7/27/2015

BioWeb

Search
Go

AtaGlance

General

Technical

EthanolfromSyngasMicrobialConversion
Theproductionofbiofuelsfrombiomassgeneratedsyngasisanemergingtechnology
thatcanutilizeawidevarietyofbiomassresources.Theprocess,asoutlinedinFigure
1,involvesfirstconvertingbiomass(e.g.prairiegrasses,woodchips,paperwastes,
agriculturalwastes,etc.)tosyngas(amixtureofcarbonmonoxide,carbondioxide,and
hydrogen)viaaprocesscalledgasification.Gasificationisthepartialoxidationof
biomassathightemperatures.Thesyngascanthenbeconvertedtobiofuelssuchas
methanol,ethanolandhydrogenusingeitherametalcatalystoramicrobialcatalyst
(e.g.bacteria).Inadditiontobiomass,anumberofotherfeedstockscanbeusedto
producesyngasincludingnaturalgas(methane),coal,andacombinationofcoaland
biomassdenotedascofiring(Dayton,2003).Thoughmanyoftheseprocessesarewell
http://bioweb.sungrant.org/Technical/Biofuels/Technologies/Biofuels+from+Syngas/Ethanol+from+Syngas/Default.htm

1/18

7/27/2015

BioWeb

established,interestinproducingsyngasfrombiomassisincreasingduetoits
abundantavailabilityandrenewablenature.

Theuseofmetalcatalystsisareliabletechnologyandcurrentlyisusedinindustryto
produceavarietyofbiofuelsandchemicals.However,thismethodislimitedbythe
needforextremereactionconditions(highpressuresandtemperatures)whichrequire
highenergyinputs.Theselectivityofconversionislow,andsomecatalystsarevery
sensitivetocontaminantsinthesyngasandareeasilypoisoned.Additionally,the
reactionsgeneratesubstantialquantitiesofheatwhichmustberemovedforthe
reactionstoproceed.Thesechallengescontributetothehighcostofproducingbiofuels
andchemicalsfromsyngasusingmetalcatalysts.Analternativemethodistouse
microbialcatalyststoconvertsyngastoethanol.

Currentcommercialproductionoffuelethanolprimarilyinvolvesfermentationof
sugars,ratherthansyngas,thataretypicallyderivedfromcorngrainorsugarcane.
Interesthasgreatlyexpandedtoobtainingthesugarsfromthebreakdownofcellulosic
materialsalthoughnotallcellulosiccomponentsarecomposedofsugars.The
gasificationprocesscanpotentiallyutilizetheentirebiomassfeedstock,boththesugar
containingcomponentsofcelluloseandhemicelluloseandthenonsugarcontaining
componentsoflignin,whichprovidesagreaterconversionefficiencyofbiomassto
energyorchemicals(McKendry,2002a).
http://bioweb.sungrant.org/Technical/Biofuels/Technologies/Biofuels+from+Syngas/Ethanol+from+Syngas/Default.htm

2/18

7/27/2015

BioWeb

Atypicalprocessfortheconversionofsyngastoethanolinvolves(1)productionofthe
syngas,(2)removalofcontaminantsfromthesyngasbeforeenteringthemicrobial
conversionprocess,(3)ifneeded,adjustmentofthesyngasH 2/COratio(whichdiffer
byfeedstockandgasifierconditions)tofitthemicrobialprocess,(4)passageofthe
syngasthroughthemicrobialreactorattheappropriatetemperature,and(5)collection
andpurificationoftheproductsastheyexitthereactor.
Inthegasificationprocess,steamoroxygen(intheformofairorpureoxygeninlower
thanstoichiometricamounts)arefedtoagasifierathightemperatures(greaterthan
700C)toconvertcarbonaceousbiomassintoCO,CO2andH 2whichformthebuilding
blocksforethanolproductionviafermentation.

Gasificationofbiomasstoproducesyngasinvolvesthreemainstepsinitialheatingto
dryoutanymoistureembeddedinthefeedstockpyrolysis(heatingthefeedstockupto
300500oCintheabsenceofoxidizingagents)toproducegas,tars,oilsandsolidchar
residueandgasificationofthesolidchar,tarsandgastoyieldtheprimarycomponents
ofsyngas(Bridgwater,2003).

Thegasificationofcarbonaceousbiomassoccursviathreemainreactionspartial
oxidation(equation1),completeoxidation(equation2),andthewatergasreaction
(equation3)(McKendry,2002b).

C+O2COH 298K=268KJ/mol(1)
C+O2CO2H 298K=406KJ/mol(2)
C+H 2OCO+H 2H 298K=118KJ/mol(3)

Inaddition,thewatergasshiftreactionplaysanimportantroleinthecompositionof
theCO,CO2,andH 2(equation4).

