingerich 2013a, 2013b).
5.3.1 INSTRUMENT-ASSISTED FORMS
The onset and first few centuries of the Younger Dryas
are associated with the occurrence of what are called
full-fluted or more properly instrument-assisted
point forms (Goodyear 2006, 2010), since some
examples have flutes running only partially up the
blade. In the Southeast, these point types include
Cumberland and Redstone, with midwestern and
Plains types occasionally reported such as Barnes,
Folsom, and Gainey (Anderson et al. 1996, 2010a;
Goodyear 2010); the extent, associations, and dating
of these forms in the region need considerable refinement. Cumberland points have long flutes that
extend from the base up the narrow point blade; the
hafting element is waisted, and the base is slightly
concave; blade margins are characterized by fine marginal pressure flaking also similar to Folsom technology (Lewis 1954). Redstones are described as
medium to large trianguloid points with deep basal
concavities and long multiple flutes on both faces;
the blade is straight and ends with an acute distal tip
(Daniel and Goodyear 2006, in press; Goodyear
2006; Mahan 1964); short flutes are sometimes
present and a deeply indented base may be the more
reliable marker separating these forms from classic
Clovis points, which typically have flat to weakly
indented bases and fluting only part way up the
blade. These full-fluted/instrument-assisted forms
are assumed to be chronologically associated with
the well-dated Folsom point in the West and to
derive from and immediately follow the Middle
Paleoindian Clovis type; to date, though, no buried
site has securely confirmed this sequence in the
Southeast. The only area, in fact, where such forms
are dated is in the Northeast, where they occur well
into the Younger Dryas, significantly after the range
currently assigned to Clovis (cf. Miller and Gingerich
2013a: 15, Waters and Stafford 2007). Cumberland
and Redstone points occur in greatest incidence in
different parts of the Southeast, and thus, appear to
represent subregional post-Clovis-fluted point traditions (Figure 6), although it should be noted not
everyone agrees with the dating proposed here.
Gramly (2008, 2009, 2012), for example, argues that
the Cumberland type is Pre-Clovis in age.
Instrument-assisted forms, as well as presumably subsequent Dalton types, are rare in Florida (Dunbar
2006c: 408; Dunbar and Hemmings 2004; Thulman
2006, 2007), with Suwannee and related forms apparently in use instead. Some true Folsom pointsmorphologically identical to Plains formsoccur in
eastern North America as far east as Illinois and
Indiana (Munson 1990). In Arkansas another
Anderson et al.
Figure 6 The occurrence of early Late Paleoindian period Suwanee/Simpson, Redstone/Cumberland/Barnes, and Folsom/
Sedgwick points in the southeastern United States. The development of subregional projectile point forms, and possibly discrete
cultural entities, appears to have occurred early in the Late Paleoindian period in the region.
Folsom look-alike is described using the Sedgwicktype name (Morse and Morse 1983: 6263). Other
roughly similar forms thought to be post-Clovis in
age include Barnes in the upper Midwest,
Northumberland in the Pennsylvania area,
MichaudNeponset in the New England/Maritimes
area, and, as discussed, Cumberland in the
Midsouth, and Redstone in the eastern part of the
Southeast (Anderson et al. 2010a; Bradley et al.
2008; Fogelman and Lantz 2006).
To some researchers, these presumably later southeastern fluted point types represent the evolution of
fluting technology in the region. Goodyear (2006)
reasons that while Clovis fluting was a process of
direct-percussion on a beveled face that does not originate at the present margin of the basal concavity, the
fluting of Redstones and other fully fluted forms was
instrument-assisted. He proposes that the use of indirect-percussion allowed for more fluting control
directly at the base, and this technique marks an
important technological and cultural transition
among fluted point makers. Further, the point
morphology also suggests to some a shift in how

fully fluted points were used. Goodyear (2006) proposes that the narrow, triangular morphology of a
Redstone was designed for a different functional task
than a Clovis point. While Clovis points are designed
for piercing and cutting, Redstones are designed for
piercing and penetrating, a functional transition he
associates with changes in faunal communities
(Goodyear 2006).
Adaptations during the early part of the Younger
Dryas are poorly understood, although a reduction
in group ranges compared to Clovis has been inferred
based on the occurrence of raw materials on diagnostic
projectile points (Anderson et al. 2010a: 7475, 77). A
decline in the numbers of sites and diagnostic artifacts
is observed in some areas, notably in northern
Alabama and southern Virginia, and cumulatively
when numbers are examined across the region as a
whole, that may be tied to settlement reorganization,
population decline, or both (Anderson et al. 2010a,
2011, Driskell et al. 2012; McAvoy 1992; Sherwood
et al. 2004). Megafaunal extinctions would have led
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Anderson et al.
to changes in diet breadth if these animals had been

