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SAMPLING .....................................................................................................................................

2
Sampling Theorem...........................................................................................................................................2
Examples on Nyquist rate ................................................................................................................................2

QUANTIZATION ...........................................................................................................................3
DIGITAL TO ANALOG CONVERTERS .......................................................................................4
DAC types ........................................................................................................................................................4
Binary Weighted DAC ......................................................................................................................................4
Disadvantage ............................................................................................................................................... 5
R-2R ladder ......................................................................................................................................................5
Points to remember .........................................................................................................................................5
Problems on digital to analog convertors ........................................................................................................6

ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTERS .......................................................................................7


Why ADC is needed..........................................................................................................................................7
ADC process .....................................................................................................................................................7
Types of A/D Converters ..................................................................................................................................7
Flash ADC.........................................................................................................................................................7
Advantages .................................................................................................................................................. 8
Disadvantages .............................................................................................................................................. 8
Sigma Delta ADC ..............................................................................................................................................8
Advantages .................................................................................................................................................. 9
Disadvantages .............................................................................................................................................. 9
Dual Slope Converter .......................................................................................................................................9
Advantages .................................................................................................................................................. 9
Disadvantages .............................................................................................................................................. 9
Successive Approximation ADC ...................................................................................................................... 10
Advantages ................................................................................................................................................ 10
Disadvantages ............................................................................................................................................ 10
Problems on analog to digital convertor ........................................................................................................ 10

Sampling
In signal processing, sampling is the reduction of a continuous signal to a discrete signal. A
common example is the conversion of a sound wave (a continuous signal) to a sequence of
samples (a discrete-time signal).

Sampling Theorem
A band limited signal can be reconstructed exactly if it is sampled at a rate at least twice the
maximum frequency component in it.
Figure shows a signal g(t) that is band limited.

The maximum frequency component of g(t) is fm. To recover the signal g(t) exactly from its
samples it has to be sampled at a rate fs 2fm.
The minimum required sampling rate fs = 2fm is called Nyquist rate.

Examples on Nyquist rate


a) Consider the analog signal
x (t)= 3cos50 t+ 10sin300 t +cos100 t.
What is the Nyquist rate for this signal?
Solution:
The frequencies present in the signal above are
1 = 50
2 = 150,

3 = 25
Thus Fmax = 150 Hz and according to the sampling theorem.

> 2

The Nyquist rate is FN = 2Fmax. Hence


FN = 300 Hz.

Quantization
The process of quantizing a signal is the first part of converting an sequence of analog samples.
In quantization, an analog sample with an amplitude that may take value in a specific range is
converted to a digital sample with an amplitude that takes one of a specific predefined set of
quantization values. This is performed by dividing the range of possible values of the analog
samples into L different levels, and assigning the center value of each level to any sample that
falls in that quantization interval. The problem with this process is that it approximates the
value of an analog sample with the nearest of the quantization values. So, for almost all
samples, the quantized samples will differ from the original samples by a small amount. This
amount is called the quantization error.
Assume that a signal with power Ps is to be quantized using a quantizer with L = 2n levels
ranging in voltage from mp to mp as shown in the figure below.
A quantization interval

Corresponding quantization value

mp

v
L = 2n
L levels
n bits

Ts

2Ts

3Ts

4Ts

5Ts

mp
Q uantizer Input S am ples x

Q uantizer O utput S am ples x q

We can define the variable v to be the height of the each of the L levels of the quantizer as
shown above. This gives a value of v equal to

2m p
L

Therefore, for a set of quantizers with the same mp, the larger the number of levels of a
quantizer, the smaller the size of each quantization interval, and for a set of quantizers with the
same number of quantization intervals, the larger mp is the larger the quantization interval
length to accommodate all the quantization range.
Now if we look at the input output characteristics of the quantizer, it will be similar to the red
line in the following figure. Note that as long as the input is within the quantization range of

the quantizer, the output of the quantizer represented by the red line follows the input of the
quantizer. When the input of the quantizer exceeds the range of mp to mp, the output of the
quantizer starts to deviate from the input and the quantization error (difference between an
input and the corresponding output sample) increases significantly.
Quantizer
Output xq

x
xq

v/2
v/2
v/2

v/2
v v v
v v/2

v v

Quantizer
Input x

v/2
v/2
v/2

mp

Now let us define the quantization error represented by the difference between the input sample
and the corresponding output sample to be q, or
q x xq .

the quantization error of any sample is restricted between v/2 and v/2 except when the
input signal exceeds the range of quantization of mp to mp.

Digital to Analog Converters


A digital-to-analog converter (DAC or D-to-A) is a device for converting a digital (usually
binary) code to an analog signal (current, voltage or charges). Digital-to Analog Converters are
the interface between the abstract digital world and the analog real life. Simple switches, a
network of resistors, current sources or capacitors may implement this conversion.

DAC types
b) Binary Weighted DAC
c) R2R Ladder DAC

Binary Weighted DAC


The Binary Weighted DAC, which contains one resistor or current source for each bit of the
DAC connected to a summing point. These precise voltages or currents sum to the correct
output value. This is one of the fastest conversion methods but suffers from poor accuracy
because of the high precision required for each individual voltage or current.

Disadvantage
The disadvantage of the binary weighted register is the availability and manufacturing of exact
values of the resistances.