CO+H 2OCO2+H 2(4)

http://bioweb.sungrant.org/Technical/Biofuels/Technologies/Biofuels+from+Syngas/Ethanol+from+Syngas/Default.htm

3/18

7/27/2015

BioWeb

Syngascanalsocontainanumberofothercompoundssuchasmethane(CH 4),
acetylene,ethylene,ethane,nitricoxide(NO),sulfurdioxide(SO2),tars,andashwhich
canhavecomplexeffectsonthemetalcatalystormicroorganismsused.Equations5
through10showsomeofthesereactions(Kuo,2005).

Theimpuritiesdifferbyfeedstockandgasificationprocess.Coalgasificationproduces
moreNOxandSOximpurities,whereasbiomassgasificationproducesmorehydrocarbon
impurities(Kuo,2005McIlveenWright,2006).Impuritiesaretypicallydealtwithby
includingagascleanupprocessdownstreamofthegasifierorbymodifyingthedesign
ofthegasifiertoproducelowerlevelsofimpurities(e.g.,lowertarproduction).The
additionofcatalysts(suchasCaO)canalsobeusedtoreducetar(Corella,2006).
Researchisneededtobetterunderstandhowimpuritiesaffectmicroorganismsand
theirassociatedenzymaticfunctions.

Themixofgasescontainedinthesyngasvariesasaresultofthefeedstocktypeand
oxidizingagentused(air,pureO2orsteam).

Air(becauseofthehighinertN2content)increasesthevolumeofnitrogeninthe
syngaswhichincreasesthedownstreamcostofcleaningandstoringsyngas.However,
theaddedcostoftheairprocessmustbebalancedwiththeextracostofusingpureO2
orsteamastheoxidizingagent.SteamproducesahigherH 2contentbecauseofthe
watergasshiftreaction(equation4),butrequiresmoreenergytocreate(Bridgewater,
2006).Thedifferencesinthemixtureofgasesusingairsteamandaircatalysts(i.e.,
2030wt%silicasandanddolomite)foravarietyofdifferentfeedstocksareshownin
tables1and2respectively(McIlveenWright,2006).Theaircatalystprocessproduces
lessmethaneandhasalowerhydrocarbonvolumepercentagethanoccurswiththeair
http://bioweb.sungrant.org/Technical/Biofuels/Technologies/Biofuels+from+Syngas/Ethanol+from+Syngas/Default.htm

4/18

7/27/2015

BioWeb

steamprocess.

http://bioweb.sungrant.org/Technical/Biofuels/Technologies/Biofuels+from+Syngas/Ethanol+from+Syngas/Default.htm

5/18

7/27/2015

BioWeb

GasificationReactors.Severaldifferenttypesofgasifierscanbeusedtoproduce
syngasfrombiomass.

Countercurrentfixedbed(updraft)gasifiersconsistofafixedbedofbiomasswitha
countercurrentflowofsteam,oxygenand/orairflowingupwardthroughthefuelbed.
Inordertoformafixedbedthatispermeabletotheflowoftheoxygensource,the
biomassfuelmusthavehighmechanicalstrengthandnotcakeintoanimpermeable
mass.Gasexittemperaturesarelow,whichimprovesthermalefficiency,butincreases
tarandmethaneimpuritiesinthegas(McKendry,2002bBridgwater,2006).
Cocurrentfixedbed(downdraft)gasifiersaresimilartoupdraftgasifiersexceptthat
thesteam,oxygenorairflowscocurrentlydownwardwiththefuel.Becausethegas
passesthroughthehotcharatthebottomofthebedbeforeexiting,someimpurities
suchastarsaretrappedinthecharandthefinalproducthasahigherpurity.Theexit
temperatureofthegasishigher,resultinginaloweroverallefficiency(McKendry,
2002bBridgwater,2006).
Thefuelinafluidizedbedgasifierisgasifiedinanoxygen/airandsteammixture.The
http://bioweb.sungrant.org/Technical/Biofuels/Technologies/Biofuels+from+Syngas/Ethanol+from+Syngas/Default.htm

6/18

7/27/2015

BioWeb

ashisoftenremovedusingacyclone.Fuelthroughputishigherthanforfixedbed
gasifiers,andhastheadvantageofuniformtemperaturedistributionachievedinthe
gasificationzoneresultingincleanerreactions.However,conversionratesarelower,
requiringtherecyclingofpartoftheexitgasbacktothegasifier.Fluidizedbedswork
particularlywellforbiomass,asbiomassresourcescontainhigherlevelsofcorrosive
ashesthatcanharmfixedbedreactors(McKendry,2002bBridgwater,2006).
Inentrainedflowgasifiers,thefuelisfedeitherasadrypulverizedsolidorafuelslurry
intandemwithoxygen(orsometimesair).Gasificationtakesplaceinadensecloudof
fineparticlesandisparticularlyusefulforcoalswhichcanbeeasilypulverizedintofine
particles.Thisgasifierhasthehighestoperatingtemperatureandpressure,which
decreasestheamountoftarsandmethaneformedduringgasification(McKendry,
2002bBridgwater,2006).