regularly targeted, that may have in turn resulted in
changes in technology, such as the increased occurrence of notched and resharpened forms, perhaps
related to the need to process more small game.
Subsistence pursuits may have been similar to those
observed later in the Younger Dryas, when far better
preservation occurs, primarily because rockshelter
use becomes much more common, but this is only an
inference at present. Finding and documenting assemblages with well-preserved paleosubsistence remains
dating to the early part of the Younger Dryas is arguably the greatest challenge facing Late Paleoindian
researchers in the Southeast.
5.3.2 UNFLUTED FORMS

Sometime during the early part of the Late
Paleoindian period, fluting disappears across the
Southeast and morphological variation in point
types increases; it is assumed, like in the West, fullfluted forms are replaced by a variety of unfluted lanceolate and waisted forms. In the Southeast, these
point types include the Beaver Lake and Quad types
reported across the Southeast; the Arkabutla,
Coldwater, and Hinds types from Mississippi; San
Patrice forms primarily in the trans-Mississippi south
of Louisiana and adjoining areas; and Suwannee
points in Florida and the Coastal Plain of Georgia
and South Carolina (Anderson et al. 2010b). Dalton
forms are assumed to in turn replace these, and are
common in many parts of the Southeast save in
Florida. This replacement of fluted by unfluted
forms has only been hinted at stratigraphically at a
few sites, notably Dust Cave in Alabama (Driskell
1994; Sherwood et al. 2004), Hester in Mississippi
(Brookes 1979), and Silver Springs in Florida
(Dunbar 2006c: 405; Neill 1958: 4244). Dust Cave,
in northwestern Alabama, the most thoroughly
reported and dated of these sites, provides the best evidence for the Late Paleoindian sequence for some of
the unfluted points found in the region; components
containing Quad and Beaver Lake points were found
stratigraphically below a Dalton component
(Driskell 1994; Sherwood et al. 2004).
The dating of Dalton is uncertain, but appears to
span the later Younger Dryas and possibly into the
early Holocene (Driskell et al. 2012: 25556; Ellis
et al. 1998; Goodyear 1982; Lopinot et al. 1998,
2000; Miller and Gingerich 2013a, 2013b; Morse
1997b; Morse et al. 1996). Bradley (1997: 57), based
on technological similarities such as the occasional
occurrence of true fluting and the fairly common practice of minor basal thinning, has argued that Dalton
points may have appeared earlier, evolving directly
out of Clovis in the central Mississippi Valley, where
fluting has been observed on some of the Dalton
34
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points from the Sloan site in northeast Arkansas

(Bradley 1997; for similar inferences about a likely
ancestordescendant relationship between Clovis and
Dalton, see also Morrow 2011; Morse 1975b, 1997a;
OBrien 2005; OBrien et al. 2014: 106). Dalton
points occur in great numbers across the Southeast
save in Florida where Suwannee and related forms
may be local substitutes (Dunbar 2006c: 408;
Dunbar and Hemmings 2004: 69). They are typically
the oldest points found in many excavations; when
found in stratigraphic context, Dalton points invariably occur prior to or occasionally contemporaneous
with side- and corner-notched forms, indicating an
occurrence toward the end of the Late Paleoindian
era (e.g., Anderson et al. 1996; Coe 1964; Daniel
1998; Goodyear 1982; Morse 1997b; Walthall
1998b). Possible Suwannee-fluted point preforms
although found with side-notched forms at Harney
Flats with no stratigraphic separation and possibly
on an old surface (Daniel and Wisenbaker 1987)
were recently found stratigraphically below sidenotched Bolen components at several sites along the
Cody Scarp in northern Florida (Goodwin et al.
2013; Hornum et al. 1996).
Models of Dalton settlement and subsistence have
been proposed for the Central Mississippi Valley by
Morse and others, based on movement between a
number of site types, from central bases to special
activity loci (including quarrying areas), with special
cemetery areas located away from residential sites
(Morse 1971, 1973, 1975a, Morse and Morse 1983:
7097; see also Gillam 1996a, 1999). Exploitation of
a wide range of flora and fauna has been inferred,
with an emphasis on white-tailed deer hunting and
butchering (Goodyear 1974; Morse 1971, 1973,
1997a, 1997b). Because of the large numbers of sites,
and the unusual characteristics observed at some of
them during Dalton times in the Central Mississippi
Valley, a cultural efflorescence is inferred to have
occurred. Sites such as Lace and Brand, for example,
appear to have been locations of extended settlement
and specialized bulk processing, while Sloan indicates
marked cemeteries were present, denoting possible territoriality, the occupation of or control over certain
areas or resources through overt defense or signaling
(Kelly 2013: 154). The latter is considered more
likely, given the visual prominence and likely appeal
of Sloan points, and since no evidence for conflict
has been found. Elaborate ceremonialism and no
doubt signaling of some kind, in fact, is reflected in
the manufacture and caching of hypertrophic bifaces,
designated Sloan points after the site where a
number of these artifacts were found in grave lots.
Sloan points are found singly and in caches over
several hundred kilometers of the Central Mississippi
Valley, prompting Walthall and Koldehoff (1998) to
Anderson et al.
infer a ceremonial/interaction network among the