R-2R ladder

Points to remember
a) R-2R ladder is superior than binary weighted .
b) Where number of bit increases the resistor used for LSB has to be very lesser in binary
weighted
c) A D/A convertor is said to be ideally or perfectly linear if it gives equal increment in
the analog output voltage for equal increment in the numerical value of digital value
.
d) D/A resolution it is defined as the smallest change in the analog output voltage
corresponding to a change of one bit is the digital output

e) The resolution of n-bit DAC with range of o/p voltage from 0 to V is given by
2

volts.

Problems on digital to analog convertors


1. The resolution of a 4 bit counting ADC is 0.5 volts. For an analog input of 6.6 volts.
What is the digital output of the ADC ?
Solution: The output voltage for input 6.6 V
analog voltage=Resolution * digital voltage
6.6= 0.5*digital voltage
digital voltage=13.2
14 i.e. 1110

2. What is the resolution of a 05 V 6-bit digital-to-analog converter (DAC) ?


Solution:
Resolution is

2 1

volts

Here n = 6 bits.
So, resolution is 0.0793V

3. A 4-bit R/2R digital-to-analog (DAC) converter has a reference of 5 volts. What is the
analog output for the input code 0101.
Solution:
Formula=Vref/{(2^n)-1}(msbbit*2^0+nextbit*2^1+nextbit*2^2+lsbbit*2^3)
where, n = number of bits
Output=(5/2^4)(0*1+1*2+0*4+1*8)
=(5/15)(10)
= 3.125 V

4.

In the Digital to analog converter circuit shown in the figure below, VR = 10 volts and
R = 10 k.

a) The current i is
b) The output voltage 0 is

Analog to Digital Converters


An electronic integrated circuit which transforms a signal from analog (continuous) to digital
(discrete) form.

Why ADC is needed

Microprocessors can only perform complex processing on digitized signals.


When signals are in digital form they are less susceptible to the deleterious effects of
additive noise.
ADC Provides a link between the analog world of transducers and the digital world of
signal processing and data handling.

ADC process

Quantizing - breaking down analog value is a set of finite states


Encoding - assigning a digital word or number to each state and matching it to the input
signal

Types of A/D Converters

Flash ADC

Delta-Sigma ADC

Dual Slope (integrating) ADC

Successive Approximation ADC

Flash ADC

Consists of a series of comparators, each one comparing the input signal to a unique
reference voltage

The comparator outputs connect to the inputs of a priority encoder circuit, which
produces a binary output
Conversion time = 1 clock period

Advantages
Simplest in terms of operational theory
Most efficient in terms of speed, very fast
Disadvantages
Lower resolution
Expensive
For each additional output bit, the number of comparators is doubled

Sigma Delta ADC

Over sampled input signal goes to the integrator


Output of integration is compared to GND
Iterates to produce a serial bit stream
Output is serial bit stream with of 1s proportional to Vin

Advantages
High resolution
No precision external components needed
Disadvantages

Slow due to oversampling

Dual Slope Converter


A dual-slope ADC (DS-ADC) integrates an unknown input voltage (VIN) for a fixed amount
of time (TINT), then "de-integrates" (TDEINT) using a known reference voltage (VREF) for
a variable amount of time.

The key advantage of this architecture over the single-slope is that the final conversion result
is insensitive to errors in the component values. That is, any error introduced by a component
value during the integrate cycle will be cancelled out during the de-integrate phase
Conversion time= ( 2+1 1)
Advantages
Input signal is averaged
Greater noise immunity than other ADC types
High accuracy
Disadvantages
Slow
High precision external components required to achieve accuracy

Successive Approximation ADC

A Successive Approximation Register (SAR) is added to the circuit


Instead of counting up in binary sequence, this register counts by trying all values of
bits starting with the MSB and finishing at the LSB.
The register monitors the comparators output to see if the binary count is greater or less
than the analog signal input and adjusts the bits accordingly
Conversion time= N * 1 Clock cycle

Advantages
Capable of high speed and reliable
Medium accuracy compared to other ADC types
Good tradeoff between speed and cost
Capable of outputting the binary number in serial (one bit at a time) format

Disadvantages
Higher resolution successive approximation ADCs will be slower
Speed limited to ~5Msps

Problems on analog to digital convertor


1. Determine the conversion time for 8 bit ADC in clock cycles.
Solution: Successive approximation = 8 clock cycle

Dual slope = 512 clock cycle


Flash covertor = 1 clock cycle

2. An 8-bit successive approximation ADC has full scale reading of 2.55V and its
conversion time for an analog input of 1V IS 20 s. The conversion time for a 2V input
will be?
Solution: Conversion time = n*clock cycle
= 8*clock cycle
Conversion time of successive approximation ADC depends on number of bits but not on
the input voltage . So coversion time is 20 .

3. A 12 bit ADC is operating with a 1s clock period and the total conversion time is seen
to be 14s. So what is the type of ADC?
Solution:
Given :12-bit ADC i.e. , n=12.
Clock period =1s
Total conversion time= 14s
Flash type: conversion time=1s
Counter type : conversion time=4096s
Successive approximation : conversion time=12s
14s
So, successive approximatiom type ADC has conversion time 14s.

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