Gasifiermanufacturersindicatethatofthecommercialgasifiersinuse,75%areco
current,20%arefluidizedbeds,2.5%arecountercurrent,and2.5%areotherdesigns
(VanLoo,2003).
Thecommercialproductionofchemicalsfromsyngastypicallyusesmetalcatalysts,but
analternativeroutetoproduceethanolfromsyngasusesmicrobialcatalysts(e.g.
bacteria).Severalgeneraofmicroorganismsarecapableofconsumingsyngasaspartof
theirmetabolismandproducingchemicalssuchasethanolandotherproducts(e.g.
aceticacid).Theoverallstoichiometryfortheformationofethanolusingsyngas
substratesareshowninequations1113(Vega,1989).
6CO+3H 2OCH 3CH 2OH+4CO2(11)
2CO2+6H 2CH 3CH 2OH+3H 2O(12)
6CO+6H 22CH 3CH 2OH+2CO2(13)

ClostridiumljungdahliiandClostridiumautoethanogenumwereamongthefirst
organismsidentifiedthatconvertCO,CO2andH 2(syngas)toethanolandaceticacid
(Abrini,1994Vega,1990).C.ljungdahlii,firstisolatedin1987,isagrampositive,
rodshapedanaerobecapableoffermentingsugarssuchasxyloseandfructosein
additiontosyngas(Klasson,1992).Thisorganismfavorstheproductionofacetate
duringitsactivegrowthphasewhileethanolisproducedprimarilyasanongrowth
relatedproduct(Klasson,1992).TheproductionofacetateisfavoredathigherpH(5
7),whereastheproductionofethanolisfavoredatlowervalues(pH4to4.5).

http://bioweb.sungrant.org/Technical/Biofuels/Technologies/Biofuels+from+Syngas/Ethanol+from+Syngas/Default.htm

7/18

7/27/2015

BioWeb

Clostridiumautoethanogenumisastrictlyanaerobic,grampositive,sporeforming,rod
like,motilebacteriumwhichmetabolizesCOtoformethanol,acetateandCO2asend
products.ItisalsocapableofusingCO2andH 2,pyruvate,xylose,arabinose,fructose,
rhamnoseandLglutamateassubstrates(Abrini,1994).

Eubacteriumlimosumhasbeenisolatedfromvarioushabitatsincludingthehuman
intestine,rumen,sewageandsoil.IthasahighgrowthrateunderhighCO
concentrationsandcanfermentsyngastoproduceacetate,ethanol,butyrateand
isobutyrate(Chang1998,1999,2001).

Peptostreptococcusproductusisagrampositiveanaerobiccoccus,foundinthehuman
bowel,andcapableofmetabolizingCO2,H 2orCOtoproduceacetate(Lorowitz,1984).
Studieshaveshownthatalthoughacetateisoneoftheprimaryendproductsofits
metabolism,P.productuscanalsoformadditionalproductsinresponsetoCO2
limitations(Misoph,1996).

ClostridiumcarboxidivoransP7Tisanovelsolventproducinganaerobicmicrobewhich
wasisolatedfromthesedimentofanagriculturalsettlinglagoon.Itismotile,gram
positive,andsporeformingandformsacetate,ethanol,butyrate,andbutanolasend
products.TheoptimumpHrangeforthisstrainis5.07.0andtheoptimum
temperaturerangeis3740C(Liou,2005).

Allofthesemicroorganismsareacetogens.Acetogensareaversatilegroupof
microorganismsthatcanusegaseslikeCO2,H 2andCO,aswellassugarsandother
substrates(Drake,1994Wood,1986b,c).Theyalsoareanaerobicmicroorganismsthat
utilizetheacetylCoApathwayastheirpredominantmechanismtoproduceacetylCoA
fromCO2.AcetylCoAissubsequentlyaprecursortotheproductionofothercompounds
suchaslipids,aminoacids,nucleotidesandcarbohydrates(Ljungdahl,1986).