peoples living in the area, what they call the Cult of
the Long Blade (see also Anderson (2002: 25051)
and Sassaman (2010), who argue an organizationally
complex hunter-gatherer society was present). While
subsequent Early Archaic period sites characterized
by side- and corner-notched points are common
across the Southeast, not until the Middle Archaic,
when monumentality and cemetery behavior appears
in several parts of the region, was a comparable level
of social complexity likely present (Anderson and
Sassaman 2012: 6164; Sassaman 2010).
Subsistence pursuits are much better documented in
later Late Paleoindian Dalton times than earlier in the
Younger Dryas, given the presence of a number of
well-preserved floral and faunal assemblages from
the region, primarily from rock shelter sites (e.g.,
Driskell and Walker 2007; Hollenbach 2007; Walker
2007; Walker and Driskell 2007), and to a lesser
extent from submerged sites in Florida (e.g., Carter
and Dunbar 2006; Dunbar and Vojnovski 2007).
Plant foods were clearly important in later Late
Paleoindian subsistence, as documented at sites such
as Dust Cave (Hollenbach 2007, 2009), but their role
in earlier times remains only minimally explored;
greater emphasis on their recovery is warranted,
given their importance in temperate latitude huntinggathering societies in general (Kelly 2013).
Paleosubsistence information could help resolve basic
questions such as the times of the year sites were in
use, about which uncertainty exists in areas where
paleosubsistence evidence is sparse (cf. Anderson
and Hanson 1998; Hollenbach 2009; Walthall 1998a).
6. Future directions
Given the extensive regional literature, this paper has
been of necessity a comparatively brief overview and
introduction to southeastern Paleoindian archaeology.
The future holds great promise, and we conclude with
a number of thoughts and observations on where we
think research energies could be focused. First, we
should continue to look for stratified, undisturbed
sites and datable material, done in conjunction with
careful geoarchaeological research to help us find
and assess the context of assemblages. This will
allow us to place the regional cultural sequence on a
firmer foundation, and so that we have more assemblages that can help us better understand how these
first peoples lived, and the world they lived in.
Questions in need of resolution with regard to
sequence definition include whether point types such
as Cumberland or Suwannee are Pre-Clovis, Clovis
contemporaries, or post-Clovis in age; the range of
occurrence for major types such as Clovis or Dalton;
and whether there are time-transgressive trends in the
occurrence and distribution of major point and tool
forms. Geoarchaeological research, of course, should