TheacetylCoApathway(WoodLjungdahlpathway)consistsoftwocomponentsthe
methylbranchandthecarbonylbranch(figure2).Asacetogensareanaerobic,CO2
ratherthanoxygenservesastheelectronacceptorandH 2usuallyservesastheelectron
donor.ThesynthesisofacetylCoAfromCO2andH 2requiresthereductionofCO2and
involves(1)theformationofthecarbonylprecursorofacetylCoAbytheenzymeacetyl
CoAsynthase,alsoknownascarbonmonoxidedehydrogenase(CODH),(2)the
http://bioweb.sungrant.org/Technical/Biofuels/Technologies/Biofuels+from+Syngas/Ethanol+from+Syngas/Default.htm

8/18

7/27/2015

BioWeb

formationofthemethylprecursorofacetylCoA,and(3)condensationoftheabovetwo
precursorstoformacetylCoA(Wood,1986a).AcetylCoAcanthenbeusedtomake
productssuchasethanol,aceticacid,butanol,butyricacid,and/orcellmass(figures2
and3).

http://bioweb.sungrant.org/Technical/Biofuels/Technologies/Biofuels+from+Syngas/Ethanol+from+Syngas/Default.htm

9/18

7/27/2015

BioWeb

AcetylCoAisaversatileintermediatechemicalinthemetabolicpathwayofacetogenic
microorganismsandisaprecursortotheproductionoflipids,aminoacids,nucleotides
andcarbohydrates(Ljungdahl,1986).Itisthesourceforcellularcarbonaswellas
cellularenergy(figure3).

Inthemethylbranch,CO2(orCO2formedfromCOviaCODH)isreducedtoformate
(HCOO)whichissubsequentlyconvertedtoamethylcorrinoidprotein(Ljungdahl,
1986Ragsdale,1991).Inthecarbonylbranch,CO2isreducedtoformaboundCO
complexwithCODH.AcetylCoAisproducedfromthecombinationofthemethyl
corrinoidproteinandtheCOcomplex(Diekert,1994).
http://bioweb.sungrant.org/Technical/Biofuels/Technologies/Biofuels+from+Syngas/Ethanol+from+Syngas/Default.htm

10/18

7/27/2015

BioWeb

Electronsarerequiredduringseveralstepsofthemetabolicprocess.

Inconjunctionwithotherenzymes,hydrogenaseenzymesutilizehydrogentoproduce
electronsrequiredfortheformationofethanol,aceticacid,and/orcellmass.Inthe
absenceofhydrogen,electronscanbegeneratedthroughtheoxidationofCOtoCO2
viatheCODHenzyme.Oftenmicroorganismscontainseveraldifferenthydrogenases,
andinmanycasesthefunctionsoftheseenzymesaredifficulttodetermine.Inhibition
ofhydrogenaseisofparticularinterestasitreducestheabilityofthemicroorganismto
consumehydrogen,whichcausesthemicroorganismtouseCOasasourceofelectrons
attheexpenseofusingtheCOforethanol.GasessuchasO2,acetylene,CO,andnitric
oxide(NO)areknowninhibitorsofhydrogenase(Seefeldt,1989Acosta,2003Byung
HongKim,1984Krasna,1954Tibelius,1984Girbal,1995aMeyer,1985,1986
Hyman,1988,1991).

AcetylCoAgoesthroughthecatabolicpathway(figure3)inordertomakeATP
(adenosinetriphosphate)whichprovidesthemicroorganismwithenergy.Itisalsoby
thisroutethattheacetylCoAisconvertedtoacetate,andisthepathwayfavoredby
themicroorganismduringitsrapidgrowthphase.Thisphaseofmetabolismisknownas
theacidogenicphaseduetotheincreasedacidityofthegrowthmediumfromthe
productionofacids(Rao,1989).Thesolventogenicphaseiswhereethanolisproduced.
Thisphaseischaracterizedbyslowergrowthofthemicroorganismwithlittleorno
productionofATP.Butanolandbutyricacidcanalsobeproducedbycombiningtwo
moleculesofacetylCoAtoformbutyrylCoA.

SeveralfactorsaffecttheswitchfromacidogenesistosolventogenesisincludingpH,ATP
demand,availabilityofnutrients,availabilityofreducingequivalents,andenzyme
activities(Meyer,1989Girbal,1995a,bGrube,2002Kashket,1995Kutzenok,
1952).Duetotheuncertaintyintheswitchfromacidogenesistosolventogenesis,
severalresearchteamshavestudiedmethodsofinducingsolventogenesisincludingthe
additionofacetateandbutyrate(Gottschal,1981)oryeastextractandreducingagents
(Klasson,1992)totheculturemedium,aswellasalteringtheavailabilityofnutrients
(nitrogen,sugar,iron)(Girbal,1995a,bMeyer,1985ByungHongKim,1984).
Additionofartificialelectroncarriers(e.g.,methylviologen,benzylviologen,and
neutralred)hasbeenshowntopromotealcoholproduction(Girbal,1995a,bKlasson,
1992).
Severalreactordesignscanbeusedforthefermentationprocess.Tricklebedreactors
http://bioweb.sungrant.org/Technical/Biofuels/Technologies/Biofuels+from+Syngas/Ethanol+from+Syngas/Default.htm

11/18

7/27/2015

BioWeb

(TBR)consistofaverticaltubularreactor,packedwithsolidmaterialthatthe
microorganismscanattachto.Thedirectionoffluidflowisnormallycountercurrent,
withtheliquidtricklingdownwardsasthegasesflowupwards(Amos,2004Wolfrum,
2002).

Continuousstirredtankreactors(CSTR)arecommonlyusedinsyngasfermentation.A
CSTRhasacontinuousflowofgasbubblingthroughtheliquidwhichtypicallyconsists
ofadilutesolutionofessentialnutrientsforthemicroorganismtogrowandsurviveon.
Theliquidiscontinuouslyaddedandremovedfromthereactor.Highagitationis
neededtoenhancethetransferrateoftheCO,CO2,andH 2fromthesyngastothe
organisms(Klasson,1992).Ifthetransferisnotfastenough,theproductionofcellular
productswillbelimitedtohowfastthegasistransferredtotheorganism.Microbialcell
recyclesystemscanbeusedinconjunctionwiththeCSTRtoincreasecelldensitywithin
thereactor.Insuchasystem,thefermentationbrothispumpedthrougharecyclefilter
andtheretentatecontainingthemicrobialcellsisseparatedfromthepermeate(cell
freemedia)andrecycledbacktothebioreactor.Thisprocesspreventslossofcellmass
fromthebioreactorduringcontinuousoperationandalsoallowstheCSTRtobe
operatedatdilutionratesgreaterthanthemaximumgrowthrateofthemicrobial
catalyst.Recyclinghasbeenshowntoprovidea2.6foldincreaseincellconcentration
(Klasson,1993a,b).

Packedbedreactors(immobilizedcellreactors)arecolumnspackedwithbiocatalyst
particlestowhichthemicroorganismsareimmobilized(Bailey,1986).Thesereactors
areusuallyoperatedconcurrentlywheretheliquidandgasflowinthesamedirection
(Klasson,1992).Advantagesofthisreactorincludehighdensityofthemicroorganisms
andeasyseparationofthemicrobialcellsfromthefermentationbroth.However,the
rateatwhichsyngascomponentsaretransferredtotheorganismisusuallyslow.

CommercialProductionofEthanolViaMicrobialConversionofSyngas.Ethanolisnot
currentlyproducedonacommercialbasisusingmicrobialfermentationofsyngas.This
isanewtechnologystillintheresearchphase,withmostresearchconductedata
laboratoryscaleusingsyntheticsyngas(mixedfromcommercialgases).Assummarized
intable3,anumberofresearchgroupshavereportedproductyieldsfortheconversion
ofsyngastoethanolusingmicroorganisms.

http://bioweb.sungrant.org/Technical/Biofuels/Technologies/Biofuels+from+Syngas/Ethanol+from+Syngas/Default.htm

12/18

7/27/2015

BioWeb

Comparedwithmetalcatalyticprocesses,microbialethanolfromsyngasprocessescan
beoperatedatrelativelylowpressuresandtemperatures.Mostbiologicalenzymes
operateatclosetoambienttemperatureswhichreducecosts(Wolfrum,2002)and
occurinthedark,enablingtheuseofclosedreactorswhichusesimplerreactordesigns
andhavelowercosts.Microbialenzymeshaveahighertoleranceforsyngas
contaminantsthanmetalcatalysts(whichareverysusceptibletopoisoning),andare
evencapableofadaptingtocontaminantsliketarwithincertainlimits(Ahmed,2006
Ragauskas,2006).Theproductionofethanolfrombiomassderivedsyngascircumvents
problemssuchassolidshandlinganddisposaloftheunconvertedligninthatoccurin
conventionallignocellulosicfermentationprocesses.

Disadvantagesofmicrobialprocessesincludethelongreactiontimeofthewatergas
shiftreactionduetotheslowcellgrowthofthemicroorganisms.Sincethereactionis
anaerobic,itdoesnotprovideasmuchenergyforcellularmetabolismasdo
photosyntheticandaerobicreactions.Syngasfermentationisoftenlimitedbylow
productivityandtherateatwhichsyngascantransfertotheliquid(Worden,1997),
whichplacesapremiumongoodbioreactordesignandhighcelldensitiesofthe
microorganismtomaketheprocesseconomicallyfeasible.Athighpartialpressures,
nitricoxide(NO)andcarbonmonoxide(CO)contaminantsinthesyngascaninhibitthe
hydrogenaseenzymethatisinvolvedintheconversionofsyngastoethanol(Krasna,
1954Tibelius,1984).
Abrini,J.,Naveau,H.,&Nyns,E.J.(1994).Clostridiumautoethanogenum,SpNov,an
AnaerobicBacteriumThatProducesEthanolfromCarbonMonoxide.Archivesof
Microbiology,161(4),345351.
http://bioweb.sungrant.org/Technical/Biofuels/Technologies/Biofuels+from+Syngas/Ethanol+from+Syngas/Default.htm