not only seek to find intact cultural deposits and
sequences, but should occur as part of multidisciplinary efforts including palynology, paleobotany, and a
host of complementary disciplines to, among other
goals, reconstruct local environmental conditions.
Changes in sedimentation and unconformities, for
example, may relate to shifts in climate and erosion
of habitable landscapes/landforms (e.g., Daniel et al.
2013; Goodyear 1999; Moore and Daniel 2011;
Waters and Stafford 2013: 556; Waters et al. 2009).
Finally, when dating early and arguably any archaeological assemblage, high precision AMS dating should
be employed rather than conventional radiocarbon
dating (e.g., Anderson 2005: 3032; Haynes et al.
1984; Miller and Gingerich 2013a, 2013b; Stafford
et al. 1987, 1991).
Second, and equally important, we need to continue
the tradition of working with avocationals in finding
and integrating data, in terms of both identifying
sites and individual artifacts and documenting
private collections (Anderson and Faught 1998;
Anderson et al. 2010a; Daniel et al. 2007; Goodyear
et al. 1990; Pike et al. 2006; Pitblado 2014; Thulman
2006, 2012). Above all, fluted point surveys need to
be expanded to include a wider range of artifact categories, and the information so acquired needs to continue to be shared openly through regular publication
of primary data in monographs and state and regional
journals, and in online outlets such as PIDBA. Data
compiled as a result of such efforts should be incorporated into state site file records, which require constant
updating; a recent study showed many locations yielding fluted points in the region have never had site
forms filled out or, if site forms existed, they had not
been updated to reflect the presence of Paleoindian
materials (ODonoughue 2007). Given the large
numbers of Paleoindian points recorded from across
the Southeast, regional-scale analyses using morphometric and other attribute data should be encouraged,
as another way besides excavation in which the variability in local assemblages can be teased out. Excellent
regional-scale efforts (e.g., Gingerich et al. 2014;
Meltzer 1984a, 1984b; Morrow and Morrow 1999;
OBrien et al. 2001, 2014; Smith et al. 2015;
Tankersley 1990b, 1991, 2004; Thulman 2006, 2012;
White 2014) have, in fact, been conducted, highlighting variation in the Paleoindian biface/projectile
point and tool record, and a great deal of work
along these lines has also been done with site, locality,
and state-level datasets in the Southeast (e.g.,
Anderson et al. 1990; Breitburg and Broster 1995;
Daniel 1998, 2000; Daniel and Goodyear in press;
Daniel and Wisenbaker 1987; Futato 1982, 1996;
Futato et al. 1992; Goodyear 1974; Goodyear and
Steffy 2003; Goodyear et al. 1990; McGahey 1993,
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35
Anderson et al.
1996, 2004; Morse 1997b; ODonoughue 2007; OSteen

1996; OSteen et al. 1986; Smallwood 2012; Smallwood
et al. in press, Wittkofski and Reinhart 1989).
Third, we need to re-examine older excavated
assemblages to more completely assess our understanding of early sites, as Hollenbach (2004, 2009)
did with materials from classic rockshelter sites in
northern Alabama, and Smallwood (2012) did with
large Clovis quarry site assemblages from three different parts of the region, to give to two significant recent
examples. Many important Paleoindian sites have
been collected and excavated in the Southeast, and
while excellent documentation exists for some of
them, far too many are only minimally reported.
Still, a remarkable amount of Paleoindian archaeological research has occurred in the Southeast, primarily
because we have been fortunate to have had someone
in almost every statebut only very rarely more
than one personwho has focused on this period for
much of their career. The continued efforts of
researchers dedicated to a particular state, locality,
or site, particularly in those parts of the region that
have yet to produce buried Paleoindian-age sites, are
critical for understanding early occupations.
Fourth, ancient DNA studies should be conducted
to determine the nature of the first inhabitants of the
region, and also residue analyses, to better understand
the functions of stone and other tools. Genetic testing
of early human remains in the Southeast needs to be
reinvigorated, with samples examined from submerged
sites such as Warm Mineral Springs, Little Salt
Springs, and Windover (Clausen et al. 1975a, 1975b,
1979; Doran 2002; Doran et al. 1986; Faught and
Waggoner 2012) as well as terrestrial sites such as the
Sloan Dalton cemetery in Arkansas (Condon and
Rose 1997; Morse 1975b, 1997a). Greater effort
should be directed to the discovery of well-preserved
human remains, which have been found widely
dating to the Archaic period in the region, in shell
middens, peat bogs, submerged contexts, and rockshelters. It is only a matter of time before comparable
human remains are found in southeastern
Paleoindian deposits. When found, as with all
human remains and sacred sites and objects, they
must be treated with respect, and examined in
cooperation and consultation with descendant populations. Submerged sites are also likely to yield wellpreserved perishable materials such as bone, ivory, textiles, or wood (Doran 2002; Hemmings 2004; Purdy
1991). Coupled with this is the tremendous potential
of the submerged offshore archaeological record, on
the once exposed continental shelf, whose contents
we are just beginning to explore (e.g., Anderson
et al. 2013a; Faught 1996, 2004a, 2004b, Faught and
Donoghue 1997, Faught and Guisick 2011; Guisick
and Faught 2011; Harris et al. 2013; Hemmings and
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Adovasio 2014). Likewise, stone bone and ivory