13/18

7/27/2015

BioWeb

Acosta,F.,Real,F.,RuizdeGalarreta,C.M.,Diaz,R.,Padilla,D.,&Ellis,A.E.(2003).
ToxicityofnitricoxideandperoxynitritetoPhotobacteriumdamselaesubsp.piscicida.
Fish&ShellfishImmunology,15(3),241248.
Ahmed,A.,Cateni,B.G.,Huhnke,R.L.,&Lewis,R.S.(2006).Effectsofbiomass
generatedproducergasconstituentsoncellgrowth,productdistributionand
hydrogenaseactivityofClostridiumcarboxidivoransP7T.BiomassandBioenergy,30(7),
665672.
Amos,W.M.(2004).BiologicalWaterGasShiftConversionofCarbonMonoxideto
Hydrogen(No.NREL/MP56035592).Golden,Colorado:NationalRenewableEnergy
Laboratory.
Bailey,J.E.,&Ollis,D.F.(1986).BiochemicalEngineeringFundamentals(2nded.):
McGrawHillBookCompany.
BridgwaterA.V.2003.Renewablefuelsandchemicalsbythermalprocessingof
biomass.ChemicalEngineeringJournal91,87102.
BridgwaterT.2006.ReviewBiomassforenergy.JournaloftheScienceofFoodand
Agriculture86:17551768.
ByungHongKim,P.B.,Datta,R.&Zeikus,J.G.(1984).ControlofCarbonand
ElectronFlowinClostridiumacetobutylicumFermentations:UtilizationofCarbon
monoxidetoInhibitHydrogenProductionandtoenhancebutanolyields.Applied
EnvironmentalMicrobiology,48(4),764770.
Chang,I.S.,Kim,B.H.,Kim,D.H.,Lovitt,R.W.,&Sung,H.C.(1999).Formulation
ofdefinedmediaforcarbonmonoxidefermentationbyEubacteriumlimosumKIST612
andthegrowthcharacteristicsofthebacterium.JournalofBioscienceand
Bioengineering,88(6),682685.
Chang,I.S.,Kim,B.H.,Lovitt,R.W.,&Bang,J.S.(2001).EffectofCOpartial
pressureoncellrecycledcontinuousCOfermentationbyEubacteriumlimosum
KIST612.ProcessBiochemistry,37(4),411421.
Chang,I.S.,Kim,D.H.,Kim,B.H.,Shin,P.K.,Sung,H.C.,&Lovitt,R.W.(1998).
COfermentationofEubacteriumlimosumKIST612.JournalofMicrobiologyand
Biotechnology,8(2),134140.
CorellaJ.,ToledoJ.M.,MolinaG.2006.SteamGasificationofCoalatLowMedium(600
800oC)TemperaturewithSimultaneousCO2CaptureinFluidizedBedatAtmospheric
Pressure:TheEffectofInorganicSpecies.1.LiteratureReviewandComments.
Industrial&EngineeringChemistryResearch,45,61376146.
Dayton,D.C&Spath,P.L(2003).PreliminaryScreeningTechnicalandEconomic
http://bioweb.sungrant.org/Technical/Biofuels/Technologies/Biofuels+from+Syngas/Ethanol+from+Syngas/Default.htm

14/18

7/27/2015

BioWeb

AssessmentofSynthesisGastoFuelsandChemicalswithEmphasisonthePotentialfor
BiomassDerivedSyngas.Golden,Colorado804013393:NationalRenewableEnergy
Laboratory.
Diekert,G.&Wohlfarth,G.(1994).MetabolismofHomoacetogens.AntonieVan
LeeuwenhoekInternationalJournalofGeneralandMolecularMicrobiology,66(13),209
221.
Drake,H.L.(1994).Acetogenesis.NewYork:Chapman&Hall.
Girbal,L.,Croux,C.,Vasconcelos,I.,&Soucaille,P.(1995a).Regulationofmetabolic
shiftsinClostridiumacetobutylicumATCC824.FEMSMicrobiologyReviews,17(3),
287297.
Girbal,L.,Vasconcelos,I.,SaintAmans,S.,&Soucaille,P.(1995b).Howneutralred
modifiedcarbonandelectronflowinClostridiumacetobutylicumgrowninchemostat
cultureatneutralpH.FEMSMicrobiologyReviews,16(23),151162.
Gottschal,J.C.,&Morris,J.G.(1981).TheInductionofAcetoneandButanol
ProductioninCulturesofClostridiumAcetobutylicumbyElevatedConcentrationsof
AcetateandButyrate.FEMSMicrobiologyLetters,12(4),385389.
Grube,M.,Gapes,J.R.,&Schuster,K.C.(2002).ApplicationofquantitativeIR
spectralanalysisofbacterialcellstoacetonebutanolethanolfermentationmonitoring.
AnalyticaChimicaActa,471(1),127133.
HymanM.R.&Arp,D.J.(1988).Reversibleandirreversibleeffectsofnitricoxideonthe
solublehydrogenasefromAlcaligeneseutrophusH16.BiochemicalJournal,254,469
475.
HymanM.R.&Arp,D.J.(1991).Kineticanalysisoftheinteractionofnitricoxidewith
themembraneassociated,nickelandironsulfurcontaininghydrogenasefrom
Azotobactervinelandii.BiochimicaetBiophysicaActa,1076,165172.
Kashket,E.R.,&ZhiYiCao.(1995).Clostridialstraindegeneration.FEMSMicrobiology
Reviews,17(3),307315.
Klasson,K.T.,Ackerson,M.D.,Clausen,E.C.,&Gaddy,J.L.(1992).Bioconversionof
synthesisgasintoliquidorgaseousfuels.EnzymeandMicrobialTechnology,14(8),
602608.
Klasson,K.T.,Ackerson,M.D.,Clausen,E.C.,&Gaddy,J.L.(1993a).Biological
ConversionofCoalandCoalDerivedSynthesisGas.Fuel,72(12),16731678.
Klasson,K.T.,Lundback,K.M.O.,Clausen,E.C.,&Gaddy,J.L.(1993b).Kineticsof
LightLimitedGrowthandBiologicalHydrogenProductionfromCarbonMonoxideand
WaterbyRhodospirillumRubrum.JournalofBiotechnology,29(12),177188.
http://bioweb.sungrant.org/Technical/Biofuels/Technologies/Biofuels+from+Syngas/Ethanol+from+Syngas/Default.htm

15/18

7/27/2015

BioWeb

Krasna,A.I.,&Rittenberg,D.(1954).Theinhibitionofhydrogenasebynitricoxide.
ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciences,40(4),225227.
KuoK.K.(2005).Principlesofcombustion(pp.732).Hoboken,NewJersey:JohnWiley&
Sons,Inc.
Kutzenok,A.,&Aschner,M.(1952).DegenerativeProcessesinaStrainofClostridium
Butylicum.JournalofBacteriology,64(6),829836.
Lemon,B.J.,&Peters,J.W.(1999).Bindingofexogenouslyaddedcarbonmonoxideat
theactivesiteoftheirononlyhydrogenase(CpI)fromClostridiumpasteurianum.
Biochemistry,38(40),1296912973.
Liou,J.S.C.,Balkwill,D.L.,Drake,G.R.,&Tanner,R.S.(2005).Clostridium
carboxidivoranssp.nov.,asolventproducingclostridiumisolatedfromanagricultural
settlinglagoon,andreclassificationoftheacetogenClostridiumscatologenesstrainSL1
asClostridiumdrakeisp.nov.InternationalJournalofSystematicandEvolutionary
Microbiology,55(5),20852091.
Ljungdahl,L.G.(1986).Theautotrophicpathwayofacetatesynthesisinacetogenic
bacteria.AnnualReviewofMicrobiology,40,415450.
Lorowitz,W.H.,&Bryant,M.P.(1984).PeptostreptococcusproductusStrainThat
GrowsRapidlywithCoastheEnergySource.AppliedandEnvironmentalMicrobiology,
47(5),961964.
McIlveenWright,D.R.,Pinto,F.,Armesto,L.,CaballeroM.A.,AznarM.P.,CabanillasA.,
Huang,Y.,Franco,C.,Gulyurtlu,I.&McMullanJ.T.2006.Acomparisonofcirculating
fluidisedbedcombustionandgasificationpowerplanttechnologiesforprocessing
mixturesofcoal,biomassandplasticwaste.FuelProcessingTechnology,87,793801.
McKendryP.2002a.Energyproductionfrombiomass(part1):overviewofbiomass.
BioresourceTechnology83,3746.
McKendryP.2002b.Energyproductionfrombiomass(part3):gasificationtechnologies.
BioresourceTechnology83,5563.
Meyer,C.L.,Mclaughlin,J.K.,&Papoutsakis,E.T.(1985).TheEffectofCOonGrowth
andProductFormationinBatchCulturesofClostridiumacetobutylicum.Biotechnology
Letters,7(1),3742.
Meyer,C.L.,&Papoutsakis,E.T.(1989).IncreasedLevelsofATPandNADHAre
AssociatedwithIncreasedSolventProductioninContinuousCulturesofClostridium
acetobutylicum.AppliedMicrobiologyandBiotechnology,30(5),450459.
Misoph,M.,&Drake,H.L.(1996).EffectofCO2onthefermentationcapacitiesofthe
acetogenPeptostreptococcusproductusU1.JournalofBacteriology,178(11),3140
http://bioweb.sungrant.org/Technical/Biofuels/Technologies/Biofuels+from+Syngas/Ethanol+from+Syngas/Default.htm