tools should be carefully examined for organic residues, in addition to use-wear patterning, to determine
what they were used to process (e.g., Ballo 1986;
Fagan 2013; Gaertner 1994; Hemmings 2004; Moore
et al. 2014; Newman 1997; Wiederhold and Pevny
2014; Yerkes and Gaertner 1997). Care must be
taken to ensure that the context of whatever we
examine is as secure as possible and associated
materials ideally well-dated, particularly given the
controversy that has attended discoveries in the past,
for instance human remains such as at Natchez and
Vero (Cotter 1991; Hrdlic ka 1918; Sellards 1917a,
1917b; Sellards et al. 1917).
Fifth, we must continue to integrate the Paleoindian
record in the Southeast with broader questions in
archaeology, anthropology, and the social sciences,
and above all we must enlist descendant populations
in our efforts. Evidence for ceremony and artwork
undoubtedly exists, although parallels with the elaborate caching and burial behavior found in the west
(Huckell and Kilby 2014; Kilby 2015; Kilby and
Huckell 2013) or the possible cremation/votive offering in Ontario (Deller and Ellis 1984, 2001) remain
elusive. This does not mean local examples are not
present. More formal marked cemeteries such as
Sloan in Arkansas (Morrow 2011; Morse 1975a,
1997a) or Windover in Florida (Doran 2002) undoubtedly exist, and must be preserved if at all possible.
Likewise, we must improve at recognizing artwork
like the engraved cobbles of apparent Paleoindian
age found at Gault and other sites (e.g., Collins et al.
1992; Gingerich 2009), or the controversial engraved
mammoth found in Florida (Purdy et al. 2010). It is
possible that there is ancient artwork in caves or elsewhere on the landscape; such activity is now dated
back to the mid-Holocene in the region and is becoming a superbly documented source of insight into past
worldviews (Faulkner 1986, 1997; Simek et al. 2013).
Coupled with this, we should place greater emphasis
on finding gendered activities in the archaeological
record (e.g., Gero 1993, 1995). Paleoindian people
ate plants, and women undoubtedly played an important role in their collection, as well as in the collection
and processing of animals. Far greater attention is now
being paid to the recovery of paleosubsistence and particularly paleobotanical remains than occurred prior
to the widespread adoption of flotation processing in
the 1970s and after (Driskell and Walker 2007;
Gingerich 2013b; Gingerich and Kitchell 2015;
Hollenbach 2004, 2009; Walker and Driskell 2007);
such data provide important insights into
Paleoindian lifeways and need continued emphasis in
collection and analysis.
Sixth, how the substantial changes in climate, physiography, and biota that were occurring in the late
Anderson et al.
Pleistocene Southeast affected human populations are