16/18

7/27/2015

BioWeb

3145.
Ragauskas,A.J.,Williams,C.K.,Davison,B.H.,Britovsek,G.,Cairney,J.,Eckert,C.
A.,etal.(2006).Thepathforwardforbiofuelsandbiomaterials.Science,311(5760),
484489.
Ragsdale,S.(1991).EnzymologyoftheAcetylCoAPathwayofCO2Fixation.Critical
ReviewsinBiochemistryandMolecularBiology,26,261300.
Rajagopalan,S.,P.Datar,R.,&Lewis,R.S.(2002).Formationofethanolfromcarbon
monoxideviaanewmicrobialcatalyst.BiomassandBioenergy,23(6),487493.
Rao,G.,&Mutharasan,R.(1989).NADHLevelsandSolventogenesisinClostridium
AcetobutylicumNewInsightsthroughCultureFluorescence.AppliedMicrobiologyand
Biotechnology,30(1),5966.
Seefeldt,L.C.,&Arp,D.J.(1989).OxygenEffectsontheNickelContainingandIron
ContainingHydrogenasefromAzotobactervinelandii.Biochemistry,28(4),15881596.
Tibelius,K.H.,&Knowles,R.(1984).HydrogenaseactivityinAzospirillumbrasilenseis
inhibitedbynitrite,nitricoxide,carbonmonoxideandacetylene.Journalof
Bacteriology,160(1),103106.
Vasconcelos,I.,Girbal,L.,&Soucaille,P.(1994).RegulationofCarbonandElectron
FlowinClostridiumAcetobutylicumGrowninChemostatCultureatNeutralPhon
MixturesofGlucoseandGlycerol.JournalofBacteriology,176(5),14431450.
VanLooS,KoppejanJ.2003.HandbookofBiomassCombustionandCofiring.The
Netherlands:TwenteUniversityPress.
Vega,J.L.,Clausen,E.C.,&Gaddy,J.L.(1990).Designofbioreactorsforcoal
synthesisgasfermentations.Resources,ConservationandRecycling,3(23),149160.
Vega,J.L.,Prieto,S.,Elmore,B.B.,Clausen,E.C.,&Gaddy,J.L.(1989).The
BiologicalProductionofEthanolfromSynthesisGas.AppliedBiochemistryand
Biotechnology,201,781797.
Wolfrum,E.J.,&Watt,A.S.(2002).Bioreactordesignstudiesforahydrogen
producingbacterium.AppliedBiochemistryandBiotechnology,98,611625.
Wood,H.G.,Ragsdale,S.W.,&Pezacka,E.(1986a).TheAcetylCoAPathwayaNewly
DiscoveredPathwayofAutotrophicGrowth.TrendsinBiochemicalSciences,11(1),14
18.
Wood,H.G.,Ragsdale,S.W.,&Pezacka,E.(1986b).TheAcetylCoAPathwayof
AutotrophicGrowth.FEMSMicrobiologyReviews,39(4),345362.
Wood,H.G.,Ragsdale,S.W.,&Pezacka,E.(1986c).ANewPathwayofAutotrophic
http://bioweb.sungrant.org/Technical/Biofuels/Technologies/Biofuels+from+Syngas/Ethanol+from+Syngas/Default.htm

17/18

7/27/2015

BioWeb

GrowthUtilizingCarbonMonoxideorCarbonDioxideandHydrogen.Biochemistry
International,12(3),421440.
Worden,R.M.,Bredwell,M.D.,&Grethlein,A.J.(1997).Engineeringissuesin
synthesisgasfermentations.FuelsandChemicalsfromBiomass,666,320335.
Younesi,H.,Najafpour,G.,&Mohamed,A.R.(2005).Ethanolandacetateproduction
fromsynthesisgasviafermentationprocessesusinganaerobicbacterium,Clostridium
ljungdahlii.BiochemicalEngineeringJournal,27(2),110119.
Author:

AsmaAhmed,AllysonWhite,PengHu,RandyLewisandRaymondHuhnke

AccessBioWebContent
Search
ExploreByTopic
BrowseIndex
BioWebGlossary
Search
AlphabeticalListing

Copyright2007SunGrantInitiativeandtheUniversityofTennesee.Fulldisclaimerandguidetousageavailablehere.

http://bioweb.sungrant.org/Technical/Biofuels/Technologies/Biofuels+from+Syngas/Ethanol+from+Syngas/Default.htm

18/18