topics of great importance and relevance as we move
into a world where comparable changes are likely to
be increasingly commonplace. The Younger Dryas, a
period of highly variable but decidedly colder temperatures worldwide, for example, occurred from ca.
12,850 to 11,700 cal yr BP, with onset occurring virtually instantaneously in geological terms, almost certainly within a human lifetime and perhaps within a
few months to years (Bjorck et al. 1996:1159; Lowell
et al. 2005; Walker et al. 2009). How the Younger
Dryas affected human populations within the
Southeast is the subject of much current research and
debate; population reorganization, relocation, and
possible decline is inferred (e.g., Anderson et al.
2011, 2013a; Firestone et al. 2007; Meeks and
Anderson 2012; Miller and Gingerich 2013a, 2013b),
but what actually occurred is by no means well understood locally and across the continent (e.g., Meltzer
and Holiday 2010). Fortunately, for Southeast
Paleoindian studies, new generations of scholars continue to appear, and our understanding of the most
ancient human occupations in the region is growing
better all the time.
7. Acknowledgements
This paper represents an update and reconsideration of
earlier syntheses of southeastern Paleoindian archaeology, and as noted in the introduction, we propose a
somewhat different periodization than the framework
first presented 25 years ago. We believe that the
current version, relying on well-defined temporal
boundaries, is more appropriate and can be more
easily applied in the Southeast and indeed across
much of the continent, and is one Anderson has actually advocated for some 15 years in the region, all the
while regretting the continuing popularity of the initial
formulation. We sent the draft manuscript to a number
of colleagues, and we thank them, and the three
reviewers, for their (sometimes very) detailed comments: Derek T. Anderson, I. Randolph Daniel, Jim
Dunbar, Michael K. Faught, Stuart J. Fiedel, Joseph
A. M. Gingerich, Albert C. Goodyear, Christopher
R. Moore, Juliet E. Morrow, Charlotte D. Pevny,
David Thulman, and Mike Waters. Sonny
K. Jorgensen helped with the proofing and Stephen
J. Yerka assembled the figures. The text presented
here is original to this document. Any errors or omissions, of course, remain the responsibility of the
authors. Indeed, we apologize to our colleagues
whose work we may have missed or touched on
lightly. The Paleoindian archaeology of the
Southeast, we learned from preparing this paper, is a
vast subject, one that requires continued cooperation,
evaluation, and synthesis, and we have a lot of great
colleagues working with us to do just that.
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Authors biographies
David G. Anderson earned his PhD in 1990 at the University of Michigan, and he is now a Professor at the
University of Tennessee. His research interests include documenting settlement in eastern North America from
initial colonization onward, climate change and its impact on human societies, teaching, and developing technical
and popular syntheses of archaeological research.
Ashley M. Smallwood earned her PhD in 2011 at Texas A&M University, and she is now Assistant Professor of
Anthropology and Director of the Antonio J. Waring, Jr Archaeological Laboratory at the University of West
Georgia. Her research interests include the prehistory of the American Southeast, Paleoindian and Archaic
hunter-gatherer adaptations, flaked-stone artifact analysis, technological change through time, technological
organization, and humanenvironment interactions.
D. Shane Miller earned his PhD in 2014 at the University of Arizona, and he now serves as Assistant Professor
at Mississippi State University. His research interests include the archaeology of eastern North America, huntergatherers, lithic technology, geoarchaeology, and ecological anthropology.
PaleoAmerica
2015
VOL.
NO.
51

Pleistocene Human Settlement in The Southeastern United States Current Evidence and Future Directions

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PaleoAmerica

A journal of early human migration and dispersal

ISSN: 2055-5563 (Print) 2055-5571 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/ypal20

Pleistocene Human Settlement in the

Published online: 28 Jan 2015.

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Date: 14 April 2016, At: 02:31

Pleistocene Human Settlement in the

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University of West Georgia, Carrollton, GA

2015 W. S. Maney & Son Ltd

and the nature of the landscape at the end of the

Pleistocene Human Settlement in the Southeastern United States

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the Pre-Clovis (>13,250 cal yr BP), Clovis (ca.

most widely used framework comes from a synthesis

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existed. In that framework, Early Paleoindian was

Pleistocene Human Settlement in the Southeastern United States

end of the Pleistocene epoch and the Late

2. Late Pleistocene environments in the

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Pleistocene Human Settlement in the Southeastern United States

interglacial, would have profoundly shaped settlement

Drainages in the Southeast trend for the most part

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Pleistocene Human Settlement in the Southeastern United States

Halligan 2013; Holliday and Miller 2013; Jodry 2005;

Dalton settlement in Arkansas (cf. Gillam 1996a,

Pleistocene Human Settlement in the Southeastern United States

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contexts and the occurrence of related adze-like forms

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high-quality raw material is commonly attributed to

Pleistocene Human Settlement in the Southeastern United States

Pleistocene Human Settlement in the Southeastern United States

3. Early research and the Paleoindian

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The discovery of the European Paleolithic sparked a

showing people were present in North America in

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record. Because southeastern fluted points resembled

Pleistocene Human Settlement in the Southeastern United States

Daniel and Moore 2011; Dunbar and Hemmings

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Pleistocene Human Settlement in the Southeastern United States

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Pleistocene Human Settlement in the Southeastern United States

researchers for decades, however, with the extreme

to the present day, excavations into stratified deposits

Pleistocene Human Settlement in the Southeastern United States

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local origin for fluting technology (Mason 1962), or

Pleistocene Human Settlement in the Southeastern United States

1 acre site; Paleoindian

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Driskell (1994: 30);

Complex of sites along 3